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Recreation Ecology Literature Review Sep 2017 PDF Open Metro Memo 600 NEC rand Ave. Portland, OR 97232-2736 Date: September 26, 2017 From: Dan Moeller, Parks and Nature Conservation Program Director Lisa Goorjian, Parks Planning and Operations Program Director Subject: Recreation Ecology Literature Review Thank you for your interest in Metro's review of the scientific literature on the effects of recreation on natural areas. This body of research will play an important role in helping Metro deliver on its parks and nature mission: to protect water quality, fish and wildlife habitat, and create opportunities to enjoy nature close to home through a connected system of parks, trails and natural areas. Funding for the acquisition of most of Metro's 17,000-acre portfolio came from bond measures approved by voters across greater Portland in 1995 and 2006. Funding for operations comes from Metro's general fund, grants and two levies approved by voters in 2013 and 2016. Producing this document helps Metro keep the commitment we made to our region's residents in our System Plan in 2016 to use the best available science to guide the management of our parks and nature system. The nature of a literature review is to summarize what has been studied, what has been learned and what the experts have concluded, thus providing a common ground for discussion. The attached document addresses the effects of three user groups — hikers, mountain bikers and equestrians — on trails, habitat, wildlife and water quality. It summarizes the findings of over 500 articles written and reviewed by the scientific community. There is inherent tension within our mission. Providing people with access to nature has well- documented benefits including physical, psychological and spiritual health. People who have contact with nature learn to care about the environment, which can translate to personal conservation practices, volunteerism, voter support and funding to protect and restore nature. At the same time, recreational use of natural areas — whether by people on foot, bikes or horses, and with or without pets — has impacts on the plants, fish and wildlife living in these areas. Unmanaged, these impacts can undo many of the benefits these areas provide. When planning public access, Metro works with the community to determine the types and levels of recreation that are desired and appropriate at a site, and how to design trail systems that avoid, minimize and mitigate impacts to wildlife and natural resources. These decisions can be complex. Each natural area is unique. Differences influence a site's vulnerability to, or resilience against, negative effects from public use. Visitor access, ecological, and management goals differ among sites based on variables such as proximity to population centers, public interest, funding, concerns from neighbors or special interest groups, and politics. No single set of solutions works in every case. The information provided here is intended to enhance collaboration in planning, designing and managing visitor access at sites where water quality, habitat and wildlife are important assets. Informed by this knowledge, we will be better able to make sound decisions about offering public access that accommodates people while also protecting the nature of a site. Hiking, mountain biking and equestrian use in natural areas: A recreation ecology literature review September 2017 Lori Hennings Senior Natural Resource Scientist, Metro Parks and Nature 600 NE Grand Avenue, Portland, OR 97232-2736 [email protected] Public service We are here to serve the public with the highest level of integrity. Excellence We aspire to achieve exceptional results Teamwork We engage others in ways that foster Metro’s values and purpose respect and trust. We inspire, engage, teach and invite people to preserve and enhance the quality of life and the Respect environment for current and future generations. We encourage and appreciate diversity in people and ideas. Innovation We take pride in coming up with innovative solutions. Sustainability We are leaders in demonstrating resource use and protection. If you picnic at Blue Lake or take your kids to the Oregon Zoo, enjoy symphonies at the Schnitz or auto shows at the convention center, put out your trash or drive your car – we’ve already crossed paths. So, hello. We’re Metro – nice to meet you. In a metropolitan area as big as Portland, we can do a lot of things better together. Join us to help the region prepare for a happy, healthy future. Stay in touch with news, stories and things to do. oregonmetro.gov/news Follow oregonmetro Metro Council President Tom Hughes Metro Councilors Shirley Craddick, District 1 Carlotta Collette, District 2 Craig Dirksen, District 3 Kathryn Harrington, District 4 Sam Chase, District 5 Bob Stacey, District 6 Auditor Brian Evans 600 NE Grand Ave. Portland, OR 97232-2736 503-797-1700 Many thanks to the following peer reviewers, who substantially improved this document: Mary Bushman, Botanist, City of Portland Bureau of Environmental Services Kim Brown, Biologist/Principal, Ventus Environmental Solutions Lisa Goorjian, Parks Planning and Operations Program Director, Metro Nicole Lewis, Senior Regional Planner, Metro Todd Mabee, The Wildlife Society Conservation Committee Dan Moeller, Parks and Nature Conservation Program Director, Metro Carol Murdock, Water Resource Program Manager, Clean Water Services David Shepherdson, The Wildlife Society Conservation Committee Jonathan Soll, Science and Stewardship Division Manager, Metro Elaine Stewart, Senior Natural Resource Scientist, Metro Olena Turula, Senior Regional Planner, Metro Karen Vitkay, Senior Regional Planner, Metro Jill Van Winkle, Trails Coordinator, City of Portland Parks & Recreation Katy Weil, Senior Management Analyst, Metro Rod Wojtanik, Parks and Nature Planning Manager, Metro Yuxing Zheng, Senior Public Affairs Specialist, Metro TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Purpose of Literature Review ................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Trends in Recreational Activities .............................................................................................................. 3 1.3 Key Findings ............................................................................................................................................... 3 2. Effects of Recreation on Vegetation, Soil and Trail Condition ........................................................................ 5 2.1 Initial Trail Construction .............................................................................................................................. 5 2.2 Vegetation Damage Adjacent to Trails ..................................................................................................... 6 2.3 Soil Erosion and Compaction .................................................................................................................. 10 2.4 Trail Widening and Incision ...................................................................................................................... 11 2.5 Amount of Use ........................................................................................................................................... 13 2.6 Trail Effects by User Group...................................................................................................................... 13 3. Effects of Unauthorized Trails ........................................................................................................................... 17 4. User Conflicts and Perceived Effects on Wildlife ............................................................................................ 21 5. Effects on Ecological Processes and Habitat .................................................................................................. 26 5.1 Riparian Habitat and Water Quality ........................................................................................................ 27 5.2 Habitat Loss, Fragmentation, and Edge Effects ................................................................................... 29 5.3 Invasive Species ........................................................................................................................................ 34 6. Overview of Effects on Wildlife .......................................................................................................................... 39 6.1 Disturbance and the Antipredator Response ........................................................................................ 39 6.2 Habituation, Sensitization and Tolerance .............................................................................................. 42 6.3 Size Matters: Individuals and Herds ....................................................................................................... 45 6.4 Speed and Directness of Approach ........................................................................................................ 46 6.5 Habitat Structure and Nest or Perch Height .......................................................................................... 46 6.6 Season, Reproductive Status and Time of Day .................................................................................... 47 6.7 Noise and Light Pollution ........................................................................................................................
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