Personality Type and Religious Orientation in the Religious and
Life Satisfaction of Muslirns and Christians
Al-Noor Mawani
A Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies
in Partid Fulfilment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Atts
Department of Psychology
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Manitoba
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Personaiity Type and Reügious Orientation in the
Religious and Life Satisfaction of Musiims and Christians
BY
AI-Noor Mawani
A ThesidPracticum submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University
of Manitoba in partial fulfdlment of the requirements of the degree
of
Master of Arts
Permission has been granted to the Library of The University of Manitoba to lend or seiï copies of this thesis/practicum, to the National Library of Canada to microfilm this thesis/practicum and to lend or selI copies of the flh, and to Dissertations Abstracts International to publish an abstract of this thesis/practicum.
The author reserves other publication rights, and neither this thesidpracticum nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author's written permission. Religion and Satisfaction 2
Table of Contents
Abstract ...... 5
Introduction ...... 6
JungonReligion ...... 7
JungandPersondity ...... 12
Religiosity ...... 16
Research Related to Jung's Typology ...... 17
Religious Orientation Research ...... -23
Religious Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction ...... -27
Research on Personality Type and ReIigious Orientation ...... 32
ThePresentStudy ...... 3313
Method ...... 36
Participants ...... 36
Materials ...... 37
Procedure ...... 41
Data Analyses ...... -42
Results ...... 44
Descriptive Statistics ...... 44
Hypothesis Testing ...... -52
Supplemental Analyses ...... -62
Discussion ...... 63
Intrinsic Religious Orientation and Religious Satisfaction ...... 65 Religion and Satisfaction 3
Int~sicReligious Orientation and Life Satisfaction ...... 66
Exminsic Religious Orientation and Religious Satisfaction ...... 67
Extrïnsic Religious Orientation and Life Satisfaction ...... 68
Religious Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction ...... 69
Cross-Religious Findings ...... 70
Jungian Personality Typology ...... 72
Replication and Extension of Previous Research ...... 78
Limitations ...... 81
Implications ...... 84
FutureResearch ...... 85
Conclusion ...... 88
References ...... 91
Appendices ...... 100
A. Dernographic Questionnaire ...... 100
B . Keirsey Bates Temperarnent Sorter ...... -101
C . Age Universal 1-E Scale ...... IO6
D . Spiritual Well-being Scale ...... 109
E . Life Satisfaction Scale ...... -114
F. Outline of Information to Cover In Training Survey Adrninistrators ...... -115
G. Inforrned Consent Form ...... 217
H-DebriefingSheet ...... 118
AuthorYsNote...... 123 Religion and Satisfaction 4
List of Tables
Table 1 - Summary of Descriptive Statistics for Entire Participant Sample (N = 181) . . -45
Table 2 - Sumrnary of KBTS Personality Dimension Statistics (N = 18 1) ...... -47
Table 3 - Descriptive Statistics for Religious Orientation by Religious Affiliation
(N=181) ...... 48
Table 4 - Descriptive Statistics for Classification of Religious Orientation Groups .... 50
Table 5 - Sumrnary of Standard Multiple Regression Analysis for Potential Covariates of
RW(N=l57) ...... 53
Table 6 - Summary of Standard Multiple Regression AnaIysis for Potential Covariates of
LS(N=159)...... 54
Table 7 - Multivariate Analysis of Covariance of Transformed RWB and LS Scores
(N=107) ...... 56
Table 8 - Multivariate Analysis of Covariance of Transfonned RWB and LS Scores
(N=114) ...... 58
Table 9 - Tukey's HSD Post Hoc Comparisons of Transformed RWB Scores for
Individual Religious Orientations with Data fiom Analyses Incorporating KBTS
PersondityTypes(N=107) ...... 60
Table 10 - Tukey's HSD Post Hoc Comparisons of Transfonned RWB Scores for
Individual Religious Orientations with Data fYom Analyses Incorporating 1 / E
PersonalityTrpes~=114)...... 61 Religion and Satisfaction 5
Abstract
Based upon Iungian theory, this study investigated the interaction between
personality type (PT; Keirsey-Bates Temperament Sorter) and religious orientation (RO;
Age Universal Intrinsic/Extrinsic Scale) as conveyed by the Ievel of religious satisfaction
(Spirituai Weil Being Scale) and life satisfaction (Satisfaction With Life scale). Seif-report
surveys hm183 Muslim and Christian university students were analysed using a
MANCOVA statistical design. While the predicted interaction was not found, intrinsic
RO was found to be associated with higher levels of reIigious satisfaction than extrinsic
RO. Religious satisfaction was found to significantly correlate with life satisfaction. No
differences due to religious affiliation were found. A mediating fùnction for religious
satisfaction between religious orientation and Iife satisfaction was suggested. ImpIications for Jung's theory of the universaiity of religious experience were discussed. Religion and Satisfaction 6
Personality Type and Religious Orientation in the Religious and
Life Satisfaction of Muslims anci Christians
Religion has always had an incredible impact upon society Recent Gallup poils
conducted in the United States have indicated that 95% to 99% of adult Americans daim
a belief in God (LukoE, Turner, & Lu, 1992). Other researchers have found that religion
constitutes an important factor in understanding a person's psychological makeup (Maitby
& Lewis, 1996). Research, though sparse, has indicated that religious învolvement can help promote and maintain mental health (Ryan, Rigby, & King, 1993). However, the method by which religion has this impact upon the well-being of the individual has not been fiilly investigated and is therefore poorly understood. Car1 Jung, based on his considerable clinical expenence as well as his extensive understanding of world cultures, acknowIedged and articulated the fùndamental importance of religion and its role in the development of the psyche of the individual (Jung, 1958). Jung related psychologicai development to religious experience in the lives of al1 people, regardless of their race or religion. Hïs theory conceptualized religious experience as a part of the development process of an individual's personali~.Jung's theov also described the personality types, a classification system that is firndamental to understanding the individual's religious experiential tendencies. Understanding an individual's personality type provided insight into how that person perceived and interpreted the world, including religion. Other researchers studying the area of religious onentation have developed a theoretical mode1 together with a descriptive account of an individuai's onentation to his or her religion
(Allport, 1966; Allport & Ross, 1967). These researchers described how an individual Religion and Satisfaction 7
perceived and interacting with their faith. This research study will examine Jung's
persondity typology and Allport and Ross' religious orientation scale and their
relationships to religious and life satisfaction. This study will explore whether these
effects are similar across Christian and Muslim religious traditions, as Jung wouId have
predicted.
Jung- on ReIi~on
In The Structure and Dvnarnics of the Psvche (1947/198 1)' Jung outlined his
conception of the composition of the human psyche. He posited the existence of both the
conscious and the unconscious, differentiating between that which is personal and that
which is collective in nature. The personal consciousness is that which each of us are
aware of in Our daily Lives. The personai unconscious consists of that which, one way or
another, escapes Our conscious awareness. For Jung, the persona1 unconscious serves
another fùnction, that of comecting each human being to the collective unconscious, a
part of the human psyche which al1 humanity has in common and where the archetypes are
to be found. Archetypes are unconscious predisposing, organizing principles that have a
psychic life of their own. They emerge into the world of the individual via the personal
unconscious as painted by the individual's life expenences. For Jung, these archetypes are
at the root of religious experiences. Paimer (1 997) States that, according to Jung, a religious experience is the "experience by the individual of that aspect of his [or her] own psyche that is primordial, archetypal and collective?' (p. 150). This religious experience is the individual's experience of the collective unconscious, an encounter that al1 human beings are likely to have in one form or another. Indeed, Jung found this phenornenon to Religion and Satisfaction 8
be so gobai and cross-cultural that he posited the existence of a religious instinct (Jung
l936/1968; Matoon, 1981). Jung claims that "the religious need longs for wholeness, and
therefore lays hold of the images of wholeness offered by the unconscious, which,
independently of the conscious mind, rise up fiom the depths of our psychic nature" (Jung,
1952/1958, p. 469). The religious experience then is outside the conscious control of the
individual, is expressed cross-culturally and is common to both genders.
Jung noted that the direct mystical experience of the divine can be an intimidating, if not overpowering, expenence (Jung, l947/198 1). For this reason, Jung saw organized religious institutions as serving a protective fùnction, mediating the process of direct experience of the collective unconscious with intermediary syrnbols that allow the individual to apprehend the religious content of the collective unconscious without being ovenvhelmed by it. He therefore believes that the use of ritual symbols in a religion is that religion's way of allowing members the experience of the divine while safeguarding individuals from an overwhelmingly archetypal experience. Jung felt that, while reiigious experience mediated by ritual symbols was one way by which to understand religious experience, it was not always a desirable way of mediating the religious experience (Jung,
1958).
Jung saw religious institutions as a buffer between the individual and the raw power of the religious experiential source (Jung, 1958). These institutions establish a system of syrnbols that provide the individual believer with selected, pre-ordained syrnbols and allow groups of people to share common religious experiences, that then fom a bond between congregants This guided experiential path provides the adherent with a travelled Religion and Satisfaction 9 road toward communion with the deity. However, Jung felt that in, exchange for this established approach, as these symbols evolved over time, they lost co~ection- and power and meaning - to the original source. It therefore fell to the clergy of the institution to maintah the relevance and the power of the symbots. Consequently, the leadership acquired substantial power in directing and guiding the congregation in its spiritual pursuits- Also, the experience of the divine as mediated by the institutional symbols blocked the individual from fiilly appreciating the true nature of the divine source.
For Jung, the experientiai value and definition of syrnbolic matenai are dependent upon the religious milieu, but the raw essence that these symbols depict is the same for ail people, regardless of time or place. Whether one is of Eastern or Western cultural background or religious tradition, the archetypal core meanhg of the experience is the same, stemrning fiom the sarne collective source and uniSrin= al1 humanity with this archetypal presence. Western traditions are, according to Jung, more apt to set icons and images that externalize the religious search. Eastern traditions, in Jung's rnind, are enviable since the syrnbols they offer encourage individuals to engage in persona1 search and to experience the power of the collective unconscious. Indeed, Jung postulated that, central to al1 archetypes of the collective unconscious, is the archetype of the Self
The SeLf archetype for Jung represents the universal essence of that which gives meaning to religious experience. Jung claims that it is "this archetype from which we cm no longer distinguish the God-image empirically ... the archetype of wholeness occupies as such a central position which approximates it to the G~d-irnage~~(p. 469). James Heisig discusses the God archetype and its equivalence to the Self archetype in his book Imago Religion and Satisfaction 10 -Dei (1979). Heisig ties together the elements of wholeness, Self and God: "Now, the
'wholeness of man7 [and woman] is nothing other than what Jung cds the 'Self_' Hence his final judgment: the image of the Selfis 'not a substitute but a syrnbol for the deity"' (p.
53). Wholeness, the Self and the deity are therefore symbolically equivalent in Jung's conceptualization The syrnbols that mediate the unconscious-conscious dialogue bring meaning and grounding for the expression of these archetypes in the self-actudizing psyche of the individual.
Evidence of the existence of this archetype can be found in the sirnilarities between of religious symbols that exist in the various religious traditions. The Judaic and Christian traditions (predominant in the West) can be seen as having syrnbols for the self or the God within, in Yahweh and Christ, respectively (Edinger, 1996). The symbois of Atman and
Brahrnan, a part of Hindu tradition, also cm be interpreted as symbols of the Self
(Crowley, 1998). The story of Moses and El-Khidr can be cited as an example of an encounter with the Self archetype in the Qu'ran (Jung, 1956/1967). Further, Buddhism has its central leader, Buddha, who represents the search for imer enlightenment and, from a Iungian perspective, contact with the Self archetype (Crowley, 1998). To Jung, these were different religious paths and syrnbolic images for the same process, the process of discoverhg the Self Once discovered, the ego, that is, who we consciously think we are, must negotiate a connection with this Self and, once comected, the ego will have access to the unconscious, a source of energy and vitality (Edinger, 1972). The Seifis the wellspring from which religious experience emerges. Since the Self is cornrnon to dl humanity, the ongins of religious experience were for Jung the sarne across al1 faiths; Religion and Satisfaction 1 1 however it is the specific symbolisrn and rituals that distinguish the religions fkom each other. For ttus reason, Jung posited that a core religious experience would be a cross- cultural phenomenon.
Within the Jungian fkamework, the drive toward wholeness (recognized as such or not) represents the urge of every individual to recognize the presence of and the orienting fùnction of the Self archetype. This Seif archetype is the source of al1 religious expenences and the variety of deity images present in today's world religions. Each image presents a different path by which a person cm corne into contact with the Self archetype.
The image of choice for anyone is persona1 and is directed in part by the preference that individual has for personal, individually- oriented experiences versus prescribed, ritualized experiences. The symbols that mediate the religious experience should fit the person's religious need. Edward Edinger has written extensively on the psychic system that Jung proposed. In his book, Ego and Archeme (1972)' he makes the point that meaning denves fiom the conscious understanding of the syrnbol. Understanding the symbols and recognizing the source brings meaning and direction to the experience of life. Jung wrote,
"Among al1 my patients in the second halfof life ... there has not been one whose problem in the last resort was not that of finding a religious outlook on 1%' (Jung, 1932/1958, p.
334). Jung saw a religious attitude as central to the devetopment of personality in later life. Further, Victor Frankl(1997) has written extensively about the satisfaction and direction that meaning cm bnng to a person's life. In his book, Man's Search For
Ultimate Meaning (1997)' Frankl outiines his objective in logotherapy as bringing the individual into an awareness of his or her spiritual side. This connection with the spiritual Religion and Satisfaction 12 is the source of meaning and purpose for the individual. For Franki, it is through the pursuit of meaning that humanity can attain satisfaction.
The experience of religion, as well as of lifè in general, is in part dependent upon the personality of the individual. From his rich knowledge of historical attempts to describe personality, as weli as his keen powers of observation, Jung (1 92 l/KV 1) devised a rich descriptive system by which one can classe an individual's personality type.
Jung and Personalitv
In order to cleariy understand the individual's perception and interpretation of relision, a clear descriptive system with which one can classi@ personality types is vital. in descnbing the personality in terms of type, Jung describes how different personality types experience encounters with the outside world dong with the collective unconscious in very different ways. These differences are important to understanding encounters with the diversity of experience that exists within the religious domain.
Jung delineated three components in his theory of personality types- The primary component, that which Jung referred to as attitudes, refers to the extroverted and introverted types. The extroverted type refers to a personality that is objectively onented and which seeks energy fiorn its environment. The extrovert is a person tuned into his or her surroundings, infiuenced by and Mshing to influence in retum, the environment- The introverted type, on the other hand, is inwardly directed, seeks self-knowledge and is driven by intemal States. The introvert dislikes anything that is large-group onented, prefemng instead to be alone and dohg tfüngs in his or her own way (Jung, p. 550).
These two attitudes determine the general orientation the person takes towards oneself Religion and Satisfaction 13
and the world.
Jung also descnbed two types of finctions, rational and irrational, that play a part
in how we process infiormation. While the attitude determines the orientation of the
personality, the functions determine how the information is processed once it is presented
(Jung, 1921/1972)-
The irrational functions, of which there are two, describe how a person receives
information. The sensing fùnction involves the senses. The sensation type experiences the
external and intemal world in a very concrete manner. This type is attuned to the physical
manifestation of experiences which provide a concrete perception to the mind (Jung,
1921/1971, von Franz, 1986). Intuition, also an irrational hnction, is in touch with the unconscious side of the psyche. ''Intuition is the function that mediates perception in an unconscious way" (Jung, 192 l/lWI, p. 453). The intuitive type has an ccinstinctual apprehension" and yet is unable to "explain or discover how this content came into existence" (p. 453). These two functions deal with intemal and extemal realities, actual or potential in nature (p. 553).
The rational functions, thinking and feeling, involve deciding what to do with the information once it has been received. As descnbed by Jung, the rational finctions use reason to organize and discriminate between things. The thinking type discriminates content on the basis of logic and analysis. The feeling type discriminates based upon one's personai values and the individual worth attributed to the psychological content. While the thinking type involves conceptual grouping based upon conscious rules, the feeling type involves the discrimination of content based upon subjective acceptance or rejection, Religion and Satisfaction 14 an evaluative process.
These two attitudes and four fbnctions, as Iaid out by Jung in his work on personality typology, comprise Jung's approach to classmng dl individuals' methods of perceiving and understanding experiences. The attitude in combination with the functions provides the psychological type of the individual, which aids in describing how a person apprehends information about him or herselfand the environment. Jung wrote that one function usually develops into a dominant position in consciousness (Jung, 192 I/lW 1).
The op posite fiinction, called the idenor fùnction, remains undeveloped and unconscious.
The remaining functions are only partially developed, and the better developed of the two, known as the auxiliary function, assists the dominant fùnction to varyïng degrees. Thus we have a dominant fùnction associated with the ego, assisted by the auxiliary fùnction, and opposed by the iderior fùnction that is associated with the unconscious- This classification system of persondity type, and the placement of the functions therein, was used by Jung to explain how the personality of an individual operates. It seems reasonable that this classification system could be extended to the perception of religious experiences.
Marie-Louise von Franz describes and fùrther explains the placement and operation of the functions in the psyche. For example, in Jung's Tv~oIow(19861, von
Franz outlines the preferred mode of apperception of the various types induded in Jung's typology. She describes how the dominant tùnction is well-versed and practised while the idenor function is slow and CCinfantile"@. 8). She fûrther explains that the polished dominant fùnction, because of its well-developed nature, is preferred by the individual.
Due to this preference, the inferior hnction is often avoided and undeveloped by the Religion and Satisfaction 15 individual. Von Franz goes on to describe the potentidly destructive effects an experience can have upon an individuai when that experience is outside the preferred dominant mode of experiencing. Such an experience can grip the personaiity of the individual and shake the core of that person's belief structure- As quickly as possible, the individual will reinterpret such an expenence and attempt to explain and control the experience with the dominant fùnction. This preference for the dominant type of apprehension extends to religious experiences. An experience that is in keeping with the dominant mode of apprehension will likely be weIi-understood and grasped. On the other hand, an experience that is outside of this dominant mode will be misundersiood and viewed with suspicion (von Franz & HiUman, 1986). It seems reasonable to conclude that this match or mismatch will have an effect upon the satisfaction that an individual wili feel in relation to his or her attempts to understand religious syrnbols.
An example can be found in von Franz's Aurora Consurgens (1957/1966). Here, von Franz describes an experience of Thomas Aquinas, in which Aquinas struggles with a religious experience that enters his consciousness in the form of a vision. For Aquinas, a thinking type, this experience entered his awareness via his infetior feeling function. He tries to understand this experience with his dominant thinking fknction and has trouble grasping the tme rneaning of his vision. Aquinas is ultimately able to make sense of his experience but not without difficulty. In this analysis, von Franz gives the reader an idea of the kind of turmoil that can ensue when an experience impacts upon an individual in a rnanner that is outside his or her dominant personaiity finction. The result is an experience that cmbe disturbing. This example aiso shows the need to understand a Religion and Satisfaction 16 person's perception of his or her religion as an important part of understanding how a reiigious experience will be interpreted. An appreciation of the place that religion holds in an individual's life is important for understanding the person's interpretation of the experiences they gain fiom their interaction with that religion-
Re1ig;iositv
Jung investigated religious experience and symbols in an attempt to understand the working of the human psyche. Central to this understanding is the individual's particular way of experiencing his or her environment and imer self. Some wish for the structured and traditional symbols employed by many religions today. Others prefer more individualized, personally-meaninal symbols. In studying this aspect of religious orientation, religiosity becomes a centra1 component to understanding the individual's perception of his or her religion.
For many years, attempts have been made to define how a person sees and interacts with his or her religious group. One of the earliest accepted attempts to measure religiosity was made by Allport in 1950 (Leak, Gardner, & Pounds, 1992). In his work,
Allport defined religiosity as having two orientations: intrinsic, in which the person sees religion as an avenue for personai search and learning, and extrinsic, in which the person sees religion as a means to achieving some other goal such as statu, power or sociability
(Allport & Ross, 1967). There are different ways in which a person may wish to manifest his or her religious beliefs. Those with an intrinsic onentation see their religion as taking them toward a path of personal search and exploration, whereas those with an extrinsic orientation see their faith as serving other purposes, such as gaining a sense of community Religion and Satisfaction 17
and group cohesion. This dichotomy is an alternate, yet a similar, method of identwng
and categorinng the dserent paths that Jung recognized people may take in their
orientation to religion. An example can be drawn fiom the paralIel that seems to exist
between personality type and retigious orientation. The intrinsic religious orientation
seems simiiar to the inward focus of the introverted personaiity type, while the extrinsic
orientation seems to paralle1 the outer focus of the extroverted personalitty type- We see
then, that while religion (and the range of religious experiences offered by that religion) is
important to the person, religious experience cannot be properly understood without an
understanding of the person7spreferred mode of experience and its relationship to
personality type.
Research Related to Jung's Tvpolo.~
Jung's theory of personality has provided a basis for a wide variety of personality
type measures, foremost of which is the Myers Briggs Typology Indicator (MBTI)
developed by Myers and Myers-Briggs (1980). in addition to the attitudes and fiinctions
identified by Jung, they identi@ a fourth dimension. This fourth dimension, judging versus
perceiving, classifies people according to how they deal with information fiom their
environment. Judging personality types look for closure and paths with an end result,
preferring definitive courses of action with known results. They are likely to make
decisions quickly. Perceiving personality types enjoy open-ended and indefinite paths.
They look for multiple oppomtnities and enjoy ambiguity. The perceiving type tends to
keep decisions open and resists decision-making for want of more information. The addition of this fourth dimension into this personality typing scheme gave sixteen Religion and Satisfaction 18 possibilities for personality types, each with its own description.
Keirsey and Bates have expanded upon the work of Myers and Myers-Briggs.
Using data collected fi-om years of their own clinical practice, as well as data f?om the
Myers-Bnggs Type Indicator, Keirsey and Bates (1984) pinpointed combinations of fùnctions that were relatively more usefiil than others in describing the behaviour of people. Keirsey and Bates found that certain fùnctions, when grouped together, descnbe important aspects of people's behaviour. In their research, they found that the sixteen possible personality types that codd be attained fiom the MBTI could be grouped into four supra-groups: the sensing-perceiver, the sensing-judger, the intuitive-thinker and the intuitive-feeler. They found that having classified people into one of these four supra- groups, the other two descriptive attributes could provide information regarding the differences of individual's within the groups, while still maintaining the important sirnilarities within the supra-group.
Two pairs of supra-groupings are described in Keirsey and Bates' book, Please
Understand Me (1984), which led to the development of the Keirsey-Bates Temperament
Sorter (KBTS). A study conducted by Tucker and Gillespie (1993) found that almost two-thirds of individuals taking the MBTI and the KBTS corresponded on al1 four-letter classifications and that a tùrther 22% differed by only one letter, thus underscoring the sirnilarities between the MBTI and KBTS. The Keirsey-Bates sensing-judging types (SJ) were found to be tradition-bound and service-oriented. They are Likely to be involved in traditional institutions and uphold traditions in their family lives as well. They are likely to be comrnunity-service oriented as this would give a sense of belonging and purpose. Their Religion and Satisfaction 19 opposites, the intuitive-feeling types (NF) on the other hand, are more involved in the search for their true imer selves. They are likely to join groups that encourage meditation and promote self-actualization. The NF types seek harmony within their inner selves and inner experiences (Keirsey & Bates, 1984).
The second dimension, according to Keirsey and Bates (1984), places sensing- perceiving types on one extrerne and intuitive-thinking types on the other. Sensing- perceiving types (SP) are described as action-oriented with free wills. Uninterested in senous goal-setting, they are described as fun-loving risk-takers. They charge their environment with their energy and live for the day. Intuitive-thinkers (NT) are internally motivated and driven. They have a hunger for power over nature and rety upon that which makes sense to them on a gut lever. They are unlikely to accept the word of authority, wishing instead to know things for themselves, first-hand.
This four-fold classification system has been used as the basis for fùrther theorizing in the area of penonality type and religious aniliation. Oswald and Kroeger (1992) examined how pastoral care workers service and numire a variety of congregations by rnatching the pastor and congregation according to this classification system. Pastors with personaiïty types that were similar to the personality type of the congregation were shown to be more effective at providing support and guidance in a manner that the congregation appreciated. Oswald and Kroeger recommended delivering religious guidance that was in keeping with the dominant personaiity style of the congregation. That is, if the congregation was SP in orientation, then the pastor best suited for its rnembers would also be SP in personality style (i-e., action onented and grounded in the senses). Pinpointing Religion and Satisfaction 20 and delivering religious guidance in the congregational members dominant personaiity style was considered sirnilx to conversing in the same language- Congregationd members react best to religious guidance that is in keeping with their dominant personality type.
Optimally, members of a particular congregation would perceive their religion as providing a path that they can understand and follow. Oswald and Kroeger show that this congruence starts with having a religious leader that is of a sirnilar personality type to the congregation.
Kelsey (1982) described how children born into families that were of an opposite dominant personality type were treated as "black sheep". He relates a varie6 of research and reviews about how children can be motivated by designing tasks that are congruent with their dominant personality type. Kelsey concludes that relating to the dominant personality mode is an effective method of realizing results in a variety of fields, including religious ventures. Mulholland (1 993) gives examples of how- to develop the dominant function through the use of various forms of prayers. His prescription is to develop the dominant type and then rnove to strengthen the associated type in order to have greater versatility and enhanced success in one's religious search.
Grant (1989) has used the Keirsey groupings to show how the four Gospels in the
Bible relate to the four different types. He descrÏbes how each Gospel is compatible with, and shows developmental potential for, a particular Keirsey supra-group. Practising the diEerent Gospels would help develop the SJ, SP, NT and NF in each person. For Grant, each personality type needs to mature as the personality develops and the practice of each
Gospel can aid in this process. Grant's work shows that it is possible to take elements of Religion and Satisfaction 2 1
the Bible and apply them in a marner that complements each of the dominant personality
styles that Keirsey and Bates delineated. His work also shows that, within the Gospels,
each personality type can find writings that can be understood and enjoyed.
These authors have extended the current theoreticai knowledge in the areas of theology and persondisr typing by providing road maps that might aid the congregationd
member in findimg a religious path that would confer the greatest level of spiritual satisfaction. However, these authors have not included the attitudes of introversion and extraversion in their work, leaving unanswered the question of the importance of these attitudes for religious experience.
Spiegelman, Khan, and Femandez (199 1) authored a book descnbing the development of personality From a Jungian and an Islamic perspective. This book outlines the similarities that exist between Islamic conceptions of personality development and the
Jungian process of individuation. Unfortunately, these authors do not examine the role of penonality typology in the developmental process. This subject of individuation is outside the scope of this research and their work is mentioned here as the only book found that relates Jungian psychology to Islam,
It would be usehl at this point to summarize the similarities that exist between the personality type groupings of Keirsey and Bates and the religious orientations of Ailport.
From the earlier descriptions, each of the dflerent personality-type groupings seem to parallel each of the two religious orientations. It seems plausible that the SP and the SJ types would most Iikely express an extrinsic religious orientation. The SP type has been described as fun-loving and socially-oriented, whiie the SJ type has been descnbed as the Religion and Satisfaction 22
traditiond, community-service volunteer. The SP type enjoys the world and treats it as a
stage, changing action as the situation dictates. The SJ type is dutiful and works for the
bettement of the community. Both of these descriptions fit the extrinsic religious
orientation description of religion serving a social or organizational knction, as well as
serving as an avenue for the attainment of status. In contrast, the NF and the NT types
would likely express an intrinsic religious orientation. The NF type iistens to an imer
voice and attempts to be authentic to him or herself. The NT type is self-contained with a keen insight and sharp intellect. The NT types appear detached and distant fiom others as they attempt to focus upon the problem at hand. Given the NF type's search for imer harmony and the NT type's reliance upon that which resonates at a deep interna1 level, it seems reasonable to conclude that these types would wish for the internal-search orienration encouraged by the intnnsically oriented religion. This research will explore the match between these personality descriptions and the religious orientations, with the prediction that each match as just descnbed will enhance an individual's religious satisfaction and overaIl IXe satisfaction. Religious satisfaction and life satisfaction will be discussed in a later section.
As can be seen, empincal cross-religious research fiom a psychological perspective is lirnited, especially that which relates to the Islamic religion. In a review of the literature, studies surveying Muslim followers using Jungian theoretical constructs have not been conducted, with one exception (Mawani, 2998). This researcher conducted a cross- religious study assessing and comparing the religious orientation and personality typology of Muslim and Christian groups using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Religious Religion and Satisfaction 23
Orientation Inventory. This research will be discussed afier the following section on
religious orientation. Despite an extensive literature search, no research has been found
relating Jung's personality types to different reiigious orientations or relating Jung's
personality types to religious weli-being and Iifie-satisfaction measures.
Reliqious Orientation Research
As mentioned eariier, Allport defined religious orientation as having two aspects,
one intrinsic in nature and the other extrinsic in nature. To measure these dzerent
orientations, Allport and Ross (1 967) designed the Religious Orientation Scale (ROS) .
Hood (1971) subsequently revised this scale in an atternpt to increase its reiability and
vdidity. Since then, other authors using the ROS have found that the extrinsic scale
contains two identifiable subscales: the socially-oriented extrinsic and the power-onented
extrinsic (Kirkpatrick, 1989). These two subscales maintain the original definition of the
extrinsic scale but give fùrther information about dimensions of the extrinsic orientation.
Another, more recent addition to the conceptuaiization of religiosity has been made by
Francis (1 989), who developed the Attitude Toward Christianity Scale. This scale measures a person's attitude toward certain aspects of the Christian faith, such as the church, the Bible, God and Jesus (Maltby & Lewis, 1997).
This scale has been used in several recent cross-cultural studies. Wilde and Joseph
(1997) adapted the Francis scale for Muslim populations. It is important to note that the
Francis scale and its Muslim adaptation assess whether a person sees his or her faith as favourably or unfavourably helpïng in his or her life, as opposed to the ROS,which assesses a person's religious orientation. Notable, however, is Wilde and Joseph's (1997) Religion and Satisfaction 24
finding that Muslim and Christian groups both showed a similar pattern of results.
Positive attitudes toward religion were associated with Iower psychoticism scores
(controlling for social desirability) as measured by the Eysenck PersonaIity Scaie. No
sigpificant correlations with other measured scales were found in this study. Maltby,
Talley, Cooper, and Lewis (1 995) reported an important difFerence between the Francis
scale's working definition of religiosity and Allport's working defuùtion. In their article,
Mdtby et al. (1995) state that
Francis and Wilcox (1994) . . . used Brown's (1987) distinction between private
and public expressions of religiosity. Brown (1987, p. 148) suggesti that these
IWO religious orientations differ fiom the intrinsic and extrinsic orientations
towards religion, as both the personal and public expressions may each encompass
both the intrinsic and extnnsic orientation towards religion. (p. 158)
Given this difference, research involving the ROS will be discussed in this review.
The ROS has been a dominant measure of religious orientation despite issues concerning validity and reliability, and researchers have eequently adapted the original scale rather than discard it. The first revision of the ROS was suggested by Gorsuch and
Venable (1 983). The Age Universal LE scale uses the same questions as the ROS but with simplified language. This scale was revised again by Maltby and Lewis (1996), who proposed and tested changes to the instructions, sconng system and one of the questions.
In the review by Maltby and Lewis, the newly revised scaie received more favourable results when compared to the original version in two main areas: first, significantly more questions were answered by non-religious persons taking the survey; and second, the Religion and Satisfaction 25 revised instructions yielded better reliability and factor structures for both the Intrinsic and
Extrinsic scales. Maltby and Lewis conclude that 'khen the samples examined are not necessarily religious, or the religious salience of the sample is unknown to the research, the revised format could be used" (p- 945).
Aside Erom research conceniuig the scale itse[f, Ailport and Ross's reiigiosity theory has seen a great deal of application in the area of prejudice and religion as well as in the area of mental health and religious affiliation. The research review that follows indicates that the orientation that a person has toward religious experience is of importance when looking at the relevance of religion to coping with stress and dealing with difficult circumstances in life (e-g. Kass .Friedman, Lesserman, Zuttenneister, &
Benson, 199 1; Maton, 1989; Ryan et al., 1993).
In a study conducted by Richards (1994)' the relationship between intrinsic religious orientation and religious well-being was exarnined. Richards found that intnnsically oriented scores were positively correlated with reIigÏous well-behg scores.
This study surveyed first-year psychology students and ttiis sample selection was noted by the authors as limiting the generalizability of the results. However, this research encourages the exploration of the link between religiosity and well-being.
Kass et al. (199 1) stated that a "core spiritual experience may contribute to positive psychological attitudes" (p. 209). They also contended that "core spiritual experiences may also contribute to a reduction of medical syrnptoms and to irnproved quality of lXe" ( p. 209). These researchers used the Index of Core Spiritual Experiences
(INSPIEUT) to measure the occurrence of spiritual experiences relating to the presence of Religion and Satisfaction 26
God in Christian participants. The researchers found INSPIEUT to be positively related to intrinsic religious orientation and life satisfaction, which was to be expected, given that the
INSPIEUT measure was designed to paralle1 the intrinsic factor of the ROS. Extrinsic orientation was not assessed and so no conclusions can be made regarding the association between the extrinsic orientation and life satisfaction. This study only used medicd outpatients as the sample group, which turther restricts the applicability of this research.
This research is, however, informative in that it indicates that an int~sicreligious orientation cm have a positive bearing upon an individual's life satisfaction levef.
Maton (1989) studied the relationship between spiritual support and well-being as measured by positive self-esteem and an absence of depression. Spiritual support, as measured by the respondent's experience of God, was found to be inversely related to depression and positively related to self-esteem in people with high life stress (loss of a child within the previous two years). This relationship was not found in people with Iow life stress (loss of a child more than two years ago). The survey was given to self-help bereavement groups, with varying degrees of experimental controls dunng survey-taking
(some filled out the survey with the researcher present whiIe others took the survey home and mailed it back). This restricts the applicability of the resuIts. Also, the self-selective feature ofgroup support may have aEected the results of this research. However, Maton did find spiritual support to be important in feelings of welI-being for those having suffered recent grief
In summary, Wilde and Joseph (1997) found that Muslim and Christian groups perceived their religion in sirnilar ways. Intrinsic religious orientation was related to Religon and Satisfaction 27 increases in reiigious welI-being (Richards, 1994) and to increases in tife satisfaction (Kass et al., 1991). Maton (1989) found that spiritual support is related to feelings of well-being during times of high stress. These studies show then, that while a relationship between religious experience, religious orientation and satisfaction level seems to exist, much more research is needed.
While there has been a fair amount of interest and research in the area of religiosity, this research has focussed upon variables other than those found in Jung's theory of personality type or religion. Given the depth and richness that Jung's theones could lend to the area of religosity, it seems that this area would be a hitful one to explore. Furthemore, cross-religious research using AlIport and Ross' ROS or the Age
Universal 1-E scale is lacking, especially research comparing the major religious systerns of
Islam and Christianity.
ReliGous Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction
In the writings of Franki (1997), we have a description of the importance of meaning to an individual's sense of satisfaction and happiness. The relationship that
Jung's psychology has to an individual's satisfaction is indicated by an excerpt fiom
Memorïes. Dreams. Reflections (1961/1989), in which Jung writes, 'The moment at which light comes is God. That moment brings redemption, release . . . . The longing for light is the longing for consciousness" (p. 269). For Jung, each su~serepresents the power of newly-discovered parts of the unconscious to deliver the individual frorn the dark. Here we see that psychologically, for Jung, the attainment of greater levels of consciousness is equated with the religious idea of the attainment of a comection with God. Further, the Religion and Satisfaction 28
increased level of consciousness and the experience of the Self archetype provide a vital connection to the source of meaning in a person's Ise. As unconscious contents of the psyche are increasingly made conscious, the individual gains greater awareness and feels more fiilfilled.
Empirical research in the area of life satisfaction has been plentfil, but religious satisfaction, which some might see as a subset of life satisfaction, has received less empincal attention. In an extensive review of the literature on transpersonal scales,
MacDonald et- al- (1995) found that only one of the twenty transpersonal construct measures they were able to review had a subscale or component measuring religious well- being or satisfaction. This scale, the Spiritual Well being Scale (SWBS) has a ten-item
Religious Well-Being subscale. This subscale defines religious well-being as a "sense of well-being in relation to God" (MacDonald et. al., p. 2 19). Similar, but less precise, definitions have been used by other researchers in the development of other spirituality scaIes (e.g. Ekins, Hedstrom, Hughs, Leaf, & Sanders, 1988; Hood, 1975). Research on the reliability of the SWBS has shown that the entire scale, as well as the subscales, have produced favourable test-retest and interna1 consistency reliability (which will be discussed in detail later) and that, although the factorial vaiidity of the measure has been questioned by some researchers, the religious well-being subscde has been shown to load on a single factor. Lukoff, Turner, and Lu (1993) reported that the SWBS was highly used in research on physical well-being and adjustment to chronic illness. They stated that "it has become the most widely used instrument for assessing spiritual well-being, second only to
Aliport and Ross's Intnnsic-Extrinsic Religious Orientation Scale" (p. 17). Other validity Religion and Satisfaction 29
measures, such as construct validity and content validity, have proved to be hi&.
Relevant to the proposed research, Paloma and Pendleton (1990) used survey
information fiom a general survey of redents fiom Akron, Ohio, to look at various facets
of quality of We, including religious satisfaction- The survey asked general questions,
composed by the researchers themselves, relating to satisfaction with religion as weii as
three other facets of life satisfaction: negative affect, existentid well-being, and happiness.
These researchers found that religious satisfaction shared a positive relationship with life
satisfaction simiiar to satisfaction with fnends and work. Once the effects of education
and income were controlled, the study showed a trend indicating that religious satisfaction
predicted life satisfaction. This survey sarnple was composed of 79% Catholic or
Protestant participants with the remaining 2 1% representing smaller Christian or Jewish
groups together with a very srnaIl number of other religious groups. No separate analysis
was conducted using the data Eom these smaller religious communities. This sample
makeup restricts the generalizability of the results both geographicdy and culturaiiy.
However, this study does suggest the potential importance of religious satisfaction as it relates to life satisfaction. No study was found relating the Spiritual Weli Being Scale, of which the Religious WeIl-being scale is a part, to life satisfaction.
Life satisfaction has received more research attention and various scales have been developed. The most cornmonly used definition in the research literature on Me satisfaction was presented by Shin and Johnson (19781, who defined life satisfaction as "an overall assessment of an individual's quality of life according to [his or her] chosen criteria. Judgements are based on a cornparison with a standard which each subject sets Religion and Satisfaction 3 0
for himherself" (Neto, 1994, p. 94). Satisfaction is seen, then, as a self-assessed cognitive judgement about whether a person considers himself or herseifto have a quality of life that surpasses his or her own expected standard. Lewis, Bunting, Shevlin, and
Joseph (1995) reviewed the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWL) of Diener, Emrnons,
Larsen, and Grsen (1985), which built upon this definition of Iife satisfaction. The scale was constructed in response to a need for a multi-item measure of life satisfaction as a cognitive-judgmental process (as required by the definition of lie satisfaction). Since then, the scale has been validated, shown to be reliable, and widely used by researchers.
Other scales that have been created either have not shown the sarne unidimensionaiity of the SWL scale or are psychometrically unproven at present. These include the Perceived
Life Satisfaction Scale (PLSS) by Adelman, Taylor, and Nelson (reported in Huebner &
Dew, 1993) and the Student7sLife Satisfaction Scale by Huebner (2991, 1994). At present, the SWL is the best life-satisfaction scale available,
SWL research has sampled various populations with prornising results. Arrindell,
Meeuwesen, and Huyse (1 99 1) surveyed outpatients in the Netherlands and found the
SWL to be reliable and valid. Intemal consistency was reported to be 0.87. The sale was found to be significantly negatively correlated to ail scales on the Syrnptom Checkiist-90-
Revised (SCL-9042) with correlations ranging tiom -0.33 to -0.56. Greater reported life satisfaction was associated with lower reported psychological dficulties. Also, these researchers found that married participants scored significantly higher on the SWL than single or divorced participants. Neto (1993) extended these hdings of reliability and validity to a group of Pomiguese adolescents, and Lewis, Bunting, Shevlin and Joseph Religion and Satisfaction 3 1
(1995) found evidence of the reliability and validity of the SWL in a sample of Irish
undergraduate students. It would seem then, that the SWL is a valid measure of Life
satisfaction with participants of different nationalities. Lewis et al (2995) found that life
satisfaction accounted for 85% of the observed variance in the SWL, and that the data
fiaed a single-factor mode1 of life satisfaction. Lewis, Lanigan, Joseph, and Fockert
(1997) looked at the relationship between religiosity (as measured by the Francis Scale of
Attitude Towards Christianity) and life satisfaction, but did not find a significant
reIationship or evidence that religious people are happier. However, it is noted in the
article that research in this area is inconsistent in its findings and that the
operationalization of life satisfaction may have aEected the resuIts. It cm be seen then,
that various studies have explored the dimensions of life satisfaction within different
groups of people and personality characteristics. However, research in the area of life
satisfaction and religious orientation is needed.
Hemnger (1 998) studied extraversion (as dehed by activity, assertiveness,
excitement-seeking, gregariousness, positive emotion and warrnth) in Arnerican
undergraduate students fiom California State University. These characteristics of
extroversion are based on Eysenck's theory of personality and not that of Jung's. He
found extraversion to be positively correlated to life satisfaction for the entire sample.
While similarities exist between Eysenck's and Jung's theories of extraversion, this study did not assess introversion. To date, no study has been found that has looked at Jung's personality types, Allport and Ross's religious orientation, and life satisfaction. Religion and Satisfaction 32
Research on Personalitv Twe and Reli~ousOrientation
This researcher conducted a cross-religious study on Jungian personaIity types and religiosity (Mawani, 1998). ln this study, university students of the Muslirn and Christian faiths were sunteyed using the Myers Briggs Type Indicator and Allport and Ross's
Religious Orientation ScaIe @OS). Mushand Christian participants who had expressed higher extrinsic religiosity also expressed more extroverted personality types, while those members with lower expressed extrinsic religiosity were found to express more introverted personality types. Participants in more scripturally-oriented religious groups were more extrinsic and participants in more personal-search type groups were less extrinsic in nature. This result was found with both MusIim and Christian religious traditions. The intrinsic scaie did not correlate with religious orientation or personality type.
Unexpectedly, the members of the Muslim faith were significantly more extrinsicaily oriented than members of the Christian faith.
One of the limitations of this study was that the groups surveyed were smalI in size, ranging fiom seven to eighteen group members each. Further, participants were members of religious organizations which may have selected for participants that vaiued an extrinsic reiigious orientation prior to the cornmencement of the study. Finally, one of the Muslirn groups was composed of males only. It is therefore necessary, given the limitations outlined, to be careful in generalizing the hdings of this study. However, thk is the only study this author is aware of that attempts to shed Iight upon the interplay of
Jung's personality typology and religious orientation. In generd terms, this study showed that sirnilanties cm be found between a person's personality type and their religious Religion and Satisfaction 3 3 orientation. This finding was shown to be true of people fiom both Muslim and Christian faiths.
The finding of congruence between the personality type and religious orientation can be expected to lead to increased levels of religious and Me satisfaction. However, not al1 members of a religious faith show the sarne congruence. Some mernbers expressing an exninsic religious orientation are introverted personality types. Given the hypothesis that personality type influences the preferred mode of religious experience and practice, we can theorize that perhaps these people do not find the same level of religious or life satisfaction as those mernbers of the community who do show this congruence. This is another research issue that this study will attempt to explore.
The Present Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between personality type, religious orientation, and religious as well as life satisfaction. From a Jungian standpoint, the personality type directs the manner in which information and experiences, including religious experiences, are processed by the individual. This experiential preference can take a variety of forms ranging f7om insight-oriented, personalized experiences to objectively-oriented, group advocated experiences. The religious orientation of the individual indicates how the individual sees his or her religion as fùnctioning in his or her life. An intrinsicdly oriented person sees his or her religion as providing a personalized, internal-search orientation while the extrinsically onented person sees his or her religion as providing an externalized, group-sanctioned orientation. Jungian theory and research, limited as it is, suggests that congruence between personality type and religious orientation Religion and Satisfaction 34
would Iead to greater harmony than incongruence, regardless of the faith of the individual
(be it Christian or Muslirn). It is therefore expected that those participants with a religious
orientation that is in keeping with their personality type would demonstrate a higher level
of religious satisfaction than those who display an incongruence between religious
orientation and personality type. Congruence is dehed in the following manner: those
participants with an intuitive-thinking or intuitive-feeling personality type would be more
Iikely to have an intrinsic religious orientation; those participants with a sensing-judging or
sensing-perceiving personality type would be more likely to have an extrinsic religious
orientation. The same pattern of congruence can be expected fiom the personality
attitudes as defined by Jung but not included in the Keirsey-Bates classifkation system:
introverted personality types being more IikeIy to have an intrinsic religious orientation;
extroverted personality types being more likely to have ar, extrinsic religious orientation.
The novel nature of this study called for an emphasis of the extremes of the religious
orientation scaies, in order to rnagnie the relationships that were expected to exist. This
emphasis on the extremes also facilitated the grouping of participants into religious
orientation groups. Religious satisfaction and iife-satisfaction, measured by the religious-
wefl-being sub-scale of the Spirituai Well Being Survey and the Satisfaction With Life
Survey, respectively, were assessed. Little research has been conducted linking these two
variables, and this will be another unique contribution of this study.
Given the fundamental nature of religious experience as described by Jung, two
religious perspectives were included in this study. Participants from Muslim and Christian religions were surveyed in order to assess the simïlarities that exist in religious experience Religion and Satisfaction 3 5
between these twO religious traditions- Jung described the common source of reiigious
experience that people of dl backgrounds have in cornmon. Jung theorized that this
source would find expression in the images of the world7sreligions. He posited that each
religion would have a different set of symbols that represented the same source of
religious experience. It was therefore theorized that, while the superficial symbols of the
Muslirn and Christian faiths would dBer, the experience of the underlying source would
be sirnilar, regardless of the individual's religious affiliation.
This study tested the folIowing hypotheses. No differences due to gender or
religion were expected.
Hypothesis 1. lndividuals with a dominant personality type that is conpous with
their expressed religious orientation as measured by the ROS will show higher levels of
religious satisfaction than individuals whose dominant personality type does not match
their expressed religious orientation.
Hypothesis la. For individu& whose dominant personality type is SP or SJ, those
individuals expressing an extrinsic religious orientation will have higher religious
satisfaction scores than those individuals expressing an intrinsic religious orientation.
Hypothesis lb. For individuals whose dominant personality type is NF and NT, those individuals expressing an intrinsic religious orientation WU have higher religious satisfaction scores than those expressing an extrinsic religious orientation.
Hypothesis lc. For individuals whose dominant personality type is extroverîed, t hose individuals expressing an ext rinsic religious orientation will have higher religious satisfaction scores than those individuals expressing an intrinsic religious orientation. Religion and Satisfaction 36
Hypothesis Id. For individuals whose dominant personality type is introverted,
those individuals expressing an intrinsic religious orientation will have higher religious
satisfaction scores than those individuals expressing an extrinsic religious orientation.
Hypothesis 2. It is hypothesized that a similar pattern will be found as stated in
hypothesis 1, for scores on life satisfaction.
Hypothesis 3. It is hypothesized that religious satisfaction scores and life
satisfaction scores wiIl show a significant positive correlation.
Method
Participants
Approximately 180 undergraduate university students were recruited for this
study. The Muslim participants were recruited fiom religious groups meeting on campus
at the University of Manitoba and the University of Alberta1. At the University of
Manitoba, members of the Muslim Student Association (MSA), a Sunni Muslim group,
were asked to volunteer for this study. At the University of Alberta, members of the
Ismaili Students Association (ISA), a Shia Muslim group, were asked to volunteer for
participation in this study. The Christian participants were recruited fiom student groups
meeting at the University of Manitoba. These groups included students f?om St. Paul's
College, Mennonite and Lutheran students meeting at the chaplains office, and Navigators,
Population size of the two cities is similar, Edmonton being 862. 597 and Winnipeg being 667, 209. Average family income is also quite similar, Edmonton being $54,83 9-00 and Winnipeg being $49,6 19-00. Immigrant population base is similar, Edmonton being 18.2% and Winnipeg being 17.3% (Colombo, 1997). Religion and Satisfaction 3 7
an evangelically oriented Christian student group- AU student groups participated on a
voluntary basis for the benefit of the research and did not receive remuneration for their
participation.
Materials
Participants were first be asked to answer a demographic questionnaire (Appendix
A) which solicited such information as age, gender, citizenship, marital status, religion,
education level, SES, length of time with the student group, affiliation with the religious
group via birtti or conversion, and location of participant.
Given that the personality type groupings used in this study are those of Keirsey
and Bates, the Keirsey-Bates Temperarnent Sorter (KBTS) was used to assess the respondent's personality type (see Appendix B). The KBTS has 70 questions with scaies for introversion-extraversion, thinking-fieeling, sensation-intuition and judging-perceiving.
These fùnctions are paired opposites and the test uses a forced choice format. The introversion-extraversion scale is comprised of 1O questions. Each of the other scales for sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling and judging-perceiving have 20 questions per scale. An example of a question Rom this survey is "Are you inclined to be A) easy to approach, or
B) somewhat reserved". Answering A would indicate an extroverted type, while answe~gB would indicate an introverted type. Each answer is worth one point toward that particular scale. The points are added for each scale and the type detennuled by which function in the pair has the highest score. The supra groupings are made by first looking at the SNsubscale and finding the dominant fùnction. Ifthe individual has a higher S score, then he or she was grouped as SJ or SP depending upon the which of the J Religion and Satisfaction 3 8 and P scores are higher. A similar process is utilized for the N dominant types substituting
TE instead of Jff.
Cronbach alpha reliability scores for the scales were as follows: 0.74 for the I/E scaie, 0.89 for the S/N scale, 0.87 for the TE scale and 0.88 for the J/P scale. Comparing the KBTS to the MBTI in an assessment of the scales construct validity, Quinn, Lewis and
Fischer (1992) found Pearson correiations of the following magnitude: 0.73 on extraversion, 0.73 on introversion, 0.67 on sensing, 0.66 on intuition, 0.54 on thinking
0.74 on feeling, 0.62 on judging and 0.62 on perceiving. These authors also found that each of the type sub-scales were independent of each other. Tucker and Gillespie (1993) found Pearson correlation scores between the KBTS and the MBTI were 0.76 on EA,
0.84 on SN, 0.68 on T/F and 0.73 on J/P, indicating that both tests appear to be measuring the same constmcts. The validity of the KBTS in relation to the MBTI was aIso explored by these authors. They found that 62% of respondents taking both the
KBTS and the MBTI corresponded on the four-letter classification system while 22% differed by one category, 15% differed on two categories and 2% differed on three categories. In cornparison to the MBTI, it would appear that the KBTS is as valid as the
MBTI and a more than adequate assessment tool of Jung's personality types. The vdidity of the two-finction supra-groupings has not been extensively tested. In a study of death concerns and midlife-crisis identification, Waskel(1994) found that sensing-judging personality types heId similar attitudes towad death, as did intuitive-feeling types. The researcher noted however that little research is available in this area and that fbrther research is needed to corroborate the findings. Religion and Satisfaction 39
The Age Universal LE questionnaire (see Appendix C)was used to measure
intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation. The language and directions were developed
to facilitate the answering of questions by a variety of age groups as well as people whose
religious mation is unknown. The scale comprises twenty questions, eight of which are
intrinsicdy oriented and twelve of which are extrinsically oriented. An example of an
extrinsically stated question would be, '? go to church because it helps me make fiends."
An example of an intrinsically stated question would be 'Tt is important for me to spend
time in private thought and prayer." This scale asks that responses be given on a three-
point Likert scale ranging from 'Wo" (given 1 point) to "not certain" (2 points) to Tes"
(given 3 points) in terms of agreement for each religious orientation. The higher the
score, the greater the level of expressed religiosity. The person's religious orientation was
determined by first splitting the entire sarnple into low and high intrinsic (or extrinsic)
religious orientations using a median split method. Those individuals having high extrïnsic
scores and low intrinsic scores were grouped as extrinsic. Those individuals having high
intrinsic scores and low extrinsic scores were grouped as intnnsic. Those with hi& scores on both intrinsic and extrinsic subscales were grouped as high on both scales while those that score low on both orientation subscales were grouped as low on both.
Maltby and Lewis (1996) reviewed the new Age Universal VE questionnaire in comparison to the old version and found that the new scale provided more answered questions and greater reliability. Test-retest reliabiiity measures were found to range from
0.80 to 0.89 for the E scale and tiom 0.83 to 0.88 for the 1 scaie. Coefficient alpha was calculated for the revised questionnaire and found to range from 0.87 to 0.91 for the Religion and Satisfaction 40
Intrinsic scale and fiom 0.82 to 0.90 for the Extrinsic scale (this in cornparison to coefficients in the 0.65 range for the original scale). The Intrinsic and Extrinsic scales were found to be either negatively nonsign correlated.
Religious satisfaction was measured using the Religious Well-Being sub-scale
(Appendix D) of the Spiritual Well Being Scale (SWBS; Ellison, 1983). It is a ten-item scale responded to by using a five-point Likert scale ranging Eom Strongly Agree (given 4 points) to Strongly Disagree (given O points). Higher scores indicate greater levels of religious satisfaction. The scale questions were modified to reflect to both Christian and
Musiim religious traditions. Separate forms were distnbuted to participants with appropriate reference to God or Allah according to religious affiliation. A sample item fkom this scale is '1 have a personally meaningfùl relationship with God (Ailah)." Test- retest reliability scores were found to range from -73 to -99, dera variety of time intervals ranging from one to ten weeks. Interna1 consistency as measured by coefficient alpha was found to range f?om -78 to -94 (Brinkrnan, 1989; KirschIing & Pittman, 1989;
Paloutzian & Ellice, 1982 as reported in MacDonald et al., 1995). Validity for this scale was reported to be strong when correlated with indicators of well-being, positive self- concept and good emotional adjustment (MacDonald et al., 1995). Factor anaiysis has shown that the Religious Well-being items load onto one factor (Bufford, Paioutzïan, &
Ellison, 199 1 as reported in MacDonald et al., 1995).
Life satisfaction was rneasured using Diener's Satisfaction With Life (SWL) questionnaire (Appendix E)- This scale has been most widely supported in the fiterature.
This scaIe has seven items measunng the respondent's self measured satisfaction with life. Religion and Satisfaction 4 1
A sample question would be "The conditions of my life are excellent." The respondent is
asked to use a rating scale ranghg fiom I (strong disagreement) to 5 (strong agreement).
Items 3 and 5 are worded in a negative fashion such that agreement would indicate
dissatisfaction with life and are reverse scored. Kigher total scores indicate greater
satisfaction with life. Lewis et al. (1995) reported a coefficient of determination of -85,
with factor loadings ranging form -66 to -83. The interna1 consistency coefficient was
found to be -73 as reported by Neto (1994) and -87as reported by Arrindell et al. (1991).
The current research adds to the validity findings of this scaie.
Procedure
Participants of this study were asked to convene at a quiet meeting room at their
respective university. Mutually agreeable meeting times were arranged with each
participant. A research assistant, experimentaliy blind to this study, read from a standardized questionnaire information sheet (Appendix F) which introduced the participants to the study. The participants were informed that their participation was completely voluntary and that they could conclude their participation at any point during the study. The research assistant also stipulated that guestio~aireswould be kept at a secure site and that only the advisor, researcher and assistant would have access to them.
Participants were informed that each questionnaire would be coded and that al1 information would be kept coniïdential. The participants were then asked to read and sign an informed consent (Appendk G) form indicating their wiiiingness to participate.
Following collection of the consent foms, the research assistant handed out the questionnaire packages which included the KBTS, the Age Universal I/E scaie, the SWB Religion and Satisfaction 42 and the SWLS in counterbatanced order. Counterbalancing was formatted in such a way that the fist fom had the KBTS first, the Age Universai I/E questionnaire second, the
SWBS third, and the SWL last. The second form had the Age Universal I/E questionnaire first, the SWL second, the KBTS third, and the SWBS last. Once the questionnaires were filled out, the participants were asked to deposit the questionnaires back into the envelope in which they were received and to seal the envelope, again to ensure confidentiality. The research assistant then explained the debriefing form (Appendix H) to the participants.
Data Analyses
The first level of analysis included descriptive statistics on the variables mentioned in this study, including the demographic data obtained on age, gender, marital status and religion. Each scale was assessed for the presence of homogeneity of variance and normality. No significant deviations were expected.
The second level of analysis tested for potential covariates including age, gender, citizenship, marital status, religion, education Ievel, SES and conversion to or born into the faith of the group. A regession anaiysis was used to assess for significant covariates, using the RWB and the SWL as the dependant variables. Demographic variables and the order of the tests were tested as predictors. No significant covariates were expected-
The third level of analysis tested the main hypotheses of this study. Each individual was classified into one of the four personality groupings mentioned in the literature- A 4 (SJ, SP, NF, NT) by 4 (high int~sicand low extrinsic, high extrînsic and low intrinisic, high on both, low on both) MANCOVA was nin using the religious satisfaction scores and the Me satisfaction scores as dependent variables and including Religion and Satisfaction 43
significant covariates, ifany, identifled in the second level of anaiysis. It was expected that
for persons of the SJ and SP personality types, extrinsicaily oriented individuals would be
found to have significantiy higher religious satisfaction scores than intrinsicdy oriented
individuals. It was also expected that for individuals of the NF and NT personality types,
intrinsicaliy onented individuals would be found to have significantly higher religious
satisfaction scores than extrinsically onented participants. Significant results were
followed by subsequent Tukey HSD tests to determine the exact nature of the differences,
Lastly, each participant was classified as introverted or extroverted. A 2 (introvert,
extrovert) by 4 (high intrinsic and low extrinsic, high extrinsic and low intrinsic, high on
both, low on both) MANCOVA was run with religious satisfaction scores and life
satisfaction scores as the dependent variables and including signitïcant covariates fiom
level two of the analysis. Extroverted personality types expressing an extrinsic religious
orientation were expected to have higher religious satisfaction scores than extroverted
persondty types expressing an intrinsic religious orientation. Introverted personality types expressing an intrinsic religious orientation were expected to have higher religious satisfaction scores than introverted personality types expressing an extrinsic religious orientation. Again, Tukey's HSD tests were utilized to determine the exact nature of the significant differences found.
The third leve1 of analysis included the calculation of a Pearson correlation coefficient to test for any relationship that existed between the religious satisfaction scale and the life satisfaction scale. A significant positive relationship was expected to exist. Religion and Satisfaction 44
Results
Descriptive Statistics
A tota! of 183 university level participants were surveyed, of which 92 were male and 87 were fernde. The participants were surveyed during the months of March and
Aprïl, toward the end of the school year. Seventy percent of the participants were found to be 17 to 23 years of age, while 29 percent of the participants reported being 24 years of age or ove?. Of the 183 participants, 124 reported their religious filiation as Christian and 59 reported as Muslim. The majority of participants were single, Canadian students of
Christian faith. The majority of participants reported being bom into their piesent faith and eamed less than $10,000 per annum. Descriptive statistics for other demographic data can be found in Table 1. Gender and religious filiation data were collected for ail participants. However, some participants did not provide some of the other requested demographic data. The number of participants omitting some demographic data are dso included in Table 1. These participants were not included in the analyses that involved the variables for which these participants did not provide data. A 2 x 2 MANOVA
(participants providing all demographic data x participants providing incomplete demographic data) was calculated. No significant difference on RWB or LS was found between participants that did and did not provide demographic data (Wilks' lambda F (2,
176) = 0.762,~= -468)-
Personality was rneasured using the Keirsey Bates Typology Survey @BTS).
'The age group of 24 includes those over 24 years of age since the demographic data did not distinguish age groups beyond 24 years of age. Religion and Satisfaction 45
Table 1
Summav of Descri tive Statistics for Entire Participant Sarnple (N = 18 1)
Variable -n -M -SD Missing data (n)
Education (years) 168 3 .O5 2.13 13
Marital Status
Sinsle
Married
Divorced
Common Law Conversion to Religion
Born into religion
Converted to religion Citizenship
Landed Immigrant
Other Income bracket
$0-9,999-00 116
$10,000 - 19,999 24
$20,000 - 29,999 10
$30,000 - 39,999 14
$40,000 - 49,999 6
$50,000 + 1 Religion and Satisfaction 46
Individual personality dimension summary statistics cm be found in Table 2. Of the 167
participants that could be dserentiated on the introversion / extraversion scale, 66 were
categorized as introverted and 98 were categorized as extroverted. Using the Keirsey
Bates supra groupings, 155 participants were further classified into one of the four supra-
groupings: 90 were classified as sensing-judging (SJ) types; 16 were classified as sensing-
perceiving (SP) types; 5 were classified as intuitive-thinking (NT) types; and 44 were
classified as intuitive-feeling (NF) types. Twenty-eight participants were not cfassified
into these groups because of equal scores on the S-N, J-P,or N-T scales of the KBTS
which prevented classification of the individuai's personality type into one of the SJ, SP,
NT, or NF personality types. Of note is the particularly smd number of NT types and SP
types in this study. The small group skes will be discussed as they related to the results of
this study.
Religious orientation was measured by the Universal VE Scale. Participant scores
for the intrinsic scale ranged £rom 8.0 to 24.0, with a mean score of 20.80 CSD = 3.26)
and a median score of 22. Extrinsic scores ranged fiom 13.0 to 32.0, with a mean score
of 20.15 (m= 4.07) and a median score of 20 (see Table 3). These scores are slightly
lower than published scores for Catholic and Protestant population samples (intrinsic scaie
range of 2 2.1 to 24.5 and extrinsic scale range of 28 to 30; Hutchinson et ai., 1998). No
published Muslim noms were found in the fiterature- Notable is the departure fiom normality as indicated by a skewness dueof -1 -32 and a kurtosis value of 1.29 for the
intrinsic scaie. Scores on each scale were divided at the median into high and low
categories in order to group participants, and normality was no longer an issue. Alpha Religion and Satisfaction 37
Table 2
Surnmarv of KBTS Personality Dimension Statistics W = 2 8 1)
KBTS Dimension -n Unclassified (nJ1
Introversion - Extraversion
Sensing - Intuition
Thinking - Feeling
Judging - Perceiving
' Participants were unclassified due to equivalent scores on both dimensions, so the participant could not be classified as one or the other. Religion and Satisfaction 48
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics for Relig;ious Orientation bv ReIi.g;iousMliation TT\T = 18 1)-
-M -SD Median Skewness Kurtosis
Intrïnsic
Muslim
Christian
Extrïnsic
Muslim
Christian 19 -27 3 -85 Religion and Satisfaction 49 reliability coefficient for the intrinsic scale was calculated to be 0-74 and for the extnnsic scale was calculated to be 0.63. These reliabiIity values are slightly lower than reported alpha values in the literature which are 0-87 for the intrinsic scale and 0.82 for the extrinsic scde (Maltby & Lewis, 1996). The median values for both the int~sicand extrinsic scales were approximately equal to the mean values. For the purpose of this study, each participant was grouped into one of four groups using a median split method so as to divide participants into equal groups and to maintain as many participants in the study as possible (see Table 4). Participants with scores equal to the median value were not included. Each participant was designated as above or below the median on the intrinsic and extrinsic scales. Participants were then grouped into intrinsic (Intr) if scores were high on the intrinsic scale and low on the extrinsic scale, extrinsic (Extr) if scores were high on the extrinsic scale and low on the intrinsic scale, high on both intrinsic and extrinsic (WiIE) or low on both intrinsic and extrinsic(LoIE).
The dependent variables measured were Religious Well-Being (RW),as measured by the Religious Well-Being subscaie of the Spiritual Well Being ScaIe, and Life
Satisfaction (LS) as measured by the Satisfaction with Life Scale. RWB scores were found to have a mean of 52-61 (SD = 7-92), a median score of 55 and a range of scores from 22 to 60. Means for the RWB scale reported in the literature range fiom 46.76 to
56-73 (Bufford, Paloutzian & ElIison, 1991). The distribution of the RWB scores were found to have a skewness of -1.07 (SE = 0.182) and a kurtosis of OS6 (SE = 0.361).
This departure fiom normality was corrected for purposes of data analysis by transforrning the RWB scores in order to satise the normality and homogeneity of variance requirement Religion and Satisfaction 50
Table 4
Descriutive Statistics for Classification of Reli.g;ious Orientation Grou~s.
Unclassified 0 Intrinsic High
Low
Extrinsic High
Low
Note. Unclassified participant's scores were equal to the median value. Religion and Satisfaction 5 1
of the MANCOVA tests for dependent variables used in the main analysis. Accordhg to
Tabachnick and Fidel (1996), the appropriate transformation for distributions with strong
negative skewness requires one to reflect and square root the scores in the distribution to
produce normality. This transformation was performed and the new distribution displayed
hproved normality as indicated by a new skewness of 0.34 (SE = 0.182) and kurtosis of -
0.802 (1= 0.361). Upon assessrnent of the distribution using a Q-Q plot of the RWB
scores, one outlier was more than 5 standard deviations away fiom the mean, and this
participant was dropped fiom the analyses. FoUowing transformation, the RWB scores
approxirnated a normal distribution, showed Iinearity, and displayed homogeneity of
variance. Alpha reliability was calculated to be 0.88, similar to published alpha coefficients which range fi-orn 0.82 to 0.94 (Bufford et al., 1991)-
LS scores were found to have a mean of 25-47 (SD = 5.5 1) with scores ranging fkom 7 to 43. One outlier was calculated to be more than 3 standard deviations away fiom the mean and this participant was dropped fiorn the analyses. The LS scores approxirnated a normal distribution, showed Iinearity, and dispIayed hornogeneity of variance. The LS distribution had a skewness of -0.812 (SE = -182) and kurtosis of 0.722
(SE = -359). The mean of this sample is similar to other group means (e-g., undergraduate population mean of 23 -5)in published literature (Ellison, 1983). Alpha reliability was calculated to be 0.83, which is comparabIe to 0.87 as found by Arrindell et al. (1991).
The Pearson correlation between the transformed RWB and LS scores was -0.241
( E < -001). The transformation performed upon the RWB data reversed the sign of the scores, so this correlation coefficient was also reversed for interpretation purposes. Religion and Satisfaction 52
Therefore, the obtained negative correlation actualiy indicates a positive relationship
between the reiïgious satisfaction scores and the life satisfaction scores, as was
hypothesized. This si@cant correlation between religious and life satisfaction, which
had been expected, necessitated a MANCOVA analysis to test the main hypotheses of this
mdy.
SAS 6.0 standard multiple regression was used to calculate potential covariates
fiom the demographic data with the transformed RWB scores and the LS scores as dependent variables, and an dpha of -05was used to determine signïficant covariates. The
potential covariates and results for transformed RWB scores are shown in able 5. For the transfonned RW8 dependent variable, no potential covariate was significant. For the
LS dependent variable, as indicated in Table 6, religious affiliation was the only significant variable accounting for 4% of the variance in the LS scores. Christian participants reported significantly greater life satisfaction than Muçlims (F = 6.00, Q < -05).
Accordingly, religious affiliation was entered as a covariate.
Hvpothesis Testing
This section will describe the analyses conducted in evaluating the main hypotheses of this study. An alpha level of -05was used for all statistical tests.
Hypotheses la, lb, 2% and 2b were tested together using an omnibus 4 x 4
(personality type x religious orientation) MANCOVA analysis with religious affiliation as a covariate and with the transformed-RWB scores and the LS scores as the dependent variables. Hypotheses la and 2a stated that, for individuals whose dominant personality type is SP or SJ, those individuals expressing an extrinsic religious orientation will have Religion and Satisfaction 53
Table 5
Summarv of Standard Multiule Rewession Analysis for Potentiai Covariates of RWB (N =
157)
Variable Beta
- - - - Form of survey 0-054 0-20 -02 -787 -0004
Gender -0.14 0.20 -.O6 -475 ,003
Marit al St atus O -28 0 -24 -10 -247 -009
Religious 0.25 0.23 .O97 -272 -008 AfEliation
Conversion -0.10 0-31 -.O3 -743 -0007
Age -0-02 0.07 --O3 -823 -0003
Citizenship 0.26 0.23 -10 -252 .O09
Income 0.05 0.10 .O5 -608 -002
Education -0.06 0.07 -.O98 -402 .O05
Note. Form of survey refers to the two forms of the original survey, which had questionnaires in counterbalanced orders, that the participants filled out.
*g < .O5 Religion and Satisfaction 54
Table 6
Surnrnarv of Standard Multiple Remession Analvsis for Potential Covariates of LS (N = r 59)
Variable Beta Adj. R'
Form 0-22 0.86
Gender 1.18 0.87
Marital Status O -43 I .O5
Religious -2.58 0.98 -0.23 0.01 * .O3 Affiliation
Conversion 0.55 1.32 0-04 0.67 .O0 1
Citizenship -1.51 0.98 -0.13 O. 13 ,O 16
Education 0.5 1 0.29 0-20 0.09 -02 Religion and Satisfaction 55
higher religious and life satisfaction scores than those individuals expressing an intrinsic religious orientation- Hypotheses lb and 2b stated that, for individuals whose dominant personality type is NF or NT (instead of SP or SJ), those individuals expressing an intrïnsic religious orientation will have higher religious and life satisfaction scores than those expressing an extrinsic religious orientation.
Religious affiliation was not a sianincant covariate (Wilks' lambda = 1.52,~=
0.23) (see Table 7). A significant multivarïate main effect for religious orientation was found accounting for 10.1% of variance across the dependent variables of RWB and LS
(partial eta'; Wilks' lambda (6, 180) = 3 -39, E< -01). A subsequent ANCOVA found a significant difference in transformed-RWB scores, but not LS scores, for religious orientation. Post hoc analyses examuled the significant main effect found between the religîous orientation groups and are discussed shortly. No signifïcant effect for personality type (Wilks' lambda F = 1.29, g = -26) or for the interaction of religious orientation and personality type (Wilks' lambda F = 0.64, = -85) was found. Therefore the hypothesized interaction was not supported.
Effect size calculated using partial eta2 showed a small effect size for religious orientation (partial eta' = -1l), personality type (partial eta2 = -041) and the interaction between personality type and religious orientation (partial eta2 = -054). Power was calculated to be 0.43, indicating only a moderate probability of detecting a real effect and that in general, only fifty percent of tirne, at best, would one be able to reject a nuil hypothesis when it was indeed false (Keppel, 1991).
In order to examine the significant dflerence found in transformed-RWB scores Religion and Satisfaction 56
Table 7
Muhivariate Anaiysis of Covariance of Transformed RWB and ES Scores (N = 107).
Source of Variation -df TransRWB LS
Covariates
Religious AfEiliation 1 3 -059 0.3 80
Main Effects
Religious Orientation (RO) 3 6,193** 0.9 13
Personality Type PT) 3 2 -723 OS45
Interaction Term
RO x PT 8 0.665 0.643
Error 91 (0.93 7) (33,326)
Note- Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square errors. TransRWB = transforrned RWB scores; LS = life satisfaction scores.
**Q < .O1 Religion and Satisfaction 57
between participants of different religious orientations, Tukey's HSD was used to
compare the transformed-RWB scores of participants from the four religious orientation
groups: Intr, Extr, HiIE, and LoIE. The Intr group were found to have significantly
higher religious satisfaction scores when compared to the Extr, LoIE, or HiIE groups (see
Table 8). No significant difference was found in cornparisons between the Extr group,
LoIE group, and the HEgroup.
Hypotheses lc, Id, Sc, and 2d, Iooking at the relationship between introverted /
extroverted personality types and religious orientation were tested together using a 2 x 4
(personality type x religious orientation) MANCOVA with religious filiation as a
covariate and with the transformed-RWB scores and the LS scores as the dependent
variables. Hypotheses Ic and 2c stated that, for individuals whose dominant personality
type is extroverted, those individuals expressing an extrinsic religious orientation will have
higher religious and Iife satisfaction scores than those individuals expressing an intrinsic
religious orientation. Hypotheses Id and 2d stated that for individuais whose dominant
personality type is introverted, those individuals expressing an intrinsic religious
orientation will have higher religious and life satisfaction scores than those individuais
expressing an extrinsic religious orientation. Religious affiliation was entered as the sole
covariate but was not significant in the MANCOVA analysis (Wilks' lambda F = 1.00, p =
-37).
As was found for the previous set of hypotheses tests, a significant multivariate
main efect for religious orientation was found accounting for 17.1 % of variability in both dependent variables combined (partial eta'; Wilks7 lambda F (6,208) = 7.238, ~c -001). Religion and Satisfaction 58
Table 8
Multivariate Analvsis of Covariance of Transfomed RWB and LS Scores (N = 114).
Source of Variation -df TransRWB LS
Covariates
Religious Affiliation
Main Effects
Relisious Orientation (RO)
Int rovert/Extro vert ((VE)
Interaction Term
ROxK
Note. Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square errors.
TransRWB = transformed RWB scores; LS = life satisfaction scores.
*"*p < .O01 Religion and Satisfaction 59
A significant difference in transformed-RWB scores was found between the reiigious orientation groups (Intr, Extr, LoIE, and HiIE). No significant differences were found in the LS scores (see table 9). Post hoc analyses examined the significant main effect found between the religious orientation groups and are discussed shortly- No significant effect for the introversion / extroversion variable (Wilks' lambda F = 0.72, p = -49) or for the interaction between religious orientation and introversion / extroversion (Wilks' lambda F
= 0.46, p = -84) was found. The hypothesized interaction between personality type and religious orientation was not supported.
Effect size was calculated using partial eta' values and were found to be O. 19 for religious orientation, 0.0 14 for personality type and 0.0 13 for the interaction between personaIity type and religious orientation. These effect sizes are very small. Power was calculated to be 0.17, indicating a low probability of detecting the srnaIl effect sizes present between these variables (Keppel, 1991).
In order to examine the significant difference found in transformed RWB scores between participants of different religious orientations, fùrther analyses were conducted.
Tukey7sHSD compared the transfomed-RWB scores of participants fiorn the four religious orientation groups. Participants cIassified in the Intr group were found to have significantly higher religious satisfaction scores than the Extr group and the LoIE group
(see Table 10). No significant difference was found in painvise cornparisons of the Extr,
LoIE, and HiIE goups. Religion and Satisfaction 60
Table 9
Tukev's HSD Post Hoc Com~arisonsof Transformed RWB Scores for hdividual
Relieious Orientations with Data from Analvses Incorporatinrr KBTS Personalitv T~es
(N = 107) -
Extrinsic Low-Low High-High
Extrinsic
Low-Low
High-High Religion and Satisfaction 6 1
Table 10
Tukey's HSD Post Hoc Cornparisons of Transformed RWB Scores for Individual
Reliqious Orientations with Data ftom Analvses Incomoratin~1 / E Personaiitv Tvpes
(N= 114).
Extrinsic Low-Low E-Figh-High
Intnnsic
Extrinsic
Low-Low
High-High Religion and Satisfaction 62
Supplernental Analvses
Further analyses were conducted in order to replicate a previous study by this
author (Mawani, 1998) and to test for potential associations between religious &ïliation
and the independent variables, introverted / extroverted personality type and religious
orientation. No significant relationship was found between religious atnliation and
personality type (i = -0.01, p = 0.93), between religious af£ïliation and religious orientation
(i = 0.17, p = O .06),or (for completeness) between personality type and religious orientation (+= 0.04, p = O -61). Therefore, religious miation was not related to personality type or religious orientation. In order to estirnate the similarity between
Christian and Muslim participantsyreligious satisfaction and life satisfaction scores, confidence intervals were caiculated for the difference in mean scores. The 99% confidence interval for religious satisfaction scores was calculated to be -0.15 to 0.30.
The confidence intewal for life satisfaction was calculated to be -0.18 to 4.08. Both of these confidence intervals include zero difference in scores. These confidence intervals indicate that in ninety-nine percent of statistical sarnples, there would be no significant difference in the religious satisfaction scores or Life satisfaction scores of Muslim and
Christian reIigÏous group rnembers.
Several statistical tests were used to analyse the data, so the probability of Type 1 error needs to be assessed. Two regression analyses were conducted in calculating covariates for the dependent variables and one correlation coefficient was calculated in evaluating the relationship between the transformed RWB scores and the LS scores. In addition, two MANCOVA analyses were conducted in testing the main hypotheses of this ReLigion and Satisfaction 63 study, two phi coefficients were calculated in determinhg differences due to religious affiliation, and one fùrther phi coefficient was calculated in examlliing the relationship between introverted/extroverted personality type and religious orientation. Two Tukey's
HSD's were used to control for experiment-wise error in the exploration of post hoc main effect difEerences between the religious orientation groups in RWB scores (Keppel, 1991).
These ten tests yield an expenment-wise error rate of 50% (10 tests X -05)indicating that the probability of a type I error is 1 in 2. This high level of experiment-wise error (a 1 in 2 probability of a chance significant finding) emphasizes the importance of replication of the findings of this study.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between personality type, religious orientation, and religious as well as life satisfaction. Jungian theory States that religious expenence can be understood as the emergence of archetypal contents fkom the collective unconscious into the conscious awareness of the individual. The personality type of the individual determines the manner in which experiences, including religious ones, are interpreted; and those religious experiences that are in keeping with the dominant personality type are likely to give the individual the most cornfort and satisfaction. Religious orientation descnbes the individual's preferences for religious experience. Intrinsically oriented individuals prefer religious experiences that enhance personal growth, while extrinsically oriented individuals prefer religious experiences that
Iead to group involvement, power attainment and social status. Parallefs can be drawn between personality type and religious orientation. For example, introverted personality Religion and Satisfaction 64 types have an inward orientation and are driven by intemal States. Those who are intrinsicdy oriented are interested in religious experiences that are inwardly oriented and encourage persona1 reflection. Combining these concepts, an intrinsicaily oriented introvert will be interested in religious experiences that are interndy directed and personal-search oriented, and will find them more rneaningfbl-
It was hypothesized that these congruent relationships between personality type and religious orientation are associated with higher IeveIs of religïous and life satisfaction than the non-congruent relationships. Jungian theory asserts the universatity of religous experience and so this association between personality type, religious orientation and satisfaction levels is anticipated, regardless of the religious affiliation of the individual, be it Islam or Christianity. Therefore, based upon the Keirsey-Bates classification system, SJ,
SP and E types are expected to fmd extrinsically oriented religious experiences ta be more satisfjnng than intrinsically oriented religious experiences. Likewise, NT, NF and I types are predicted to find int~sicallyoriented religious experiences to be more satis@ng.
Given the importance of religious affiliation to many individuals, it foilows f?om this rationale that a sirnilar pattern of results might be expected for expressed life satisfaction.
Unfortunately, with this sample of Muslim and Christian university students, hypotheses about the interaction between personality type and religious orientation were not supported. The predicted interaction of religious orientation and personality type did not account for a significant amount of variance in religious well-being or life satisfaction.
While these results were disappointing, interesting patterns did emerge, showing relationships among religious orientation, religious satisfaction, and life satisfaction. More Religion and Satisfaction 65
specifically, intrinsically oriented individuals reported significantly higher religious
satisfaction scores than extrinsicaliy oriented individuals. Intrinsic religious orientation
fùnctions dEerently from ex-trinsic religious orientation, and this diEerence was reflected
in the present work. For this reason, the two types of religious onentation will be
discussed separately.
Intrinsic Relii5ous Orientation and Religious Satisfaction
The first significant hdin~of this study is evidence to support a positive
association between intrinsic religious onentation and religious satisfaction. This finding
is consistent with the findings of Richards (1994), who sarnpled a large group of Catholic
and Protestant university students. He found that "intrinsicness" (p. 20) was positively
correlated with religious well-being, and he attributed this relationship to the tendency of
intrinsically oriented people to feel more loved and valued by God than less intrinsicaliy
oriented people. By reco30nizing the need for a persona1 relationship with God in order to feel loved and valued - the type of relationship that intrinsically oriented people are more
Iikely to have than e,utrinsically oriented ones - the cordation between an intrinsic religious orientation as defined by a personal relationship with God and increased religious satisfaction can be understood. Indeed, ten of the twenty items on the SWBS scale are about one's relationship with God, and the RWB variable measures this sense of relationship with God. This relationship has greater meaning and therefore geater emotional and religious impact if it is experienced at a direct and deeply personal level as opposed to an indirect and a cornrnunity-mediated level. This personaliied relationship with God is reffected in the intrinsic's higher reiigious satisfaction scores. Religion and Satisfaction 66
Intrinsic ReliGous Orientation and Life Satisfaction
Although evidence was found for a positive relationship between int~sicreligious
orientation and religious satisfaction, no support was found for a relationship between
intrinsic religious orientation and life satisfaction. This result, at first glance, is not consistent with the findings of Kass et al. (1991), who suweyed a group of medical
patients measuring religious orientation as well as life purpose and satisfaction (arnongst other variables). Kass et al. demonstrated that a measure of intrinsic religious orientation
(INSPIRIT) was positively correlated with Sie satisfaction in a sarnple of medicai patients.
These researchers did not measure religious satisfaction, so no information about this variable is availabIe from the sampIe. It is possible that, within the fiamework of an intrinsically oriented population, patients express a greater than average Ievel of life purpose and satisfaction than do non-patients, perhaps because of the support gained from their faith coupled with their need to corne to tems with their illness, or perhaps because of their newly found appreciation for Iife's sirnplicity (an appreciation that is found when one of life's basics such as health is questioned; Emmons, 1999). A university student sample, such as in the present study, is likely to consider many other factors in evaluating life satisfaction, which may account for the Iack of a sigrifkant relationship between religious orientation and life satisfaction in the present sample. In fact, another study, conducted by Lewis et ai. (1997), surveyed university undergraduate students and failed to find a significant relationship between a measure of an individual's attitude toward religion
(the Francis Scale of Attitude toward Christianity; Francis, 2989) and iife satisfaction (as measured by the Satisfaction with Life Scale; Diener et al., 1985). Religious orientation Religion and Satisfaction 67 was not measured directly in this study. The seemingly contradictory evidence represented in the studies above ernphasize the need for fùrther investigation of this area.
Extrinsic Religious Orientation and Religïous Satisfaction
Extnnsically oriented participants expressed significantly less religious satisfaction than intrinsically oriented participants. The extrinsicaliy oriented individuai gains satisfaction fiom religious expenences that are cornrnunity related and lead to the attainment of greater status. Religious satisfaction may be expressed or felt in a way that is religious according to the individual's definition of religious involvement, but not necessarily in a way that pertains to the individual's direct relationship with God and, hence, to the individual's religious satisfaction as measured in the present study.
Therefore, what appears to be lowered religious satisfaction of the extrinsically onented participant may be only a difference in expression of that satisfaction. This finding is supported by Richards (1994), who found that an extrinsic religious orientation had a weaker relationship with religious well-being than an intrinsic religious onentation.
Richards' work also suggests that religious well-being may not measure the extrinsicaily- onented individual's expression of religious satisfaction. Possible future research rnay be able to pinpoint the most effective method to measure this property, perhaps by using the religious onentation research to identify the extrinsic's preferred mode of expression and to measure the level of satisfaction gained from association with extrinsically oriented religious involvement.
Other researchers have linked higher Ievels of prejudice and dogmatism to extrinsic religious orientation than to intrinsic orientation (Donahue, 1985). Such associations with Religion and Satisfaction 68 what have been viewed as negative attributes could produce lower satisfaction scores in extrinsic individuals because of the interference these attributes cause in the attainment of rneaningful religious experience and mental health in generai. Indeed, Kaldestad (1996) states that his review of the literature "provided considerable evidence that the extrinsic orientation was negatively associated with most conceptions of mental health and positive self functioning" (p. 206). The effect produced by the negative attributes associated with extrinsic religious onentation could hinder the attainrnent of religious satisfaction.
Extrinsic ReIigious Orientation and Life Satisfaction
The present study fiirther found that extrinsic religious orientation does not significantly relate to life satisfaction. One might also assert that, if the extrinsic's preference for power and status does not bnng religious satisfaction, then power and status do not bring life satisfaction- Myers (2000) found that most high-status individuals
(as characterized by the Forbes 100 wealthiest Americans) were only slightly happier than average-status individuals and that some hi&-status individuals reported being less satisfied than the average American. These researchers conclude that, while power and prestige may appeal to the extrinsic's religious preference, those who have attained this power and status do not report any meaningfbl boost in perceived life satisfaction.
Accordingly, extrinsic religious onentation would not be expected to be positively associated with life satisfaction. The present study supports such a conclusion by finding that religious orientation is not related to life satisfaction levels.
The lack of significant results relating extrinsic religious orientation to life satisfaction may also be due to the multitude of factors that affect an individual's self- Reiigion and Satisfaction 69 rating of life satisfaction. Many non-religious variables enter into an assessrnent of subjective life satisfaction (Sb& Johnson, 1978). This variety of factors could overshadow any effects that religious orientation may have on life satisfaction. For example, the present study was conducted in March and Apnl, a time penod of considerable stress for most university students, who made up this sampfe. This increased stress Ievel could have altered the life satisfaction ratings that participants generaliy reported, thereby masking the effect of religious orientation. Controlling for such factors as stress, as well as other pertinent variables, might allow researchers to draw stronger conclusions regarding the relationship between extrinsic religious orientation and life satisfaction.
Religious Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction
An additional significant finding of the present study is the positive correlation between religious satisfaction and life satisfaction. This finding affirms one of the main hypotheses of this study and is consistent with the conclusion that, for members of
Christian and Muslim religious groups, religious satisfaction constitutes an important part of life satisfaction. Palorna and Pendleton (1990), sarnpling fiorn a random selection of
Ohio households, found evidence that religious satisfaction predicts life satisfaction.
However, this finding became a trend once the effects of income and education were controlled. The present shidy replicates and extends their results by finding a small but significant correlation between religious satisfaction and life satisfaction, while neither income nor education were significantly correlated with these variables. It should be kept in mind that, while income and education level may not have been found to be significant Religion and Satisfaction 70 in this religious student sarnple, the saine may not be true of other religious groups or of a more general population simple- Therefore, the importance of income and education level to life satisfaction should be studied fiirther in order to clearly understand their relationship. Overail, the trend found by PaIoma and Pendleton's study, in addition to the correlation found in the present one, strengthens the argument that religious satisfaction is a meanïngfùl spiritual component of life satisfaction, amongst other potentially more worldly components-
As mentioned earlier, Kass et al. (2991) did not examine religious well-being and
Paloma and Pendleton (1 990) did not examine religious orientation, leaving unanswered the question of the role that religious well-being may hold in the relationship between religious onentation and life satisfaction. While the research Iiterature linking religious orientation, religious satisfaction, and life satisfaction is inconsistent, a possible resolution to this inconsistency rnight be found if religious satisfaction were considered to be a mediator between religious orientation and life satisfaction. The validity of this proposa1 can be investigated with research replicating this study, measuring al1 three variables: religious orientation, religious satisfaction, and life satisfaction,
Cross-Reliqïous Findings
Another significant contribution that this study makes to the available literature is the examination of religious satisfaction and life satisfaction between two religious affiliations. The finding that Christian and Muslin participants are more similar than different on the dependent research variables is consistent with Jung's theory of the universality of religious expenence. As emphasized in the literature review, Jung saw Religion and Satisfaction 7 1
religious expenence as a universal phenomenon He felt that, given the archetypa1 source
of religious experience and the sharing of the collective unconscious by all individuals, the
religious need and experience would be a cross-religious phenomenon. Corroboration for
this assertion can be found ftom Wilde and Joseph (1997), who found similarities in the
Muslim and Christian levels of expressed attitude toward &th. En their study, Muslim and
Christian participants expressed similar patterns of relationships between the level of
attitude toward their respective faiths and Eysenck's lying and psychoticism personality
scales- Furthemore, this author (Mawani, 1998) conducted research that found no
significant dserence between Muslim and Christian participants' introverted / extroverted
personality type. Additional support for Jung's assertion of the universality of religious experience is attained in the present study, which found no significant difference in
personality type, religious orientation, or levels of religious satisfaction between individuals of the Christian and Muslim faiths. This emphasizes the similarities in religious satisfaction of Christians and Muslims.
The literature review offered the writings of Frank1 (1997) as another example of religious attitude enhancing psychoIogica1 health and life satisfaction. From Frank17s writings and Jung's assertion of the universality of religious need and experience, a difference between religions would not be expected to lead to a difference in Me satisfaction scores. However, religious affiliation correlated with Me satisfaction, with
Christians expressing higher lXe satisfaction than Muslims.
Small differences in life satisfaction scores between religions found in North
Arnerican research should be evaluated within a context that considers the Muslim Religion and Satisfaction 72
participants' minority standing within the larger North American cultural mosaic which has
a Christian majority. Researchers have shown that minority group members undergo more
stress than members of a more established majority group (Vohra & Broots, 1996), and
that higher stress is associated with lower Me satisfaction (Neto, 1994). In this way, the
lower life satisfaction scores expressed by Muslim participants might be understood as not
due to religious differences, but in the Light of minority group status and the resulting
stress. In fact, when religious filiation was a covariate with the transformed RWB scale
and the LS scale in the MANCOVA analysis, religîous affiliation did not account for a
sigificant amount of variance when cornpared to the main variables of this &udy.
This insipnificant arnount of variance attributable to religious affiliation and the
Iack of significant difference between the two religions in religious satisfaction further substantiates the universality of religious experience and ernphasizes the similarities that exist between Christian and MusIims individuals. This finding emphasizes the importance of further research studying religious satisfaction and life satisfaction from a standpoint that incorporates a variety of religious traditions. Research conducted in areas where
Islam is a majority religion would discriminate between the contributions of religion as compared to cultural context.
Junean Personalitv Twolow
This study did not find that personality type, or the interaction between personality type and religious orientation, significantly correlates with religious satisfaction. Previous research conducted by tMs author (Mawani, 1998) found a relationship between personality type and religious orientation. Increased extrinsic religious orientation was Religion and Satisfaction 73
found to be related to an extroverted Jungian personality type, and lower extrinsic
religious orientation was found to be related to an introverted Jungian personality type.
Possible reasons for the lack of findings in the present study fall into two areas: theoretical
and statistical. This section will first examine the theoreticai issues. Jungian theory
indicates that personality type should affect religous satisfaction Ievels, since religious
experiences must be processed and interpreted by the individual, and this processing is
directed by the personality of the individual- However, these two religions, Christianity
and Islam, have developed over time to offer a variety of religious experiences for a
variety of personality types. The presence of a variety of reiigious options suitable for
each of the measured personality types in this study could have carnouflaged any
significant differences in expressed religious satisfaction.
Theoretical writing by Grant (1989) has shown how each of the Gospels of the
Bible could relate to each of the Keirsey-Bates personality types. KaIl four of the
Keirsey-Bates personality types are represented in the Gospels, and al1 Gospels are equally
available to individual group rnembers, then every individual, regardless of personality type, would be able to find religious expenences that are in keeping with his or her dominant personality type. In this case, a relationship could exist between personality type and religious satisfaction, and yet not be evidenced in a heterogenous sarnple. That is, each personality type could gravitate toward a Gospel that best exemplified the religious experience preferred by that individual. in this situation, each personality wouId find expression that brought satisfaction within the variety offered by the Gospels of the Bible.
In this situation, no differences in satisfaction would be expressed, each personality type Religion and Satisfaction 74
expressing sim3a.r satisfaction levefs, despite having arrived at that satisfaction Ievel in
different ways. The only way that the effect of personality might be seen would be in
using groups where al1 four Keirsey-Bates personality types are represented, while making
availabie only select Gospeis.
Unforhinately, there has been no exploration of the relationship between Quranic
writings and the Keirsey-Bates personality types. However, one can suppose that a
religion with as vast a heritage as Islam would have developed a means of satis%ng a
variety of personality types, just as Christianity seems to have done. Also, the presence of
no significant difference in religious satisfaction between the Muslim and Christian participants in this study, indicating that Muslim and Christian participants might fünction in sirnilar ways, contributes to the generalizability of Christian-based theory to Muslim participants.
This study indicates that neither the introverted nor the extroverted personality type is associated with either religious well-being or life satisfaction. Herringer (1998) found that extroversion, as characterized by assertiveness, excitement seeking, and greganousness, was positively related to life satisfaction. This definition of extroversion, while similar to Jung's definition, is not the sarne, since the definition used in the Herringer study focusses upon one's sociability, whereas Jung's definition of extroversion involves an orientation of personality toward an individual's surroundings, not simply social demeanor. This difference in definition could account for the lack of significant correlation between extroversion and life satisfaction as defined in this research.
Indeed, a similar argument can be made for introveried and extroverted personality Religion and Satisfaction 75 types as was proposed earlier for the Keirsey-Bates persondity types. The introverted personality type is iikely to prefer religious experiences that encourage an intemal focus and self-reflection. The extroverted personality type prefers religious experiences that take an extemalized theme, allowing attention to be focussed outside the individual. Both of these contrasting personality types will likely fÏnd fulfilling religious experïences within the Islarnic or Christian faith. The introvert will find a place for personal prayer and meditation within a mainstream religious organization. The extrovert will find satisfaction within the environmental domain with other extroverts, choosing perhaps to participate in group ntdsrather than in personal prayer.
The reliability and validity of the measures used in a study can affect the ability to detect treatment effects. UnreIiabIe measures lead to measurement error and a faiiure to detect significant relat ionships. The measures in this study have demonstrated strong reliability as reported in the research Iiterature. High interna1 consistency was calculated for the dependent measures used in this study, indicating that a real treatment effect, if present, was probably not missed because of measurement error (Glass & Hopkins, 1996).
Also, strong reIiability lends increased confidence to the certainty of the significant findings of this study. As was noted in the iiterature review, the research has demonstrated high scale validity in measuring what they report to measure. The sigificant positive correlation found between religious satisfaction and life satisfaction attests to the concurrent validity of the two scales, indicating that these two scales measure related variables in the participants. Because the measures used in this study are valid and reliable, we must look elsewhere for reasons for the lack of expected differences. Religion and Satisfaction 76
A potential statisticd reason for the absence of a relationship between personality
type and satisfaction can be found in the calculation of power and effect size. Power is the
study's ability to detect significant differences, while effect size is an estimate of the size of
the difference under study. The statistical power calculations computed for the present
study indicate that the power to detect effects due to personality type was small, leaving
open the possibility that srnd but significant persondity type effects may not have been
detected. A varieîy of factors influence power: type 1 error rate, group size, and effect
size. Type 1 error rates have typically been set at -05in behavioural sciences research. It
must be understood that, while any loosenîng of this error rate wiU increase the power of
the test, it will also increase the likelihood of falsely finding significant results (Keppel,
199 1). Therefore, changing the type 1 error rate to -10, for example, will increase the
likelihood of finding a significant main effect for personality type, but will also increase the
likelihood of a sipificant result being purely due to chance. Such a loosening of the type 1
error rate in fùture research would also increase the importance of focussing on replication
of the findings of such exploratory research. For this study, low power indicates that
smaller effects rnay have gone undetected. The significant results in this study were found to be highly significant (p < .01), which increases confidence in the presence of these effects. However, non-significant variables with smdler effect sizes must be viewed with caution until fUture studies rule out the relevance of these variables.
Other statistical reasons for the failure of this study to Çid a significant personality type main effect are found in the unequal group sizes of this study. A large number of sensing-judging and intuitive-feeling types were surveyed in this sample. However, very Religion and Satisfaction 77 few intuitive-thinking personality types participated in the survey, constituting less than three percent of the sample (as opposed to twelve percent in the generd population). The low number of intuitive-thinkers in this sample could have led to the lack of sufficient power to detect a personality type main effect- While the MANCOVA test statistic is generally robust to unequd celf sizes, the power of the test is reduced as the number of cases in each ce11 approaches the number of dependent variables. This loss of power can resuIt in the failure to detect a significant difference where one exists (Tabachnick &
FidelI, 1996).
Reasons for the lower rates of participation by intuitive-thinkers may possibly be found in the Keirsey-Bates description of that type, which indudes elements of a self- doubting nature that might rnake him or her reluctant to engage in situations in which he or she may have to answer persona1 questions. The intuitive-thinker also has a tendency to isolate himself or herseIf, choosing to avoid group-oriented reiigious experience
(Keirsey & Bates, 1984). The relisjous group environment is not compatible with the intuitive-thinker's preference for practice of his or her faith. Hence an individual of this type may not have offered to join the research project, prefemng to avoid potentialIy intrusive questions about his or her refigious affiliation.
The calculated magnitudes of the effect sizes in this study were srnaIl. The independent variables in this study account for ody a very smd amount of variance in the dependent variables. When effect sizes in a study decrease, increased power is required to recognize these effect sizes. Unfortunately, as has been stated, the power of the tests in this study were low to moderate. This indicates that with the level of power calculated in Religion and Satisfaction 78
this study, any small but significant effects wouId likely not have been found to be
sigdicant. In a correIationai study, in which the independent varÏables are not under the
direct control of the experimenter, little can be done to manipulate the effect sizes.
Experimental designs, in which the investigator can control the independent variable, can be mmipulated to incorporate larger treatrnent s, thereby possibly increasing the effect sizes under study (Keppel, 199 1). The present study, while controlling the independent variables, did not attempt to manipulate the independent variables. The study design was therefore unable to augment the statistical ability to detect smail effects, leaving unanswered the viability of personality type, or the personality type and religious orientation interaction, as a predictor of satisfaction. This has implications for future research, since manipulation of the independent variables, if possible, could produce detectable effect sizes that would yield statistically significant results. Studies that entail a correlational design would provide measures of the relative effect of personality type and religious orientation in religious and Iife satisfaction scores, while studies that entai1 an experimental design would yield more precise rneasures of the presence and direction of the effects in question.
Replication and Extension of Previous Research
As previously mentioned, a prior study (Mawani, 1998) conducted by this researcher investigated the reiationship between Jungian personality types and religious orientation. No signincant dserences with respect to these variables were found between
Muslim and Christian participants. Consistent with the findings of the previous study, the present study found no significant diEerence in personality type between participants of Religion and Satisfaction 79
the two religious faiths, Islam and Christianity. The implications of these findings for
Jung's theory of the universality of religious expenence foiiow f?om the implications
mentioned in the section on cross-religious findings. Jung emphasized the consistency of
the composition of the human psyche (and personality type) across cultures. The present
finding reinforces this consistency.
The correlation between personality type and religious orientation found in this
researcher's previous study (Mawani, 2998) led to the expectation that a significant
association wouId be present in this study. However, that expectation was not fulfilled, as
the present study found no such correlation. Given the finding of a lack of correlation of
personality type with religious satisfaction or life satisfaction, as reported earlier, the non-
significant interaction between personality type and religious orientation is, while
unexpected, not surprising. The interaction variable tests whether the level of religious
satisfaction (or life satisfaction) expressed by individuals of a particular religious
orientation differs according to personality type. For example, for the intrinsic group, the
interaction term tests for differences in the level of religious satisfaction that would be
attributable to personality type. In this study, while religious satisfaction differed between
the intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations, no differences were found that could be
attributed to personality type. Therefore, while an interaction between personality type
and religious orientation was theoreticdy hypothesized, the interaction term was found to be non-significant given the other statistical findings of this study.
The above lack of interaction rnight also be interpreted as resuking fiom the low number of sensing-perceiving and intuitive-thinking types represented in this study. An Religion and Satisfaction 80
insufficient number of participants with these personalïty types could have resulted in a
non-significant interaction term due to insufficient representation of each personality type
in each level of religious orientation. Upon reclassification of the participants into intrinsic
and extrinsic groups, ody one intrinsically onented intuitive-thinker and only one
extrinsically onented intuitive-thinker were present. Aiso, this reclassification yielded only
one intrinsically onented sensing-perceiver. Small group mernberships such as these could
account for the lack of a statistically si,onificant interaction between personality type and
religious orientation, still Ieaving open the question of the existence of that interaction.
The present study is an expansion of the previous study in that the Keirsey-Bates
personality types were tested for their association with religious orientation. It appears
that the Keirsey-Bates personality types do not correlate with religious orientation (as
indicated by no significant interaction between these variables). It might be noted that this
result was counter to the initial hypotheses of this study. However, given the significant
relationship between personality type and religious orientation in this researcher's previous
study, the possibility is introduced that any relationship between personality type and
religïous orientation could be limited to the introverted and extroverted persondity types.
These conflicting results emphasize the need for additiond exploratory research.
Some differences exist between the two studies that could explain the different
findings. The previous sample reported notably high extrinsic religious orientation scores, whereas the present sample reported more moderate extrinsic religious orientation scores.
Further, the sample of the previous study did not have any female participants hmthe
Sunni Muslim cornmunity, and the sample sizes were larger in the present study. The Religion and Satisfaction 8 2
contradictory results on this aspect demonstrate the need for fùrther exploration of the
reiationship between Jungian personality types and religious orientation.
Limitations
The limitations of this study, some of which have been mentioned earlier, wiIl be bnefly summarized- First, the generaiizabiiity of the results is lirnited to university
students who are members of Christian or Muslim religious organizations. Future researchers rnay choose to examine older religious group members and individuals not affiliated w-ith religious organizations. Given Jung's observation that a religious attitude becomes more important in later Me, older individuals rnay display a stronger relationship between personality type, religious satisfaction and life satisfaction.
Another limitation of this study is that degree and type of religious involvement were not measured. Introverted personality types and extroverted personality types rnay involve themselves in different religious practices and yet derive sirnilar Ievels of religious satisfaction. Measurement of such indicators rnay heIp explore the relationship between introverted /extroverted personality types and religious satisfaction.
A usefiil measure not included in this study is social desirability. Unfortunately, one potential source of error in this study is the participant's wish to embellish the satisfaction derived fiom his or her religious involvement. Such an embellishment rnay stem ftom a desire to be seen as a member of a successful religious organization or to be seen as a highly functional individual. Future research rnay wish to include a measure of social desirability to control for this factor.
This study did not assess outside life circurnstances, such as stress level, that rnay Religion and Satisfaction 82
mask or alter life satisfaction estimates. In failing to contra1 statistically for this
confounding variable, any possible effect on life satisfaction rnay have been eclipsed by
stronger, more prevalent issues in the daily lives of the participants. While life has many
daily stressors, some control rnechanism that could account for the level of daily stress
rnay disclose a significant finding in Iife satisfaction.
This study dso did not rneasure the levei of internalization of religious expenence.
The intrînsically oriented individual is expected to display a higher intemalization level of a
loving relationship with God. The presence of a Ioving relationship with the Divine could
be expected to yield positive results similar to loving relationships within a marital context,
which have been Iinked to increased levels of life satisfaction (i3rehq 1992). The extrinsically oriented individual rnay display a lower level of intemdization of religious expenence than the intnnsicdly oriented individual. Lower internaiization would be indicative of a less meaningful persona1 and loving relationship with God, aven the extrinsic's preference for exîemalized religious activities. Such concIusions would follow from Jung's theoiy as well. A persona1 relationship with the Divine would in Jung's eyes be equivalent to bnnging expression to a connection between the ego of the individual and the Self archetype of the collective unconscious (Edinger, 1972). Frorn Jung's theoretical perspective, this comection between the individual and the Selfarchetype would be the source of satisfaction. The level of intemalization was not measured in this study, and therefore any conclusions in this area are speculative at best. However, îurther study of religious orientation, Ievel of intemalization of religious expenence and satisfaction levels rnight provide evidence for sorne relationship between these three variables. Religion and Satisfaction 83
Although the overdl sample size for this study was acceptable, the intuitive-
thinking personality type sample size was very srnail, resulting in lower power of the
MANCOVA test statistic. However, as has been discussed dready, relative group size
would have to be weighed against overall group size in order to maintain the meaningfulness of any difference that might be found and the generalizability of any results obtained. Specifically, given the small proportion of the population expressing an intuitive- thînking personality type, a large sample size would be needed in order achieve a substantial number of intuitive-thinking types in the sample. Such a large sample size would yield sufficient power to detect even the smallest, and perhaps meaningless, difference. Such statistical differences would need to be weighed against the meaning of such differences-
This study may not have attained the sensitivity needed to detect differences between the groups tested as evidenced by the statistical calculations of power and effect size. While attempts were made to maximize the sensitivity of the study through the use of appropriate statistical procedures and reliable as well as valid rneasures, the statistical power calculated remained Iow. This limitation was particularly applicable to differences due to personality types since this variable did not prove to be significant in this study.
The result, as stated earlier, was that some small but significant differences may not have been detected.
Finally, a large number of statisticd tests were calculated in order to determine the significant results of this study. It was calculated that there was one chance in two that an error was made and a significant result was found where none existed. Given this high Religion and Satisfaction 84
rate of type 1 experiment-wise error, replication of the results in this study is important before the findings can be considered reliable.
Implications
This study found support for a relationship between religious orientation and religious satisfaction, as well as a positive correlation between religious satisfaction and
life satisfaction. Given the currently lirnited literature exami~ngthe correlation between religious orientation and satisfaction tevels, this study is important and demonstrates the need for firrther research exarnining the detaik of how and why religious orientation affects religious satisfaction. Further, this study found no difference be~eenMuslirn and
Christian participants' religious satisfaction. Likewise, any difference in Iife satisfaction
(Christians did have higher life satisfaction scores then Muslims) is believed to be due to social factors as opposed to differences in religious affiliation. This speculation is worthy of confirmation in future research. Nonetheless, these findings are important given the scarcity of cross-religious research in the literature.
This research also adds to the presently lirnited body of literature testing Jung's theory of religious experience and personality type, and this theory's potential importance in understanding, explainhg and predicting psychological phenornena fiom a cross- religious perspective. Previous research has emphasized various personality theones fiom
Eysenck and Freud, but none has considered the rich descriptive detail that exists within
Jung's theory of personality ( Maltby, TalIey, Cooper, & Leslie, 1995; Robinson, 1990).
Further, Jung wrote extensively on the importance of religion and religious experience as a fundamental part of the psychological maturation of the individual, providing a theoretical Religion and Satisfaction 85 basis from which to explore the relationship between religious experience and psychological health. This extensive psychological t heory, and the explanatory power found within it, invites fùrther research that tests the validity of the concepts. This research represents a first step in empirically investigating the relationships between Jung's persondity theory, religious orientation, religious satisfaction and life satisfaction.
Future Research
Further study of the relationships between personality type, religious orientation, and religious and life satisfaction is warranted. In particular, this study shows that religious orientation does play a role in exphinhg the religious satisfaction gained f?om religious experiences and Iends weight to the importance of religious orientation as a variable to be studied. Future research is needed to support this finding and to explore the nature of religious orientation in an attempt to explain why intrinsically orïented people might derive greater religious satisfaction than extrinsically orïented people.
Even though this study did not show a significant reIationship between personality type and religious satisfaction, the introduction did emphasize the theoretical importance of personality type as a potential variable in accounting for differences in Ievel of religious satisfaction. Future research rnay wish to control the type of religious experience available to group members, thereby increasing the likelihood of finding any significant personality effect that may be influencing religious satisfaction fevels. One possibility is to present a group of participants in a study whose personaiity type is known with religious writings that are congruent with their personaiity type (as defined in the literature retiew of the present study). Another group of participants in the same study might be presented with Religion and Satisfaction 86
religious writings that are incongruent with their personality type. Both groups could
have their reactions to the literature surveyed by measuring the level of religious
satisfaction they felt in reading the literature. Controliing for the type of religious
symbolisrn that the participants are exposed to may provide greater ability to detect the role of personality in determining reiigious satisfaction.
As discussed in the previous section on persondity typology, in future research special consideration needs to be given to the number of intuitive-thinking types included since this type is present in only tweIve percent of the population (Keirsey & Bates, 1984).
Given the intuitive-thinking type's preference to possibly avoid group-orient.ed research studies and the low proportion of population exhibiting this personality type, special attention will need to be given to this issue. However, any manipulation of specific group sizes has to be weighed against the misrepresentation of population demographics incurred. That is, increasing the number of intuitive-thinking types included in a study sample past the proportion found in the general population distorts the representativeness of the sample. Nso, Tabachnick and Fidel (1996) emphasize the importance of a "minimal rneaningful difference" in deterrnining the group size of any study. As these authors point out, a large group wilI lead to the rejection of the nul1 hypothesis even when onIy minimal diEerences exist- Therefore, attention should be given to the balance between the need for power to detect even smail dserences and to the possible detection of minute differences that may not be meaningfiil.
The findings suggested that religious orientation and life satisfaction rnay be mediated by religious satisfaction. Future research might show more explicitly the nature Religion and Satisfaction 87 and degree of this postulated mediation. Furthermore, it would be helpful to explore the relationship that religious orientation, religious satisfaction, and life satisfaction have with each other in order to understand the mechanism by which Iife satisfaction is enhanced by religious involvement. Given Jung's assertion of the increasing importance of a religious attitude in Iater Iife, this exploration might be fùrther enhanced if it were also studied in a variety of age ranges, especially older age ranges.
Another possibly useful area of investigation is the measurement of the level of intemalization of religious experience. Intrinsic individuals would be expected to intemalize a persond relationship with the Divine as their preferred type of religious experience. Extrinsic individuals would be expected to seek group oriented and sanctioned religious experiences as their preferred type of religious experience. Jung's theory indicates that a persona1 and internalized relationship with the Divine is a psychologically tangible connection between the ego of the individuai and the Self archetype of the collective unconscious. As was pointed out by Edinger (1972), an understanding of the source of religious experiences is important in the realization of meaning fkom religious experiences. An intemalized personal relationship with the Divine creates the stage for the direct experience and true understanding of the Self archetype in a manner that is fidfilling to the individual. The extrinsic individual's preference for group oriented religious experience that is not experienced at a deeply persond level would make it difficult for him or her to directly feel the connection between the ego and the Self archetype. In this way, the intrinsic individual would be expected to experience greater satisfaction from his or her religious expenence than the extrinsic individual. A study that could empirically Religion and Satisfaction 88
examine this relationship might provide evidence for the validity of Jung's theory.
Last, the effect of religious invo lvement in religious rninority groups deserves
further study. Assessing the level of stress an individual is experiencing in a new country
where he or she is also a member of a religious minonty group would help researchers
understand the stress- buffe~grole of religious involvement for rninority group members.
The role of religious orientation would be an interesthg addendum to this type of research. It would seem that an intrinsic religious orientation would provide the best stress-buffering role, but an empincal test of this theory is needed. Also, ifit were possible to determine the religious orientation of an individual prior to his or her move, researchers might be able to evaluate the changes that occur in religious orientation subsequent to a move to a new country. That knowledge rnight also enhance the ability of researchers to predict the individual's adjustment after the move.
Conclusion
This study examined the relationships between personality type, religious orientation, religious satisfaction, and life satisfaction. While some predicted relationships were supported (between religious onentation and religious satisfaction as well as between religious satisfaction and life satisfaction), the main hypotheses were not. The establishment of religious orientation as an important factor in the study of satisfaction levels in religiously onented people has been shown, and an intnnsic religious onentation was found to be related to higher religious satisfaction than an extrinsic religious onentation. This finding, combined with the finding of a significant positive correlation between religious satisfaction and life satisfaction, suggested the possible mediating role of Religion and Satisfaction 89
religious satisfaction between religious orientation and life satisfaction. This explanation
may help explain the inconsistencies that have been found in research studying these three
variables. Moreover, such findings emphasize the importance of religious orientation to
the attainment of individual satisfaction.
Unfortunately, the importance of personality type was not empirically shown, since
no significant effect for personality was found for either religious or life satisfaction. Yet, the introduction and literature review showed that personality type is an area desenring of fùrther study given the strong theoreticai argument and the conflicting empirical evidence presented here. Further, this study emphasized the importance of cross-religious and cross-cultural research in examining the experiential makeup of individuals within a multiculturaI society such as Canada. Although Christians showed greater life satisfaction than Muslims, individuals with a Christian or Muslim religious affiliation failed to differ in their expressed religious satisfaction, so the establishment of strong cornrnonalities that exist between diserent religious and cultural traditions is an important aspect of this research. At the same tirne, the recognition of each tradition's particular challenges and how these challenges are expressed within society's cultural mosaic is equally important in understanding how each person and cornrnunity is unique.
In addition, this sîudy has shown the rich theoretical value that Jung's theory of the human psyche provides to researchers interested in studying the relationships between individuals and their religious experiences. The importance of religious expenence to
Jung's theory makes the study of these experiences findamental to the enhancement of
Our knowledge of how the human psyche works, as welI as essential to the testing of Religion and Satisfaction 90
Jung's theory. The vast depth of Jung's thinking has been only supeficially explored and provides a foundation for researchers to find ways to empiricaliy study the nature of the hurnan psyche. The challenge lies in moving &om the theoretical to the empirical in studying the components of the mind. This research is one building block in the road being paved toward understanding religion's role in the mind of humanity. As one such building block, however, it draws attention to the importance of Jung's theory to a complete understanding of human nature. Religion and Satisfaction 9 1
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Personalitv and Individual Differences, 23 (9, 899-900. Religion and Satisfaction 100
Demographic Questionnaire: Code #: a, Your gender is Maiz Female b. Marital Status Single Mamed Divorced Widowed Common- Iaw c. Religion Catholic Protestant Sunni MusLm Shia Muslim
Hindu Jewish Other d. Were you born into this religion or did you convert to this religion? Born Convert e. City of Residence f Do you prefer to observe your religion alone in a group
,o. Please circle your current age: 17 and under 18 19 20 21 22 23 24+ h. Citizenship (circle one): Canadian Landed immigrant Other i. Income level*: $0-9,999 $10,000-19,999 $20,000-29,999 $30,000-3 9,999
$40,000-49,999 $50,000 + j. Education ievel: Number of years of undergraduate education 1 2 3 4 5
Post-graduate education k. How long have you been with this reiigious student group? years
"Please note zhat income level has been found to influence some of the variables that the researchers are measuring. The information that you provide is anonymous and will be kept confidentid. Religion and Satisfaction 10 1
Appendix B Keirsey Bates Temperament Sorter Code #:
Decide on answer a or b. There are no right or wrong answers since about halfthe population agrees with whatever answer you choose.
1 When the phone rings do you (a) hurry to get to it first (b) hope someone eIse will answer
2 Are you more (a) observant than introspective (b) introspective than observant
3 1s it worse to (a) have your head in the clouds (b) be in a nit
4 With people are you usually more (a) firm than gentle (b) gentle than firm
5 Are you more cornfortable in making (a) critical judgrnents (b) value judgments
6 1s clutter in the workplace something you (a) take time to straighten up (b) tolerate pretty well
7 1s it your way to (a) make up your mind quickly (b) pick and choose at some length
8 Waiting in line, do you often (a) chat with others (b) stick to business
9 Are you more (a) sensible than ideationai (b) ideational than sensible
IO Are you more interested in (a) what is actual (b) what is possible
11 In making up your mind are you more Likely to go by (a) data (b) desires
12 In sizing up others do you tend to be (a) objective and impersonal (b) fXendly and personal
13 Do you prefer contracts to be (a) signed, sealed, and delivered (b) settled on a handshake Religion and Satisfaction 102
14 Are you more satisfied having (a) a finished product (b) work in progress
15 At a Party, do you (a) interact with many, even strangers (b) interact with a fëw fiends
16 Do you tend to be more (a)factual than speculative (b) speculative than factual
17 Do you like writers who (a)sôy what they mean (b) use metaphors and symbolism
18 Which appeals to you more: (a)consistency of thought (b) harrnonious relationships
19 If you must disappoint someone are you usu* (a)fiank and straightfonvard @) warm and considerate
20 OR the job do you want your activities (a) scheduled (b) unscheduled
2 1 Do you more often prefer (a) final, unalterable statements (b) tentative, preliminary statements
22 Does interacting with strangers (a) energize you (b) tax your reserves
23 Facts (a) speak for themselves (b) illustrate principles
24 Do you find visionarïes and theorists (a) sornewhat annoying (b) rather fascinating
25 In a heated discussion, do you (a) stick to your guns (b) look for common ground
26 1s it better to be (a) just (b) mercifùl
27 At work, is it more natural for you to (a) point out rnistakes (b) try to please others Religion and Satisfaction 2 03
28 Are yumore cornfortable (a) after a decision (b) before a decision
29 Do you tend to (a) Say right out what's on your mind (b) keep your ears open
30 Common sense is (a) usually reliable (b) fiequently questionable
3 1 Chiidren often do not (a) make themselves usefbl enough (b) exercise their fantasy enough
32 When in charge of others do you tend to be (a) firm and unbending (b) forgïving and lenient
33 Are you more often (a) a cool-headed person @) a warm-hearted person
34 Are you prone to (a) nailing things down (b) explonng the possibilities
35 In rnost situations are you more (a) deliberate than spontaneous (b) spontaneous than deliberate
3 6 Do you think of yourself as (a) an outgoing person (b) a private person
37 Are you more fiequently (a) a practical sort of person @) a fancifûl sort of person
38 Do you speak more in (a) particulars than generalities (b) generalities than particulars
39 Which is more of a compliment: (a) "There's a logical person" (b) "There's a sentimental person"
40 Which rules you more (a) your thoughts (b) your feelings
41 When finishing a job, do you like to (a) tie up al1 the loose ends (b) move on to something else
42 Do you prefer to work (a) to deadlines (b) just whenever Religion and Satisfaction 104
43 Are you the kind of person who (a) is rather takative (b) doesn't miss much
44 Are you inclined to take what is said (a) more literaily (b) more figuratively
45 Do you more often see (a) what's right in fiont of you (b) what can only be imagined
46 1s it worse to be (a) a sofb (b) hard-nosed
47 In trying circumstances are you sometimes (a) too unsympathetic (b) too sympathetic
48 Do you tend to choose (a) rather carefùlly (b) somewhat impuisively
49 Are you inclined to be more (a) hurried than IeisureIy (b) leisurely than humed
50 At work do you tend to (a) be sociable with your colleagues (b) keep more to yourself
5 1 Are you more likely to trust (a) your experiences (b) your conceptions
52 Are you more inclined to feel (a) down to earth (b) sornewhat removed
53 Do you think of yourself as a (a) tough-rninded person (b) tender-hearted person
54 Do you value in yourself more that you are (a) reasonabIe (b) devoted
55 Do you usually want things (a) settled and decided (b) just penciled in
56 Would you Say you are more (a) serious and deterrnined @)easY going
57 Do you consider yourself (a) a good conversationalist (b) a good Listener Religion and Satisfaction 105
58 Do you prize in yourseE (a) a strong hold on reality (b) a vivid imagination
59 Are you drawn more to (a) fùndamentds (b) overtones
60 Which seems the greater fault: (a) to be too compassionate (II)to be too dispassionate
6 1 Are you swayed more by (a) convincing evidence (b) a touching appeal
62 Do you feel better about (a) coming to closure (b) keeping your options open
63 1s it preferable mostly to (a) make sure things are arranged (b) just let things happen naturally
64 Are you inclined to be (a) easy to approach (b) somewhat reserved
65 In stories do you prefer (a) action and adventure (b) fantasy and heroism
66 1s it easier for you to (a) put others to good use (b) idente with others
67 Which do you wish more for yourself: (a) strength of will (b) strength of emotion
68 Do you see yourself as basically (a) thick-skimed (b) thin-shed
69 Do you tend to notice (a) disorderliness (b) opportunities for change
70 Are you more (a) routinized t han whimsical (b) whirnsical than routinized Religion and Satisfaction 1O6
Appendix C Age Universal LE scale Code #: Think about each item carefuily. Does the attitude or behavior described in the statement apply to me? Please answer these questions on this sheet-
1. 1enjoy reading about my religion.
No Nat certain Yes
2. 1 go to Church/Mosque because it helps me make fnends.
No Not certain Yes
3. It doesn't matter what 1 believe so long as 1 am good.
No Not certain Yes
4. Sometimes I have to ignore my religious beliefs because of what other people might think of me-
No Not certain Yes
5. It is important for me to spend time in private thought and prayer.
No Not certain Yes
6. 1would prefer to go to ChurchlMosque more than once a week.
No Not certain Yes
7. 1 have often had a strong sense of God's presence.
No Not certain Yes
8. 1pray mainly to gain relief and protection.
No Not certain Yes
9. 1 try to live ail my life according to rny religious beliefs.
No Not certain Yes Religion and Satisfaction 107
10. What religion offers me most is comfort in times of trouble and sorrow.
No Not certain Yes
II. My religion is important to me because it answers many questions about the meaning of life.
No Not certain Yes
12. I would rather join a Bible/Qu7ranstudy group than a Church/Mosque social group-
No Not certain Yes
13. Prayer is for peace and happiness.
No Not certain Yes
14. Although 1 am reii,oious, 1 don't let it affect my daily Iife.
No Not certain Yes
15. 1 go to ChurchMosque mostly to spend time with my fkiends.
No Not certain Yes
26. My whole approach to life is based on my reiigion.
No Not certain Yes
17. 1go to ChurchMosque mainly because 1enjoy seeing people 1know there.
No Not certain Yes
18. 1 pray rnainiy because 1have been taught to pray.
No Not certain Yes
19- Prayers 1 Say when 1 am alone are as important to me as those 1 Say in ChurchMosque.
No Not certain Yes Religion and Satisfaction 1O8
20. Although 1believe in my religion, many other things are more important in Me.
No Not certain Yes Appendix D
S~irïtualWeil being Scale for Christian partici~ants
S~irihialWei1 bein~Scale for Muslim particioants Religion and Satisfaction 1 10
Spirituai WeU being Scale for Christian participants
For each of the following statements circle the choice that best indicates the extent of your agreement or disagreement as it describes your personai experience.
SA=Strong agreement MA=Moderate agreement A=Agree
D=Disagree MD=Moderately disagree SD=StrongIy disagree
1. I don't find much satisfàction in private prayer with God. SA MA A D MD SD
2. 1 don't like who I am, where 1 corne from, or where I'm going- SA MA A D MD SD
3. 1 believe that God loves and cares about me, SA MA A D MD SD
4. 1 feel that Iife is a positive experience. SA MA A D MD SD
5. 1 believe that God is impersonal and not interesteci in my daily situations.
SA MA
6. I feel unsettled about my fUture. SA MA
7. 1 have a personally rneanùigfiil relationship with God. SA MA
8. 1 feel very fulfilled and satisfied with life. SA MA
9. 1 don't get much personal strength and support ftom my God. SA MA
10. 1feel a sense of well-being about the direction my life is headed in.
SA MA
11. I believe that God is concemed about my problerns- SA MA
2 2. 1 don't enjoy much about life. SA MA
13. 1 don't have a personally satisfying relationship with Gd- SA MA
14. 1 feel good about my friture. SA MA
15. My relationship with God helps me not to feel lonely. SA MA
16. I feel my Iife is full of conflict and unhappiness. SA MA Religion and Satisfaction 2 11
17- I feel most firffilled when I'm in close communion with Gd SA MA A D MD SD
18. Life doesn't have much meaning- SA MA A D MD SD
19. My reIationship with God contributes to my sense of well-being-
SA MA A D MD SD
20. 1 believe there is some real purpose for my We- SA MA A D MD SD Religion and Satisfaction 1 12
Spiritual Well being Scale for Muslim participants
For each of the following statements circle the choice that best indicates the extent of your agreement or disagreement as it describes your personal expenence-
SA=Strong agreement MA=Moderate agreement A=Agree
D-Disagree MD=Moderately disagree SD=Strongly disagree
1 don't find rnucli satisfaction in private prayer with AiIah. SA MA A D MD SD
1 don't Iike who 1am, where 1 corne fiorn, or where I'm gokg- SA MA A D MD SD
1believe that Allah loves and cares about me. SA MA ADMDSD
I feel that life is a positive expenence. SA MA AD MDSD
1 believe that Allah is impersonal and not ïnterested in my daily situations.
SA MA
1 feel unsettled about my fùture. SA MA
1 have a personally meaningfil relationship with Allah- SA MA
1 feel very fulfilled and satisfied with life. SA MA
1 don't get rnuch persona1 strength and support from AiIali. SA MA
10- I feel a sense of welI-being about the direction my Me is headed in.
SA MA A D MD SD
I I . 1 believe that AlIah is concemed about my problems. SA MA A D MD SD
12. 1 don't enjoy much about life. SA MA A D MD SD
13. 1 don't have a personally satisfying relationship wÏth Allah. SA MA A D MD SD
14. 1 feel good about my future. SA MA A D MD SD
15. My relationship with Ailah helps me not to feel lonely. SA MA A D MD SD
16. 1 feel my life is full of conflict and unbappiness. SA MA A D MD SD Religion and Satisfaction 113
17. 1feel most fuElIed when I'm in close communion with Allah.
SA MA A D MD SD
18- Life doesn't have much meankg. SA MA A D MD SD
19, My relationship with Ailah contributes to my sense of weii-being-
SA MA A D MD SD
20. 1 believe there is some real purpose for my life- SA MA A D MD SD Religion and Satisfaction 114
Appendix E
Life Satisfaction Scale
The following items give opinions about how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with your past and present life. Do you think that, so far, life has made you happy or unhappy?
Please indicate your agreement or disagreement with the following statements:
1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = not sure;
4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree.
1) In most ways my life is close to what 1 really want it to be. 1 2 3 4 5
2) The conditions of my life are excellent. 12345
3) My Life is pretty miserable. 12345
4) So far, 1 have got the important things 1 want in life. 12345
5) My life could be a lot better than what it is. 12345
6) If 1 could live my life over, 1 wouId change alrnost nothing. 1 2 3 4 5
7) 1 am satisfied with my life. 12345 Religîon and Satisfaction 1 15
Appendix F
Outline Of Information To Cover In Training Survey Administrators.
Please be sure to emphasize how appreciative the researchers are for the time given in
takins this survey.
a. Introduce yourself, hand out the packages after which read out the section below
to each person present.
b. "Hello, my name is - On behalf of the researchers, 1wouId like to thank
you for participating in this study. Your time and effort is appreciated by the
researchers. In front of you are envelopes that contain a letter of consent and
questionnaires. In a moment, 1 will ask you to read the consent letter. First, 1
would like to let you know that your participation here is voluntary and should any
of you wish to stop your participation, you may do so at any time without question.
Simply retum the envelopes with the letter and questionnaire inside and your
responses will be destroyed. Any answers that you do give wiU be kept in strict
confidence and will be stored in a locked office until the conclusion of this study.
Ody the researchers and the faculty advisor will have access to ycur answers, and
they will only see the code nurnber on the questionnaires. Now please read the
informed consent form". c. Answer any questions the participants may have. Ask participants to read and sign
the consent form. Ask them to ask questions if they do not understand any part of
the form. d. Then ask the participants to move on and fill out the questionnaires. Remind them Religion and Satisfaction 116
that these questionnaires are anonymous and that no name or identwng marks are
required. 'Tlease answer the questions in the order found. Remember that your
name is not required on the questionnaires. Once finished place the questionnaires
and the consent form in the envelope provided and seal that envelope. You will
receive an information sheet with fùrther information about the survey and the
research being conducted after you have finished the questionnaire".
e. Any questions that cause a problem should be answered as best as possible, based
upon how the student understands the question. Please avoid leading the
participant. Encourage each person to answer the questions to the best of his/her
ability. f Once finished, ask the participants to put the completed questionnaire into the
envelope provided and seal the envelope. Please do NOT examine the contents of
these envelopes. g. Distribute debriefing sheet. These sheets may be kept by participants. (Once
everyone has finîshed) ''1 will now distribute a debriefing sheet that will chi@ the
purpose of this research that you just took part in. Final results and discussion of
findings will be avaiiable from the club executive at the end of term. The
researchers will corne back to the group to answer any questions you may have and
to explore any discussion points you may have thought about. The researchers
would like to express their sincere appreciation for taking the time to fiH out their
questionnaire and thank you for your time and participation". Religion and Satisfaction 117
Appendix G
Informed Consent Forrn
Participant Code #: Narne: @ lease p rint) Please read the following. 1understand that this research is being conducted by Al-Noor Mawani, a graduate student in the department of psychology at the Univers* of Manboba, for his Masters thesis under the supervision of Dr. Marianne Johnson. The research project has been app roved by the Human Ethical Review Co-ttee of the Department of Psychology- Should 1 have any questions or cornments, 1 may make them to the researcher, Ai-Noor Mawani (474-9338), to his advisor, Dr- Marianne Johnson (474-9626), or to the chairperson of the Human Ethical Review Cornmittee, Dr- Bruce Teft (474-9338), Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba. The research 1 am about to be a part of is intended to look at religious experience, personaliw types and religious as well as life satisfàction- The questionnaire is composed of 4 parts and relates to my religious experience, various reIated personality attributes as well as measures of satisf3iction. The responses wiII help the researcher gain a better understanding of the relationship between these variables. This research is novel and innovative and will co2tribute to the understanding of religion and psychology. There are NO nght or wrong answers and should 1 have any questions, 1 may ask them at any the. The questionnaire will take approximately 40 minutes after which the administrator will give me fiirther details about the study. Should 1 wish to stop at any time, 1 rnay do so (including after the questionnaire has been filled out, in which case the questionnaire will be destroyed). No questions will be asked should 1 choose to withdraw. Any information 1 give is offered voIuntanly, will only be seen by the experimenters and will be kept in strictest confidence, locked in a secure filing cabinet. Ail questionnaire sheets will be kept separate fiom the consent form, will be kept private and dlbe given a code nurnber to maintain my anonymity. I will retum al1 information in sealed envelopes to ensure confidentiality. If you have any questions piease ask the test administrator. If afker reading this, you agree to continue, please sign below. Ifyou should not wish to continue, please hand the sheets back to the experirnenter and thank you for your the. 1 have read and understood the above and agree to take part in this study,
(Signature) Religion and Satisfaction 1 18
Appendix H
Debriehg Sheet.
Thank you for participating in this study. Now that you have completed the survey forms, 1would like to take just a few more minutes of your time to explain the research in which you have just been a participant. The research is part of a Masters thesis project by
Al-Noor Mawani, a clinical psychology student in the Department of Psychology,
University of Manitoba. This research is being supervised by Dr. Marianne Johnson. The surveys you have taken will give the researchers an idea of what and how you think about religion (your religiosity), how you interpret the wodd around you (which is related to your personality type) and ratings of your satisfaction with religion and life in general.
First, there are two types of religious orientation being assessed in this survey.
Intrinsic types favor intemal search and more personalized rnystical experiences. Extnnsic types on the other hand favor the rites and rituals of religion. They prefer the social participation that is gained from belonging to a religious group, over the opportunity for individualked search (which is the intrinsic person's motivation for group membership).
Please note that the extrinsic and intrinsic types are descriptive extrernes and that your preference for religious experience will likely fit somewhere in between these extrernes.
Second, personality type fiom a Jungian perspective is being surveyed. The researchers are interested in finding out how you react to and interact with your environment. For example, introverted types are internaliy oriented. They are ofien quiet people who enjoy being alone and are attuned to their intemal state. On the other hand, extroverted types enjoy crowds and groups, and are ofien interested in how others see Religion and Satisfaction 1 19 them. They are externally onented. You probably have a preference for which way you will act, over a period of time. Other types inchde Sensing types (experiencing in a concrete marner) and Intuitive types (paying attentions to sumeal experiences like inspiration for example). Also there are Thinking (organizing experience based on Iogic and rules) and Feeling types (organizing information based upon subjective value judgements). Two more types which were not part of Jung's theory but were added later by other researchers, are Judging types (organized and structured) and Perceiving types
(fluid and easy going). These components make up your personality type and describe how one might wish to interact with and explore the external and interna1 world. The researchers wili be using the research of David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates to further describe your personalities. Keirsey and Bates used the above personality descriptors to classi@ 4 groups of people. Sensing-perceiving (SP) types are described as action- onented with fiee wills. Intuitive-thinkers (NT) have a hunger for power over nature and rely upon that which makes sense to them on a gut level. Sensing-judging (SJ) types were found to be traditional and service-oriented. The intuitive-feeling types (NF) on the other hand are more involved in the search for their true imer-selves. These personality categories will be used to group together those of you who interact with your environrnents and inner selves in similar ways.
To measure these attributes, the researchers have chosen two scales that have been wel established in North Amenca. The first is the Keirsey Bates Temperament Sorter, that measures personality type according to Car1 Jung's typology. This scale is based upon the Myers-Bnggs Type Indicator which is used extensively in North Amerka for Religion and Satisfaction 120 career counseling and various other work place tasks. The second scde is the Age
Universal 1-E Scale, based upon research by Allport and Ross. This survey has been used with various religious groups across North America. In addition to these surveys, the researchers have included a scde to measure your religious satisfaction (the Spuihial WelI being Scale) and a scale to measure your general satisfaction (the Satisfaction with Life
Scale).
The researchers theorize that particular religious orientations will prove more amenable to particular personality types, and that the match between refigious orientation and personality type will increase the satisfaction that one gains hmbeing a part of one's religion. The researchers are interested in showing that this impact will be found across religions. To do this, two reiigions have been chosen, Christianity, both Protestant and
Catholic, and Islam, both Surmi and Shia. While each one of you interprets and experiences your faith in your own way, the researchers feel that it is possible to find comrnonalities that exist between groups of people with sirnilar attitudes to your own.
The researchers hypothesize that SP types and SJ types will find an extrinsic religious orientation most satiswng while NF types and NT types will find intrinsic religious orientations most rewarding. It is felt that this relationship wdl be true regardless of your religion. It should be noted that these relationships are not the only way to gain religious satisfaction. One can potentially find rewarding religious experiences outside of this pattern of relationships. However, it is felt that individuals fimng this pattern will likely have a higher percentage of satiswng expenences.
This research is based upon Carl Jung's theory of psychology which divides the Religion and Satisfaction 12 1
human psyche in to two parts, conscious and unconscious. Consciousness is that which a
person is aware of and attends to. The unconscious psyche is fiirther divided into two
components one of which is personal and individual to each of us wtiile the other part is
collective in that it is comrnon to al1 people around the world. This collective part of the
unconscious is composed of archetypes, a term used by Jung to describe formative
principles that direct how we organize information. Since these archetypes are within the
collective unconscious, they infiuence ail people in similar (though not identical) ways.
From this prernise it is hypothesized that personality types when found in reiigious
orientations that allow for experiences of the divine that match how the person likes to
experience life, that these people will be more satisfied than people who find themselves in
religious orientations that do not allow for experiences of the divine in ways that
individual enjoys. This satisfaction finding will, it is expected, cross reiigious boundaries.
Once the data have been analyzed and submitted for approval, the researchers wouid be more than happy to share their results with you. Since the surveys were given confidentially, no individual results cm be given, however, general results can be obtained if you should be interested. You rnay contact me through the department should you wish fùrther feedback.
The researchers wouid like to express their sincere appreciation for the time you have given in filling out these survey forms, and invite you to forward any comments you may have to the University of Manitoba, Psychology Department. Address comments to either Al-Noor Mawani at 474-9338 (email address, [email protected]) or Dr.
M. Johnson at 474-9626. Eyou have any concems you may address them to us or to the Religion and Satisfaction 122
Chairperson of the Human Ethics Review Board, Dr. Bruce Teft, at the Psychology department, University of Manitoba.
Again, thank you for your time.
Further reading:
Jung, C. G. (1969). Psychology and Religion (F. C. Hull, Tram.). In Sir H- Read,
M. Fordham, G. Adler, W. McGuire (Eds), Psvcholow and Relieion: West and East. (pp.
3-64), London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. (Onginai work published 1938)
Keirsey, D. and Bates, M. (1 984). Please Understand Me: Character and
Temperament Twes. Del Mar, CA.: Prometheus Nemesis Book Company.
Mulholland, MR., Jr. (1993) Invitation to a Journev. A Road Map for S~intual
Formation. Downer's Grove, Illinois: Intervarsity Press.
Spiegelman, J.M., Khan, V.I. Pir, Fernandez, T. (1991). Sufism. Islam and Junsian
Ps~cholow.Scottsdale, AZ: New Falcon Publications
Storr, A. (1973). Juno, London, Great Britain: Fontana Press. Religion and Satisfaction 123
Author's note
The author would like to thank several people who were instrumental in the preparation of this thesis. First, Dr. Marianne Johnson, rny advisor, without whom this thesis would not have been possible. 1 have gained valuable insight, knowledge, and feedback throughout the developrnent and writing process, from the immense arnount of cornmitment and the that she has dedicated to the thesis. Second, my cornmittee members, Dr. Jim Nickels, for his time and valuable comrnents, and Dr. Moshe Stern, for his insightfül feedback. Third,
Mr. Gary Hotson, for his support and interest in the ideas and compilation of the thesis, and Mr. Ian Clara for his helpfiil statistical advice. Fourth, to the group leaders fiom whom I gained access to the participants for this study. Nso, the participants, who took part in this research, giving of their time so generously. Lastly my farnily, Firoz, Saker,
Kanm, Sholina, and Medina, from whom 1 gained strengh and support durin%the
Master's process, and my fiancee, Shefina, for her support and gentle ear. To al1 that assisted in this thesis, my thanks.