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HO.RIZONS OF FISHERIES HABITAT RESEARCH
edited by P. CAMPBELL
·-· '. Freshwater Institute
Department of Fisheries and Oceans -Western Region 1981 11 I~ 5 /..(
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HORIZONS OF FISHERIES HABITAT RESEARCH
Editor: P. Camp be 11
Contributors: G. J. Brunski ll M. A. Giles R. E. Hecky R. H. Hesslein J. F. Klaverkamp W. L. Lockhart R. W. Newbury J. W. M. Rudd M. P. Stainton .. CONTENTS Page
1.0 FORWARD . 1 2.0 IDENTIFICATION ANO EVALUATION OF THREATS TO FRESHWATER ANO ARCTIC HABITATS (ABSTRACTS) 2.1.0 Fossil Fuels I: The Environmental Hazards of Fossil Fuel
Production and Use. Combustion Gases C0 2, NOx' SOX 6 2.1.1 Fossil Fuels II: Atmospheric Emissions of Trace Elements During Combustion of Fossil Fuels and Wood. Some Possible Aquatic Consequences ...... 9
2.2 Base-Metal Mining and Smelting 11 2.3 Industrial Organic Pollutants, Pesticides and Fossil Hydrocarbons . 13 2.4 Fisheries Habitat Aspects of Uranium Mining, Nuclear Power and Radiochemical Ecology. 16 2.5 The Impact of Nuclear War on Canada's Freshwater Fishery 18 2.6 Reservoirs, Water Diversions and Other Hydrological Alterations 20 2.7 Problems of Global Scale 23 3.0 INFORMATION REQUIRED. 25 4.0 APPENDIX Full texts of discussion papers: Identification and evaluation of threats to freshwater and Arctic habitats . 38 1.0 FORWARD
This review of national and international fisheries habitat proolems was taken from a larger report by the same authors, entitled Arctic and Freshwater Fisheries Habitat Program Board Report to the Executive Coordinating Committee Western Region Planning Board. The original report was prepared in the fall of 1981 for planning Freshwater Institute research directions in the next decade. Horizons of Fisheries Habitat Research was excerpted from the original report to provide our overview to the Fisheries and Oceans Research Advisory Council in late November 1981. During the past 30 years human activity has begun to influence regional and global geochemical and biological systems in ways that rival or overwhelm the natural fluxes balancing these systems. Human induced fluxes to the atmosphere and oceans of such basic global chemical components as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus are now comparable to natural fluxes. The global atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased 20%. Acid precipitation is influencing large areas of the northern hemisphere. In addition to influencing natural major and trace element cycles on the Earth,
humans have created a number of compounds and elements not previously ~resent on Earth. The present and potential distribution of these materials is of a global scale. Radionuclides from bomb testing and potential weapons use has introduced a whole new suite of isotopes to Earth. Development of a huge variety of organic chemicals has led to the widespread distribution of persis tant organics such as PCBs, pesticides and heribicides. Massive irrigation and hydroelectric developments are beginning to influence the water flows of whole continents. The point of the description above is not that humans are doomed to destruction by the pollution of their environment, but that the extent of human influence on natural systems has evolved from a minor perturbation to 2 Earth's natural systems to becane a major canponent 1n the character of the planet. In response to this change, environmental researchers and resource managers must alter the scope of their investigations. Along with the geographic extent and intensity of human influence, a number of associated research di ffi cult i es must be addressed. Over 1appi ng areas of impact have resulted in potential effects from interactions between pollutants or physical disturbances of different sources. Acid rain will fall on uranium mine tailings, agricultural pesticides will be carried to new areas by river diversion and concentrated by evaporation in irrigation projects. Heavy metals will interact with lowered pH in lakes and a host of complex reactions will occur in the atmosphere. These possible interactions result in exponential growth of the number of specific problems wnich must be dealt with. The scientific corrrnunity cannot properly respond to the explosion of problems with only specific research into particular environmental impacts.
The best possible response mus~ be investigations into the basic character of the interactions beheen the pollutants or disturbances and the natural biological, chemical and physical systems. The principal criterion in evaluating the real or potential impact of any human or natural activity is that the natural system or cycles be understood to the fullest extent possible. This understanding will allow the rapid assessment of potential impact and accurate design of experimentation for solutions to a specific problem. In developing the necessary understanding of natural systems research, programs will have to be developed with a broad base of expertise. In the case of fisheries and fish habitat research, successful research teams must be made up of organic and inorganic chemists, geochemists, hydrologists, algal, benthic and microbiologists as well as experts in fish populations and physiology. Research programs must be designed to produce broad based and general understanding as well as specific problem sol ut-::Ons. Various research programs must be coordinated so that integration of results will yield maximum understanding over a range of climates and physical and biological types. 3 Because of the large number of human influences on natural systems which require management ~d the range of regional political and economic pressures, there has been a tendancy to both fund and organize research programs toward specific problem solutions. While these specific problems must indeed be solved, this approach has hindered research into the basic understanding of the natural systems involved. This hindrance derives from the instability and rapid change in specific solution funding and organization and the tendancy to isolate research groups. Research into the workings of natural systems requires stability so that understanding may be built up over a period of time sufficient to allow for completion of natural cycles and averaging or integration of natural variability. Flexibility in organization is required to allow the best utilization of specific expertise among a number of pro jects. If ~e ~pecific solution approach continues and this basic research falters, scientists will find that attempts to solve specific problems will fail through lack of fundamental understanding of the systems involved. In the sections that follow, we have attempted to identify and describe major current and potential future threats to freshwater habitats and their fisheries. In light of likely future developments in the world over the next two decades, we foresee, for the near future, threats resulting from energy-related activities as being paramount and, in general, warranting greatest attention. As an example, it has been projected by the Major Projects Task Force that, over the next 20 years, approximately 86.5% ($380 billion) of the major industrial projects (capital cost >$100 million) planned in Canada will be di~ectly related to energy exploration, develop ment and distribution (Table 1.1). We have also attempted to broadly categorize insults to aquatic systems resulting from the problems described. Research (particularly process-oriented research) necessary for DFO to respond to the identified threats has been outlined, rationalized and priorized. Tab 1e 1.1 Summary of lnve11tory of Major Projects To The Ye1tr 2000 (milliom of dollars) •
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Cunvrotk,1ut Ut1l10· Utho-'!! b1•lo1a1i<>~ • Oo ll<"J Oil l><> ripcliuu J.J )I 6-IO 11 &)0 I 10 B')() H11 frocoiin1 II f'cth-.hC'mKab 6.) JI )I)) 100 tlOO 98) I JOO ll 10) 10 41) 66 ,,, fk1uk al (f(O " Tunt. 41.J 191 an 620 2!111711 )Y 4H 10 }7) ) 11.U lll Hll l') 110 llHI foUU V1oJLKU I.I 1110 uo 1 llO I 661 I 200 ) ll> Minm1 4.) l'.l'.IU I 0111 .. 100 1011 ) •J(1) ) HO )62) I l01 f1i111ary Mc11h r1od. . 1.4 6 JU IOU I )00 1 ·NOTE: Ilcnusc of the witlc varia1ion of informatio11 sou1ccs, 1lic p1ojn1 con cs1ima1n included in the invc111ory arc 001 slated on a consistcm basis tluooghout. It ii undcmoo 2.0 IDENTIFICATION AND EVALUATION OF THREATS TO FRESHWATER AND ARCTIC HABITATS (ABSTRACTS) We have attempted to identify and evaluate what, in the near future, we perceive as being significant threats to freshwater and estuarine habitats and fisheries. Brief abstracts, follow here; more comprehensive documentation is presented in the discussion papers contained in the appen dix. For the most part, the abstracts and discussion papers describe ·:he problem being address,ed, outline the need for concern, identify potential effects (specific contaminants, mechanisms, etc.), estimate area and extent of habitat and fishery potentially affected, length of time the problem has existed and project future likely trends. In some cases, the authors have tackled economic and socia1 considerations and implications, as well. "EXTNAME: p.carr.pbell (R)P: 10.1 6 2.1 FOSSIL FUELS 2.1.0 Fossil Fuels I: The Environmental Hazards of Fossil Fuel Production and Use. Combustion gases C02, NOx, SOx. R. H. Hessl ei n ABSTRACT Problem: Oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur are produced by combustion of fossil fuels. co2 is derived fran the basic combustion and is relatively constant per energy output. SOx is derived from S impurities ir the fuel and varies with the S content of fuels. NOx is derived fran oxidation of N2 in combustion air. Production varies with conditions of combustion, temperature and pressure, etc. Need for Concern: NOx and SOx result in production of strong acids after oxidation in the atmosphere. This is delivered to earth as acid rain. C02 is a good adsorber of infrared 1 ight and as such, can cause a "greenhouse" effect 'in the earth's atmosphere. The concentrations of atmospheric C02 have risen 20% since the 1800 IS• Potential Effects: Acid rain will lower pH of sensitive aquatic systems, causing disruptions of food cl~ains and loss of fish stocks. Metal concentrations in aquatic systems will rise, cause fish contamination and toxic effects. The "greenhouse" effect of C02 may cause major changes in the earth's climate. This could cause changes in precipitation, evapotranspiration, water flows, permafrost and sea level. EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 11 7 Area and Extent: Acid rain impact is heaviest downwind of industrial areas. The greatest impact is in granitic areas of the Canadian Shield. The extent of effect could be the complete loss of fisheries in this wide area. Climate change caused by C02 would affect the whole world. Northern and coastal areas would probably change the most due to critical length of warm seasons, low elevation, and greater extremes of weather. Duration: Acid rain problems have been occuring for at least 20 years and will continue at least until 2000, depending on the typ: and amount of fossil fuel burned. Climate change will probably begin (if it is going to happen) in the next 20 years and beyond that is unpredicatabl e. Future Trends: Increased use of scrubbing equipment in stacks could reduce acid rain; however, present economic trends suggest this will not be significant. NOx will probably exceed SOx in the future. Increased fuel processing such as coal liquifaction and gasification may result in clean fuels, but more emissions at the processing sites, causing a shift in acid rain patterns. The COz problem will not change in rate until fossil fuels begin to be exhausted. Worth of Resource: The value of the Canadian sports fishery possibly affected by acid rain has been estimated at 1 to 2 billion dollars annually, primarily in tourist revenues. The potential corrmercial fishery damage has been estimated a.t 500 mill ion. :xTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 12 8 Potential Future Use: Pressure on the sport fishery will probably increase in the future with higher standard of living and more leisure time. Commercial fisheries are limited by the productivity of the lakes. Arctic regions will undoubtedly receive greater use in the future. Social Benefits/Impacts: Loss of Canadian Shield sport and commercial fishery, loss of tourist dollars to remote areas. TEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 17 9 2.1.1 Fossil Fuels II: Atmospheric Emissions of Trace Elements During Combustion of fossil fuels and wood. Some possible aquatic consequences. J. W. M. Rudd ABSTRACT Problem: Combustion of fossil fuels and wood contributes significantly to global anthropogenic atmospheric emissions of Hg, Pb, Zn, Ni and Cu. Distances of atmospheric transport vary greatly and are dependent on a number of chemical and atmospheric parameters. Deposition of these metals directly into aquatic habitats and leaching from watersheds is suspected to be presently increasing metal concentrations in sediment, water and biota. Need for Concern: At the present time our understanding of the consequences of long range atmospheric transport (LRTAP) of metals is very limited. For in~ stance, there are no reliable estimates of atmospheric loading rates of metals from either natural or anthropogenic sources making it difficult to accurately assess human impact. In addition, distances of atmospheric transport and chemical transformations of metals in the atmosphere and biosphere are poorly understood as are minimum long term toxic concen trations, and interaction of pollutants including metals, acids and organics. It is presently known that atmospherically transported metals have caused certain local and long range contamination problems. This coupled with anticipated future increases of anthropogenic atmospheric loading of metals leads us to conclude that in the future wide spread metal toxicity problems are likely. We are presently unprepared for this eventuality. Potential effects: The accelerated rate of metal emissions is threatening the freshwater fishery. Fish productivity can be affected by direct metal toxicity and/or by "EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 18 10 toxic effects to food chain organisms. The fish that remain may be unfit for human consumption because of unaccepatable concentrations of metals in the fish flesh. Area and extent: As in the case of acid rain the impact will be greatest downwind of industrialized areas. Unlike acid rainfall, which only affects poorly buffered systems, trace metal deposition threatens all aquatic habitats. At the present time the major sources of fossil fuel derived atmospheric metals are in the American midwest and northeast. Large cyclonic weather systems are capable of transporting this pollution northward to Canada. Future trends: Global energy consumption has increased 5%/yr si.nce 1900 and is expected to continue to increase into the future. An increase of 450% has been forecasted from 1965 to 2000. Atmospheric metal pollution will increase concurrently. Types of metal pollution will vary as primary fuel sources change. Lead emissions will decrease when leaded gasoline consumption decreases because of exhaustion of petroleum resources. Atmospheric loading of Hg, Zn, and Cu will increase as a consequence of increased coal and wood cornbust ion. ~XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 28 11 2.2 Base-metal Mining and Smelting M. A. Giles J. F. Klaverkamp ABSTRACT The Problem and Need for Concern Development of base-metal resources in Canada is expected to expand rapidly over the next two decades. A five-fold increase in exploited ore reserves is expected in northwestern regions and projected major capital expenditures for metal mining/refining activities for all of Canada is to exceed nine billion dollars for this time period. Although large scale metal mining/refining industries have been active in North America for over a century and environmental concerns related to these activities have been evident for a half century, it is only recently that pollution control measures have been applied in Canada. Smelters produce more than 40% of the total sulfur oxide emissions in Canada and also contribute large quantities of metal contaminants as atmospheric emissions. Mining, smelting and concentrating activities release large quantities of acid, metals and chemical reagents directly to the aquatic ecosysten by liquid effluent discharge or atmospheric deposition. Cessation of mining activities does not eliminate the problem since surface drainages fran abandoned mines and tailings disposal areas often contain greater metal concentrations than effluents from active mines. The input of contaminants such as acid and heavy metals to the aquatic ecosystem has resulted in a variety of effects ranging fran death, impaired reproduction and changes in migratory behavior of fish, reduction of biomass and species diversity of aquatic invertebrates and vegetation to increased concentrations of metals and metalloides in all segments of the aquatic food XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 29 12 web. Projected increases in Arctic metal mining will result in entry of substantial quantities of contaminants into freshwater and marine ecosystems, the fragilities and sensitivities of which are currently unknown. Area, Extent and Future Trends Significant increases in mining and/or smelting of base-metals are projected for the next two decades. Eight new or expanded mining operations for copper, molybdenum, silver and zinc are anticipated for British Columbia. At least seven new mines (copper, lead, zinc, silver, tungsten) are projected for the Yukon and Northwest Territories. Six new or expanded aluminum smelters (3 in Quebec; 1 each for Atlantic provinces, Manitoba and British Columbia) will be in operation by year 2000. Three additional iron, copper and nickel mining-smelting operations are planned for Ontario. Of these · increases, probably the most significant from an environmental point of view is that occurring in the Yukon and Northwest Territories where developed ore reserves are expected to increase five-fold over the next two decades. Given the relative isolation of these mines and the severe climatic conditions it is unlikely that major re11eases of metals, acid and flotation agents into these northern rivers and lakes can be avoided. In more southern areas, the application of current mine effluent and smelter stack treatment techniques in concert with regular monitoring programs and a high degree of public awareness may serve to reduce metal, SOx and NOx emissions from mining-smelting operations. If not, the continued atmospheric emissions and mine effluents can be expected to increase the severity of the "acid rain" prob 1em and the associated elevation in the concentration of heavy metals in the aquatic environment. ::XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 64 13 2.3 Industrial Organic Pollutants, Pesticides and Fossil Hydrocarbons W• L • Loc k ha rt ABSTRACT Problem Description: The problem is contamination of aquatic systems including marine mammals with synthetic and sometimes with naturally occurring organic compounds. The synthetic organic chemical industry became significant in the 1940s and it has grown continuously since then. Some of its products, particularly halogenated compounds, have shown themselves to be both highly toxic, and highly persistent in the environment. Fi sh, marrmal s, and other 1 iv i ng and non-1 ivi ng components of aquatic systems have been able to concentrate these compounds with the results that living things can suffer biological harm, and that fishery products become unsafe for consumption. Need for Concern: World demand for synthetic organic compounds continues to grow and every year brings the introduction of an estimated 300 new compounds. Our region is becoming a centre for world-scale petrochemical production because of availability of fossil carbon feedstocks. It is al so a major consumer of these products, mainly through energy-intensive agriculture. Industrial production, population growth, and intense chemical agriculture are all expected to grow rapidly in this region, and water is already a limiting resource. Furthennore, processes favoring degradation of organic compounds tend to be dependent upon energy input, especially heat. This region is one of the coldest on earth and organic compounds persist proportionately longer here than in warmer regions. With their exceptional ability to concentrate organic compounds, and their relatively long generation times, fish and fish-eating birds and mamnals seem to be among the most-exposed biological groups. TEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 65 14 Area and Extent: Industrial, agricultural, and population growth will all take place primarily in the southern parts of the region, in the headwaters of the Nelson and Mackenzie systems. Transport of organic pollutants can be expected throughout these systems, with temporary buffering mechanisms at lakes and reservoirs. Many organic compounds move most efficiently by air and compounds released in the western and northern parts of the region will tend to move eastward. A number of stable materials like PCB, lindane, DDT, etc. already circulate throughout the hemisphere and are commonly detected in remote Arctic regions such as Greenland ice cores. Future Trends: There is no doubt that chemical releases to the environment will increase in quantity; the diversity of chemicals released will also in crease. Rates at which pollutants are degraded to simpler materials should remain about the same in the short term (until at least the year 2000) and so pollutant levels can be expected to get worse. I cannot predict for the longer term: use patterns of chemicals will change; adapted microorganisms may increase degradation rates; climate may warm due to atmospheric co2; etc. Also, public perceptions of accept able levels of particular pollutants can change rapidly. It seems probable that the inland habitat will be exposed to growing quantities and types of organic pollutants and that the fishery will deteriorate continuously until is gone from major prairie drainages. I am not able to predict what will happen in small ~XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 66 15 Arctic watersheds with important local fisheries or to coastal marine fisheries because the dynamics of organic pollutants under ~hose conditions are not well enough understood. EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 43 16 2.4 Fisheries Habitat Aspects of Uranium Mining, Nuclear Power, and Radiochemical Ecology G. J. Brunskill ABSTRACT Abundant Canadian uranium resources are being identified, mined, and milled by national and international energy industries. This exploitation is occurring in regions of Canada that have an abundance of streams and lakes, in contrast to mining in arid regions in the western USA. Canadian knowledge and regulations about U mining cannot depend on results of US research. High and medium level Candu nuclear wastes are likely to CE! stored and/ or disposed into deep Precambrian Shield bore holes. Much engineering and meta 11 urgical research is underHay' but fewer funds are avaoi 1 ab le for surf ace water research on the mobility and biological availability of many of the poorly know exotic 1ong-1 ived nu cl ides derived frcm Candu reactor wastes. Contamination of local and regional aquatic food chains and drinking water by uranium mine wastes and reactor wastes will becane more common and widespread. Since there are few energy options for most of Europe and USA, nuclear power will becane a dcminant industrial and urban energy source. Canada holds approximately 1/4 of world uranium reserves, mostly in northern Saskatchewan, Manitoba, arx:I along the west coast of Hudson Bay. Reactor waste radionuclides have been released in Canadian rivers and lakes since 1946, and spent fuel rods arx:I resin wastes are currently stored near power pl ants in southern Ontario and southern Quebec along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River. Plans for near future waste disposal include Precambian Shield vaults, Hudson Bay deep sediments, and north Atlantic Ocean deep sediment burial. :EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 44 17 At current rates of consumption of uranium ores, the US will deplete its known reserves in 5-10 years, and many European countries already depend solely upon imported uranium. Canada's wealth in uranium will cause fisheries habitat problems that will persist for 1600 to 106 years (half lives of dominant isotopes). Plutonium extraction and spent fuel rod processing plants are proposed by AECL: these industries are radiochemically dirty. Thorium mining will occur as soon as uranium reserves dwindle, and Candu reactors can use 232Th, 233u fuel. Increased export of Candu reactors will require export of scientific and technical guidance for recipient countries. Although uranium mining pollution of waters appears to be of little interest to the public, national and regional interest in nuclear reactor waste disposal is intense ard highly emotional. FWI has a rare opportunity to gain information on radionuclide cycles in aquatic habitats before, during, and after major nuclear waste disposal activities. Fish and other aquatic organisms bioconcentrate radionuclides in various ways, presenting a psychological ard health hazard to man. ·r::XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 57 18 2.5 The Impact of Nuclear War on Canada's Freshwater Fishery M. P. Stainton ABSTRACT Phen omen on: Nuclear detonations release significant amounts of long lived radioactive isotopes at point sources, much of which enters the troposphere for deposit more or less evenly over the hemisphere. Non-test detonations, by design, induce significant disruption in social order includirg the production and movement of traditional foods and energy. Potential Effects: There is a continuum of possible effects from simple contamination of the aquatic food chain with whatever new burden of isotopes the hemisphere received to large disruptions in populations, social systems, and greatly increased pressure on Canadian fish stocks as a reserve of relatively uncontaminated food. The point on the continuum realized is highly variable and depends on the location and number of such nuclear detonations. Need for Concern: The probability and consequences of nuclear detonation(s) occurring in our hemisphere in this decade is much greater than for a catastrophic release of radiation from power reactors. Social disruption and loss of (a) year(s) of agricultural production could increase pressure on Canadian fisheries. It would be essential to know the "shelf life" (the time required for fish stocks to become contaminated to the point of becoming a health hazard) of various fish species. Because the rate of insult and urgency for response would be high, it is essential to have knowledge of pathways, rates and sinks of bomb isotopes before the fact. The occurrence of nuclear detonations al so implies a loss of ability for sophisticated research (albeit temporarily). :XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 58 19 Duration and Area: There is no limit in space or time to the realization of this potential problem. Once occurred, detonation(s) could render large areas of Canada's agricultural land (lOOO's of square miles) uninhabitable and unproductive for several years. Long range transport would raise North American background radiation to a maximum of double the present for 30-40 years. Future Trends: Increased proliferation of nuclear technology increases the probaoility of detonations occurring. Worth of Resources: Worth is difficult to assess. If only a contamination problem occurs with maintainance of traditional markets and fishing pressures, then it is the current worth of the fisheries. If contamination is coincident with significant social disruption and loss of agricultural production, then the value of fish protein would soar. ~XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 78 20 2.6 Reservoirs, Water Diversions and Other Hydrological Alterations R. E. Hecky R. W. Newbury ABSTRACT Problem: The pace of hydroelectric development is accelerating to meet projected demands· for el ectri ca 1 cons um pt ion for the year 2000. Reservoirs and· diversions are required to capture ard store potential energy ard to generate power by turbines. Beyond the year 2000 consumptive water uses, e.g. drinking and irrigation will pl ace increasing demands on Canadian fresh water as groundwater resources in North America are depleted and polluted. Linear developments, e.g. highways and pipelines transect innumerable streams and drainages and likewise alter the distribution of water in space and time. Need for Concern: Canadian demand for electricity peaks in winter when river discharges are nonnally minimal. To maximize hydroelectric energy product~:on, water must be stored in summer and released in winter. This storage creates extensive areas of flooded terrain ard alters for all time the natural fluctuation of river flows. The aquatic habitat of entire drainage basins downstream of major developments is altered. River diversions amplify these affects. Hydrological alterations on all scales create fisheries problems through habitat alteration as well as through direct barriers to fish movement. -EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 79 21 Potential Effects: Disruption of the natural land-water interface caused by higher 1vater levels breaks existing biogeochemical cycles and increases the flux of elements into the aquatic regime. Examples are increased mercury concentrations in fish in new reservoirs, increased sedimentation which creates spawning and feeding problems for fish, increased nutrient loading which causes eutrophication and associated water quality problems, and altered food chain structures which can lead to fish quality problems (parasites and/or less valuable species mix). Diversions redirect water and its associated nutrients. Lower productivity and altered structure of downstream lakes, deltas and estuaries often result. Barriers to fish movements such as dams, culverts, aquaducts, etc., can remove access to critical spawning, rearing and feeding habitat for migratory fish. Stream channelization or wetland drainage programs may al so dewater critical habitat, leading to increased runoff which in turn may discourage seasonal but critical fish movements. Area and Extent: Full development of Canada's hydroelectric potential would mean flooding 1-2% of the land surface of Canada and altering the natural regime of all its major rivers, deltas and estuaries. Diversions to effect major southward redistribution of water for consumptive water use would require even more extensive flooding and would eliminate northern deltas and estuaries. The cumulative effect of habitat loss due to lin~ar developments that link many small watersheds may be even greater in total. Hi story: Hydroelectric development began at the turn of the century. By the midseventies capacity stood at 32,000 MW spread over 365 projects affecting -EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 80 22 200 rivers and streams, and nearly two-thirds of its potential capacity remained to be developed. Sixteen river diversions were effected or under development as of 1980. Future Trends: EMR forecasts a four-fold increase in electrical generating capacity by the year 2000 and much of this will be accomplished by massive hydroelectrical developments in northern environments where southern experience is inappropriate and on a scale not previously seen in North America. In total, $96 billion dollars will be spent on hydroe·lectric development between new and the year 2000. This investment exceeds even that made for hydrocarbon exploration and development. Probably of greatest concern to this region is the Mackenzie River Delta and Estuary which are threatened by piecemeal development currently being planned. In the long term, diversions from water-rich regions to water-poor regions will alter the geographical and perhaps political boundaries of western Canada. Socio-economic benefits/impacts: Although representing a small portion of Canada's total fish production, the inland and coastal fisheries of central and northern Canada are extremely important to the corrrnunities dependent upon them. Commercial fishing often represents 15-40% of the cash i ncane of northern communities and the value of the domestic consumption probably exceeds the commercial value although this is poorly known. As an example, fishing related claims under the Northern Flood Agreement in Manitoba are approaching one million dollars a year and are likely to go higher. The value of recreational fishing to the Canadian economy has been estimated at 1-2 billion dollars. The quality and quantity of these enterprises is in sane jeopardy fran hydrological alterations as well as the aesthetic aspects of the fishing experience. ::XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 91 23 2.7 Problems of Global Scale G. J. Brunskill ABSTRACT The future of Canadian economic and political stature, ard the fisheries/environmental state of health, probably depends more upon the decisions and activities of other countries than on internal Canadian desires. International demands for freshwater, food, energy, technical and ·scientific expertise by technologically advanced countries ard the desperate, populous, less developed countries will increasingly constrain Canadian resource choices and 1 ife styles. DFO and FWI should use scientific and technical aid to foreign countries and international organizations as a major instrument in global affairs to protect our abundant supplies of water, food, and energy. Canada should greatly improve and expand its contributions to networks of monitoring stations to measure global cycles of natural and pollutant substances. Industrial growth, regulated only by the world market, will contribute to 1) large scale alteration and pollution of continental surface and groundwater balances, 2) extinction of 20% of known species of organisms, 3) erosion, depletion, and salinization of agricultural soils, 4) wasteful and environmentally harmful uses of energy and material resources, 5) decreased quality and quantity of fresh foods (per capita), 6) increased urbanization and centralization, 7) changes in atmospheric chemistry and wor.ld climate, 8) deforestation, and 9) contamination and biological alterations -in all of the world's estuaries, coastal waters, and inland seas. Climatic and atmospheric alterations will directly affect fish habitats in Arctic and southern 24 Canada and probably coastal fisheries. Major water diversions and over exploitation of fresh water resources will directly affect fisheries habitats and will directly alter estuarine and coastal marine fish habitats. Energy and material resource extraction in the future will likely affect fisheries habitats of the northern regions of most provinces, Arctic and subarctic Canada, and the area of Precambrian Shield. Acid rain, pesticides, mercury, bomb fallout, synthetic organic substances primarily derived fran Europe and USA are now globally distributed. Global organizations and industries will increase in importance and power in the near future. Countries allied to i nternat ion al organizations of research, industry, communications, and government will gain increased prestige and economic advantage, as well as increased responsibilities to assist less developed countries, and to monitor and correct global environmental problems. 25 3.0 INFORMATION REQUIRED Man's activities, as described in the preceding discussion papers, may emanate as physical and/or chemical alterations/introductions to the aquatic habitat and/or fisheries resources. These physical and chemical threats, for purposes of further analysis, can be conveniently grouped into the problem categories as listed in Table 3.1. In order to deal successfully with the problems outlined in Table 3.1, certain aquatic research will be required which is aimed basically at deter mining key processes, organisms, environmental factors, etc., i.e. research aimed at obtaining an understanding of how organisms and the systems in which they live function, interact, and react naturally, as well as to specific man-induced perturbations. The process-oriented research we deem as currently being required in order to address the threats to freshwater and Arctic systems categorized in Table 3.1 has been summarized in Table 3.2. Attempts have been made in Table 3.2 to provide rationales and predict the return that could be expected having successfully completed the particular piece(s) of research identified. And, based on the knowledge and situation today, an attempt has also been made to relay our sense as to the urgency/ priority of obtaining the research information believed required. 26 Table 3.1. Categories of threats to aquatic systems and corresponding potential sources. Threat to the aquatic habitat and/or fis~eries resource Source 1. C02, SOX, NOX Fossil fuel refining and combustion Metal mining, milling and smelting 2. Heavy Metals Fossil fuel refining, combustion, exploration and production Metal mining, mil ing and smelting Hydroelectric development (reservoirs) Agriculture, Forestry, Other Industry 3. Radionuclides Fossil fuel combustion Uranium mining and milling Reactor wastes Agriculture, Industry Nuclear detonations 4. Organic Compounds Fossil fuel refining, transport combustion, exploration and production Mining, milling and smelting Industrial processes Agriculture, Forestry 5. Nutrients Municipal and industrial wastes Reservoirs, diversions Agriculture (fertilizers, irrigation, etc.) 6. Physical Alterations Fossil fuel mining, exploration production and transport Metal. mining and processing Hydroelectric development, irrigation, municipal and industrial water supply systems (reservoirs and diversions) 7. Global Problems of Pertinence to Canada Table 3.2. Information and process-oriented research required by OFO to address the threats (as ident1f1ed in Table 3.1) to Arctic and freshwater habitats and fish. The research proposed here has been ranked with respect to urgency or priority as follows: I = required iuunediately, N = required in the near future, L = required in the long term. Information Hequ ired Priority I. co2 , SOX, NOx: l. Understanding of microbial buffering (SO , NOx• reduction) and possibilities of x enhancement. These understandings will allow 2. Understanding of permanance of feS prediction of lake sensitivity to deposition. acid rain and the expected rate at which it will take place. They will 3. Understanding of chemical buffering in also assist in developing ameliorative lakes 1ncluding alkalinity, pll, pC02 measures and predicting recovery if relat1onsh1ps. any progress is made toward reduced emission. 4. Understanding of watershed chemical response to acid rain. a) bogs b) terrestr1al ...... f'J 5. Determination of metal response to lower This will allow separation of metal pll (solubility, leaching, speciation, problems from pit problems and may enhanced mobll lty, methylation). ~ a 1l ow ame l1 oration even at low pll. f 6. Understanding of behavioral, biochemical. and physiological mechanisms of f1sh to elevated pit. pC0 ... 2 7. Clarification of critical point 1n life Will allow assessment of potential cycle of fish with respect to acidifi damage to fishery, rate of loss, change cation. in condition. May lead to protective procedures for borderline situations. 8. Food chaln effects of acidification, loss or change in species of algae, invertebrates, minnows. 9. Effects of elevated 11 2s in lakes with anoxic bottoms. 10. A55e~sment of climatic effects of C0 We must begin to cons1der the potential 2 as predicted by global modelling. drastic changes which may occur at northern latitudes and the changes in L fisher1es of the whole country which f may occur. I Tab le 3. 2. Continued. In for111a ti on Required Priority 2. lleavy metals; II. Qudlltitles dnd chemical fonus of metal Input to aquatic resources - infonua t Ion is required on; Tiils Information is essential to determine the effects of man's a. metal emissions from anthropogenic activities on metal discharge and and natural sources, the relative Importance of various b. atmosphedc metal transfonuat1on Industrial activities on the fishery. processe~. c. a tmospher le res I dence times and ti· ans port d Is lances. 12. Current levels of metdl contamination of the fl shery - lnforma t Ion Is requl red on; A bdsellne of "normal" contamination a. metal concentrations In fish flesh, to determine notural variations In other organs and fl sh food organisms, metal contamination Is critical In b. metal concentrations In the aquatic understanding the impact of man's hab Ila e. water and sediment). t ( l. actlvlti~s on the fishery. c. biological and chemical characteristics of freshwater and Arctic systems presently contaminated. 13. Dynamics dnd effects of metals on fish and N in their habitats co - Information ls required In the fol lowing areas; a. chemical speclotlnn In wdter, sediment and biota, b. solubility, mobility, and blo-afflnlty of relevant chemical species, c. influence of relevant environmental factors, e.g. pit, ions, temperature, The predictive capability needed to etc. on speclatlon, solubility, mobility assess potential damage to the fishery and blo-affinity, in tenus of fish loss and contamin d. investigations on factors control ling ation Is obtained through mechanistic rates of blotransformatlon of metals research. The development of amelior In sediment, water and biota, ation procedures, such as naturdl e. t lme course of transport and accumu metal toxicity antidotes and pre la tlon in major physical and biologi venting or delaying metal accumulation cal compal"lmenb of natural aquatic also r'equ Ires basic know ledge on me ta l ecosystems, dynamics and effects in aquatic systems. - Includes ti, In water, accumulation in sediment, part I ti on Ing In water/ sediment fractions, accumulation rates In biota, and retention times, f. mechanisms of uptake, storage, excretion, acclimdtlon and toxicity, g. mechan Isms of trans fer up the food cha in with emphas Is on consumption by man, h. investlyatlons on the Interactions of metals and Se In all these processes, i. Investigations on amelloratlon measure:> tor metal toxicity and contamlndtlon. Table 3.2. Continued. lnfonnation Required Priority 3a. Radlonuclides - Uranium mining and nuclear power: 14. A broad knowledge of water solubility and These kinds of data are necessary to mobility of abundant, longerllved isotopes predict the forms of radionuclides as of biological hazard, including nuclide they are taken up by biological speclation, valence, complex formation, organisms. Water-borne or sediment and associations with inorganic and fixed radio-contaminants will have organic particles in a variety of different containment strategies and Canadian waters. ame l1 oration procedures. Oi spersa l mechanisms and/or remobilization by N,l 15. A broad knowledge of rates and mechanisms changes in water chemistry wil 1 deter of radionuclide sedimentation, sites of mine the duration and geographic range sediment fixation, reversibility of of radionuclide contamination problems. sediment fixation by changes in pll, These data also contribute useful salinity, Eh, and rates and depths of Information to the use of radioisotopes sediment mixing. as a time d imens 1on tracer in other fisheries and aquatic research. 16. We need to develop specific and general theories for the rates and mechanisms of Fish and other aquatic organisms take aquatic biological uptake, retention, and up, retain, and excrete radioisotopes at excretion of radionuclldes under natural varying rates, which presents a hazard Canadian conditions. to man and other fish eating organisms, N N and in some cases, a hazard to the gene lO 17. We need to know the pathways of radio pool of the fish population. Some nuclldes through the food chain to organisms bioconcentrate radlonuclides fish food, fish, and man. more than others. We might wish to avoid eatlng organisms with high isotope 18. We need theoretical and practically useful accumulations and/or to use accumulators models for the chemical and radiotoxicity as early warning signals. L of many radlonuclldes, and tested ame l !oration and protection measures. f 19a. We need to be aware of sources, rates We should contribute to, and demonstrate of Canadian supply, and future expansion comp l1 ance with i nterna ti ona l agreements of radionuclide sources. on nuclear waste disposal and monitoring b. Participation in global budgets and procedures, and also contribute to ~ mass balances for natural and techno global mass balances of natural and l. logl cal ly produced radionuclides. technologically enhanced concentrations of radioactive nuclides. r Table 3.2. Continued. Information Required Priority 3b. Radionuclides - nuclear war: 20. Inventory of harvestable fish stocks. Under emergency conditions conven Sites ranked according to productivity tional economics will not prevall. (standing crop) and accessibility (rail, To efficiently harvest a potentially road, river) and species present. This priceless reserve of protein it is would involve a combination of survey essential to know quantities, and work and evaluations of current data. distribution relative to transpor L tation facilities. It would also be useful to know species distributions if "shelf life" research (Item 21) indicates significant differences in accumulation rates between species. 21. "Shelf life"• of fish stocks, pathways, rates of uptake and sinks for bomb fallout isotopes in aquatic ecosystems must be To devise a strategy for safe known. Again, the work required is a utilization of fish stocks, it is combination of applying current knowledge essential to know contamination rate to the analysts of "shelf life" with of various species. "Pathway and knowledge gaps filled by low level tracer sink" information would tell which studies In natural systems. This is not organisms to avoid or use as indi radionuclide toxicology research. ~ cators in dfter the fact monitoring 0-> Emergency strategy requ Ires only know (Item 22). 0 ledge of "fitness for consumption". 22. Monitoring (after the fact). A moni toring capability Is essential to measure loading rates and accumulation To use shelf life knowledge obtained rates in indicator organisms. ftigh in Item 21, loading rates must be known quality monitoring labs capable of in order to determine when dangerous L measuring specific isotopes (not gross levels would be reached in stocks. activity) should be located at strategic points In Canada. r Cons~uence of lnacqQ~ - As with any emergency of a catastrophic scale, the lack of preparation before the event eliminates rational response after the event. Nuclear detonations, by design, produce social disruptions of a scale that would prevent obtaining required knowledge and establishing facilities in time to meet the emergency. *shelf life - the time between nuclear detonation and accumulatlon of unsafe (for human consumption) levels of isotopes in fish. Table 3.2. Continued. lnfonnatlon Required Priority 4. Organic pollutants: 23. Accurate measures of the inputs of organic Knowledge of inputs is fundamental to chemicals to aquatic haQitat, especially predicting pollutant trends In fish through atmospheric transport. and habitats, and thls In turn Is fundamental to predicting biological f effects and product quality. f 24. Models to describe environmental dynamics These are the only tools available to of organic pollutants generally, under predict long-term trends In existing L Canadian climatic, hydrological, and and new pollutant levels In fish, biological conditions. f marine manvnals, and habitat. f This can provide essential "baseline" Information for some organic materials like hydrocarbons, and can establish 25. Current pollutant levels tn fish, marine the current state of pollution for manvua ls and aquatic hab lta t. stable synthetic compounds. Both are necessary in determining trends over w time, and In partitioning pollutant ...... body burdens Into quantities related to various human or natural activities. Exper1ence has shown that organic compounds are often converted to more 26. Rates and pathways of degradatlon of toxic compounds before they degrade organic compounds under Canad I an to non-tox le small mo 1ecu l es. These cond 1 ti ons . materials need to be identified, and their environmental dynamics must be determined. 27. Effects of organic compounds on Hving organisms Including toxic or blologlcal effects on Individual organisms and This ls essential to understand and popu la tl ons, and effects on qua l lty and predict the impact of existing pollu marketabll lty of fishery products. This tants, and to Intelligently regulate must include research on exposures to discharge of future pollutant, based multiple or combined effects of pollutants on measures of responses key aquatic and relationships between pollutants and organisms. other stress such as disease. Table 3.2. Continued. Information Required Priority Mode 1s must be based on phys lea 1 and 28. Accurate phys lea 1 and chem lea 1 propert I es chemical properties of compounds of compounds (such as wciter solub1l1ty) since too many new compounds appear and the influence of vciriables like for one to realistically try to measure salinity and pH on those properties. the envlronmenta 1 behaviour of each one I ndl vi dually. I All considerations applied to organic 29. Organoineta 11 ic compound research. compounds can be re-stated for organo f meta 11 le compounds. A number of these can be expected. 30. Site-specific issues. These will require discharge regu lations specific for each case, and f supporting'research projects. OFO should take the lead not only in documenting and predicting the levels w and effects of pollutants on aquatic N 31. Research on amelioration techniques. resources, but also In developing L ways to ameliorate damage (I.e. dis persants, adapted microorganisms, immobilized enzymes, adsorbants, etc.) Table 3.2. Continued. Information Required Priority 5. Nutrient-food chain - fish productivity; Extensive physical and chemical habitat alteration Is Inescapable. Food chain alterations can lead to declining 32. Understanding of food chain interactions, catches and quality of catches as determinants of species composition, naturally evolved conMnunities ~lill be displaced productivity, opportunities disrupted and displaced production l for biological management. (non-harvestable) may result. Under standing of food chain dynamics could allow amelioration of these effects and application of biological rehab ilitation practices. 33. Development of stream-river nutrient loading type models for estuarine fish productivity. f 34. Determination of the significance of high Almost any activity of man, e.g. river stage to nutrient loading and fish sewage disposal, lmpoundment, river productivity of floodplain lakes. diversion, agricultural practices, or terrain disturbances disrupts natural 35. Development and testing of models for biogeochemical cycles and results in L groundwater inputs (vu l umes and chemical altered fluxes of elements including composition) to lakes and streams. those essential for biological pro duction. Altered nutrient fluxes w 36. Applicability of current nutrient loading will result in altered magnitudes N w models for lakes in northern environments. and patterns of aquatic productivity r including fisheries. Predictive models 37. Understanding and qudntlflcatlon of are needed to assess proposed develop increased dissolved chemical yields (esp ments, plan mitigatory actions and/or nutrients) and increased sediment yields identify enhancement opportunities. to receiving waters due to atmospheric pollution and land use practices, e.g. a) intensive agriculture, b) irrigation, c) deforestation, d) inundation, e} permafrost disturbance. The role of dissolved inorganic nutrients in determining algal pro 38. Understanding of the role of suspended ductivity is well established but sediments as nutrient sources and sinks the interaction of Inorganic nutrients dnd as modifers of the light environment. with suspended sediments and dissolved humics is poorly defined. In the L 39. The significance of humtc substances in waters of northern and western Canada controll Ing productivity of northern these constituents are abundant. Pre waters. dictive productivity models will require definition of their role. In addition, sediments and humlcs alter the light environment. Table 3.2. Continued. In forma tl on Required Priority forecasting the effect of altered 40. Importance of wetlands (especially bogs) as climates or atmospheric pollution nutrient sources and sinks and spawning and requires knowledge of the natural rearing habitats. interactions of the atmosphere, hydro sphere, biosphere and geosphere. Our f 41. Understanding of climatic, geologic and greatest area of ignorance lies in morphometric controls on aquatic pro the roles of northern wetlands in geo L ductivity. chemical eye ling, determl nl ng surface water quality and providing essential f habitat for early life stages for fish. The tremendous geographical expanse of Canada and its abundance of aquatic 42. Appl icab 11 Hy of remote sensing techniques habitats requires that we investigate to environmental and fisheries assessment remote sensing techniques to extend and L in freshwaters and estuaries. apply our knowledge and manage our diffuse resource, i.e. fish and their habi.tat. w .p. Table 3.2. Continued. Information Required Priority 6. llydrologlcal and physical alterations: 43. An understanding of seasonal water and To demonstrate and predict the migration sediment flow through large and sma 11 routes of fish which depend on seasonal N watersheds into estuaries. flow patterns, and to quantify and predict the effects of suspended and f 44. An understand l ng of stream, rl ver, and depos tted sed lment, on the spawn Ing, delta channel bed stability, sediment growth rate, and feeding behavior of L distribution and migration. fish and fish-food organisms. Alter ations of water discharge and sediment f 45. An understanding of the aquatic effects transport are among the most conMnon of soll-waier interactions, shore and disturbances to aquatic ecosystems. beach erosion, pennafrost terrain dis Consideration of whole watershed turbance, deforestation, road and (Mackenzie, Nelson-Churchill, St. pipeline construction. Lawrence Rivers) dynamics Is necessary for long-range planning for the fisheries f 46. Models of sediment sources, sedimentation resource and the aquatic habitat, and rates, sediment mixing, and sediment for restoration activities. erosion in lakes and estuaries. N The quantity, timing, and salt/nutrient 47. An understanding of the effect of content of the warm flowing water season permafrost on water and salt budgets in the north is short. Permafrost of watersheds and estuaries. accretion or recession can contribute w losses or gains to the water and salt 48. An understanding of the effects of long Changes in climate affect the quantity, term climatic change on hydrological timing, duration, and temperature of budgets, the effect of hydrological water flow In the north. Fish and fish L alterations on local climates, and the food organisms are sens Hive to these effects of altered heat budgets on waters. parameters during spawning, feeding, growth, reproduction, and behavior. Subarctic and Arctic estuarine bio 49. Applications of models of estuarine water logical production ts controlled by and salt balances, mixing energies, sedi freshwater and saltwater mixing, heat ment dynamics, light and heat budgets and budgets, and the sediment regime. bathymetry to C.rnadlan Arctic. Estuarine fishery potential is usually greater than freshwater or off-shore oceanic fisheries. fish production will likely have low priority against future pressing 50. Predictive models of the eftects of large demands. For drinking water, irri scale water diversions, water table gation, and energy production water depression, aquifer depletion, and uses. We will need to estimate fishery ground water flow to lakes, rivers, benefits foregone by water d Ivers ions, I and estuaries, set in the context of and we should have positive attitudes a continental water budget. toward fisheries uttltzattcin of man created aquatic habitats (canals, reservoirs). Table 3.2. Continued. Information Required Priority 7. Large-scale problems of global dimension: 51. A long-term national and global perspective on the scientific, economic and potential food and energy value of Canadian aquatic resources, including fisheries. The perspective should conta1n the effects The future of Canadian progress in of the following parameters: economic and environmental/fisheries overexploitation, global, regional and sanHy probably depends more upon the local pollution, climate change, hydro decisions and activities of other logical alterations, population growth nations than on internal Canadian and increased urbanization, intensified des ires. It wl 11 be economically and agriculture and irrigation water use. politically advantageous to be recog de fores ta ti on. and energy source and nized as a conscientious member of use trends. the g l oba 1 convnun lty 52. Review the policies, research activities We need to be aware of global patterns and management strategies of other and trends in order to anticipate, circumpolar nations with respect to prepare for changing demands on water w Arctic freshwater and marine resources. and fisheries resources. O'\ Participate in international efforts to protect and intelligently utilize To avoid war, starvation, malnutrition, Arctic resources. Prepare methods of environmental mutilation, disruption of maximizing use and benefit of Arctic global biogeochemical cycles that are resources for northern residents and necessary for biospheric health. Canadian industry. These involvements and activities will 53. We need to know the long-term options allow participation In creation of of water, food, energy supply and use lJ l oba l management s tra tegi es and for nations of the world that utilize regulations , and may be of benefit to Canadian exports, that influence global Canadian aquatic resource protection pollution patterns, and that are market and u t il i zat i on . partners or aid recipients. 54. We need to have economic, social hydrological, chemical. and biological budgets/mass balances/models for the major watersheds of Canada, and models of the estuaries and coastal marine regions influenced by these major watersheds. Table 3.2. Continued. Information Required Priority 55. We need to know the opportunities, mechanisms, and rewards of increasing the quant lty and quality of i nterna t Iona l scientific aid programs, and specific targets of attack that are important globally and that influence Canadian affairs. 56. The seasonal and annual input of global pollutants, and their patterns of dis persal in Canadian waters, should be collected and collated with global data banks and monitoring networks. w '-.J 38 4.0 APPENDIX DISCUSSION PAPERS: IDENTIFICATION AND EVALUATION OF THREATS TO FRESHWATER AND ARCTIC HABITATS. Page 4.1.0 Fossil Fuels I. The Environmental Hazards of Fossil 39 Fuel Production and Use. Combustion Gases co 2, NOx, SOX 4.1.1 Fossil Fuels II: Atmospheric Emissions of Trace Elements During Combustion of Fossil Fuels and Wood. Some Possible Aquatic Consequences 44 4.2 Base-Metal Mining and Smelting 57 4.3 Industrial Organic Pollutants, Pesticides and Fossil Hydrocarbons 75. 4.4 Fisheries Habitat Aspects of Uranium Mining, Nuclear Power and Radiochemical Ecology 91 4.5 The Impact of Nuclear War on Canada's Freshwater Fishery 102 4.6 Reservoirs, Water Diversions and Other Hydrological Alterations 114 4.7 Problems of Global Scale 125 ~XTNAME: campbell (R)P: 73 39 4.1.0. FOSSIL FUELS I. The Environmental Hazards of Fossil Fugl Production and Use. Combustion Gases co 2, NOx, sax. R. H. Hessl ein There are three basic categories of fossil fuels: coal, oil ,and gas. At the present time most of these fuels are used in their naturally occurring state (solid, liquid, or gas). This condition will change s011ewhat in the future with the installment of new industrial processes such as coal liquification and gasification, oil shale arx1 tar sands mining, arx1 coal slurry production for pipeline transportation. The state of the fuel affects to a considerable extent the kind of environmental hazard that is posed. The four stages of fossil fuel production and use, mining and drilling, refining, transportation and storage, arx1 combustion, each give rise to different environmental hazards. The major portion of environmental risks associated with mining and drilling, transportation arx1 storage is a result of physical disturbance of land, fuel spillage and fire. These problems will not be covered in this summary. Mining of coal, tar sands, and oil shales produces a certain amount of mine waste water. Present values for coal mining are 60-120 1 iters/tonne for underground mines and 17 liters/tonne for surface mines. This water contains sulfur compounds, hydrocarbons arx1 fine particulate material. It can usually be well treated at the mine site. However, poor control of disposal of acid mine water has resulted in serious damage to 104 kITT:: of streams in Appal aci a (eastern U.S.). Offshore oil wells produce brine which is normally disposed of underground. If this brine is disposed of in the marine surface water, it could create a local disturbance esp~cially in low salinity coastal waters. ~XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 13 40 Oil and gas wells both produce variable amounts of H2S. This is either vented or burned off at the site and poses only a local threat similar to acid problems from smelters, but of smaller scale. Mining of coal and tarsands .... produce major physical disturbances to the local environnent. These disturbances result in watercourse alteration as well as increased leaching of materials from the newly exposed ground. Increases in sediment load, major ._.. ions, hydrocarbons and heavy metals are likely to occur in runoff and downstream. Fossil fuel refining produces liquid solid, and gaseous wastes. Liquids are primarily washing and cooling water which have elevated concentrations of i- chloride, arrrnonia, and phosphate. These waters are generally recycled after treatment. Solid wastes are materials such as coal fires and elenental sulfur. Much of this material is now being reclaimed for industrial use. I.... Gaseous wastes result fran burning off waste gases such as H2S and fran the large amount of fuel combusted to supply energy for the refinery. These ..... wastes are the same as in final fuel use and are covered in the fol lowing section. ~ The major environmental threat posed by the use of fossil fuels canes L "-' i.... ..... ...... ..... .._. ::XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 14 41 from the oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur in the combustion exhaust gas. Carbon dioxide results fr011 combustion of the fuel itself ard cannot be controlled. Scrubbing would be virtually impossible because of the volumes generated. Sulfur dioxide canes fran sulfur impurities ~n the fuels which varies in concentration from near zero concentrations in natural gas to >5% in some coals and oils. Sane sulfur is removed in washing and refinanent. Most sulfur is removed from gases in llquifi cation. Sul fur can al so be removed from flue gases, but the present technology is expensive. Nitrogen oxides result from oxidation of N2 in the air used in combustion, not from the fuel itself. The amount of nitrogen oxides produced are control 1 ed by combustion conditions, especially temperature. For instance, leaner, hotter burning auto engines developed to increase efficiency and decrease hydrocarbon anissions produce larger amounts of nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen and sulfur oxides produce strong acids when dissolved in water. Both of these acids contribute to the acid rain phenomena which has resulted in the reduction of pH in precipitation to levels as low as 3.5 in industrial areas of the world. The effect of this precipitation on freshwater systems is to reduce the natural buffering capacity ard eventual 1y reduce the pH in the lakes. Canada is particularly sensitive to acid rain because a major portion of lakes lie on the poorly buffered Canadian Shield. Productivity of these lakes is generally low and fish stocks do not recover quickly fr011 major damage. Bait fish are particularly sensitive as they are cropped from small lakes which are the most sensitive to acidification. Because of the 1 arge seasonal climatic variations these areas are exposed to pulses of runoff and lake circulation which can exacerbate the effects of acidification. The loss of freshwater fisheries in poorly buffered areas is -EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 15 42 well documented. This trend will undoubtedly continue for some time as there are no effective means for protecting the large number of lakes threatened. Sulfur removal from fuels or stack effluents is probably the only solution. Nitrogen removal, while more difficult, may not be as critical since nitrogen oxides are in demand by algae and bacteria in many lakes and may be naturally removed. Future shifts in fuels may help or hinder the acid rain situation. Natural gas gives a sulfur to nitrogen production of only 1/1000 while oil or coal, with 1% sulfur, gives a ratio of 3/2. Another characteristic of nitrogen oxides is their participation in atmospheric photo oxidation reactions. The increase in NOx in association with atmospheric hydrocarbons produces such chemicals as ozone, peroxyacyl nitrate, peroxybenzoyl nitrate. No effect of these has been determined for aquatic systems. Carbon dioxide is abundant in the earth's atmosphere ard oceans. Atmospheric concentrations prior to fossil fuel burning were about 280ppm while present value is near 350ppm. About 50% of the C02 produced by burning fossil fuels is in the atmosphere and 50% is in the ocean. While C02 is toxic only at high levels (>1%) and produces only a weak acid in water, it poses the greatest potential environmental hazard, that of world climate change. The "greenhouse" effect or warming of the earth's atmosphere has been proposed as an effect of greater atmospheric C02 resulting from the ability of C02 to absorb infrared 1 ight. Fisheries management would probably be of minor concern were the earth to suffer major climate changes, however, one can speculate as to changes in freshwater and coastal fisheries. TEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 16 43 A major change in the climate of the earth would result in changes in precipitation and evaporation. This could have a major impact on Canadian freshwater systems; however, no regional predictive Jbility for climate change presently exists. A general warming of the climate might have the greatest effect in northern areas. Present models suggest that permafrost might be pushed farther north several hundred ki l aneters. The length of ice- free season could increase. These changes could slowly alter water quality, productivity and the type of fisheries supported by existing freshwater systems. The major change in coastal and estuarine systems in the arctic might result from partial melting of the polar ice caps. This would cause flooding of coastal areas, recently (since the last glaciation) exposed by glacial rebound. River delta shapes and flow patterns could change as well as offshore current patterns. Increased shipping seasons and other expansion of northern activities due to warmer climate could bring with them a higher intensity of many environmental hazards. References: El-Hinnawi, Essam, 1979. The Environmental Impacts of Production and Use of Energy, Part I. Fossil Fuels UNEP Energy Report Series 97p. The Assesment of the role of C02 on Climate Variations and their impact, Report of joint WMO/ICSU/UNEP meeting of experts. Geneva. 1981. 29 p. 44 4.1. 1. FOSSIL FUELS II. Atmospheric Emissions of Trace Elements During Combustion of Fossil Fuels and Wood. Some possible aquatic consequences. J. W. M. Rudd INTRODUCTION The threat to terrestrial and aquatic environments from precipitation of SOx and NOx from fossil fuel combustion has been well recognized by the scientific comnunity and has also been recognized (in terms of funding) by governmental agencies. In conjunction with the increase in precipitation acidity, increased fossil fuel combustion has also led to increases in the long range transport and deposition of trace metals. The long tenn threat of this metal deposition may be as serious to aquatic environments as acid precipitation. In fact, the synergistic effects on aquatic ecosystems of simultaneous acid-metal deposition may be the greatest present and fore seeable threat to aquatic ecosystems. I. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION ,a) Types and sources of atmospheric metal pollution The most corrrnon trace metal atmospheric contaminants are Hg, Pb, Zn, and Cd. Other important elements include V, Ni, As, Cu and Se. Major atmospheric sources of these trace metals and selenium include coal, nat ural gas, crude oil and wood combustion, as well as metal smelting, and cement manufacturing. This discussion is primarily concerned with emission of trace metals from combustion or fossil fuels and wood. The latter two sources are discussed in a following paper. Although information is incomplete and at times contradictory, it ap pears that emissions of trace metals from combustion of fossil fuels and wood contributes significantly to global anthropogenic emissions of Hg, Pb, Zn,Ni, Cu and Se. For example, oil combustion is the major source of atmospheric Pb :XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 20 45 and Ni contamination, coal combustion is the major source of anthropogenic Hg, and domestic wood combustion is the major source of Zn and Cu. Cd is emitted in largest quantity during metal smelting. Selenium, a nonmetal, is also emitted in large quantity (3x Hg) during the combustion of fossil fuels. While available estimates of emission rates may be useful, they are very crude. For instance, estimates of anthropogenic emissions for one of the best understood metals,mercury, vary by a factor of ten. Further, est~mates of Hg emission fran coal combustion, the major anthropogenic source, have a range in excess of three orders of magnitude (0.017-63.2 x 108 g/yr). In addition, natural biogenic Hg emissions are not well quantified, making the anthropogenic impact even more difficult to determine. Obviously, a much better understanding of loading rates is necessary before the impact of metal deposition on aquatic habitat can be accurately assessed. Estimated natural and anthropogenic loading rates for 5 metals are given in Table 1. b) Duration and future trends Anthropogenic emissions of trace metals must have begun with the domestic and industrial combustion of wood, which was the major fuel source until about 1880. By the 17th and 18th century, coal combustion had resulted in serious local acid precipitation problems in England 11ihich extended across the English Channel. In 1872, R. A. Smith first recognized the possibility that metals could be transported with acid rain. Major international concerns about acid precipitation as a wide spread problem originated in Sweden during the early 1970s and later in the 70s in the United States. To date, there has been no comparable general re<:;ognition of the possible trace metal problems in North Arneri ca. By 1950, oil ard natural gas replaced coal as the primary energy source. They presently constitute 73% of pr~mary energy consumption. A .... _ _i .....':.A-_._,._ -- ·~ -· ·~---~·- ... ·- ,. ______'-···-·· ~·· ··-··------· __ _. .. __ ·- - - TAD LE 1 • Worldwide Anthropogenic and Natural Emlsslona of Trace Meta la Duling 197 5 Global rroduction Trace Metal Emissions (X to9 g/year) or Consumption · (X I 0 11 g/year) Cd Cu Pb Ni Zn - Anthropogenic emlsslona Mining, nonferroua metals 16 0.002 0.8 8.2 1.6 Primary nonferroua metal production Cd 0.0017 0.11 +:> Cu 7.9 1.6 19.7 27 1.5 6.6 0) Pb 4.0 0.20 0.29 31 0.34 0.44 Ni 0.8 2.5 7.2 0.68 Zn 5.6 2.8 0.78 16 0.36 99 Secondary nonferroua metal production 4.0 0.60 0.33 0.17 0.2 9.5 hon and atecl production 1300 0,07 5.9 so 1.2 JS Industrial applicationa - o.os 4.9 7.4 1.9 26 Coal combustion 3100 0.06 4.1 14. 0.66 15 Oil (including gasoline) combustion 2800 0.003 0.74 273 27 0,07 Wood combustion 640 0.2 12 4.5 3.0 15 Waste incinciation ISOO 1.4 5.3 8.9 3.4 37 Manufacture, phosphate fertitizeu 118 0.21 0.6 0.05 0.6 1.8 Miscellaneous - - - 5.9 6.7 Total anthropogenic 7.3 56 449 47 314 Natural emission11° 0.83 18.S 24.S 26 43.5 "Include• eatlmdca for wind blown dual, forest flrca, vulcanlam, vegetation, and aea apray. SOURCE~ Ndagu, J. 0. (1979). Global inventory of natural and anthropogenic emissions of trace metals to the atmosphere. Nature 279: 409-411. EXTNAME: p .campbell (R )P: 21 47 revers a 1 of this trend is prob ab 1e in the future as reserves of oi 1 and gas are depleted. Overall energy consumption has increased by 5%/yr since 1900 and is expected to continue to increase in the future. An increase of 450% from 1965 to 2000 has been forecast ed. About 90% of present consumption takes place in the northern hemisphere and the environmental effects are primarily confined there. In the foreseeable future long range transport and deposition of metals from fossil fuel combustion can only accelerate. In addition to future increases in coal combustion, increases in wood combustion must also be considered when estimating future emissions of trace metals. Wood combustion is already the primary anthropogenic atmospheric source of Zn and Cu. Other trace metals emitted in significant quantity are Cd, Pb and Ni. Trace metals emitted during wood combustion are primarily attached to large particulates and therefore are not transported atmospherically for lo~ distances (probably not more than tens of kilometers). These metals may subsequently be transported further via erosion or leaching from soils. Because wood is a renewable resource its combustion wi 11 increase in the future. Direct domestic consumption of wood for domestic space heating purposes has already increased. In the future, wood may progressively replace oil in scxne industrial applications. Industrially, it will be combusted directly or it may be gasified or converted to alcohol based fuels such as gasohol. Current estimates of the sustainable annual ·wood harvest in Canada are about 96 x 106 ODT (oven dried tonnes), which could theoretically provide 22% of present annual primary energy demand. Sane wood-derived energy products (medium-BTU fuel gas~ aITTTionia, methanol and ethanol) are expected to be cost-competitive in the USA before 2000. ~XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 22 48 Environmental problems from long range transport and deposition of metals may just be becoming apparent now. Sane examples may be increases in Hg concentrations of fish in lakes undergoing acidification, accumulation of near toxic concentrations of Cd and Zn in Lake Michigan, and human body burdens of Pb which are approaching chronically toxic levels in Americans and possibly other industrialized societies. In addition to these more obvious examples, long-term mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic effects may be occurring but are as yet undetected because of 1 ack of 1ong-tenn data bases and/or deficiencies in methodologies of detection. Certain atmospheric metal pollution problems will improve in the future. The severity of some local metal pollution problems may be reduced by controls of fly ash. For example, several metals (Sn, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn, Co) have decreased in concentration in Lake Michigan sediments since 1960 as a result of fly ash control. However, this may simply be a switch in mode of transportation of the metals to the aquatic environment if leaching of metals from fly ash disposal sites is not control 1ed. c) Atmospheric dispersion and deposition The residence time of a metal in the atmosphere and hence its distance of dispersal is dependent upon a number of factors, including particle size, reactivity, solubility, hydroscopicity, surface characteristics of the receptor, mode of emission, atmospheric transfonnations, and atmospheric conditions. While there is a good qualitat~'ve understanding of these processes, they are poorly understood quantitatively. Thus it is very difficult to predict d,istances of dispersion accurately. For example, estimates of atmospheric residence times of Hg vary from 32 days to 5 yrs. In general, metals that are not very soluble and are of very small particle size (e.g. Pb, V) or are gaseous (e.g. Hg) have the longest atmospheric residence TEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 23 49 times. Pb and Zn are known to be atmospherically transported and deposited ~n Greenland glaciers and are believed to have global circulations. Hg is also known to circulate globally and Cu and Cd have suspected global circulation. Unlike SOX and NOx deposition, which usually occurs over a regional to continental scale, trace metal deposition is usually concentrated closer to sources. Exceptions may be Hg and Pb for the reasons mentioned above. Ex amples of trace metal dispersion are the measured toxic concentrations of Hg, Cd, Cu, Zn, and Pb in urban rainfa11 (Fig.I). All of these metals with the exception of Cu have been found in toxic concentrations in rainfall of rural areas near cities. Presently, Hg is the only metal approaching toxic concentrations in the rainfall of some remote areas. However, one study of metals emitted from tall stacks of power plants found that less than 10% of the metal emissions could be accounted for within 50 km of the plant. Two other indications of widespread metal pollution are: Lake Michigan paleo- limnological records which show concurrent increases in concentration of 9 of 12 metals and charcoal from fossil fuel combustion during the past cen tury and increases in surface sediment metal concentrations in Maine, Ontario and Adirondak lakes as well as in the Baltic Sea. Examples of long range dispersion of Pb and Zn are given in Fig.2. The specific examples of atmospheric metal poll ut~on mentioned above are not sufficient to give us a reasonable understanding of the range and rate of atmospheric metal deposition. At the present time, there are no widespread long term surveys of rates of metal deposition. In Canada, Ontario is the leader. OME has recently set up a. province wide network which will monitor deposition rates of 10 heavy metals (but not Hg!). 50 Cd o.a -1 0.6 JJ.9 J.. 0.4 0.21------=r~---- Cu 40 -1 30 ft9 J. 20 ------10 I -1(6) rt 0.8 g J.-1 0.6 ~g 0.4 0.2 r------SI----- Pb 40 -1 30 j-{9 J. 20 10 1------=r(lol Zn 40 1 - 30 JJ.9 .l. 20 10 -i------=r;7~----- REMOTE RURAL URBAN FIGURE 1 . Median con=tr.i.tion.s of meta.ls in pt'CQpitation in remote, rural. and urban ueas reiatiYe to organ.ism toxicity levei.s. Each mcdia.n in the figure i3 ba,,ed on the number of data values designated in parenth~ D.uhed lines denote thn:shold of organ ism toxicity reported by Gough et aL (1979). SOURCE: Galloway et aL (1981). SOURCE: Galloway, J. N., R. L. Volchok, D. Thornton, S. A. Norton, and K. A. N. McLean (1981). Toxic substances in atmospheric deposition: A review and assessment, p. 19-82. In The Potential Atmospheric Impact of Chemicals Released"'"to the Environment edited by J. M. Miller. EPA 560/5-80-001, Washington, D.C. 51 so FIGURE 2. Average lead deposition by precipitation over the continental United St.ates., September 1966 to March 1967 (in grams per hectare per month). SOURCE: Galloway et al (1981); data from Lazrus et al (1970). FIGURE 2. Average zinc deposition by precipitation over the continenul United St.ates., September 1966 to M.arch 1967 (in grams per hectar: per month). SOURCE: Galloway et al (1981); data from Lazrus et al (1970). SOURCE: Galloway, J. N., H. L. Volchok, D. T. Thornton, S. A. Norton, and K. A. N. McLean (1981). Toxic substances in atmospheric deposition: A review and assessment, p. 19-82. In The Potential Atmospheric Impact of Chemicals Released to the Environment edited by J. M. Miller. EPA 560/ 5-80-001, Washington, D.C. "EXTNAME: p.campbe11 (R)P: 24 52 d) Metals in the hydrosphere Pollutants from fossil fuel and wood combustion enter the hydrosphere either directly or via runoff or erosion from the drainage basin. Acidic precipitation decreases the efficiency of retention of metals by the watershed since most metals are more soluble at reduced pH. In addition, metals naturally present in the soils (e.g. Zn, Cd, Al) may be sol ubili zed at reduced pH and be transported to the hydrosphere. Under these circumstances, the metals impact of acid precipitation on a water body is probably a function of the ratio of size of drainage basin to lake size. Thus, small lakes with large drainage basins are probably most susceptible. In water bodies, metals are concentrated in the organically rich surface film, ard in sediments which are rich in both organic materials ard clay minerals. Concentrations in water are usually 104 and 106 times below sediment and surface film concentrations but this ratio will probably decrease as pH is reduced. Three types of ~etals are of concern in aquatic habitats: 1) metals that are biochemically or physiologically toxic to biota, e.g. Cd; 2) rretals that are analogs of calcium -- Pb, Sr and Ra -- which have long body retention times because they are bone seekers, and 3) several pollutants which are microbially methylated (Hg, As, Sn, Pb, Ge, Te and Se). In most cases, with the exception of selenium, methylation increases retention times since· the methylated metals are lipid soluble. In addition methylated metals are usually much more toxic than the inorganic metals. Although radionucl ides emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are estimated to exceed the radionuclide output from operating nuclear generating plants, present emission rates are not considered to be an envirorrnental concern. :XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 25 53 The synergistic effects of elevated H+ and metal concentrations in precipitation are of primary concern. Reduced pH aggravates a metal pollution problem at least 2 ways: 1) changes in speciation at reduced pH have been found to increase the toxicity of Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni and Al, 2) metal mobility is increased. Certain metals (e.g. Cd, Al, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni and Hg) are rrore soluble at reduced pH. This reduces the efficiency of sediment binding and enhances the resol!lbilization of adsorbed metals resulting in a greater availability for movement and concentration throughout the food web. Because microbial methylation rates are often a function of free metal concentration, methyl at ion rates may be increased. Enhanced methyl at ion al so increases mobility because methylated metals are bound less strongly than ~norganic metals and because methylated metals are usually bioaccumulated much more efficiently. Synergistic interactions among metals are al so of concern. For example, Cd-Zn, Cd-Pb and Cu-Ni combinations have behaved synergistically in laboratory toxicity tests. Thus, lower metal concentrations than predicted by bioassays of individual metals may be toxic in aquatic systems receiving a variety of atmospherically transported metals. Three poorly understood processes may reduce the toxicity of metals in the aquatic environment. 1) Lower life forms (bacteria, algae and possibly zooplankton) which have short generation times (hours-weeks) may be able to genetically adapt to reduced pH. Or, in the case of bacteria and algae the present versatility of the gene pool may be sufficient to adapt to pH changes down to approximately pH 4. At the present time, very 1 ittle ~s known about the potential for adaptation. 2) Induction of enzymes which synthesize the metal binding protein metallothionein have been shown to occur in most phyla of plants and animals. Fish, in particular, may develop resistance to a ~EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 26 54 number of metals after sublethal exposure to Hg, Cd, Cu, Zn, Ag, and Sn. 3) Interactions of certain metals with other elements may reduce the severity of some metal pollution problems. For example, Ca may reduce the bioaccumulation of Hg by fish which may be of sane benefit in limed lakes. Also, Se which is emitted in larger quantity than Hg during fossil fuel combustion may be presently partially ameliorating the effects of long range transport of Hg and other metals. Se is known to both reduce the rate of Hg bioaccumulation and detoxify Hg present in tissues. Environmental Se-Hg effects will probably vary from Se toxicity, near stationary atmospheric sources, to antagonistic effects at intermediate distances and to no effect at longer range because the residence time of Se in the atmosphere is shorter than Hg. II. NEED FOR CONCERN There are several specific examples of possible present or future environmental problems resulting fran the 1ong range transport and deposit ion of trace metals. The increase of fish mercury concentrations during the early stages of lake acidification is most often cited. However, it has st il 1 not been proven whether this results from increased atmospheric Hg loading, increased Hg methyl ation rates at reduced pH, or simply slower fish growtr1 rates in response to lowered pH. Also, Lake Michigan Cd and Zn concentrations are evidently increasing but are not expected to reach toxic concentrations for 30-80 yrs. Human body burdens of Pb are dangerously high but will probably begin to decline as a result of the phasing out of leaded gasoline. While there are undoubtedly local problems from atmospheric transport of fossil fuel pollutants (e.g. fish kills near the Duke Power Company as a result of high Se deposition), long range metal deposition problems have yet to be demonstrate-i as convincingly as SOx and NOx pollution problems. Nevertheless, this lack of conclusive evidence should not be extended to a .EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 26. 1 55 lack of concern for the present or future situations. It is very likely that important changes, possibly too subtle for available methodologies or data bases, are occurring undetected. The frequency of future prob 1ems wi 11 probably increase as atmospheric metal deposition continues to accelerate. The present concern should stem from our lack of knowledge and understanding of the current situation which makes it difficult to demonstrate present problems or accurately forecast future trends. :EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 27 56 REFERENCES Information contained in this paper is condensed mainly fran the fol lowing reports: 1) Acidification in the Canadian Aquatic Envirorrnent. H. H. Harvey (chairman) NRCC No. 18475, 1981. 2) Atmosphere - Biosphere interactions: toward a better understanding of the ecological consequences of fossil fuel combustion. Report of the corrunittee on the atmosphere and the biosphere. O.W. Schindler (chairman). National Academy Press. 1981. 3) The effects of environmental acid on freshwater fish with :Jarticular reference to the softwater lakes in Ontario and the modifying effects of heavy metals. A 1 iterature review. D. J. Spry, C. M. Wood, and P. V. Hodson. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 999. 1981. 4) Canada/U .s. Memorandum of Intent on Transboundary Air Pollution Interim Reports, 1981. 5) The environmental impacts of production and use of energy. Part I. Fossil Fuels. E. El-Hinnawi, UNEP report. 6) Energy from Biomass study. DOE first draft report. 1980. ::XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 30 57 4.2 Base-Metal Mining and Smelting M. A. Giles J. F. Klaverkamp The Problem: Base metal mining and smelting activities release substantial quantities of contaminants to the aquatic environment via two major routes; emissions into the atmosphere and additions to water directly from water using activities. Since mining and smelting operations are quite distinct and may be separated geographically by considerable distances, the processes resulting in aquatic contamination fran these two activities will be presented separately. The final product(s) from a particular mine will depend upon the composition of the ore at the site, which is rarely an individual metal, and which may consist of both base metals (copper, zinc, iron, nickel, lead) and precious metals (gold and silver). No attempt will be made to discuss the sources of contamination arising from the mining of specific metals or from specific sites since most aspects of the probl911 are similar for all. A. Mining Activities: For purposes of discussion, mining activities will include removal of ore, the crushing and milling of ore to particles less than 200 mesh, the processes of mineral concentration by selective flotation or leaching arx:I the production of a dry concentrate which is transported to the smelter. The inclusion of these elements can be justified on the basis of their concentration in one locality such that their effluents will enter a single stream, 1ake or set of adjacent water courses. An excel 1ent surrrnary of the sources of water borne contaminants arising from base metal mining activities with emphasis upon mines in eastern Canada has been prepared by Clarke ( 197 4) • Three main categories of effluents occur in active mining- concentrating operation: mine water, surface water and process water. ~XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 31 58 Mine water effluents arise from ground or surface water seepage into mine shafts or open pits or from water usage associated with drilling or hydraulic backfilling. In most areas this effluent is acidic (pH 1-5) as a result of the oxidation of sulfides of iron (ard to a lesser extent other metal sulfides) to sulfuric acid which increases the dissolut~on of heavy metals, often to concentrations of 1 to 100 mg/L. This effluent al so exhibits elevated concentrations of sulfate (80 - 2800 mg/L), calcium (80 - 1400 mg/l) and dissolved solids (3800 - 6200 mg/l) (data from Clarke, 1974). Arsenic may also be elevated, eso~cially in precious metal mines. Production rates of mine water vary with topography, substrate ard climate but values of 250 and 580 imperial gallons/minute are given for the two New Brunswick mines by Clarke (1974). Surface water arising from rain, snow melt or surface drainage may be contaminated by dust fran the mine site and local road beds or by leaching of the disposed tailings waste from ore milling and concentrating processes. Contaminated surface water is similar to mine water in chemical composition but may contain much higher concentrations of heavy metals. Clarke (1974) presents an example of surface water containing 31 mg/L of copper and 389 mg/l of zinc at pH 3.0. The increased rates of solubilization of metals from the finely grourd tailings by acidified surface water may be responsible for these extremely high levels of heavy metals. Entry of contaminants into the aquatic ecosystem fran mine water and surface water may continue long after the mine has been abandoned. The concentrations of toxicants from abandoned mine sites generally exceed those fran active sites (Hawley, 1973; Clarke, 1974). The total mass of toxicants entering the aquatic environment from abandoned mines, however, may be less than fran active mines since mining activities requiring water would have ceased. ::XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 32 59 Process water is derived from milling and mineral concentrating operations. Milling produces an aqueous slurry of very fine (<200 mesh) ore particles which is transported to the concentrator. In the most common concentrating procedures the desired minerals are separated fran the waste rock (gangue) by differential flotation. This procedure requires an alkal4ne pH (achieved by the addition of lime, soda ash or caustic soda) arxi the differential flotation is promoted by the addition of a variety of inorganic arxi organic chemicals. Clarke (1974) provides a list of fifteen chemical agents, together with relevant toxicity data, used or proposed for use in several New Brunswick base metal concentrators. The effluent fran the concentrator, containing the various flotation agents, substantial quantities of sulfate (20 to 3300 mg/L), thiosul fate (400 to 900 mg/L) arxi calcium (10 to 900 mg/L) and elevated concentrations of several heavy metals may be released directly to the environment, delivered to retention ponds or recycled through the milling-concentrating process. Process water requirements for New Brunswick mines range between approximately 600 to 1200 gallons per ton of ore processed (Clarke 1974). An alternative method of rernovi ng metals from finely grourxi ore is leaching with chemicals which selectively dissolve the desired mineral which is subsequently removed frcm solution by electrolysis, precipitation or ion exchange. Various agents such as cyanide for gold and silver, arrmonia at high temperature and pressure for nickel arxi acid for zinc and cadmium may t.e used for leaching. The effluents from these operations may contain, therefore, a variety of chemical constituents and be alkaline, neutral or acidic. At the present time, mine, surface and process water may be recycled, treated and recycled or simply discharged into nearby streams, ditches or -EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 33 60 lakes. Hawley (1973) reviews the development of water treatment and rocycling for base metal mining in Ontario and the discussion is generally applicable to all of Canada. In the most advanced situations effluents are combined, made alkaline by the addition of 1 ime and delivered along with the tailings into retention ponds. Seepage through the retention pond walls is collected and returned to the ponds. Liming of the effluents results in the preci pi tat ion of significant quantities of heavy metals as hydroxides. Retention of effluents allows sedimentation of particulates and provides an opportunity for sulfite and thiosulfate to be oxidizied to sulfate thus reducing the acidity of discharged effluent. The oxidation process may require a year or more for completion in southern Canada and is most effective at an acidic pH (Bolger, 1981). A portion of the overflow fran the retention ponds can be recycled to the mine. This final effluent may still contain relatively high levels of sulfate, calcium, magnesium, heavy metals and dissolved organics. Atmospheric emissions, mainly as particulates arise from mining activities as a result of blasting, transportation and crushing of ore, construction of road beds from waste rock, and concentration, drying, storage and transport of minerals. Gagan (1976) estimated that 42,000 tons of particulates entered the atmosphere during the processing of 8,750,000 tons of ore by fourteen mines in the Yukon and Northwest Territories during 1972.. It is not known what fraction of the toxicants contained in these emissions eventually enter the aquatic environment. B. Smelting Activities: In base-metal smelter atmospheric emissions, sane toxic heavy metals are bound to particulates and are deposited on aquatic and terrestrial systems relatively short di stances fran the emission source. Others exist in vapor form and are transported over long range distances similar to sulfur and EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 34 61 nitrogen oxides (N.A.S., 1980). The ease of metal volat ization is a good indicator of the di stance of. atmospheric transport of these materials (Bertine and Goldberg, 197.1). In other words, volatilization of metal species readi ly introduces them into the atmosphere as a gas, similar to sulfur ard nitrogen oxides. For the elemental state, the order of volatility is as follows: Hg>As>Cd>Zn>Sb> Mn>Ag>Sn, Cu • . For the oxides, sulfates, carbonates, silicates, and phosphates, the order of volatility is: As, Hg>Cd>Pb>Ag, Zn>Cu>Sn. For the sulfides, the principal chemical state used in base-metal smelters, the order is: As, Hg>Sn, Cd>Sb, Pb>Zn>Cu>Fe, Co, Ni, Mn, Ag. The preferential long-range transport of Hg, Cd, As, Pb, Pb, Zn and Cu suggested by this volatility order is supported by a recent analysis of global ~ metal transport by Lantzy and Mackenzie (1979). These investigators compared global data on the rates of transfer of 20 metals through the atmosphere with stream fluxes to assess the relative importance of natural ard anthropogenic sources. Two categories of metals were found to exist accordi ng to ease of release to the atmosphere ard availability for mobilization in the environment. Lithophilic elements were those undergoing greater mass transport to oceans by streams than by the atmosphere. These metals include: A1, Mn, Co, Cr, V and Ni. Atmophilic elements, on the other hand, are transported through the atmosphere in much larger quantities rel ative to transport by streams. These elements include Hg, Se, Cd, Zn, Cu, As, Pb, Sb and Mo. Metal volatility 1vas most influenced by temperature ard by biological methylation in the case of Hg, Se, As, Pb and Sn. To establish the importance of man's activities on atmophil ic metals, Lantzy and Mackenzie (1979) derived interference factors as a ratio of anthropogenic to natural fluxes. While natural weathering, l ow temperature volatilization from vegetation burning and sea-aerosol generation prov i ded "EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 36 62 significant sources of atmospheric release, the flux of many atmophilic metals ..... were orders of magnitude greater due to man's activities than to natural processes. Metals having interference factors greater than 10 were, in decreasing order: Pb, Hg, Ag, Mo, Sb, Se, As, Zn, Cd and Cu. The long-range ..... atmospheric transport of mercury deserves high research priority, based on: elevated mercury concentrations in metal ores undergoing smelting in Canada ..... (Wheatley, 1979), an extremely long atmospheric residence time (N.A.S., 1981), the importance of man 1 s activity on release to the environment, arxi on ...... contamination and toxicity to the fishery. Environmental Concern: .... Although mine effluents are highly toxic to fish and other aquatic fauna - (median lethal concentrations ranging from 6% to 75%), the impact of the effluent or its individual components upon the freshwater ecosystem has been more difficult to quantify. Fish kills in contaminated areas do occur but well documented examples are rare. Mine discharges have caused major .... interruptions in the spawning migrations of Atlantic salmon (Saunders and Sprague, 1967) and adverse changes in benthos and macrophytes in some I-. receiving streams have been documented (for example see Bolger, 1981). In ._ general, however, much of the impact of mine effluents is estimated by monitoring the body burdens of specific contaminants in local fish, L... invertebrate and macrophyte populations. A substantial body of laboratory research indicates that major sublethal effects may be expected at individual ..... contaminant concentrations of several orders of magnitude less than those i cornnon in some effluents. Clarke (1974) has presented a "concern index" (CI) Lo derived by adding the logarithm of the ratio of toxicant concentration to L.. lethal concentration, to the relative toxicity (100 - 1000 mg/L = 1, 10 - 100 ...... -~XTNAME: p .campbe 11 (R )P: 35 63 mg/L = 2, etc.) of the to xi cant for 25 toxic components of mine effluent. The priorized list of toxic components given by Clarke is: copper, aluminum (CI= 9); iron, cobalt, xanthates (CI = 8); dithiophosphate, cadmium, ammonia (CI = 7); zinc, nickel, cyanide (CI= 6); arsenic, lead (CI= 5). Atmospheric enissions of sulfur oxides, metals and metalloides from smelting operations may lead to a more widespread contamination of the aquatic environment than mining-concentrating processes; Background documents prepared by the United States-Canada Research Consultation group for use in writing the Memorandum of Intent between the US and Canada provide a concise overview on our state of knowledge associated with acidification in North America. Special enphasis on the sensitivity of Canadian aquatic ecosystems was given in the first document (October, 1979). The secord document (November, 1980) emphasized research required to validate mathematical models of atmospheric deposition ard of other long-range airborne contaminants of concern. The effects of acidification and associated metals on fish has recently been reviewed. (Fromm, 1980; Daye, 1981; Spry et al., 1981), ard an annotated bibliography on the effects of acidification on fish in the laboratory and natural environment has recently been published (Daye, 1980). The impact of acidification on the Canadian aquatic environment has recently been reviewed (1981) by a panel (H. H. Harvey, chairman) of the National Research Council. It is interesting to note, in light of the previous paragraph, that this panel concludes that the geographic extent and severity of the acidification problem in Canada cannot be accurately determined from present information. The point to be emphasized is that there are major gaps in the knowledge of adverse impacts of acidification and associated chemicals, in spite of the wealth of reviews, books, documents published in the past 2 to 3 years. The NRC panel gave 3 "crit~cal questions" 64 TEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 37 that "must be addressed" and el even recommendations for research, monitoring and modelling requirements. These critical questions and research recoITTllendations include the impact assessment of toxic heavy metals, such as mercury, cadmium, arsenic, copper and lead. A recent document by the National Academy of Sciences (1981) provides a concise review of metal atmospheric emissions fran natural and anthropogenic sources, transport processes, effects, and interactions. It states that these issues are major considerations in the long-range atmospheric transport of chemicals and it identifies knowledge gaps in these areas. Toxic heavy metals, such as those listed above, and other metals or metalloids, such as selenium, zinc and iron, are especially serious issues in the base metal smelting industry. Aluminum leaching arx! toxicity enhancement which accompanies acidification has recently been reviewed (N.A.S., 1980; Schofield, 1981). Of further concern is the lack of understanding of the kinetics of movement among various compartments of the aquatic ecosystem arx! rates of removal of heavy metal contaminants from ecosystem cycles. Although movements of metals have been examined and models developed for a few of the ecological compartments in fresh water (Elwood and Eyman 1976, Hutchinson et al. 1976) and in more detail for marine and estuarine environments (Windom and Duce 1976), the dynamics of metal movements are not well defined especially for the unique conditions present in the Arctic regions. The situation is further complicated by the observation that the physical and chemical state of various metals has a major effect upon the rates of bioaccumulation arx! toxicity to "EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 38 65 aquatic organisms (Howarth and Sprague 1978; Giles et al. 1979; Kaiser 1980). The chemical state of elements fran mine effluents will depend upon the characteristics of both the effluent and the dilution or receiving waters. Thus it is often difficult to generalize toxicity results fran laboratory studies or on-site studies to other areas. For these reasons, the impact of metal mining upon aquatic ecosystems is generally assessed by measuring the concentrations of contaminants in the effluent, and sediments and biota in "impacted areas" (for example Fallis, in preparation) ard by acute lethal toxicity estimates of the effuent. This approach fails to assess the longterm sublethal effects of the contaminants upon major biological factors such as behavior, physiology and reproduction and does not provide infonnation on the ability of aquatic populations to develop adaptative or compensatory mechanisms to offset sublethal stress. Future Trends; Base metal mining is expanding rapidly, especially in northern regions. Wright (1980) lists fifteen mines in Northwest Territories, Yukon ard Prairie provinces which are currently in production or under development with ore reserves exceeding 58 x 106 tons. Within the next decade, it is estimated that at least 328 x 106 tons of additional base metal (Cu, Zn, Pb) reserves will be developed in these western ard northern regions - i.e. a greater than five-fold increase. Base-metal smelters are, by far, the largest source of sulfur oxide emissions in Canada. Su!T111ers and Whelpdale (1976) estimated that smelting produces 63% of sulfur oxides emitted in Canada; an Ontario Ministry of Environment report published in October, 1980 on acidic precipitation places the percentage at "over 40% of the Canadian total"; and the Memorandum of Intent on Transbroundary Air Pollution between the United States and Canada IXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 39 66 (February, 1981) states that smelting "accounts for 45 percent of the total sulfur emissions" in Canada. These percentages are 2 to 4 times higher than the next largest emission source given in these references. Table 1 provides current estimates of emissions of nitrogen and sulfur oxides in the US and Canada. Table 2 provides projected estimates of sulfur oxide emissions in Canada. Table 3 provides a list of base-met~ smelters in Canada as of March, 1976. Projected major (>$100 mill ion) capital expenditures for the base metal industry in Canada exceed nine billion dollars over the next two decades (Table 4). Even if the concept of best practical technology is applied to treatment of tailings wastes, mine effluents, and smelter emissions this increase in mining activity will result in the entry to the aquatic environment of considerable amounts of metal and organic toxicants on a relatively short-tenn basis. In the longer tenn, as the mines are abandoned, disregard for stabilization and maintenance of tailings disposal areas and 1 eachi ng of mine wastes wil 1 probably result in the entry of even greater quantities of contaminants. Current data are insufficient to estimate the short and long-term impact of these contaminants upon either freshwater or marine biota in the Arctic regions. Data are also insufficient to estimate the half-life of these contaminants in freshwater and marine ecosystems. Related questions such as the relative value of the aquat~c environment and the mineral resources, the capability of the aquatic ecosystem to adapt and/or recuperate, and the sociological implication of the loss of a fisheries resource or contamination of a food source must al so be addressed if the ful 1 impact of these expansions in the base metal industry is to be assessed. 67 Table 1. Current emissions in the U.S. and Canada (1J6 tons) U.S.A. (1980 estimated) Canada 1979"" Total NOx SOX 1'IOx SOX ,'I Ox SOX Utilities 6.2 19.5 0.3 0.8 8. 1 20.3 Industrial 7 .1 7.3 0.6 l. 1 7.8 8.4 Boilers/ Process Heaters/ Residential/ Commercial Non-Ferrous 0.0 .....' (1 0.0 2.2 0.0 4.2 Smelters Transportation 9.0 .9 1. 1 0.0 11.4 1. 0 0 ,., Other - - 0.2 1. 1 . .:. 1.1 TOTAL 22.3 29.7 2.2 ' 5.3 27.6 35.0 * Ince, Sudbury at 1980 emission rate. Taken from Memorandum of Intent on Trans-Boundary Air Pollution between United States and Canada 68 Table 2. Projected emissions of SOx in Canada (10 6 :ons) Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 SO x TRENDS Utility Boiler 0.8 1.: 1. 2 1.3 1.4 Industrial, Residential 1. 1 l. 1 1. 2 1.2 1. 2 and Corrmercial Fuel Combustion Non-Ferrous Smelters 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 (Cu/Ni) Transportation 0. 1 o. 1 0. 1 0. l 0.1 Other 1. 1 1. 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 TOTAL 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 5.8 Source: Data Analysis Division, Air Pollution Control Directorate, Environment Canada Note: Based on a "status quo" scenario Taken from Memorandum of Intent on Trans-Boundary Air Pollution between United States and Canada 69 Table 3. Base-metal smelters in Canada. l. New Brunswick - N.B. Mining and Smelting, Belledune. 2. Province of Quebec - Gaspe Copper Smelter in Gasoe. - Noranda Copper Smelter in Noranda. - Five Aluminum Smelters: .ll.1 can - Arvi da - I1 e Me 1 i gne - Shawinigan - Beauharnois Reynolds - Baie Corneau 3. Ontario - I.N.C.0., Sudbury (Cu-Ni). - Falconbridge, Sudbury (Cu-Ni). 4. Manitoba - I.N.C.O., Thompson (Cu-Ni). - Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting, Flin Flon (Cu). 5. B.C. - Cami nco, Tra i 1 (Pb) . - Alcan, Kitimat (Al). 70 Table 4. 3ase-metal industry major capital exoenditures in Canada to the year 2000. (Data from the Major Projects Task Force, news release June 23, 1981). Province/Owner Operation Cost Comments ( S mi 11 ions) Atlantic Provinces Sidney Steel ( - ) Fe Smelt 525 unknown ( - ) Al Smelt 500 Quebec Alcan (Grande Sall) Al Sme 1t 500 Reynolds (Baie Comeau) Al Smelt 100 expansion unknown (Saguenay) Al Smelt 400 Ontario Algoma (lk St. Joseph) Fe mine/smelt 1200 3. 6 mi 11 ion tons/yr Falconbridge (Sudbury) Cu, Ni , mine 125 Texas Gulf (Kid Creek) Cu Sme1t Manitoba Alcan (Winnipeg) Al Smelt 500 Alberta, Saskatchewan British Columbia Imax ( Kitsau1t) Molybdenum 160 Esso (Trout lk.) Molybdenum 200 ( Kutcho Ck. ) Cu, Zn 180 3.6 million ton/yr Highmont (Highland Valley) Molybdenum 125 Lornex (Highland Valley) Cu, Molybdenum 160 Expansion Placer/Equity Silver (Prince George) Ag 105 Tech Corp. (Kamloops) Cu, Molybdenum 150 Valley Copper (Highland Va 11 ey) Cu, Ag, Mo 400 Alcan (Kimano) Al Smelter 2000 Yukon, Northwest Territories Cominco (little Cornwallis, Pb, Zn 150 YK) Cyprus Anvil (Faro, YK) Pb, Zn, Ag 240 International Utilities (Contwayto lk., NWT) Au 115 Hudson Say Oil & Gas (4 sites in YK) Pb, Zn, Ag, W 71 Tab1e 4. (Continued) Chemica1 symbols: Ag, silver Al, aluminum Au, gold Cu, copper Fe, iron Mo, molybdenum Ni, nickel W, tungsten Zn, zinc fEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 40 72 REFERENCES: Bertine, K. K. and E. D. Goldberg. 1971. Fossil fuel combustion and the major sedimentary cycle. Science 173:233-235. Bolger, P. M. 1981. Ecological effects of liquid mining effluents on the Onaping River system in Ontario. Proc. 7th Annual Aquat. Tox. Workshop. Can. Tech. Rept. Fish and Aquat Sci. No. 990:269-287. Clarke, R. McV. 1974. The effect of effluents from metal mines on aquatic ecosystems in Canada. A literature review. Fisheries and Marine Service, Technical Report No. 488. 150 pp. Daye, P. G. 1980. Effects of ambient pH on fish: An annotated bibliography. Can. Tech. Report Fish. Aquat. Sci. No. 950. 28 p. Daye, P. G. 1981. In: Acid Rain and the Atlantic salmon. IASF Spec. Publ. Series No. 10. pp. 29-34. Elwood, J. W. and L. O. Eyman. 1976. Test of a model for predicting the body burden of trace contaminants in aquatic consumers. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33:1162-1166. Fallis, B. E. 1981. Trace metals and selenium in sediment and marine biota - Nanisivik marine monitoring prograITTTie, 1979 (in preparation). Falk, M. R., M. O. Miller ands. J. M. Kostiuk. 1973. Biological effects of mining wastes in the Northwest Territories, Fisheries and Marine Service, Technical Report No. CEN/T-73-10: 89 pp. Fromm, P. O. 1980. A review of sane physiological and toxicological responses of freshwater fish to acid stress. Env. Bio 1 • Fi sh. 5: 79-93. Giles, M.A., J. F. Klaverkamp ands. Lawrence. 1979. The acute toxicity of saline groundwater and of vanadium to fish and aquatic invertebrates. AOSERP Report No. 56: 216 pp. "EXTNAME: p .campbe 11 ( R) P: 41 73 Gagan, E. W. 1976. Air Pollution emissions and control technology: Arctic mining: Environmental Protection Service Rept. No. PPS 3-AP-76-4: 32 pp. Hawley, J.R. 197J. Advancements in the treatment of acid mine drainage in the province of Ontario. A lecture presented at the Harleybury School of Mines, Harleybury, Ontario. June, 1973: 21 pp. Howarth, R. S. and J. B. Sprague. 1978. Copper lethality to rainbow trout in waters of various hardness and pH. 1..Jater Res. 12:455-462. Hutchinson, T. C., A. Fedorenko, J. Fitchko, A. Kua, J. Vanloo and J. Lichwa. 1976. Movement and compatmentation of nickel and copper in an aquatic ecosystem. In Nriagu, J. 0. (ed.) Environmental Biogeochemistry, Vol. 2, Metals Transfer and Ecological Mass Balances. Ann Arbor Sci. Publ., Ann Arbor, Mich. 565-585 pp. Kaiser, K. L. 1980. Correlation and prediction of metal toxicity to aquatic biota. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37:211-218. Lantzy, R. J. and F. T. Mackenzie. 1979. Atmospheric trace metals: global cycles and assessment of man's impact. Geochim. Cosmochim Acta. 43: 511-525. National Academy Press. 1981. Atmosphere-Biosphere Interactions (in press). National Research Council of Canada. 1981. Acidification in the Canad·ian Aquatic Environment. NRCC No. 18475. 369 p. Memorandum of Intent on Transboundary Air Pollut4on between US and Canada. February, 1981. Ontario Ministry of Environment. 1980. The case against the rain. 24 p. Saunders, R. L. and J. B. Sprague. 1967. Effects of copper-zinc mining on a spawning migration of Atlantic salmon. Water Res. 1:419-432. :XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 42 74 Schofield, c. L. 1980. In: Acid Rain and the Atlantic salmon. IASF Spec. Publ. Series. No. 10:17-19. Sprague, J. 1970. Measurement of pollutant toxicity to fish. II. Utilizing and applying bioassay results. Water Res. 4:3-32. Spry, O. J., C. M. Wood and P. V. Hodson. 1981. The effects of environmental acid on freshwater fish with particular reference to the softwater lakes in Ontario and the modifying effects of heavy metals. A literature review. Can. Tech. Report Fish. Aquat. Sci. No. 999. 144 pp. Summers, P. W. and O. M. Whelpdale. 1976. Acid precipitation in Canada. Water, Air and Soil Poll. 6:477-455. United States - Canada Research Consultation Group on the Long-Range Transport of Air Pollutants. 1st Report in October, 1979 and 2nd report in November, 1980. Wheatley, B. 1979. Methylmercury in Canada. Health and Welfare Canada. 200 p. Windom, H. L. and R. A. Duce. 1976. Marine pollutant transfer. Lexington Books, o. c. Heath & Co. Lexington, Mass. 391 pp. Wright, O. G. 1980. A twenty-five year scenario of anticipated resource devel opnents that may have an impact on fish and fish ha bi tat in the Prairie Provinces and the Northwest Territories. Fisheries and Marine Service, Manuscript Report No. 1546. 30 pp. XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 66.1 75 4.3 Industrial Organic Pollutants, Pesticides, and Fossil Hydrocarbons W. L. Lockhart Industrial organic pollutants, pesticides, and fossil hydrocarbons are being considered as a single group, since many considerations are ccmnon to all of them. There seem to be three general considerations which we should address for each compound: 1. Bioaccumulation of compound in fish, fish products, and other environmental compartments. This includes compounds fanned from the parent material and re qui res infonnat ion to describe and predict environmental fate, persistence, and "metabolism", as well as accurate chemical input statistics. 2. Biological effects of compounds on fish and other aquatic organisms. These may range from sub-cellular to ecological levels and may be harmful or beneficial to certain organisms. 3. Economic consequences of 1 and 2. These may include accumulation of pollutants requiring extensive monitoring programs, loss of sales due to low product quality, and degradation of habitat quality with resulting changes in va 1 ue to peo p1 e • The nature of compounds under consideration will vary from time to time depending upon perceptions of current issues. The current EPA list (Table 1) identifies 129 pollutants considered to be of highest priority in the US, and of these, 115 are organic, 13 are metals, aoo the other is asbestos fibre. A recent DOE regional contaminants committee draft report (1980) identified the following: -EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 67 76 Compounds of low concern 1. PC8s 2. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons 3. Metals in water 4. Trihalomethanes Compounds deferred 1. Petrochemical industry releases 2. Coal operation releases High Priority concerns 1. Agricultur~ pesticides 2. Toxicity of mixtures 3. Acid precipitation 4. PCB replacements 5. Dioxins and dibenzofurans 6. Vanadium 7. Selenium 8. Mercury 9. Radionuclides The DOE Toxic Chemical Data Priority List has identified the following as materials requiring most urgent attention: Chlorinated dibenzodioxins Chlorinated dibenzofurans Mercury Chlorobenzenes Organotins Chlorinated styrenes Halogenated phenyl ethers TEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 69 77 Ch1oropheno1s Triary1 phosphate Po1ych1orinated biphenyls Phtha1 ic acid esters Benzene hexachloride isomers (actually hexachlorocyclohexane isomers) Hexachlorobertadiene Cadmium Lead Arsenic Epoxy resins Pesticides Another ranking produced by NOAA for the New York Bight is shown below: Ranking of principal known chemical contaminants of the New York Bight, June 1977, in terms of research priority (0 1 Conner and Stanford 1979). Category A. Major Perceived Threats That Require Continued Study Chlorinated Pesticidesl Po1ynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons Lead (PNAHs) 2 Mercury Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Plutonium Category B. Potentially significant Threats for Which Data Must Be Collected and Evaluated Arsenic Isophorone Benzidenes Low-molecular-weight, halogenated Cadmium hydrocarbons (LMHHs)3 Chlorobenzenes Petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs, other Chlorophenols than PNAHs) Biaphenylhydrazine Thallium Halogenated diphenyl ethers Category C. No Threat At Present, On the Basis of Existing Infonnation Chromium Phenols Haloalkyl ethers Phthalates Nitrobenzenes Selenium Nitrophenol s Silver lAldrin/Dieldrin, Chlordane (technical mixture and metabolites), DDT and metabolites, Endosulfan and metabolities, Endrin and metabolites, Heptachlor and metabolites, Hexachlorocyclohexane (all isomers), and Toxaphene. 2Aromatic compounds with unsaturated ring structures: Benzene, Alkyl substituted benzenes, and Polynuclear ~drocarbons with multipe alkyl substitutions. 3carbon tetrachloride, Chlorofonn, Chlorinated ethanes (includes 1,2- dichloroethane, 1,1,l- trichloroethane, and hexachloroethane), 1,1- and 1,2- Dich1oroethylene, Halomethanes (other than specified), Tetrachloroethylene, Tricholoroethylene and Vinyl chloride. While I personally disagree with sane of the assignments to the groups, these lists do illustrate the scope of organic pollution issues. 78 Table l. E? A list o1 129 Priority Poliutants and the relative frequency of these materials in industrial wastewaters Pwc.m P ...cem H~l'Od ol -<>C1-.;.i ol \ndu.Utat ..... """. cat.eqoti•• c ...... d eaieqioit"1•o o 31 .v• put~~ ()(9anlc~ 1.2 s ACTolein 2. 1 5 1. 2-0ichloroorccane 2.7 10 Acrylonilrile 1.0 5 1. 3..0ictilorcprooone 29.1 25 Benzene 3-4 Z 25 Methylene Ct'llOl'ide 29.3 28 Toluene 1.9 0 Methyl cnloride 16.7 24 Etnylbeflzene 0. 1 1 Memyl bromide 7.7 14 Cart>on tetracl'lloridtl 1.9 12 Sromotorm 5.0 10 Chlorooenzene 4.3 17 Oicn1orooromome!h.311e 6.5 16 1. 2-0ld'lloroettiane 6.8 11 Tricnlorotluorometr.ane 10.2 25 1, 1, 1-Tricnloroetnane 0.3 4 Dicnlorooifluororr.ettiane 1.4 8 1. 1-0ldiloroetnane 2.5 15 ChlorOCitlromomemane 7.7 17 1, 1..Olcnloroett'ly1ene 10.2 19 T etractitoroettiylene 1.9 12 1, 1• .2-Tricnloroet1iane 10.5 21 Trich!oroettiy lene 4 . .2 13 1, 1• .2 •.2-Tetract11oroemane 0.2 2 Vinyl cn!or1oe 0.4 2 Chloroetnane 7.7 18 1.2-trans..Qicntoroethylene 1.5 1 2-Chloroetttyl vinyl ether 0.1 2 t:iscChlorometnyl) <:i':lier 40.2 28 Chloroform -l6 ...-e b.tM/M\ltral extraciaol• organic com!)Ounda \ 1.2-0ictllorocenzene 5.7 11 Fluorene 5.0 9 1. 3..0id"llorObenzene 72 12 F luorantnene 1, 4-0ici'lloroeeozene 5.1 9 C.hrysene 0.5 5 Hexad"lloroemane 7.8 14 Pyrene 0.2 1 He,.acnloroeuladiene 10.6 16 { Ptienant1'1rene 1 1 7 Hexacnlorocenzene An!hracefle 10 6 1.2.4-Tricnlorooenzene 2.3 6 8enzo1a )anthracene 0.4 3 bts( 2-Chloroet110xy) met11ane 1.6 6 8enz(l\Olfluorantt1•1•ne 10.6 18 Naphthalene 1.8 a denzolk i!luor:;nthe-ne 0.9 9 2-ChlOl'Onapiithalene 3.2 8 Sen~oanttvacene 1.1 3 2. 4-0in1trototuene 0.6 7 Senzocg,h.1)perylene 1 5 9 2. 6-0imtroto luene 0. 1 2 4-ChtoropMeriyl pi"enyl etner 0.0-4 1 4-Sromophenyl phenyl ether 0 0 3.3' -Cichlorot.enz1::;ine 41.9 29 b1Si2~ttlylhe"yll phtt"oaiate 0.2 4 Senzidine 6.4 12 Di-n-ocryl phtl'lalate 1.1 4 01Si2-Chloroe1nyl) f'"'ef 5.8 15 Oimetnyl phthalate 0.8 7 1.2-0iphenylhydrazine 7.6 20 Diett"lyl phtnalate 0.1 1 HexacnlorOCJ<::lopentadiene 18.9 23 Di-t>Outyt phtnalate 1.2 s N-Nitrosodip~lam1ne -l.5 12 ,A..~tene 0.1 1 N-Nitroscdim.. 1nyiam1ne 4 . .2 1-4 Acenaphttleoe 0.1 2 N-Niu oscd1-n-prooy1;1m1ne 8.S 13 Sutyi benzyt phthalate 1.4 6 01st 2--Chtoroisooropyl \ ether 11 an acid ex1rac:table ()(9anl<: compounds 2e.1 25 Phenol 1.9 a p-Chl0<0- m-cresol 2..3 11 2-NltJ OQtiet IOl 2.3 10 2 -Ch10<00nenol 2.2 9 4-NitrcQhenel 3.3 12 2. 4..Qicnlorcphenol 1.8 6 2. 4-0lnitrophenot 4.6 12 2. 4. 6-Tricnloroone1101 1., e ~ .. 6-0lnttro-o-a~ 5.2 15 2. 4-0lmethylphenol e.s 18 ~lorOpM!'l()I 2& are pe-stl<:ldff/PCS's 03 3 a~suifan 0.3 3 Heptacnlor 0.-4 13-EndOsut!an 0.1 l Hept.:icnlor epox1de 0.2 "2 Endoaulfan sulfate 0.2 4 Cnlordane o.e 4 a-&ie 0.2 2 Tox:;phene a.a e p-&ie 0.6 2 A('.)CIOf 10 16 o.; 0-&-(; 0.5 Aroc'or 122 1 0.5 "3 -y-SHC 0.9 2 Aroclor 1232 0.5 5 Aldrin 0.8 '.l Aroctor I 242 0.1 3 DielaiTi 0.6 2 Aroc:or 1248 0.0<4 1 4,-l'-«:E 0.6 :; ~r::;,cJor ~254 0.1 2 4,-4'-000 0.5 AfO<;\O• '260 0.2 2 4,4'-00T - 2.J. i' 8-T"~tracn10.,0C:ben.:-::>- :i~110.11n tTCOOi 79 Tab le 1. Continued. 0.2 3 Endrtn 0.2 2 Enc:lrin aldenyde 13 are metals 18.1 20 Antimony 16.5 : J Mercury 19.9 19 Arserm: 34. 7 27 "t1<:lt~j 14.1 18 Bery mum 18 9 ::1 ~et~1w:jn 30.7 25 Cadmiu'n 22.9 25 Sil..., er 53.7 28 Cliromium 19.<: 10 Thall,.,m 55.5 28 ~ 54.6 28 Zinc 43.! 27 Lead Mlsc:-41___. 33.4 19 Total cyanides Not '!11-.1lable ,.\~O~sto!i ( f!brouz1 Nol ava11.:io1e f.Jtal ohP.nols •The ~c:ttnt of samgtes represents t:he ~ ot 't1me9 ttMs corriOC)Und, wu fcx.ini11n aH samo!4'~ in w.n1c1' 1t •t1S J.na1yz:ed ff}( j1vt0P(l o.,. :~,? 1ot.:1.l JS of 31 AJ..tr;1at 197!. ~of~ rW'Qlld from 2532 t0 299! w1tri !Nt "'""'"~'l" oe1ng 2517 •A IOClll al 32 lndusll'l.11 ca~ and IUOQ~ -• a.naly:9d tor on,an1cs and 28 tor m Type of Praj ect Investment on Project (Prairie provinces and territories) (millions of dollars) Conventional hydrocarbon exploration and development 63, 900 Heavy oil development 42 '73 5 Pipelines 2,475 Processing and petrochemicals 13, 505 Electrical generation and transmission 33,885 Forest products 1,200 Mining (including coal) 9,200 Primary metals production 500 Transportation 1,285 Manufacturing 150 Defence 168,835 It is evident that over two thirds of all anticipated new major regional projects involve fossil hydrocarbons, and a major but diffuse chemical-consuming activity like agriculture is not even mentioned. -EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 71 81 Hamilton (1976) has estimated that some 300 new synthetic chemicals reach production scale each year. With the availability of fossil carbon feedstocks in the region, we can expect to increase development of the synthetic organic chemical industry (Note 13,505 million dollars projected here in the major project list). New chemical activities, together with existing chemical production, transportation, use, and disposal will combine to generate increased organic chemical inputs in a region where development is already water-limited. We can expect growing disputes regarding allocation of water supplies to competing domestic, agricultural and industrial users, and growing concern for the quality of surface and shallow ground water. Continued reliance of agriculture on chemicals will contribute increasing amounts of those chemicals to watersheds originating in the southern parts of the region. Bioaccumulation and environmental kinetics A number of approaches are currently used to estimate the likelihood of accumulation of a compound in environmental compartments. These include model laboratory systems, experimental outdoor systems, monitoring real releases of compounds, and kinetic models. The kinetic approach using rate equations may be the most suitable for organic compounds because there are so many different compounds to deal with. Significant progress has been made to relate environmental movements to physical properties of compounds, so that a general prediction can be made for compounds in addition to those under test. For example, Neely et al., (1974) derived the equation below to describe steady state bioaccumulation of compounds by fish in tenns of the octanol/water partition coefficients. log (bioconcentration factor) = 0.542 log partition coefficient+ 0.124 :XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 72 82 Chiou et al., (1977) gave a slmilar expression in which the physical property used was water solubility. log (bioconcentration factor) = 3.41 - 5.08 log (water solubility in umol /L) A particularly useful approach was suggested by Norstrom et al., (1976) who attempted to rel ate accumulations of compounds in fish to rates of metabolism (as indicated by 02 consumption) in the fish. This, of course, need not be restricted to organic compounds. In contrast with bioaccumulation by organisms, there has been much less success at predicting rates of metabolism of materials once they have been taken into an organism. Generally, a system of microsomal enzymes tends to oxidize organic compounds to more water soluble materials such as phenols and epoxides. These materials may be more active biologically than parent materials, but they are generally more readily excreted. Other mechanisms such as hydrolysis and methyl group transfer also occur, general y with enzymatic control of rates. In applying existing knowledge to problems for Canada generally, and for our region in particular, existing models seem perfectly applicable. Unfortunately they seldom include important variables such as temperature, light, salinity and ice. Virtually all models are derived fran a 1 imited number of corrrnon laboratory species. There remains a great deal of work to be done to extend even current concepts to the physical, chemical ard biological variables of the region. For example, goldeye seem to excrete some organics less readily than other species like suckers; larval cisco seem to accumulate orga.nics more efficiently than larval trout. These observations are probably predictable but not until more is known about the processes involved, and the biochemistry of the species. :XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 73 83 Among the chemicals which seem likely to give rise to increasing region al concern are i ndu stri al organic compounds 1il conversion can all be anticipated in the region. These will contribute a variety of organic materials (and often metals) to local watersheds for transport. A frequent problem encountered with organic compounds is that of separating materials fanned naturally fr011 these formed anthropogenically. :XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 74 84 For example, many polyaromatic hydrocarbons form spontaneously during incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels. One such hydrocarbon is benzo(a)pyrene and it has been studied extensively because of its presence in cigarette smoke, and its ability to cause cancer. Table 2 lists estimated releases of benzo(a)pyrene for Ontario, and it is clear that forest fires contribute almost half of the provincial total. Oil does not seem to be a serious OFO issue offshore but it is a serious fishery issue in nearshore and freshwater areas. The problems include reduction in aesthetic values of shoreline habitat, destruction of certain organisms, tainting of fishery products, and fouling of fishing gear. We receive continuing reports of small petroleum spills, usually of refined products and the issue of immediate concern is generally one of product quality. Chemical screening for hydrocarbons has not been productive, and it appears that the compounds causing the quality problen may not be hydrocarbon.s themse 1ves, but rather metabolic products formed from them. In the longer term, habitat degradation is certainly more serious than short-term fishery problems. Organic materials generally are not persistent but rather degrade to mineral carbon, if given sufficient time. Rates of degradation depend on stuctures of the compounds, and on energy input to the ecosystem. In our region, rates of degradation are substantially slower than rates typically found in the literature. A good example of this is in the application of agricultural herbicides. Herbicide persistence in Canada can limit crop selection for 1 or 2 years after application, but there is no similar 1 imitation in central USA. Many organic compounds tend to persist in bottom sediments. A good example of this is given by levels of aromatic hydrocarbons in marine sediments near Kitimat, B. C. where sediment cores 85 Table 2. Estimated releases of benzo(a)pyrene in Ontario. (From Table IX, OME Report ARB-TOA-Report No. 58-79, 1979). Source Annua 1 SaP re 1eased (kg) - power plan~s - coal 12.3 industrial boilers - coal 0.48 industrial boilers - oil 3.83 commercial/institutional boilers - oil 42.52 residential furnaces - oil 8.50 industrial boilers - gas 6.8 commercial/institutional boilers - gas 39.93 residential furnaces - gas 7.70 SUB TOTAL (heat and power) ll5. 06 coke production 9331. 5 asphalt, hot road mix production 0.026 forest fires 8160.0 gas powered vehicles (except motorcycles) 190.4 motorcycles (2 and 4 cycles) and snowmobiles 128.0 diesel-powered vehicles 5.29 TOTAL FOR ONTARIO 17 ,930.28 kg fEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 75 86 indicate some major new source of these compounds in the early 1950s (Table 3). The source of these compounds is thought to be the Alcan aluminum smelter which began operating in 1954. The smelter uses about 1/2 ton of coke/pitch electrode per ton of aluminum produced. Similarly, long-tenn persistence in Canadian waters has been demonstrated for a number of pesticides (DDT) and industrial compounds (PCB). Recently, dioxins have been reported fran Lake Ontario fish and even more recently 3 dioxins and one chlorinated dibenzofuran have been found in sediments frcm Tobin Lake, Sask. Organic compounds will persist longer under conditions of northern Canada, and so it is substantially more important to prevent organic pollution in the first pl ace. Unfortunately, this is exceptionally difficult since these compounds move about so readily by air. Table 4 will give some idea of volatile compounds in air (Simoneit and Mazurek, 1981). Even materials not generally volatile are transported efficiently by air as particulates • . Habitat to be. exposed to organic materials will include literally the northern hemisphere for stable materials released in quantity (PCB, DDT, 1i ndane, etc.) • Biological Effects: Effects of organic chemicals vary enormously, and have been investigated from ul trastructural and biochemical 1evel s to population arri community levels. Examples of types of effects include: enzyme inhibition, enzyme induction, effects on membrane penneability, effects on cellular respiration or oxygen transport, mutagenesis, teratogenesis, carcinogenesis, suppression of immune responses, "potentiation" of subsequent cellular responses to viruses, etc., mimicry of natural hormones such as steroids or auxins, effects on sensory percent ion, etc., etc. These can 1ead to such population responses 87 Table 3. (Abstracted from Table 22, Erickson et al., 1979). Dates of sediments and PAH contents for surface sediments at Emsley Point sampling site, Kitimat Arm, B.C. Date of Sediment PAH Content (µg/kg) 1976 1992 1966 1767 1951 209 1937 44 1928 39 1920 30 1904 33 1890 25 1845 35 1820 35 1809 24 88 Table 4. ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATION RANGES OF GASEOUS ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Source' Concentration range 111 Natural Anthropogenic Compound Composition (ng/~) (%) (%) Methane CH, 1000-4000 80 20 Ethane C2H• 0.05-95 90· Propane CiH• 12-94 90· Butane C..H10 0.01-200 95• Ethylene C2H• 0.7-700 Acetylene C2H2 0.2-230 90· Propene CJH• 1-52 Butene C..H, 1-6 Benzene C.H. 0.03-57 90· Formaldehyde CH,O 1-160 Acetaldehyde CHiCHO 1.5-10 Methanol CHiOH 8-100 Acetone CH,COCHi 0.08-7 Acrolein CH2CHCHO l-13 Formic acid HCOOH 4-72 Peroxyacetyl nitrate CHiC(Ol02N02 0.1-66 Methyl mercaptan CH,SH 4 Dimethyl sulfide CHiSCHi 0.04-0.06 Carbon disulfide CS1 O.Q7-0.37 Carbonyl sulfide cos 0.2-0.56 90• Cyanogen NCCN 10-25 JOO Carbon tetrafluoride CF, 0.1-1 JOO Methyl chloride CH1Cl 0.8-2.2 90· Methylene chloride CH101 0.005 100 Chloroform CHC!i 0.004-0.25 Carbon tetrachloride CCJ. 0.0004-0.26 Fluorotrichloromethane CFCh 0.05-0.8 100 Difluorodichloromethane CF102 0.08-1.0 100 1.1.1-Trichloroethane CHiCCh 0.03-0.4 JOO • Estimated approximate source contribution. fEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 76 89 as acute kills, outbreaks of disease, reproductive failure, high incidences of tumors, etc. These have been found to occur in fish populations, but often smaller organisms tend to be more sensitive, particularly to short-term high concentrations of toxicants. Economic Implications: The organic chemicals industry, and our widespread human dependence on that industry for fuels and consumer products is capable of making significant planetary changes through several mechanisms. For example, combustion products like C02 in the atmosphere will tend to increase and warm the planet as long as the rate of addition exceeds the rate of dissipation to deep ocean layers. Similarly, the acid rain phenomenon will destroy much of the poorly buffered fresh water of the northernhemisphere. The relatively stable pollutants from the synthetic chemical industry will continue to be found in unlikely places like Arctic ice cores as analysts devote more time and better instruments to looking for pollutants. It is essential that organic pollution issues be examined in a broad context nationally and internationally and that we consider fish not only as products, but also as indicators of hemispheric quality, of essential interest to jurisdictions involving fish, wildlife, environmental quality and public health. ~EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 77 90 REFERENCES Chiou, C. T., V. H. Freed, p. W. Schmedding, and R. L. Kohnert. 1977. Partition coefficient and bioaccumuJation of selected organic chemicals. Env. Sci. Technol. 11:475-478. Department of the Environment. 1980. Toxic Substances Concerns, Western and Northern Region, Toxic Substances Committee. Draft Report. 22 pp. Dome Petroleum Ltd., Esso Resources Canada Ltd., and Gulf Canada Resources Inc. 1981. Hydrocarbon Development in the Beaufort Seas - Mackenzie Delta Region. Government of Canada, Federal Environmental Assessment Review Office, Vancouver, 28 pp. Hamilton, R. D. 1976. Aquatic environmental quality: toxicology. J. Fish. Res. Board. Can. 33:2671-2688. Keith, L. H., and w. A. Telliard. 1979. Priority pollutants, I - a perspective view. Env. Sci. Technol. 13:416-423. Major Projects Task Force. 1982. Executive summary of 96-page report. Neely, w. B., D. R. Branson, and G. E. Blau. 1974. Partition coefficient to measure bioconcentration potential of organic chemicals in fish. Env. Sci. Technol. 8:1113-1115. Norstrom, R. J., A. E. McKinnon, and A. S. W. DeFreitas. 1976. A bioenergeticsbased model for pollutant accumulat~on by fish. Simulation of PCB and methylmercury residue levels in Ottawa River Yellow Perch (Perea flavescens). J. Fish. Res. Board. Canada 33:248-267. O'Conner, J. s., and H. M. Stanford (Editors). 1979. Chemical Pollutants of the New York Bight; Priorities for Research. US Dept. of Cornnerce, N.O.A.A., Boulder, Colorado. 217 pp. 91 4.4 Fisheries Habitat Aspects of Uranium Mining, N u c le a~ Pow ~ ~ and Radio-chemical Ecology G. J. Brunsk i 11 Statement of Prob l em: a) Abundant Canadian uranium resources are being identified, mi ned , and milled by national and international energy industries. This exploitation is occurring in regions of Canada that have an abundance of streams and lakes, in contrast to mining in arid regions in the western USA. Canadian knowledge and regulations about U mining cannot depend on results of US research. b) High and medium level Candu nu cl ear wastes are likely to be stored and/ or disposed into deep Precambrian Shield bore holes. Much engineering and metal 1 urgical research is unde rway, but fewer . funds are ava i l able for surface water research on the mobility and biological availabil i ty of many of the -EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 45 92 poorly known, exotic, long-lived nuclides derived from Candu reactor wastes. c) Many non-nuclear industries enhance the concentrations of radionuclides in the environment. Agricultural fertilizers, cement and gypsum products, coal, oil, and natural gas combustion, nuclear bombs, and some mining operations release above-background quantities of uranium-series elements, fission and activation products to aquatic ecosystems. Acid rain will increase the leaching rate of some nuclides from soils, tailings wastes, and lake sediments. Eutrophication, heat pollution, hydrological alterations (hydroelectric reservoirs), and climatic alterations will likely cause changes in radionuclide behavior in the enviornment. d) Environmental radiochemical laboratories are not numerous in Canada. The development of methods, techniques, instrumentation, expertise and experience is necessary to meet the challenge of the above and unforeseen problems, and to efficiently conduct research on toxic metals, acid rain and other environmental problems where radionuclides can be used as tracers of ph¥sical, chemical, and biological processes. Hi story Mining of radioactive elements in Canada began in 1932 at Port Radium on the eastern shore of McTavish Arm of Great Bear Lake, N.W.T., initially for radium (and silver), and later (1942 war years) for uranium (Johnson, 1975; R.E.c.s., 1978). Production ceased in 1962, but tailings from this operation are still easily observed in small bays near the mine site. Uranium m"ining activities at Elliott Lake, Ontario (Serpent River Watershed, North Channel Lake Huron), Bancroft, Ontario, and Beaverlodge Lake, Saskatchewan (Lake Athabasca drainage) began in 1953, largely in response to uranium market demand by the USA. These mines are still in production, and environmental problems are of concern (R.E.C.S., 1978; Meffert and Tellier, 1978, 1977; TEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 46 93 Ruggles & Rowley, 1978). In the late 1970s uranium concentrate global prices increased from US $9/lb u3o8 in 1960 to over $40/lb in 1978-80 (Cheney, 1981), causing a rapid increase in exploration, mine, and milling investments and installments. According to Cheney (1981) and others, US uranium consumption will outstrip domestic mine production in 5 to 10 years, if no new very large ore bodies are discovered. As a result of this fact, massive highgrade uranium ore bodies in northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and along the west coast of Hudson Bay are being eagerly developed by Canadian and international energy industries. Potentially exploitable uranium bearing ores occur in all Canadian provinces except Prince Edward Island. Canada is among the top three nations of the world in "reasonably assured resources" of uranium (Runnalls, 1972), holding about one-quarter of known world reserves. Canadian research nuclear reactors were emitting wastes to the Ottawa River as early as 1946 (Merritt & Patrick, 1960). CoITTTiercial Candu power production began in 1962 in Ontario, and 5 more plants have been constructed in that province. Power reactors are also in operation in Quebec and New Brunswick, with research reactors also in Manitoba. Canadian Candu reactors have, or are being supplied to Pakistan, India, Argentina, and Korea. In l975, nuclear power production was 12,000 MW, producing 23,000 Ci of medium and low level solid wastes (mostly as filters and resins) n a volume of 240m 3. Grisak and Jackson (1978) predict a 1988 annual medium and low level waste production of 43,400 Ci or a 14,100 m3 volume, with an increment of 10,000 Ci yr-1 increasing after that time. The majority of the activity 60 in this medium level solid waste will be 137cs, 134 cs, and co (Grisak and Jackson, 1978). High level wastes are now retained in water-cooled concrete vats near the power plants. Medium and low level wastes are transported to waste disposal sites near Chalk River, Ont., or Pinawa, .Manitoba. Differential ~EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 47 94 rates of migration of some radionuclides through the soil-ground water system has been reviewed by Grisak and Jackson (1978) and Jackson & Inch (1980). Serious technological and political efforts are now being made to design, locate, and construct pennanent disposal vaults deep in Precambrian Shield bedrock (Boulton, 1980; Cherry & Gale, 1979). Need for Concern Uranium mining and milling in Canada is done in high grade deposits. and only 238u, 234u,and 235 u are removed for fuel fabrication. All of the daughters of 238u, 235U, and the 232Th decay chain are discarded as 1i quid and solid wastes, or are 1ost as dust and/ or gases. Most surface and ground waters, sediments, and soils in the immediate vicinity of existing mines have radionuclide activities above background (Moffett and Telli~r, 1978; Ruggles and Rowley, 1978). Most uranium ores have sulfide minerals in abundance, which are oxidized to sulfuric acid in surface tailings. Acidification of runoff will likely increase radionuclide and stable element leaching rates. The immediate threat, then, is contamination of local and regional aquatic food chains and drinking water by water soluble and/or sediment mobile radionuclides. Most of these waste radionuclides have long half-lives (226Ra = 1600 yrs, 210pb = 22 yrs, 230Th = 7.5 x 104 yrs, 228Ra = 7 yrs, 232Th = 1010 yrs), and radiation exposure and dispersal problems will endure for our children's children's children's ••• lives. The effects of low doses ofo<,,;B, and 6 radiation on humans and aquatic biota is difficult to estimate fran the available high-dose research, but it is expected to act as one of many stress factors on biological systems, with especial targets being eggs, embryos, and reproductive germplasm. Nuclear reactors and nuclear warhead devices liberate a large number of "EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 48 95 fission and activation products into the biosphere. Some of the longer lived radionucl ides are of concern as they are incorporated into the biogeochemical cycles amongst water, sediment/soils, and the foodchain. 90Sr and 137Cs are still easily measured in Canadian fishes and waters, although the major input occurred in bomb blasts of 1959-1963, nearly 20 years ago. Some of these radionuclides, such as plutonium, uranium, and lead, are chemically toxic, in addition to their radioactivity. The radioisotopes of plutonium, neptunium, americium and technetium are poorly known, because convenient methods for measurement in environmental samples have only recently appeared. Present and future technologies can contain most of these radioactive wastes safely, but some leakage, spillage, and accidental releases can also be expected. If nuclear fuel reprocessing is developed in Canada in the next decade, as planned by AECL, transuranic wastes (plutonium, americium) will soon be an environmental problem (Hohenemser, Kasperson, and Kates, 1977). Half lives of reactor wastes vary from <1 yr to 109 yrs. Area and Extent of Effect For uranium mining and milling, the area of concern would be the northern third of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and a 200 mile wide strip of Precambrian Shield from the northern Manitoba border to Wager Bay, N.W.T. Small regions of southern B.C. and northern coastal regions of Labrador are being investigated. South western and western Ontario have uranium mines (Elliott Lake to Bancroft, Ont). For Canadian nuclear reactors, the area of concern is related to the power plant locations and the waste disposal sites. Southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and coastal New Brunswick have reactors and waste disposal operations. There are many reactors in the USA near the Canadian border and along the St. Lawrence Great Lakes. The export of Canadian Candu reactors i"EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 50 96 to foreign countries is an area of responsibility that should be considered. Canadian pl ans for long-tenn disposal of high-activity reactor wastes include the use of deep bore hole vaults in Precambrian Shield, possibly in southern or western Ontario, or near Pinawa, Manitoba. Also considered for disposal sites are Hudson Bay deep water sediments, Arctic Ocean and North Atlantic deep water sediments (Boulton, 1980; Oceanus, 1977; Cherry & Gale, 1979). Future Trends Stimulated by shortages of oil in the mid 1970s, Sweden, France, Germany, Britain, and Netherlands have greatly expanded their proportion of electrical energy supplied by fission reactors. North American countries depend somewhat less on nuclear power (10-20% nuclear power in 1980s) because domestic supplies of oil are not yet depleted. Even at current rates of consumption, the US will depend on imported uranium in the next decade (Cheney, 1981) and many European countries are totally dependent on imported yellow cake uranium from Canada, USA, Australia, and South Africa. Canada is now in a good position in the global uranium market, ard can al so supply thorium to the next generation of fission ractors, which will occur when uranium supplies dwindle (around 1995-2000). Thorium mining and thorium fueled reactors will have radiological impacts of a similar magnitude, but with different radionuclides delivering the environmental threats (Meyer et al.1979; Till, 1975). Reprocessing spent fuel fromCandu reactors or fuel rods fran other countries will likely be econanically desireable in this decade. AECL has proposed to construct a plutonium extraction facility in the next 5 years. Reprocessing of spent fuel has been a dirty business in the past 10 years, accompanied by large releases of environmentally mobile nuclides (for example Windscale in U.K., consult Hetherington, 1976). Because rEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 52 97 Candu reactors are relatively safe, simple, require natural uranium fuel, and can operate on advanced 232Th - 233U fuels, internation~ sales will likely increase (Robertson, 1978; Mcintyre, 1975). Export of reactors may also imply export of engineering and scientific expertise to manage the reactors and their wastes. From the above, it appears reasonable to assume that there will be an increase in the mining, milling, and transportation of uranium and thorium ores, and an increase in reactor waste output. Large expansion of uranium mining and milling in Northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and the Keewatin district of N.W.T. (largely to satisfy US and European needs) will result in large masses of low activity mine wastes to be dispersed in lakes, river, and soils. Deep vault disposal in rock, or seabed disposal of reactor wastes are actively being considered at the present time, and will likely be tested in the next few years. Reprocessing of spent fuels will become economical soon, and will likely release exotic radionuclides to the environment. Worth of Resource Northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and the west coast of Hudson Bay are regions of northern Boreal Forest, Taiga and Tundra, and are characterized by large numbers of lakes and streams. Fish, fur bearing mammals, and waterfowl are 1ocally utilized for human and dog food, are exported to southern Canada and USA, and are assets to the tourist trade. Coastal marine fish, mammals, and sea birds are utilized by local residents and are subject to sport hunting and fishing. Human population density is not great in these regions, but the land and renewable resources are essentially claimed by res.ident Indian and Inuit. Tourism and sport fishing and hunting is increasing in these areas. Athabasca, Wollaston, Reindeer, South Indian Lakes are in this region, as are most of the little known southern Keewatin lakes and estuaries, including IEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 53 98 Baker Lake and Wager Bay. Western and central Ontario (Elliott Lake, Bancroft) are within driving range of sport fishermen and hunters, and are regions of increasing population density. Nuclear reactors presently in operation in Ontario release wastes into the atmosphere and local drainages to Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Huron. Quebec reactors release wastes to the St. Lawrence River, and the Point Lepreau reactor under construction in New Brunswick wi 11 re 1ease wastes to the coast a 1 Atlantic (Bay of Fundy). Reactor high level waste disposal sites are yet to be designated but survey regions include southern and Western Ontario, southeastern Manitoba, and Hudson Bay. Most planned new reactors are scheduled for construction in southern Ontario, near present reactor sites (Pickering, Darlington, Bruce, and Douglas Point) on the shores of the St. Lawrence Great Lakes (Mcintyre, 1978). Social Impacts Uranium mines and milling plants are apparently accepted by the public as being equivalent to any other metal mines. Boan town econanics plagues the history of uranium mining in Canada, as the market has risen and fallen several times si nee 1932. Mines in northern Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and southern Keewatin will likely expand and develop nearby settlements, because the ore body appears to be large. Most employees will cane fran southern Canada or as new immigrants from foreign countries: local natives wi11 congregate and suffer fran improved access to alcohol, drugs and disease. Most southern Canadians will be unaware of the industry. In sharp contrast, the public is full of opinion about and fear of nuclear power plants and their wastes. In spite of excellent safety records, good performance in generating electricity, and long-term capability, the rEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 54 99 general public has a distrust of the industry, and has slowed its progress (Hohenemser, Kasperson, and Kates, 1977: Fabrikant, 1981). When oil and gas supplies become too expensive for general consumption, and coal combustion and hydroelectric reservoirs are inappropriate, the only available option for industrial and urban energy will be nuclear power. Perhaps the most severe impact of increased reliance upon nuclear power production will be the creation of a relatively centralized "nuclear priesthood" of technocratic mandarins, surrounded by paramilitary security forces guarding and controlling the national inventory of nuclear fuels (235U, 239Pu, 232Th, 233U) (Gabor, Colombo, King, and Galli, 1978). This kind of energy source could result in limited flexibility and some losses of individual freedoms. In general, the public is poorly informed and irrationally fearful of nuclear power production, despite much greater environmental and human life hazards in numerous other industries (Hohenemser, Kasper son, and Ki;ites, 1977). Past educ ati on and inf onnati on dispersal efforts have not been successful. REFERENCES Boulton, J. 1980. Second Annual Report of the Canadian Nuclear Fuel Waste Management Program. Atomic Energy oi Canada Ltd. Publ. #AECL-6804. Cheney, E. s. 1981. The hunt for giant uranium deposits. Am. Sci. 69:37-48. Cherry, J. A., and J.E. Gale. 1979. The Canadian program for a high-level radioactive waste repository: a hydrological perspective. Geol. Surv. Canada Paper 79-10:35-44. Fabrikant, J. I. 1981. Health effects of the nuclear accident at Three Mile Island. Health Physics 40:151-161. Gabor, O., u. Colombo, A. King, and R. Galli. 1978. Beyond the Age of Waste: A Report to the Club of Rome. Pergamon Press, Toronto, 237 pp. -EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 55 100 Grisak, G. E., and R. E. Jackson. 1978. An appraisal of the hydrogeological processes involved in shallow subsurface radioactive waste management in Canadian terrain. Inland Waters Directorate Sci. Series No. 84: vii-194. Heatherington, J. A. 1976. The behavior of plutonium nuclides in the Irish Sea Chapt.5 J1!: M.W. Miller and J. N. Stannard (ed.) Environmental Toxicity of Aquatic Radionuclides, Ann Arbor Science Publ., Ann Arbor, Mich. p. 81-106. Hohenemser, C., R. Kasperson and R. Kates. 1977. The distrust of nuclear power. Science 196:25-34. Jackson, R. E., and K. J. Inch. 1980. Hydrogeochemical processes affecting the migration of radionuclides in a fluvial sand aquifer at the Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories. Inland Waters Directorate NHRI Paper No. 7 Sci. Series No. 104:vii-58. Johnson, L. J. 1975. The Great Bear Lake: Its place in history. Arctic (28)4:230-244. Mcintyre, H. C. 1975. Natural-uranium heavy-water reactors. Sci. American 233(4):17-27. Merritt, W. F., and P. Patrick. 1960. Radionuclides present in cooling water from the NRX Reactor. Atomic Energy of Canada Publ. AECL-1177. Meyer, H. R., J.E. Till, E. s. Bomar, W. D. Bond, L. E. Morse, V. J. Tennery and M. G. Yalcintas. 1979. Radiologic~ impact of thorium mini~ and milling. Nuclear Safety 20(3):319-330. Moffett, D., and M. Tellier. 1977. Uptake of radioisotopes by vegetation growing on uranium mine tailings. Canada J. Soil Sci. 57:417-424. Moffett, D., and M. Tellier. 1978. Radiologic~ investigations of an abandoned uranium tailings area. J. Environ. Qual. (3):310-314. iEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 56 101 Oceanus. 1977. High level nuclear wastes in the seabed? Oceanus 20(1):1-65. R.E.C.S. 1978. Monitoring program design recommendations for uranium mining localities. Environ. Canada ESP Report EPS3-EC-78-10. Robertson, J. A. L. 1978. The CANDU reactor system: an appropriate technology. Science 199:657-664. Ruggles, R. G., and W. J. Rowley. 1978. A study of water pollution in the vicinity of the Eldorado Nuclear LTD Beaverlodge Operation 1976 and 1977. Environ. Canada EPS Publ. EPS5-NW-78-10. Runnalls, O. J. C. 1972. Uranium ••• the future supply and demand. Geos, Fall Issue (Energy, Mines and Resources Publ .). Till_, J. E. 1975. A comparison of the potential radiological impact of recycle 233u HTGR fuel and LMFBR plutonium fuel released to the environment. Oak Ridge National Laboratory Publ. No. 666, ORNL-TM-4768. 102 4.5. The Impact of Nuclear War on Canada's Freshwater Fishery. M. P. Stainton Essentially all of humanity is the reluctant hostage of a nuclear weapons system that has drastically reduced the scale if not frequency of military conflict in the last 35 years. The stability this system has produced depends on a balance of strength and vulnerability (~utually ~ssured Destruction) made possible by the production and deployment of tens of thousands of strategic and tactical nuclear weapons. Historically, this balancing act has had only two significant players, the USA and the USSR. They have played the game well using much of their resources to do so. The next decade promises to change the rules significantly with new, perhaps less "responsible" and stable, third world players joining the league and no small fEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 59 103 number of social and economic pressures pushing pre-expansion teams to open conflict. Although Canada has maintained a low political profile and is not likely to receive the direct physical destruction of nuclear detonations, our geographic location between the two major nuclear arsenals renders us the likely recipient of large amounts of radioactive fallout (Fig.l). This note examines in a cursory fashion the problem this fallout would pose to Canada 1 s freshwater fishery. The Phenomenon: The detonation of a nuclear device produces three effects, distinctive in their duration, intensity and geographic scale of impact. The initial and most devastating effect, the physical destruction of structure, has a time scale of seconds. A one megaton device will level all structures within a 5 mile radius and burn combustibles over a 12 mile radius (Fig.2). Depending on detonation altitude, varying amounts of geological material are excavated. Surface blasts dislodge thousands of tonnes of soil and rock, some of which is vapourized. This material is carried upwards with the fire ball ard is highly radioactive. Radioactivity arises either from neutron activation of soil and rock or adsorption of bomb fuel fission products. Tens of hours 1ater and over distances determined by wind speed this radioactive material falls to earth (Fig.3). This second effect is widespread (thousands of square kilometres) and can be distributed at great distance from the intended target (Fig.4). The isotopes present are relatively short lived (28Al, 24Na, 56Mn, etc.). The radiation levels present would necessitate either evacuation of populations or inhabitants remaining in fallout shelters for a period of weeks to months. Depending on the size and altitude of a detonation, varying significant .EXTNAME: p .campbell (R )P: 60 104 amounts of radioactive dust enters the stratosphere and troposhere for distribution around the hemisphere (Fig.5). By the time this material begins to return to earth, only long lived isotopes (90sr, 137cs) are present at significant levels. This third effect is hemispheric and global in scale and adds a radiation burden that lasts several decades. Potential Effects: The impact of nuclear weapons use on Canada and the freshwater fishery depends on which of the three above effects is realized within our borders. If detonations occur remote from Canada and only tropospheric fallout occurs, then the problem is one of contamination of aquatic food chains with a new hemispheric burden of long-lived isotopes. If a large number of detonations are involved, these levels could be quite significant at our latitude (Figs. 5 & 6). If fallout of radioactive soil and rock occurs in Canada (drift from targets in the USA Fig.4), major areas of social disruption and environmental contamination would occur. Depending on the time of year, agricultural cycles could be disrupted (planting and harvesting) and grains and livestock contaminated (most Canadian agricultural production is within contamination distance of US targets). Contamination of traditional foodstuffs by high level fallout would increase the value of, and harvesting pressure on Canada's freshwater fishery (most of the fishery in our jurisdiction lies beyond the range of high level contamination). If Canada receives direct blast effects, social disruption could be so significant as to render concern about quality and management of the fisheries irrelevant. 105 FIGURE 1 ---~ S· C:J· _,)· ~ ' - ~- IJ "- \ \\ \ \ \ I l ICBM'S '· ··~- 11 MR/ IRBM'S MEDIUM-RANGE "'- BOMBERS -..- SLBM'S LONG-RANGE ...... CARRIER-BASED BOMBERS BOMBERS STRATEGIC OFFENSIVE WEAPONS ARE DEFINED for the map. Various other medium-range, intermediate•range and tactiu1 purpose of this article to include only those long-range n11elear · weapeG& systems, indicated by the broken arrows, are ne7IO!'> weapons indicated by the ~olid black and colored arrow1 - tbi1 tbelesa anilable to both sides and could be discussed at SALT.· 106 FIGURE 2 • ---~~~~,_. "SOFT" TARGET is here represented by Tucson, Ariz. This drawing outlines the effects of.a one-megaton bomb set off at 11,000 feet. The fireball (dark red) would have a radius of .7 mile. At a distance of 4.32 miles from "ground zero" (lighter red) the overpressure would be five pounds per sqaare iacn, -g.h to 4iesttoy b-. of ordinary construction. At a distance of 12 miles W!lauM m) vimaa.lly all flammable materials would he ignited. 1•u...,N1up •• ,.. ,,.,_. 19 ...... , .,...JJt1' .- ,....._._., ....tp ..., ...... r-1 ... ,...... , ...... ,.,...... h4 •n• •1 ,...,.. tt po.cit fOl.ll •ti tfiliiill•• -~ ,....,.. ... "", ,,, ...... , .... _,..... Jttt.,.,. ,. ...., t•ttl-t-t'I ••-in• •1 ,._.,.,.Utt• ._,_, •u V"....-1'-4 If., " #WUQ•d ·~ .UUUSff .... 1t ,.. C) ...., .-, ,._.,..... ,,__,._.. ,,. •'9 ,,..,, ,.,,.,).,_,...,_.,HI l!p •f .,.., P4 an .. tt ,. l ..im•• .. •J ,.. • .,.. ~ '"4• .... ''V ••ue ...... •u ...... UJ•J 'IV ••••JAM, ,.. I.KOi - ,,.,.... ·~ ...... """ ~ , ••• ~ ·~ p.n:.lol•l"'-'tll .. .., __ " ...... •'I"' " ..... ,""' "'•n- ... ~ "' .," ...... ,.., ,...,. '1•n .,,....., .-,.... -.J to l(••u ",.., ....,,... .. ,,..,. ""* (.. t..,- ••q tftf.C ... ,,...... , ~,. 1111a>-J14 OS,.,, .. , .-lflll• ,_ (l) 'N•JJ.. U'f,. {IJ.lJfJ /11.11) l'l•tt e ....ft' fl l'ft ,. ~ _.. """" •ft"lt f•PtP*•J ....,,.. tu-u Ht'*..._,....,.., Hc'I _,.....,_.. .t411 .,.• .,..... , ....,...... INllIU v a 1n011v.1 !UW'il CHMWl.00 i~liXi ..... a« I oon __:;:....~.:i:~_::"°'r,_~_~:j.:._'~__:;'°'i--~~OOtj:.:_~~...~~-°"4--ri--°"'i--~-~~l~~OO+-l~--j~~~-l-~--rJ~oo, =--~-~--=-=--=-=:~~~?f=_=:=:~s-;:.:::::~=;;~~~1r------""~'J ·•· ..• _.• >-••...... - I :=~~~~~--1~~~~~""'""",J,;;i;;;;;;;;;o:;;;;o..,;;;:::;:==~~~~~======-M~~rtNYll~~ 1------flo< ~ JS,'R l:>YO:I ~IV HVl'l311UM ~ C lll!ODU <::_ I_ A.ll:)h'SUV t: EAll10SSll1 --- FIGURE 4 __ , _,,,.. ,/ -I / / ...... --- ...... I ~------ / / ~~)/ / / ·- / / /, •WARREN OAVIS-MONTHAN :~.:~2) COUNTEllFOR.CE ATIACX. oe aill Tia.. (wlsiU sqU4n!S) lllllli }Mliterm. Eada inner coatour delimits a 450-nm ._ hldoon • Mlllatemaa (color sqvans) ICBM bMel, witla two --eca*- ..-. pe:ceut fatalities) and each outer cootom a lOCkaa d- indo face ._.. (50 percat .... yidd) ~ silo. _.. praduce dtese (SO pe:ceat boepitailzed). Typical Marcia wiad speea 11n - ..• -~- ...... ) .... ---- . ...--- 109 ... · :. ~ ... :·: -- --'' :1a~f~·· "' ,~ ...... :'4l\:. .;:i ,:,/:1-'"'/- ·~ : ~ .. /f '·:C::. /~~;: }~A'~ - ~: 117)/ / _)/ / / .' '··.. / . . . / '. I t I //' _, /. /I / ...... \ I:il.. • > r/\ / /I -- I ' C~>-"1 /1 ,... •. / . },·:·;~.... . ,~ ff. {;.~:~~ · d- ~~~~~~7~~"' · ' ,,;~ - \ III . / ,/ I. / .. ___ ·- '" ...... > ,;.. -....· •!IE'" ,.' \ I ' 'I ' --...' i',f :-.,_.. .. ,..· ~ ~~~ ~-$•., -; . ~•- I '\ 'I I I ' -j"'~ { ·..' :,~ I .: ( \ I .. ..._ I ' .; ...... • ' 1 "~;;,.ill!;f-r,. . ..; .. ,. ~)>:,,_ , II I / ' ·-. , '-- I I ·''·'· .... ~:;..,; .. ., . ~ ...... ;;;;,"~. :.. '. ', ·, -...... ,____ ...... ·''- · - .• .-...,,_,_,.,,.,, __ ..,..,,..r~ ..,,,,,~~- -.,.,.~ ·"';;.: = I\ . I --. - I ----+--- '· :; 1 •,;-;::: ~::.:.-;;':ci~'· ~..:---.:.~ · ·;,,_, ~~ , . ·- . ' _. '<~;;•»' -. , I . • t1 . "' ' ';;;;;~ • '-1 ' -.... ifl \ ~ 1" . ·' ..... !j ..~ \~\., ••• ~ -- 1I 0 ' • ~ U' ..-.)0 --· ! ....-:. \;. '~ .,. ' • I -1' -y ·., ' ··~ ·-- .. - __,:... '...- f· ~ r. .:., _ . . ··- . '-' cJ \~... ,~_\-'··------\ : ,,...:; ,..:. ..,~...... ~..~ ;.. '- ...... --::---- ·,------1 ~ - ~ : DISTRIBUTION OF FALLOUT depends on the size nnd lo.-n· hemisphere in a mailer of w1,.:ks. Dchri,; from hi~h-yielu Soviet 1ion of the original explosion. High-yield lest nenr the Equator lest :it high l:ititudes I top) will be l':lrried by horizontal circulation tie.ft J thrusts its fission pro FIGURE 5 110 ------. ------N ·/"- SCJ.70 70-60 60..,SO 50-40 40-30 83 30..20 ~ i I §20-10- - I I ~ 10-0 2EZELLE :::>..... i= :5 0-10 ~· ''["'''' ,,••. ~ 10-20 ~\ 20..30 WWWG 30-40 40-50 50-QQ s 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 STRONTIUM 90 PER SQUARE MILE (MILLJCURIESl CONCENTRATION OF FALLOUT in the Northern Hemisphere is shown on this chart, based on a world-wide ,tudy of strontiuru in soils by L. T. Alexander of the U.S. Department of Ap-iculture. The <"On<"enlr:ilion results from the peculiarities of :ilmospheric circulation shown on the opposite pafte. Fallout stlll aloft will rouithly double these figures by 1965. FIGURE 6 TEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 61 111 Need for Concern: The probability and consequences of nuclear weapons detonation is much greater than the catastrophic release of radiation from nuclear power reactors. The staggering number of nuclear devices deployed and in transit, and the increasingly unstable hands in which they are found, makes an uncontrolled detonation in the near future a near certainty. The most probable effects on Canada and the fisheries is one of contamination to a varying degree (both level of activity and geographic area) and of increase in value caused by displaced food options (contaminated grains and livestock). In order to manage the harvesting of a strategically valuable, but potentially contaminated, food resource under potentially chaotic conditions it is essential to formulate strategy now. The following are sane concerns: 1. Inventory of harvestab 1e fish stock parti cul arl y near present transportation corridors (rail, road, river); 2. Consolidation of current knowledge and acquisition of necessary new knowledge of pathways, mechanisms, and sinks for the movement of bomb generated isotopes through the aquatic food chain; 3. From infonnation in 2, the estimation of "shelf 1 ife" (the time required for fish stocks to become contaminated to the point of becoming a health hazard) for various species; 4. The establishment of facilities monitoring the areal deposition rates of bomb generated isotopes in contaminated areas. Because both the rate of insult and the urgency of response is high, it is essential to acquire this knowledge prior to the event, particularly si nee such a catastrophe implies much social disruption and the loss of the ability to carry out sophisticated research or to acquire high quality monitoring facilities. r~XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 62 112 Duration and Area: As a potential problem there is no 1 imit to the time over which it can occur or to the area which can be affected. If one assumes that detonations occur at prime military targets in north central USA, the Canadian area effected is highly variable, depending on wind direction and speed, but could be many thousands of square kilometres. Such areas could be unproductive and uninhabitable for years. Long range transport of long lived bomb isotopes could raise the hemispheric background to double the present for 30 to 40 years. Future Trends: Increasing economic and social pressures in the 80s are greatly increasing the stress between major power blocks. The increased proliferation of nuclear technology amongst third world countries, the apparent instability of governments in these countries and an increased uncontro 11 ed market -fn fissionable material all increase the chances of governments, interest groups or individuals using the ultimate lever to accomplish the solution to problems. There is no technological solution to the increased probability of uncontrolled nuclear detonations occurring. Worth of the Resource: Since it is apparently impossible to realistically estimate the value of the freshwater fisheries, this is a difficult topic to address. If only contamination of the resource occurs with maintenance of traditional markets (no social catastrophe in Canada), then the value loss is some part or all of whatever the resource is now worth. The situation may then be one of Canada trying to sue the party or parties responsible for the contamination as in the case of "COSMOS 954". If the contamination of the fisheries is coincident with significant "EXTNAME: p .campbe 11 (R )P: 63 113 social disruption and loss of agricultural options then the value of fish protein would soar. There appear to be no econanic models that can estimate value of food under catastrophic conditions. REFERENCES Griffiths, F., and J. 0 olonyi. A Pugwash Symposium. May 1978. Fetter, s., and K. Isipis. Catastrophic Releases of Radioactivity. Scientific American. April 1981. Orell, s., and F. Hippel. Limited Nuclear War. Scientific American. November 1976. 114 4.6 Reservoirs, Water Diversions and Other Hydrological Alternatives R. E. Hecky R. W. Newbury General Statement Many aquatic problems begin with a physical disruption of the landscape. Obvious examples are strip-mining, pipeline construction, dredging, and highways. Developments of these kinds produce incidental or accidental problems for stream courses and larger drainage areas. In contrast, reservoirs and water diversions, e.g. hydroelectricity, irrigation, water supply or flood control, differ fran other.physical disruptions in that their specific purpose is to alter the spatial and temporal distribution of water. The water controlling developments differ fran other physical impacts in at least two important aspects. Because control of a significant portion of a drainage water supply is their express purpose, impacts fran these developments are often large scale, generally affecting entire drainage basins. A good, if depressing, example are the problems created for the Peace-Athabasca delta by the Bennett dam in British Columbia. The delta suffered water supply problems even though it is several hundred miles downstream from the dam site. Another major difference from other physical disruptions is that there is more control over the water budget of the drainage basin after development, whereas with other developments there is only the altered distribution and quality of water. Control creates an artificial seasonality of water level change and discharge which is often out-of-phase with the natural regime but it may al so create opportunities for biological exploitation not available in other physical disturbances. -EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 82 115 Scope of the problems: Fish are a product of the natural aquatic environment. Habitat problems for fish begin with alterations of that water environment. Three classes of physical habitat impact can be usefully identified: A) incidental impacts where the purpose of the causative development is not expressly to increase control of the water budget; B) impacts created by developments which store and/or expressly alter the temporal distribution of water; C) impacts created by developments which spatially redistribute water among drainage basins. Examples of class A impacts are stream degradation caused by highway or pipeline construction. A cl ass 8 development would be a reservoir created by a hydroelectric development or stream channelization for flood control. The Garrison and Churchill River diversions would be examples of class C impact. The geographic area affected by deve 1opment increases from cl ass A through class C as do the complexity of potential impacts. Federal resi)onsibil ity and involvement also generally increases from class A to C. Class A Class A impacts tend to produce, at first view, highly localized alterations which by their nature will be highly site specific, e.g. a stream may or may not support a migrating fish population. However, the scale of many proposed pipeline and highway developments, especially in the north, causes concern for the aggregate effect as wel 1 as the local. In general, we have a poor understanding of the role of small watercourses in maintaining the productivity of fisheries resources in lakes and oceans. A greater :EXTNAME: p .campbe 11 (R )P: 83 116 understanding of this general significance as well as more detailed site specific information of a survey nature are required before relevant valuation can be made of this class of problems. Class B Hydrolectric development is the most familiar example of a class B impact. By the mid-seventies, hydroelectricity supplied 65% of Canada's requirements for electrical power. Hydroelectric capacity stood at 32,000 MW spread over 365 projects affecting 200 rivers ard streams. If Canada i:s to decrease its dependence on foreign oil supplies, the rate of growth of electrical generating capacity must increase sharply in order to substitute for fossil fuel being expended for space and water heating. The Department of Energy, Mines and Resources foresees the need to increase electrica~i generating capacity four-fold by the year 2000 to increase electricity 1 s share of Canada's primary energy supply fran one-third to one-half. Much of this increase in electrical generation will be accomplished through massive hydroelectric developments such as Churchill-Nelson, James Bay, Lower Churchill in Labrador and numerous possible developments in the Mackenzie drainage where as many as thirty sites are under consideration. Canada has nearly two-thirds of its feasible hydroelectric potential remaining available for development. Given the projections of EMR for electrical generation and the preference of most Canadian provinces for hydroelectricity as the source, it is clear that the pace of hydroelectric development will increase until at least the year 2000. Analysis of a recent inventory of major projects in Canada through to the year 2000 (Table 1) shows that 223 of total investment in major projects will be made for hydro development. The total for hydro, . - ·r"!I!'" ,.,,.. ,..,, ,,.,'I "ll"r 1>•1m ·.,"'""'I ·0111 ~uoot "I ·111nour OIU! '"'' ""!''U"! p>11>1lu '"!10 A~' >tHt!r'uthJ Jo n.1• "I' ot l'"'tt.tt> >n t>tftup•> )•ff JU uuw ,.,,. pouUUJlUU '! ., •tn•Hf non11 '!"lf tU>lt!IOO) I uo ,.. , ... IOU ... Am1u>•U! >IJI "! r•r"I'"! IJUUl!'t> llOJ P>lottAO>U =uoN. ~-- ··--· HI I fl ,... ,... ,. 9 OI u JJ•rlllUIHAKI lvtll.l IO " ---- n 'r --- .. 019 0 001 ti 117 G( HI 01 ---- DIP 0 lY Jiil Ill II HI " ----10" ool Jt 10? 10 - .,., "' IOI I n •"''1'11 Oii OfO Ill oot CH .9 ,,,,., ...fOY•tt t °'' n ... Ull ltt I oo CH 9 c" ... tlf ' n .. "!··~··· ouo r Olt I OOf I Uni ··1. .,..., 'l'''tf t.n•"!'' ""' "" lvtttt" IOI I 10 I OU I C')(• I 00( 001. '"I H~t.I n uor 1 cn I Oii I flJ ltlNIHfUJllN/1------lll\N llO 'fl!IAO INOlfrU ·3· \'! ..... " 'lftVt WllOllNYH 0'1\'l.ttO :>ff "I() )ltNYUY lVt,)'f!AOll TVIOI 1VJOI 90011 ·UlolH 10 '\\' , (flt'/10/' jo fUO!f/!rll} OOOl Jt!;>A_ att.t OJ, ~P=>to1 ..r 1otcw JO A10J~t:>Attf JO AJtmmrns rEXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 84 118 $96 billion, exceeds even that for hydrocarbon exploration and development as a cause of investment. With the exception of B.C., most of Canada's remaining potential for development lies within the northern fringes of the provinces and in the NWT on the great rivers flowing to the Hudson's Bay ard the Arctic Ocean. Of greatest concern to this region is the piecemeal development of the upper Mackenzie which began with the Bennet Dam ard is continuing with proposed developments on the Slave and Liard Rivers. These developments may greatly alter the Mackenzie River delta, estuary and Beaufort Sea. Class C River diversions are a favored engineering scheme for augmenting flow through hydroelectric dams. At the present time, there are several diversions operating in Canada (Table 2) for hydroelectric purposes. However, generating energy is a low priority use for fresh water as compared to irrigation and human consumption. NorthwesteYil ard eastern North M1erica are regions of excess water supply while the central and southern parts of the continent are water deficient (Figure 1). In the dry region, rivers ard streams are seasonal and lake basins are only sporadically re-charged with fresh water. In the long tenn of 20 to 50 years, civil works will attempt to balance the water excess and deficit. At present, we are forestalling the construction of major impoundments and river diversions by mining groundwater. The Ogallala aquifer extends from :southern Manitoba to Mexico, underlying the water deficient region of the continent at approximately the lOOth meridian(Figure 2). Water is withdrawn from the groundwater reservoir at a rate of 165 trillion gal./day Of this, 523 is not returned. It is consumed by irrigation and evaporation from exposed water surfaces. The aquifer will be depleted and )_ 119 iASLE 'l: !NTrl I Olvers 1or. Route k• tu rt i r1 ows I I I I ---I I r-- --- O!Yef'ted Po1nt of 01v. ~ece1vin9 Owner/ I 1 \Ci,,., an/ Strurn/ Lat./ I St,..urn/ ! "n:>JeC~ C..sc:rlpt1on I Tyoe. Loe& t 1 on, ~urt-u~ ~He/ '<:iz.1r1 Prttw1nct Lon9. HTS l'.&o Des 19n rio. Len;tn of Record C111., ,.,, s -1) I aeewer 57° 00' H ?ool&r Cr. - Syncrude Ooen-oit tar sand mine 11.S. C. 0.6 R1ver, ·1110 36' II ~.tn•l>•sc:• R. 1976 strJddles Seiver River 1972-1975 4.S Albert.a 740, 74( 113 valley. s. s St. !'I.try ,go sr.· ~ USA US-o•rt of St. ~ry flow At easteM'I border 5 R. - I R1ver, 1n° z.· 11 I l'HH~. 11m R1ver I 1917 returns to USA vi1 Mil It crt1ss1r.9, cCl'l'cuted - 55 Alberti I ~ ... 7"2!:, SZH, .~MlZ-10 zo I "Rher. I natural, 60 yrs. I -300 SJO 59' K Ou '.l.ppe 11 e R. F"lows 1ncruse Sout!I Sui.. Rele1ses from La . A1b&l\1 ll. &t 50° 5z· K Roct R. Onur1o HycM:I I ncru s es f1 ows to power Ho dau Tery IU. St. Joseph 91° 27' II 1957 develoomenu on ·,;;nnioe9 SNl1 Onur1o 52J zoo Jnd Nelson Rivers. I I /\& tt19.t1111 •9o 59' H Ada• Creel: • I Onur1 o Hydro Diverts f1 ood nows past 4 No dau •ery I R1Yel", azO 08' II ~tt19arn1 R. 1961 power st1t1ons on SN11 Onur1o 4ZG/J > 3000 llitU9£rn1 River. I Llttle Ab1t1b1 49° 59' H ,~~st Ck. • Onur1o Hydro Increases flows at Otter No da t~ TCf'Y R1Yer, a1° 19' ii ~1t1b1 R. 1963 Rapids powernouse. SN11 I Onur1o 42M 145 I I Oou1t1u 490 33' H Hull Creer. - Q:,tar1o HydM:I 1ncre•ses flows tc I ncreas i n9 flows I River, gzO 4a' \/. Lest R. 1965 M.actJ9ami River power from H!ry s~ 11 I Onur1o 42G 40 developmenu. to mocerHe. I 4 I C.an1&phcau 54° ZS' H Lito,.,,e R.. S£BJ ) Upp~r Caniapiscau drainage Oue~ec Ceot. Water 204 River, 70° 32' II 1983 dl•erted to increase flows Rescur-ces. 5-tr. I 6vJ P.Q. 231.. 1130 at La Grande Powernouses. record H .ooutn of - ,., ver. I 0 E.as'tl!liin and s: 40' H boyd R. - StaJ Upper Eutm.iin '"° Ooin•c• I No dau SNJJ i Opinac:a River 7€0 :is. 'i S~k ..11 L. 1980 dra inaqe diverted to . it I p .Q. 33C zooo 1ncreaa flows at La Grande nud- I powerl'!Ouses. ••ter~ I I I i C•n11p1sc1u mw Increased power flow in Fort Oueuec Deot. ••te~ 1755 and EHt.'ll&ln La Grande R, und~f" Geor"9e (La Gnnde) River. Resources, l &-yr· I •ZSO R1Yers, P.O. (see •bove) constrvction at LG-2 site. I 5710 I 33£ 15.JOO I I Ke.1...1...~~ ~ t Ci i'1 1) Qmean • ""•n •nnu•l flo• o2_year' Two-yetr flood (9eometr1c me•n flood) Q x • Hignest ooser~ed flow 1114 - u - 120 ., \' 11f \\ • · i~ : ! ) \\ l,; 1· - · H\! \\' 1.iO·' IGO c. <:/!{ / !,'i x =' · / <: -'· : c . 1~;1 ., ..• a / ~~;r-h / v---f . ·t··.,...,· iV~' / ' j)• .. '.... -.- "> . •'·• ·•· ;?-c!J' . . -:-•/~ ' ". , . : .•. • 'v. '"""~ I Ill / ~: / :i ,/ / !1 -'ti ' / 'l1i!! / ~ // 1: :! / ... ~ / ' !i 140°\i.l /' ~ l! I ~ / ~ / ii 0 I ~ I l~ I / I ii I I I ...../ / ~ i / I I I I iI I I I IW"t I I < ! .1 I I -: . anfu Doni i., qo ,.. HtJ~~.a..: • / ll/ .- I I ·.• ·.,• .,I SEA :~ / /1corr+- ( .,.~' -~ 0 ' • I J tr' ...; '/ vvt ~D I Ai-J A r.. "lt > . . SURPLUS AND DEF ICIT ur RI"V ER frowi·. 'Sok.dov- e..t cJ tens vVATE E RE SOURC ES A-tln ~ tt..... ~ F \G:-ul<.~ woX- b~ , u t-J E. sc..o p(Q... ( l c:; 78) \ I \ 2 j S urp1u s (1) ar·d d e i ·r,;t \2) of c1v e r wa '.S' '°' so...; ~ ces (mm) A nation NDER THE NATION'S SKIN, Stored In porous roch (light blue) or loose divided reservoirs of groundwater, called sands and gravels (darh blue), the most Uaquifers, range from small, low water-abundant of these aquifers could The IOOlh m Th< burgeoning south demand• more w•ter thon It on provide itJc/f. Th• diffcrene< comu from the •hie'• ...... monum1nh/ •qu JH( HA1JOHAl 'fO, llArtllC MA,AllHI \IOL lie, HO. I ~OP'Yllll,IH () IHO IY HAflOHAl •tO,llArttlC IOCl(lT WA S HIH'10H , D. C. IHTllUU. llOHA l COl"(ft l,H l U C.U R f O 165,34 6 million · How we use gallons per day August managed withdrawn /rom water in · the West Water: Our Most Precious Resource 144 145,823 i~rigated s2;v. TVA Thomas Y . Canby loohs at liow tlie nation uses and · il grtculture ~ Th• n.tlon '•mod Saltwater /nlegrlltd rlver intrusion abuses its vmt store offresh water: purifies it, 7,634 domestic ) .Arkansas 1 monlgcmenl •y•l•m, &ctu/n draw~owni distributes it, benefits from it, and increasingly ii nd commerciiil · • 1.1st-\> \,\> · • River th• T Giant diversion schemes such as NAWAPA and CeNAWAPA 1t1hich could collect and export up to 150 million acre-feet of water to the USA have been proposed and the demand for such schemes will depend on future water needs and perhaps on climatic changes whether natural or man-induced. Up to now, there has been a nationalistic rejection of the idea of "selling" fresh water. However, as the Ogallala aquifer is depleted, strategic rather than economic demands for water will require some form of continental development. We have reached one such agreement on the Columbia River al ready and "North-South" accord on energy and resources is a 1 ively topic. It is not 1 i kely that North AA1erican societies will abandon "manifest destiny" as an article of faith and broader agreements with greater civil works will ultimately emerge. Feasibility studies for massive diversions have been done for James Bay, most northern Ontario rivers, the entire drainage of the prairie provinces and western NWT, the Yukon, and B.C. The Saskatchewan-Nelson Basin Study, an example of such studies, suggest numerous possible combinations of 54 dams arx:t diversions in this one drainage basin to effect the southward redirection of presently northward flowing waters (Figure 3). The Garrison diversion controversy is a good recent example of the chemical and biological problems which water aivers1ons can pose to fisheries. \_~ .. / / ::' l AK( WIHNll"l"G,OSI$ 10 .Ul"Plfl .1:S$IH1t!OIN( a1vtR • • - OIVlHSIO~ QU'"'f'PHll Rl\IO 10 SOUftlS RtvlM 01VlRS10H ~XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 86 124 Summary Although the alternative uses of water such as hydroelectric generation and water supply may conflict, it seems secure to project the past trends of water resource development through the year 2000. To the year 2000 major diversions for consumptive water use appear unlikely but hydro development will proceed apace. In the longer term, 50-100 years, major diversions for water supply will occur. Full development of Canada's hydro potential alone would mean total control of Canada's major rivers and the flooding of 1-2% of the total land area of Canada. Even if hydro development was restricted to existing watercourses, the seasonal distribution of discharge would be forever altered. If river diversions, either for hydroelectric or water supply purposes, become a necessary feature of Canada's water management, major relocations and alterations of Canada's inland fisheries resources will be effected. Prior experience with the effect of impoundment on fisheries resources, which has largely been acquired in more southerly temperate and tropical latitudes, has proven non-transferrable to the only well-studied northern Canadian reservoir, Southern Indian Lake. Future projects of the effects of impoundments and other physical impacts in northern Canada will require application of research and experience gained in the northern Canadian environment. 125 4.7 Problems of Global Scale G. J. Brunskill The Problem: The future of Canadian economic progress, political stature, and fisheries/environmental sanity probably depends more upon the decisions and activities of other nations than on internal Canadian desires. International demands for water, food, and energy by technologically advanced countries and desperate, populous, less developed countries will increasingly constrain Canadian choices and life styles. Combustion of coal in Europe and USA, deforestation in Brazil, desertification in Central Africa, and redistri bution of fresh water resources wi11 have direct or indirect effects on Canadian fisheries and fish habitats~ Canadian contributions to global technological and scientific problems should be made known, and should be used as a tool of foreign affairs policy for the benefit of Canada. Fisheries and Oceans should support a corps of global thinkers whose responsibility is to: "EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 93 126 a) Consider present scientific, economic, and social trends pertinent to aquatic sciences for the purpose of anticipating global and national crises in fisheries and fish habitat research and management; b) Consider and improve the nature, amount, and quality of scientific and technical aid to other countries; c) To advise scientific and management staff of possible future problems, international responsibilities, and global research programs pertient to Canada's well-being, and; d) To promote and organize participation and representation of OFO on international and global panels, debates, and research projects. To my knowledge, DFO and FWI have not used scientific and technical aid to other countries and international organizations as a major instrument in global and foreign affairs. Scientific expeditions to Lake Tanganyka by FWI staff allowed research to contribute to potential human food supplies in a region of malnutrition and starvation. The problem, planning, and fund raising were done by .,.1orking scientists with real knowledge of the region and the lake (Hecky et al .., 1981). Historically, Canadian participation in international programs (UNESCO, OECD, WFO, CIDA, CUSOi, FAO, IBP, MAB) has been important and rewarding, but it is not cl ear if a useful feedback of information, trade, arri envirorrnental knowledge has occurred (Kerwin, 1981). Most environmental insults to Canada, derived from foreign countries (acid rain, C02• Hg, Arctic Haze, pesticides in the world ocean, bomb fallout), are little studied here, much less as a global pattern. The number of internationally cooperative networks of monitoring station arrays for environmental problems in Canada is small, compared to its land area and variations in climate. Canadian waters and lard are an easy and -~XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 94 127 unmonitored target for international pollution, and its large fishery potential is at risk. Need for Concern: Potential Effects: Lack of consideration of 1 arge scale global processes in Canadian and DFO planning will result in ineffectual use of manpower, expertise, and information and will delay national responses to large scale crises. Loss of productivity from fisheries, forestry, agriculture, manufacturing trades, social services, and export industries will result from failure to anticipate global effects of short and long-term climatic changes, atmospheric variations, natural and man-induced hydrological alterations, intensified agriculture, the extraction, use, and waste of energy sources, and unregulated population growth. Industrial growth, regulated only by ~he world market, will contribute to 1) large scale alteration and pollution of continental water balances, 2) extinction of 20% of known species of organisms, 3) erosion, depletion, and salinization of agricultural soils, 4) wastefu'l and environmentally harmful uses of energy and resources, 5) decreased quality and quantity of fresh foods, 6) increased urbanization and centralizatfon, 7) changes in atmospheric chemistry and world climate, 8) deforestation, and 9) contamination and biological alterations in all of the world's estuaries, coastal waters and inland seas (Gabor et al. 1978; Barney, 1980). Canadian waters support the world's largest fishery, much of which is not yet exploited, and most of which is not caught or utilized by Canadians. Inefficient, wasteful, and unnecessary exploitation of fisheries and aquatic habitat resources is counter productive in a world where such a wealth of water is rare. The potential benefit to Canada of assisting less fortunate countries to feed and water themselves fran their own resources is greater :XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 95 128 than political credit in the world aid game: it protects, preserves and enriches our own resource pool (Berlinguet, 1981). Knowledge of the environmental consequences of energy source options for USA, Europe, Asia, USSR, Africa, and South America will affect the political and econanic path of Canadian development, and will shortly affect Canadian fisheries and aquatic habitats. Extensive development of large arrays of solar energy collectors in the northern hemisphere would affect the thermal equilibrium of the continents, due to the retention of energy normally reflected as long-wave radiation. Regional and hemispheric temperatures would rise, shifting agricultural zones and hydrological cycles. By intelligent study, modelling, and experimental testing of Canadian fishery and aquatic habitat problems, Canadian science and technology could. contribute to the alleviation of disease, starvation, malnutrition, and water shortages in countries less well endowed with water, food, and energy sources. The exponential increase in exportation of Canadian food, energy, water, and non-renewable resources should at least be accompanied by an examination of the potential of Canadian-assisted, selfhelp policies in impo~t4ng countries, and of the regional and glob al consequences of continued waste of these precious items. Area and Extent of Habitat Affected: In the case of climatic change, the areas of greatest effect would be the Polar, Arctic, subarctic and Antarctic regions of the world. Warming, cooling, or greater oscillations in climate would affect oceanic circulation and current paths, sea level, agricultural zones, distribution of aquatic or ganisms and their diseases, transportation and communications. Changes in atmospheric chemistry will lii<.ely be g1obail_v Jis~ribu-ced. Technological alterations in the continental distribution of water would change regional climates and continental heat budgets, ~ncrease soil erosion :XTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 96 129 and soil deterioration, and cause extinctions and explosions of aquatic species abundance, increases in transmission of water borne diseases, loss and gain of aquatic habitats and fisheries. These effects are most likely to appear in Western Canada and USA, North Africa, and Australia. Energy-source exploitation, processing, and transportation will have greatest effects in remote and 1imited access regions of the world because all easily obtained en.ergy sources are now being depleted or are abandoned. In Canada, major oil fields are available for exploitation in the Arctic seas and nearshore areas, and off the Maritime Provinces' coasts. Coal deposits are abundant in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan, the Dakotas, Wyaning, and Montana. Uranium is abundant in northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba, along the west coast of Hudson Bay, in the western USA, Australia, and South Africa. Energy-use effects will be most apparent in regions of intensive agriculture, urban centers, and industrial parks. These nearby regions are the east and west coasts of southern Canada and USA, and the St. Lawrence Great Lakes region. Intensification of food production will occur in all arable lands and waters. Multiple and new uses of aquatic resources will put different stresses on food chains and biogeochemical cycles. Easily assessible world ocean and coastal fisheries production will likely decrease because of habitat pollution, alteration of hydrological cycles, and overexploitation. This will force the fishing fleets into new and less productive waters, such as the Arctic seas and Hudson Bay, where the energy industries have already set up camp. Posi tive research and management approaches to fish protein production will be re quired for internal demands and to assist protein deficient countries. Future Trends: Global organizations and industries will increase in importance and power in the near future. Countries allied to international organizations of "EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 97 130 research, industry, conmunications, and government will gain increased prestige and economic advantage as wel1 as incredsed respons10111t1es to assist less developed countries and to try to monitor and correct global problems. There will be increased funds and expertise available to attempt to solve and/or study global problems. Canada is wealthy in land area, food, water, energy. Many high technology societies (USA, Europe, Japan) and all less developed countries are becoming increasingly desperate for clean water, food, energy, and a place to live in peace. This imbalance suggests that Canada is a likely target for massive exploitation to serve other countries• interests. The Canadian export industry should develop nationally in consultation with ecologists, economi?tS, international governments, social scientists and regional governments. Worth of Resource: The following items are of value: 1. Preservation and enrichment of national resources and the quality of 1 ife; 2. Assisting to understand and remedy imbalances in the distribution of food, water, energy, and population in the world, in order to secure a stable global environment; 3. A positive and aggressive Canadian identity in global affairs,and a responsible role in monitoring and solving environmental problems of the globe; 4. Increased value of Canadian exports, because of simultaneous export of technological and scientific assistance to designated countries; 5. Avoidance of loss of GNP and future resource legacy due to: a) uncontrolled and non-Canadian exploitation of resources, b) lack of knowledge ~EXTNAME: p.campbell (R)P: 98 131 of other countries' resource utilization rates, and consequences of resource waste, and c) 1 ack of preparedness of national response to long-tenn global changes caused by man or nature. Socia 1 Impacts To assist less developed countries in reducing population growth, starvation, malnutrition, disease,and to improve food and water supply are ways to avoid war and gl oba 1 imba 1 ances. It is necessary for government, scientists, industry, and the public to understand that global issues and global environment problems require direct and serious involvement by Canadians, and that such involvement is for the purpose of avoiding environmental problems in Canada that originate in other countries. Lack of this kind of involvement perpetuates the dismal image of the timid Canadian being "resource raped" by the multinational industries. REFERENCES Barney, G. O. (Study Director). 1980. The Global 2000 Report to the President of the US. Environment Projections and the Government's Global Model. Pergamon Press, New York, 360 p. (Vol .l). Berlinguet, L. 1981. Science & technology for development. Science 213: 1073-1076. Bolin, B. 1981. Interactions of biogeochernical cycles. Nature 293: 434. Gabor, o., u. Colombo, A. King and R. Galli. 1978. Beyond the Age of Waste: a Report to the Club of Rome. Pergamon Press, Toronto, 237p. Hecky, R.E., E.J. Fee, H.J.Kling, & J.W.M. Rudd. 1981. Relationship between primary production & fish production in Lake Tanganyika. Trans. ,~rn. Fish. Soc. 110: 336-345. Kerwin, L. 1981. International science - an overview. Science 213: 1069-1072.