DIPLOMARBEIT Titel der Diplomarbeit Bantu Stephen Biko & Black Consciousness. The Struggle for Equality in a Racist South Africa Verfasserin Sophie Kaindl angestrebter akademischer Grad Magistra (Mag.) Wien, 2013 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt: A 057 390 Studienrichtung lt. Studienblatt: Individuelles Diplomstudium Internationale Entwicklung Betreut von: Mag. Dr. Arno Sonderegger CONTENTS Acknowledgments............................................................................................... 1 Introduction..................................................................................... 2 1. Apartheid..................................................................................... 7 1.1. Institutionalization of Segregation, 1948................................................... 9 1.1.1. Restriction of Personal Rights.................................................................. 10 1.1.2. Restriction of Movement.......................................................................... 11 1.1.3. Restriction on Freedom of Speech........................................................... 15 1.2. Opposition to Apartheid........................................................................... 20 1.2.1. Political Organizations............................................................................. 20 1.2.1.1. ANC - The African National Congress....................................................................... 20 1.2.1.2. SACP - The South African Communist Party............................................................ 24 1.2.1.3. The South African Indian Congress............................................................................ 26 1.2.1.4. PAC - The Pan Africanist Congress........................................................................... 27 1.2.1.5. AZAPO - The Azanian People's Organisation............................................................ 30 1.2.2. Trade Unions............................................................................................ 31 1.2.2.1. SACTU - The South African Congress of Trade Unions........................................... 31 1.2.2.2. FOSATU - The Federation of South African Trade Union........................................ 32 1.2.2.3. SAAWU - The South African Allied Workers’ Union............................................... 33 1.2.2.4. CUSA - The Council of Unions of South Africa........................................................ 34 1.2.3. Community Organizations........................................................................ 34 2. Bantu Stephen Biko & Black Consciousness.......................... 36 2.1. Biographical Introduction........................................................................ 36 2.2. The Black Consciousness Movement - Ideology, Philosophy, Attitude of Mind....................................................................................................... 45 2.2.1. 'Being Black is not a Matter of Pigmentation'.......................................... 45 2.2.2. The Definition of Black Consciousness - The 'Inward Looking Process'..................................................................................................... 48 2.2.3. White Racism, White Liberals and the Accusation of Black Consciousness as Counter-Racist-Racism........................................................................ 52 2.2.4. Inferiority Complex vs. Superiority Complex.......................................... 62 2.2.5. Education - 'Bantu Education' & Rewriting History................................ 65 2.2.6. Economic Oppression - 'Haves' vs. the 'Have Nots'................................. 71 2.2.7. Geographical Separation - Bantustans...................................................... 75 2.2.8. 'Our Strategy for Liberation' - Achieving the Vision of a 'True Humanity'................................................................................................. 79 3. The Organization of the Black Consciousness Movement.... 87 3.1. SASO – The South African Student Organization................................. 87 3.2. BPC - The Black People’s Convention.................................................... 94 3.3. BCP - The Black Community Programmes ........................................... 97 3.4. Emergence of Black Theology in South Africa - Collaboration with the Church.................................................................................................100 3.5. The End of the Black Consciousness Organizations, Bann 1977........ 101 4. Reception................................................................................. 104 4.1. Biko in Songs – Musical Reception........................................................ 105 4.1.1. Biko in Reggae....................................................................................... 105 4.1.2. Biko in Hip Hop..................................................................................... 111 4.1.3. Biko in Anglo- American Pop ............................................................... 114 4.1.4. Roots Melodies dedicated to Biko.......................................................... 115 4.1.5. African Interprets Referring to Biko...................................................... 115 4.2. Biko in Present Day Discourse............................................................... 119 4.2.1. Dealing with Steve Biko as Person & the History of BC....................... 120 4.2.1.1. Blackness & Inferiority Complex............................................................................ 122 4.2.1.2. Economy - Capitalism - Racism - Hypocritical Leadership..................................... 125 4.2.1.3. Poverty – Bad Schooling – Health – Housing.......................................................... 132 4.2.2. Outlook................................................................................................... 135 4.2.3. Activities done to Achieve the Vision.................................................... 141 4.2.3.1. AZAPO's Memorial Activities and Istitutions.......................................................... 141 4.2.3.2. Maintaining the Legacy of Bantu Stephen Biko in the African Diaspora................ 143 4.2.3.3. The Steve Biko Foundation (SBF)............................................................................ 144 4.2.3.3.1. Legacy Projects – The Biko Heritage Trail.................................................................. 144 4.2.3.3.2. Leadership Development.............................................................................................. 146 4.2.3.3.3. The International Dialogue Series................................................................................ 147 4.2.3.3.4. Research & Publications............................................................................................... 148 Conclusion................................................................................... 150 Bibliography.................................................................................................... 158 Appendix......................................................................................................... 168 English Abstract ...............................................................................................168 Deutsche Zusammenfassung.............................................................................169 Curriculum Vitae ............................................................................................. 171 Acknowledgements It was a difficult decision, how to choose the words, which segregation ideology saw as distinguishing realities, confining a certain group of people. I was further challenged through the different use of those words, written whether as proper names, or not. Some scholars even made some differences in using ‘Afrikaans’, with a high case, but at the same time using ‘african’ in lower case. In the acknowledgement of the book „Beyond Apartheid. Labour and Liberation in South Africa“, the authors mention that they will write all categories, which divide the South African population along racial or national lines (like ‘african’, ‘indian’, ‘afrikaner’, ‘british’, ‘white’, ‘black’,’european’) in lower case. (Cf. Fine/ Davis 1991: vii ff.) I will also choose this way of description. Because as far I see it, all of these attributes are only descriptions rather than identities, which would be suggested by using high case. I won’t put these words into quotes, as I want to simplify the language and don’t want to put more emphasis on those categories than necessary. I will write the term Apartheid using a capital A, because in my definition Apartheid as a system of overall oppression is not to be underestimated in its dimension. In a lot of literature I used, Apartheid is written in low case. I still stay with the capital A. The reason I used the term South Africa to describe the country and choosing it over Azania (which stands for a liberated South Africa) is the fact that I don’t think South Africa is liberated from patterns of colonialism, racism and capitalism. In its creation the “Term Azania” carries a deeply anti-imperialistic claim. Therefore Azania, in my eyes, can only be used, when the vision of Biko for a true humanity is achieved and a political situation is created, where politics will be shaped for the upliftment of the people. A lot of people in nowadays discourse use Azania for South Africa. Like Zimbabwe changed its name from South Rhodesia to Zimbabwe. As it is more accurate to describe