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Discovery Writing and Genre Discovery Writing and Genre Submitted by Richard James Heeks, to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education, December 2012. This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. ……………………………………………………………………………… 1 Abstract This study approaches ‘discovery writing’ in relation to genre, investigating whether different genres of writing might be associated with different kinds of writing processes. Discovery writing can be thought of as writing to find out what you think, and represents a reversal of the more usual sense that ideas precede writing, or that planning should precede writing. Discovery writing has previously been approached in terms of writers’ orientations, such as whether writers are Planners or Discoverers. This study engages with these previous theories, but places an emphasis on genres of writing, and on textual features, such as how writers write fictional characters, or how writers generate arguments when writing essays. The two main types of writing investigated are fiction writing and academic writing. Particular genres include short stories, crime novels, academic articles, and student essays. 11 writers were interviewed, ranging from professional fiction authors to undergraduate students. Interviews were based on a recent piece of a writer’s own writing. Most of the writers came from a literary background, being either fiction writers or Literature students. Interviews were based on set questions, but also allowed writers to describe their writing largely in their own terms and to describe aspects of their writing that interested them. A key aspect of this approach was that of engaging writers in their own interests, from where interview questions could provide a basis for discussion. Fiction writing seemed characterized by emergent processes, where writers experienced real life events and channelled their experiences and feelings into stories. The writing of characters was often associated with discovery. A key finding for fiction writing was that even writers who planned heavily and identified themselves somewhat as Planners, also tended to discover more about their characters when writing. Academic writing was characterized by difficulty, where discovery was often described in relation to struggling to summarize arguments or with finding key words. A key conclusion from this study is that writers may be Planners or Discoverers by orientation, as previous theory has recognised. However, the things that writers plan and discover, such as plots and characters, also play an important role in their writing processes. 2 Contents 1. Introduction 15 1.1. What is discovery writing? 15 1.2. Previous theorizing of discovery writing 16 1.3. The aims of my research 17 1.4. My interest in discovery writing 19 1.5. Making a PhD proposal to research writing processes at University of Exeter 23 1.6. Researching the literature 25 1.7. The so-called Forster quote 25 1.8. What does the phrase ‘discovery writing’ mean? 28 1.9. Justification for my study 30 2. Literature review 31 2.1. Cognitive psychology and models of writing processes 31 2.1.1. Hayes and Flower’s model of writing processes 32 2.1.2. Bereiter and Scardamalia’s knowledge transforming model 42 2.1.3. David Galbraith - writing as ‘knowledge constitution’ 45 2.2. Cognitive theory of reflection 56 2.3. Kellogg and cognitive overload 57 2.4. Hayes and the ‘monitor’ 62 2.5. Translation theory 64 2.6. Form and content in narrative theory and structuralism 69 2.7. Philosophical and romantic notions of translation – Gadamer, Dewey, and Biesta 71 2.8. Relationships between planning and writing – Emig, Chandler, and Torrance et al 74 2.9. Personal-style pedagogy, writing to find a ‘voice’ – Murray and Elbow 81 2.10. Literary and experiential accounts of fiction writing – genre, and how texts develop over time 86 2.11. Charlotte Doyle – seed incidents and ‘fictionworld’ 89 3 2.12. Philosophy of writing, media theory, and writing as ‘design’ 92 2.13. Conclusion 96 3. Methodology 98 3.1. Phenomenology, constructionism, and positivism vs interpretivism 98 3.2. My epistemological/ontological stance 103 3.3. Philosophies in relation to assessment of writing 104 3.4. Common Ground between positivism and interpretivism 105 3.5. Summary of Methodology 106 3.6. Research questions 107 3.7. Process, product, and the writer 108 3.7.1 Bereiter and Scardamalia – six levels of inquiry 110 3.7.2. The Hermeneutic circle – methodological principles in relation to terminologies – regarding awkward words such as ‘planning’ and ‘discovery’ 112 3.8. Research design 114 3.8.1. Process and product – core of research design 115 3.8.2 Cycling between levels 1, 3, and 4 117 3.9. Writers and their writing 118 3.9.1. Sampling – initial aims and overview 120 3.9.2. Writers writing academic writing and fiction writing 120 3.9.3. Writers from sciences and arts/humanities – to represent a balance of practices and orientations 121 3.9.4. Selecting able and experienced writers 122 3.10. Means of recruiting writers for my study 123 3.10.1. Emailing professional fiction writers – targeting two writers – classical and romantic 123 3.10.2. Block emailing University of Exeter students 124 3.10.3. Recruiting people I knew – Seb (novelist), and Anna (PhD student) 125 3.10.4. Extra attempts to recruit science writers 125 3.11. Interview Design – semi-structured in-depth interviews 126 3.12. Reading writers’ writing before interview (‘text analysis’) 128 3.13. Interview questions 129 3.14. Analysing the interviews (‘data analysis’) 131 3.14.1 Step 1 – Listening to the interview audios 132 3.14.2. Step 2 – Transcribing the interviews – making initial theory comments 132 4 3.14.3. Step 3 – Sending transcripts and theory comments back to writers for feedback 132 3.14.4. Step 4 – Writing writer profiles (or ‘case studies’) from transcripts 133 3.14.5. Step 5 – Coding interviews using NVivo 9 software 134 3.14.6. Step 6 – Writing the comparative and chronological sections from NVivo 136 3.14.7. Step 7 – Writer profiles (or ‘case studies’) 137 3.14.8. Step 8 – Comparative findings 137 3.15. Ethics and anonymity 138 3.16. Limitations of my study 139 3.17. Contribution to knowledge 140 3.18. Processing the interviews – a note on the findings 141 4. Writer profiles 145 4.1. Introduction 145 4.2. Profile 1: Planners- Exemplified by Daniel, supported by Estelle 148 4.2.1. (Writer #1) Daniel 148 4.2.1.1 Summary of Daniel’s Profile 149 4.2.1.2 Relevance for my PhD – Discovery Writing and Genre 149 4.2.1.3 Daniel’s Writer Profile in full 150 4.2.1.3.1 Section A: Before Main Writing Phase 150 4.2.1.3.1.1. Theme A2: Capturing and Storing Ideas 150 4.2.1.3.1.2. Theme A3: Planning and Preparation for Writing 151 4.2.1.3.2. Section B: Main Writing Phase 152 4.2.1.3.2.1. Theme B3: Converting Plans and Ideas into Writing 152 4.2.1.3.2.2. Theme B4: Emergence and a Developing Body of Text 153 4.2.1.3.2.3. Theme B5: Endings, Conclusions, and Discussions 154 4.2.1.3.3. Section C: After Main Writing Phase 155 4.2.1.3.3.1. Theme C1: Editing, Revising, and Rewriting 155 4.2.1.3.4. Section D: Writing Processes 157 4.2.1.3.4.1. Theme D1: Considering a Reader 157 5 4.2.1.3.5. Section E: After Main Writing Phase 157 4.2.1.3.5.1. Theme E1: Reflecting on Own Writing, Theorising own Writing, Genre and Orientation 157 4.2.1.3.6. Section F: Discovery Writing 159 4.2.1.3.6.1. Theme F1: Writers’ Accounts and Discussion of Discovery Writing 159 4.2.2. (Writer #7) Estelle 160 4.2.2.1. Writer Profile 160 4.2.2.2. Writing Processes 160 4.2.2.3. Logical and Classical mode of Writing?! 161 4.2.2.4. Relevance and Interest for my PhD 162 4.2.3. Comparing Daniel and Estelle 163 4.3. Profile 2: Discoverers- Exemplified by Sebastian, supported by Emma 165 4.3.1 (Writer #3) Sebastian 165 4.3.1.1. Summary of Sebastian’s Writer Profile 165 4.3.1.1.1. Interviews 165 4.3.1.1.2. Life Experiences and voices 166 4.3.1.1.3. Writing Processes 166 4.3.1.1.4. Relevance for my PhD 166 4.3.1.2. Sebastian’s Writer Profile in Full 168 4.3.1.2.1. Section A: Before Main Writing Phase 168 4.3.1.2.1.1. Theme A1: Initial Ideas 168 4.3.1.2.1.2. Theme A2: Capturing and Storing Ideas 168 4.3.1.2.1.3. Theme A3: Planning and Preparation for Writing 168 4.3.1.2.2. Section B: Main Writing Phase 169 4.3.1.2.2.1. Theme B2: Beginning Writing 169 4.3.1.2.2.2. Theme B3: Converting Plans and Ideas into Writing 170 4.3.1.2.2.3. Theme B4: Emergence and a Developing Body of Text 171 4.3.1.2.3. Section C: After Main Writing Phase 172 4.3.1.2.3.1.
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