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Islamophobia in the U.S.: Mainstreaming the maligning of Muslims By Yuram Abdullah Weiler 2014-05-28
“To be a Muslim in America now is to endure slings and arrows against your faith — not just in the schoolyard and the office but also outside your place of worship and in the public square, where some of the country's most powerful mainstream religious and political leaders unthinkingly (or worse, deliberately) conflate Islam with terrorism and savagery.” —Times Magazine Journalist and Editor Bobby Gosh.1
From New York to California, Muslims across the United States increasingly have come under vicious attacks, openly vilifying their religious faith and accusing them of being members of a stealth fifth column. While prejudice against Muslims in America is not a new phenomenon, the disturbingly frequent rhetoric denigrating Islam and its followers uttered by U.S. political figures demonstrates that maligning Muslims is becoming accepted as mainstream practice.
Not only have venomous verbal attacks been directed towards Muslims by misguided Americans,3 but also physical assaults have been carried out against individuals and mosques. According to a recent report by the UK-based Islamic Human Rights Commission, some 30 percent of Muslims surveyed in California have experienced a hate-motivated physical attack, 50 percent have overheard hateful speech directed against Islam or Muslims, 71 percent have seen negative or insulting stereotypes of Muslims portrayed in the media and 88 percent have had other negative experiences involving their Islamic identity. Rather than being a multi-cultural society, the report’s authors suggest that the U.S. is actually a “multi-hated society.”4
Discrimination against Muslims in the United States has a long history dating back to the early 1900s.5 Although successive Washington administrations flirted with Islamists overseas from the 1950s to the 1970s as a counterweight to communists and nationalists,6 Muslims within the U.S. continued to be viewed with suspicion, which ramped up in 1972 when U.S. president Richard Nixon inaugurated “Operation Boulder,” giving law enforcement agencies a free hand to investigate immigrants from Muslim-majority countries for possible involvement in “terrorist” activities.7 Other factors, such as the so-called Arab-Israeli conflict, the oil crisis of the 1970s, and the victory of the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979 and subsequent hostage crisis, steadily amplified anti-Muslim sentiments among the American populace. g
By the 1980s, the phrase “Arab terrorism” had been replaced by “Islamic terrorism,” and the phrases “militant Islam” and “Islamic fundamentalism” were being heard with increasing frequency, resulting in a more open targeting of Islam and Muslims living in America.9 The trend accelerated after the dissolution of the former Soviet Union, when Islam became the target of choice of the western “democracies” due in no small part to the challenge posed by Islamic economic principles to the west’s cherished neo-liberal capitalist ideology,10 as was intimated by Orientalist Bernard Lewis, who likened Muslims to communists in his earliest writing.11 In 1991, U.S. president George H.W. Bush, in connection with his Persian Gulf War, initiated a surveillance program under which the FBI investigated Muslims and anti-war activists. 12
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The 1993 bombing of the New York World Trade Center by extremists with links to the Middle East, however, convinced Washington’s hard line ideologues that an international network of Islamic terrorists was at war with the United States.13 Then in 1995, two years after the World Trade Center bombing attempt, tragedy struck Oklahoma City, Oklahoma when a truck bomb leveled the Murrah Federal Building, killing 168 people and injuring hundreds.14 Immediately, the U.S. news media went into overdrive speculating that once again, “Islamic terrorists” had struck. The New York Post was typical of the hysteria, inquiring only about “which particular faction the terrorists identified with—Hamas? Hezbollah? the Islamic Jihad?”15
Predictably, the subsequent arrest and conviction of Timothy McVeigh did not elicit similar outcries to confront “Christian terrorism” from the American press. On the contrary, Islamophobe Debbie Schlussel16 pointed to alleged evidence uncovered by Oklahoma City investigative reporter Jayna Davis that the bombing was “the work of foreign Islamic interests who desired to attack America.” Implying guilt by association, Schlussel emphasized, “McVeigh was repeatedly seen with an Iraqi Muslim, Hussain Al-Hussaini, believed to be a then-agent of Saddam Hussein or some other anti-American Muslim force.”17
In 1996, another layer of intrigue was added to the U.S. witch hunt against Muslims by U.S. president Bill Clinton’s Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, which allowed “alien terrorists” to be deported upon secret evidence, and gave the Secretary of State the authority to designate any foreign organization as a “terrorist group,” a provision frequently used to target overseas Muslim charities by accusations of supporting terrorism.19 In addition, the act made it difficult for wrongfully convicted persons to prove their innocence, and since in the U.S., racism is the number one cause for wrongful convictions, Muslims were affected disproportionately in this regard as well. “In short, even before the events of 9/11, the groundwork had been laid for the legalized targeting of Muslims and Arabs,” wrote Rutgers University Professor of Middle East Studies Deepa Kumar. 21
Islamophobia in America expanded exponentially in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. Tens of thousands of Muslims have been surveilled, harassed, detained, interrogated, incarcerated, tortured or deported as a result of distorting the American legal system to reflect the priorities of the Bush administration’s draconian global war on terror. Under a program named the National Security Entry-Exit System, male immigrants aged 16 and older from 25 countries— mainly Muslim-majority countries in the Middle East—were required to register with the former Immigration and Naturalization Service, now part of the Department of Homeland Security. Out of some 83,000 that registered, 13,799 were threatened with deportation while eleven were alleged to have “links” to “terrorism.” The U.S. Army even accused one of its own, Muslim Chaplin Captain James Yee, of espionage, but failed to prove the allegations.24 By this time, the legal principle of “innocent until proven guilty” no longer applied to Muslims in America.
Today, Islamophobia thoroughly permeates the society in the United States, as Professor Ramon Grosfoguel of the University of California at Berkley explained, “Islamophobia as a form of racism against Muslim people is not only manifested in the labor market, education, public sphere, global war against terrorism or the global economy, but also in the epistemological battleground about the definition of the priorities in the world today.” International human rights lawyer and author Arsalan Iftikhar remarked, “Islamophobia has become the accepted
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form of racism in America ... You can always take a potshot at Muslims or Arabs and get away with it.” And with alarming frequency, American politicians and media personalities do just that.
For instance, at a 2012 conference of U.S. conservative leaders, Republican Colorado State Senator Kevin Grantham remarked, “Now, there’s some Muslims, obviously... that we would call moderate. But the philosophical underpinnings of that system, of that culture of Islam — those are very serious problems and they are antithetical to the American way.” When introducing the keynote speaker, Dutch Islamophobe Geert Wilders, former Colorado State Senator John Andrews said that the topic would be “the existential threat to the United States of America posed by Islam.” Andrews made a particular point of emphasizing that he had said “Islam,” and not “radical Islam,” so as to condemn all Muslims with his noxious words. 27
Another intense manifestation of Islamophobia is the “anti-Sharia” legislation that is spreading like a prairie wildfire across America. In fact, Wilders, the keynote speaker at the 2012 conservative conference mentioned above, asserted, “Your country is facing a stealth jihad, an Islamic attempt to introduce Sharia law bit by bit by bit.” The Center for Security policy, which could be described as an Islamophobic think tank, insists that the U.S. is facing “an even more insidious threat” than communism from “the totalitarian socio-political doctrine that Islam calls [S]hariah.”“ Reacting to this imaginary threat, Oklahoma has the nefarious distinction of being the first state to enact an anti-Sharia statute30while five other states, Arizona, Kansas, Louisiana, South Dakota, and Tennessee, have enacted similar legislation and over two dozen other states have had some 5 lbills pending in their legislatures over the last few years/11
The man behind the anti-Sharia law movement is a Hasidic Jewish lawyer named David Yerushalmi, who while uneducated in Fiqh, nevertheless has orchestrated a one man vendetta against Islam and Muslims from his Brooklyn NY office. One of Yerushalmi's clients, Pamela Geller, whose American Freedom Defense Initiative is currently running anti-Islamic ads on Washington, DC buses showing Adolf Hitler seated next to a former Palestinian leader, was the driving force behind the drive to torpedo the Park 51 Mosque-community center project in lower Manhattan. Unfortunately, Yerushalmi's views have gained acceptance by some of Washington's political heavyweights, including former Republican House speaker Newt Gingrich,3j who declared, “I believe Shariah is a mortal threat to the survival of freedom in the United States and in the world as we know it.”34
While Muslims have been relegated to the legal status of 2nd class American citizens,35 perhaps they can find some solace in seeing the anti-Sharia agenda backfire. Crafted to pass muster under the establishment clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the latest round of anti-Sharia legislation targets “foreign or international law” to avoid mentioning Islam.16 But in so doing, the Islamophobes unintentionally stirred interest among judicial circles in subjecting the kosher laws currently on the books in some 22 states to the same constitutional scrutiny. If that were to happen, I’m confident Mr. Yerushalmi would be among the first to protest.
Endnotes
1 Bobby Ghosh, “Islamophobia: Does America Have a Muslim Problem?” Time, August 30, 2010, accessed May 23, 2014, http://content.time.eom/time/magazine/article/0.9171,2011936.00.html.
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2 “Bias against Muslims rampant in ‘liberal’ California,” Islamophobia Today, May 23, 2014, accessed May 23, 2014, http://www.islamophobiatodav.com/2013/06/26/bias-agamst-muslim.s-rampant-in-liberal-califomia/. 3 Bobby Ghosh, ibid. 4 Saied R. Ameli, Ebrahim Mohseni Ahooei and Arzu Merali, “Once Upon a Hatred: Anti-Muslim Experiences in the USA,” Islamic Human Rights Commission, May 23, 2013, accessed May 23, 2014, http://www.ihrc.org.uk/attachments/article/10513/OnceUponAHatred ExecutiveSummarv.docx.pdf. 5 Jack Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs (New York and Northampton: Olive Branch Press, 2001), 8, 16 6 Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2012), 65-67. 7 Deepa Kumar, ibid., 141. s Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 303. 9 Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, ibid., 307. 10 Review of “Once Upon a Hatred: Anti-Muslim Experiences in the USA,” Islamic Human Rights Commission, May 4, 2013, accessed May 23, 2014, http://www.ihrc.org.uk/publications/reports/10513-once-upon-a-hatred-anti- muslim-experiences-in-the-usa. 11 Yaser Ali, “Shariah and Citizenship—How Islamophobia Is Creating a Second-Class Citizenry in America,” California Law Review 100-4 (2012), 1039, accessed May 24, 2014, http://scholarship.law.berkelev.edU/californialawreview/voll00/iss4/4. 12 Deepa Kumar, ibid. 141. 13 Deepa Kumar, ibid., 79. 14 “Terror Hits Home: The Oklahoma City Bombing,” FBI website, n.d., accessed May 24, 2014, http://www. fbi. gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/oklahoma-citv-bombing. 15 Jim Naureckas, “The Oklahoma City Bombing, The Jihad That Wasn't,” Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, July/August 1995, accessed May 24, 2014, http://fair.org/extra-online-articles/the-oklahoma-citv-bombing/. 16 Debbie Schlussel, “About Debbie,” Debbie Schlussel website, n.d., accessed May 24, 2014, http://www.debbieschlussel.com/bio/. 17 Debbie Schlussel, “Homeless Muslim Arrest Revisits OK City Bombing Islam Connection,” Debbie Schlussel website, March 11, 2011, accessed May 24, 2014, http://www.debbieschlussel.com/34112/homeless-muslim-arrest- reminds-us-of-ok-citv-bombing-muslim-connection/. 18 Deepa Kumar, ibid., 141. 19 Yaser All, ibid., 1041. 20 “The Anti-terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA),” Law website, n.d., accessed May 24, 2014, http://immigration.laws.com/AEDPA. 21 Deepar Kumar, ibid., 142. 22 Deepa Kumar, ibid., 140. 23 Deepa Kumar, ibid., 142-143. 24 Ebrahim Moosa, “Post 9/11: America Agonizes over Islam,” in The Cambridge History of Religions in America vol. 3, ed. Steven J. Stein (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 564, accessed May 24, 2014, http://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/5989/Ebrahim%20Moosa%20Post%2091 l.pdf?sequen ce=l. 25 Ramon Grosfoguel, “The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia,” Journal of Islamophobia 1-1(2012), 24, accessed May 23, 2014, http://issuu.com/burbfabulous/docs/isi fa!12012 voll nol erg copy/ll?e=0/5302804. 26 Bobby Ghosh, ibid. 27 Ernest Luning, “Dutch lawmaker brings his crusade against Islam to conservative confab,” Colorado Statesman, July 6, 2012, accessed May 23, 2014, http://www.coloradostatesman.com/content/993597-dutch-lawmaker-brmgs- his-crusade-against-islam-conservative-confab. 28 Ernest Luning, ibid. 29 “Sharia: the Threat to America,” Center for Security Policy, 2010, accessed May 25, 2014, http://www.centerforsecuritvpolicv.org/upload/wvsiwvg/article%20pdfs/Shariah%20- %20The%20Threat%20to%20America%20(Team%20B%20Report)%2009142010.pdf. 30 Yaser Ali, ibid., 1027. 31 Omar Sacirbey, “Anti-Shariah Movement Gains Success,” Huffmgton Post, May 17, 2013, accessed May 25, 2014, http://www.huffmgtonpost.coin/2013/05/17/anti-shariah-movement-gains-success_n_3290110.html.
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32 '"Islamic Jew-hatred' ads with Hitler adorn DC buses," Russia Today, May 21, 2014, accessed May 24, 2014, http://rt.com/usa/160392-islamic-iew-hatred-buses/. 33 Andrea Elliot, “The Man Behind the Anti-Sharia Movement,” New York Times, July 30, 2011, accessed May 24, 2014, http://www.nvtimes.com/2011/07/3 l/us/3 lshariah.html?pagewanted=all& r=0. 34 Yaser All, ibid., 1065. 35 Yaser All, ibid., 1066. 36 Omar Sacirbey, ibid. 37 “A meaty question: Who should regulate kosher and halal food?” The Economist, February 9, 2013, accessed May 25, 2014, http://www.economist.eom/news/intemational/21571419-who-should-regulate-kosher-and-halal- food-meatv-question. 3S Mark Popovsky, “The Constitutional Complexity of Kosher Food Laws,” Columbia Journal of Law and Social Problems 144 (2010), accessed May 25, 2014, http://www.columbia.edU/cu/ilsp/pdfTall%202010/Popovskv.JLSP.44.l.pdf.
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Islamophobia in the U.S.: Mainstreaming the maligning of Muslims By Yuram Abdullah Weiler 2014-05-28
“To be a Muslim in America now is to endure slings and arrows against your faith — not just in the schoolyard and the office but also outside your place of worship and in the public square, where some of the country's most powerful mainstream religious and political leaders unthinkingly (or worse, deliberately) conflate Islam with terrorism and savagery.” —Times Magazine Journalist and Editor Bobby Gosh.1
From New York to California, Muslims across the United States increasingly have come under vicious attacks, openly vilifying their religious faith and accusing them of being members of a stealth fifth column. While prejudice against Muslims in America is not a new phenomenon, the disturbingly frequent rhetoric denigrating Islam and its followers uttered by U.S. political figures demonstrates that maligning Muslims is becoming accepted as mainstream practice.
Not only have venomous verbal attacks been directed towards Muslims by misguided Americans,3 but also physical assaults have been carried out against individuals and mosques. According to a recent report by the UK-based Islamic Human Rights Commission, some 30 percent of Muslims surveyed in California have experienced a hate-motivated physical attack, 50 percent have overheard hateful speech directed against Islam or Muslims, 71 percent have seen negative or insulting stereotypes of Muslims portrayed in the media and 88 percent have had other negative experiences involving their Islamic identity. Rather than being a multi-cultural society, the report’s authors suggest that the U.S. is actually a “multi-hated society.”4
Discrimination against Muslims in the United States has a long history dating back to the early 1900s.5 Although successive Washington administrations flirted with Islamists overseas from the 1950s to the 1970s as a counterweight to communists and nationalists,6 Muslims within the U.S. continued to be viewed with suspicion, which ramped up in 1972 when U.S. president Richard Nixon inaugurated “Operation Boulder,” giving law enforcement agencies a free hand to investigate immigrants from Muslim-majority countries for possible involvement in “terrorist” activities.7 Other factors, such as the so-called Arab-Israeli conflict, the oil crisis of the 1970s, and the victory of the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979 and subsequent hostage crisis, steadily amplified anti-Muslim sentiments among the American populace. g
By the 1980s, the phrase “Arab terrorism” had been replaced by “Islamic terrorism,” and the phrases “militant Islam” and “Islamic fundamentalism” were being heard with increasing frequency, resulting in a more open targeting of Islam and Muslims living in America.9 The trend accelerated after the dissolution of the former Soviet Union, when Islam became the target of choice of the western “democracies” due in no small part to the challenge posed by Islamic economic principles to the west’s cherished neo-liberal capitalist ideology,10 as was intimated by Orientalist Bernard Lewis, who likened Muslims to communists in his earliest writing.11 In 1991, U.S. president George H.W. Bush, in connection with his Persian Gulf War, initiated a surveillance program under which the FBI investigated Muslims and anti-war activists. 12
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The 1993 bombing of the New York World Trade Center by extremists with links to the Middle East, however, convinced Washington’s hard line ideologues that an international network of Islamic terrorists was at war with the United States.13 Then in 1995, two years after the World Trade Center bombing attempt, tragedy struck Oklahoma City, Oklahoma when a truck bomb leveled the Murrah Federal Building, killing 168 people and injuring hundreds.14 Immediately, the U.S. news media went into overdrive speculating that once again, “Islamic terrorists” had struck. The New York Post was typical of the hysteria, inquiring only about “which particular faction the terrorists identified with—Hamas? Hezbollah? the Islamic Jihad?”15
Predictably, the subsequent arrest and conviction of Timothy McVeigh did not elicit similar outcries to confront “Christian terrorism” from the American press. On the contrary, Islamophobe Debbie Schlussel16 pointed to alleged evidence uncovered by Oklahoma City investigative reporter Jayna Davis that the bombing was “the work of foreign Islamic interests who desired to attack America.” Implying guilt by association, Schlussel emphasized, “McVeigh was repeatedly seen with an Iraqi Muslim, Hussain Al-Hussaini, believed to be a then-agent of Saddam Hussein or some other anti-American Muslim force.”17
In 1996, another layer of intrigue was added to the U.S. witch hunt against Muslims by U.S. president Bill Clinton’s Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, which allowed “alien terrorists” to be deported upon secret evidence, and gave the Secretary of State the authority to designate any foreign organization as a “terrorist group,” a provision frequently used to target overseas Muslim charities by accusations of supporting terrorism.19 In addition, the act made it difficult for wrongfully convicted persons to prove their innocence, and since in the U.S., racism is the number one cause for wrongful convictions, Muslims were affected disproportionately in this regard as well. “In short, even before the events of 9/11, the groundwork had been laid for the legalized targeting of Muslims and Arabs,” wrote Rutgers University Professor of Middle East Studies Deepa Kumar. 21
Islamophobia in America expanded exponentially in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. Tens of thousands of Muslims have been surveilled, harassed, detained, interrogated, incarcerated, tortured or deported as a result of distorting the American legal system to reflect the priorities of the Bush administration’s draconian global war on terror. Under a program named the National Security Entry-Exit System, male immigrants aged 16 and older from 25 countries— mainly Muslim-majority countries in the Middle East—were required to register with the former Immigration and Naturalization Service, now part of the Department of Homeland Security. Out of some 83,000 that registered, 13,799 were threatened with deportation while eleven were alleged to have “links” to “terrorism.” The U.S. Army even accused one of its own, Muslim Chaplin Captain James Yee, of espionage, but failed to prove the allegations.24 By this time, the legal principle of “innocent until proven guilty” no longer applied to Muslims in America.
Today, Islamophobia thoroughly permeates the society in the United States, as Professor Ramon Grosfoguel of the University of California at Berkley explained, “Islamophobia as a form of racism against Muslim people is not only manifested in the labor market, education, public sphere, global war against terrorism or the global economy, but also in the epistemological battleground about the definition of the priorities in the world today.” International human rights lawyer and author Arsalan Iftikhar remarked, “Islamophobia has become the accepted
Page 2 of 5
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form of racism in America ... You can always take a potshot at Muslims or Arabs and get away with it.” And with alarming frequency, American politicians and media personalities do just that.
For instance, at a 2012 conference of U.S. conservative leaders, Republican Colorado State Senator Kevin Grantham remarked, “Now, there’s some Muslims, obviously... that we would call moderate. But the philosophical underpinnings of that system, of that culture of Islam — those are very serious problems and they are antithetical to the American way.” When introducing the keynote speaker, Dutch Islamophobe Geert Wilders, former Colorado State Senator John Andrews said that the topic would be “the existential threat to the United States of America posed by Islam.” Andrews made a particular point of emphasizing that he had said “Islam,” and not “radical Islam,” so as to condemn all Muslims with his noxious words. 27
Another intense manifestation of Islamophobia is the “anti-Sharia” legislation that is spreading like a prairie wildfire across America. In fact, Wilders, the keynote speaker at the 2012 conservative conference mentioned above, asserted, “Your country is facing a stealth jihad, an Islamic attempt to introduce Sharia law bit by bit by bit.” The Center for Security policy, which could be described as an Islamophobic think tank, insists that the U.S. is facing “an even more insidious threat” than communism from “the totalitarian socio-political doctrine that Islam calls [S]hariah.”“ Reacting to this imaginary threat, Oklahoma has the nefarious distinction of being the first state to enact an anti-Sharia statute30while five other states, Arizona, Kansas, Louisiana, South Dakota, and Tennessee, have enacted similar legislation and over two dozen other states have had some 5 lbills pending in their legislatures over the last few years/11
The man behind the anti-Sharia law movement is a Hasidic Jewish lawyer named David Yerushalmi, who while uneducated in Fiqh, nevertheless has orchestrated a one man vendetta against Islam and Muslims from his Brooklyn NY office. One of Yerushalmi's clients, Pamela Geller, whose American Freedom Defense Initiative is currently running anti-Islamic ads on Washington, DC buses showing Adolf Hitler seated next to a former Palestinian leader, was the driving force behind the drive to torpedo the Park 51 Mosque-community center project in lower Manhattan. Unfortunately, Yerushalmi's views have gained acceptance by some of Washington's political heavyweights, including former Republican House speaker Newt Gingrich,3j who declared, “I believe Shariah is a mortal threat to the survival of freedom in the United States and in the world as we know it.”34
While Muslims have been relegated to the legal status of 2nd class American citizens,35 perhaps they can find some solace in seeing the anti-Sharia agenda backfire. Crafted to pass muster under the establishment clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the latest round of anti-Sharia legislation targets “foreign or international law” to avoid mentioning Islam.16 But in so doing, the Islamophobes unintentionally stirred interest among judicial circles in subjecting the kosher laws currently on the books in some 22 states to the same constitutional scrutiny. If that were to happen, I’m confident Mr. Yerushalmi would be among the first to protest.
Endnotes
1 Bobby Ghosh, “Islamophobia: Does America Have a Muslim Problem?” Time, August 30, 2010, accessed May 23, 2014, http://content.time.eom/time/magazine/article/0.9171,2011936.00.html.
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2 “Bias against Muslims rampant in ‘liberal’ California,” Islamophobia Today, May 23, 2014, accessed May 23, 2014, http://www.islamophobiatodav.com/2013/06/26/bias-agamst-muslim.s-rampant-in-liberal-califomia/. 3 Bobby Ghosh, ibid. 4 Saied R. Ameli, Ebrahim Mohseni Ahooei and Arzu Merali, “Once Upon a Hatred: Anti-Muslim Experiences in the USA,” Islamic Human Rights Commission, May 23, 2013, accessed May 23, 2014, http://www.ihrc.org.uk/attachments/article/10513/OnceUponAHatred ExecutiveSummarv.docx.pdf. 5 Jack Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs (New York and Northampton: Olive Branch Press, 2001), 8, 16 6 Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2012), 65-67. 7 Deepa Kumar, ibid., 141. s Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 303. 9 Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, ibid., 307. 10 Review of “Once Upon a Hatred: Anti-Muslim Experiences in the USA,” Islamic Human Rights Commission, May 4, 2013, accessed May 23, 2014, http://www.ihrc.org.uk/publications/reports/10513-once-upon-a-hatred-anti- muslim-experiences-in-the-usa. 11 Yaser Ali, “Shariah and Citizenship—How Islamophobia Is Creating a Second-Class Citizenry in America,” California Law Review 100-4 (2012), 1039, accessed May 24, 2014, http://scholarship.law.berkelev.edU/californialawreview/voll00/iss4/4. 12 Deepa Kumar, ibid. 141. 13 Deepa Kumar, ibid., 79. 14 “Terror Hits Home: The Oklahoma City Bombing,” FBI website, n.d., accessed May 24, 2014, http://www. fbi. gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/oklahoma-citv-bombing. 15 Jim Naureckas, “The Oklahoma City Bombing, The Jihad That Wasn't,” Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, July/August 1995, accessed May 24, 2014, http://fair.org/extra-online-articles/the-oklahoma-citv-bombing/. 16 Debbie Schlussel, “About Debbie,” Debbie Schlussel website, n.d., accessed May 24, 2014, http://www.debbieschlussel.com/bio/. 17 Debbie Schlussel, “Homeless Muslim Arrest Revisits OK City Bombing Islam Connection,” Debbie Schlussel website, March 11, 2011, accessed May 24, 2014, http://www.debbieschlussel.com/34112/homeless-muslim-arrest- reminds-us-of-ok-citv-bombing-muslim-connection/. 18 Deepa Kumar, ibid., 141. 19 Yaser All, ibid., 1041. 20 “The Anti-terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA),” Law website, n.d., accessed May 24, 2014, http://immigration.laws.com/AEDPA. 21 Deepar Kumar, ibid., 142. 22 Deepa Kumar, ibid., 140. 23 Deepa Kumar, ibid., 142-143. 24 Ebrahim Moosa, “Post 9/11: America Agonizes over Islam,” in The Cambridge History of Religions in America vol. 3, ed. Steven J. Stein (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 564, accessed May 24, 2014, http://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/5989/Ebrahim%20Moosa%20Post%2091 l.pdf?sequen ce=l. 25 Ramon Grosfoguel, “The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia,” Journal of Islamophobia 1-1(2012), 24, accessed May 23, 2014, http://issuu.com/burbfabulous/docs/isi fa!12012 voll nol erg copy/ll?e=0/5302804. 26 Bobby Ghosh, ibid. 27 Ernest Luning, “Dutch lawmaker brings his crusade against Islam to conservative confab,” Colorado Statesman, July 6, 2012, accessed May 23, 2014, http://www.coloradostatesman.com/content/993597-dutch-lawmaker-brmgs- his-crusade-against-islam-conservative-confab. 28 Ernest Luning, ibid. 29 “Sharia: the Threat to America,” Center for Security Policy, 2010, accessed May 25, 2014, http://www.centerforsecuritvpolicv.org/upload/wvsiwvg/article%20pdfs/Shariah%20- %20The%20Threat%20to%20America%20(Team%20B%20Report)%2009142010.pdf. 30 Yaser Ali, ibid., 1027. 31 Omar Sacirbey, “Anti-Shariah Movement Gains Success,” Huffmgton Post, May 17, 2013, accessed May 25, 2014, http://www.huffmgtonpost.coin/2013/05/17/anti-shariah-movement-gains-success_n_3290110.html.
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32 '"Islamic Jew-hatred' ads with Hitler adorn DC buses," Russia Today, May 21, 2014, accessed May 24, 2014, http://rt.com/usa/160392-islamic-iew-hatred-buses/. 33 Andrea Elliot, “The Man Behind the Anti-Sharia Movement,” New York Times, July 30, 2011, accessed May 24, 2014, http://www.nvtimes.com/2011/07/3 l/us/3 lshariah.html?pagewanted=all& r=0. 34 Yaser All, ibid., 1065. 35 Yaser All, ibid., 1066. 36 Omar Sacirbey, ibid. 37 “A meaty question: Who should regulate kosher and halal food?” The Economist, February 9, 2013, accessed May 25, 2014, http://www.economist.eom/news/intemational/21571419-who-should-regulate-kosher-and-halal- food-meatv-question. 3S Mark Popovsky, “The Constitutional Complexity of Kosher Food Laws,” Columbia Journal of Law and Social Problems 144 (2010), accessed May 25, 2014, http://www.columbia.edU/cu/ilsp/pdfTall%202010/Popovskv.JLSP.44.l.pdf.
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