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Patriarchy and Colonization Journal of Research on Women and Gender Patriarchy and Volume 10, Pages 3-22 © Emmanuel Olorunfemi Jaiyeola and Colonization: The Aladegbola Isaac, 2020 Reprints and Permission: "Brooder House" for Email [email protected] Texas Digital Library: http://www.tdl.org Gender Inequality in Nigeria Emmanuel Olorunfemi Jaiyeola and Aladegbola Isaac Abstract The battle for women’s suffrage at English Parliament in 1866 marked the earliest recorded legal battle for equality between men and women. Since then, the issue of gender equality has grown to become a global concern. While it is generally agreed that human rights apply to all human beings (men and women included), women’s fundamental rights and freedom have been limited by patriarchal practices and traditions. The situation is worse in many African societies where colonial legacies and patriarchal culture assign superior roles to men and subordinate roles to women. In Nigeria, these practices have reduced the status of women to be inferior to their male counterparts. This in turn makes it difficult for women to fully participate in as many social, political, and economic activities as men do. Patriarchal culture has brought tremendous setbacks for women in Nigeria, which is the focus of this paper. In addition, stereotyping and stratification of jobs, skills, political offices and businesses have become so deep-rooted in patriarchy because of the cultures and ideologies of the society. This began with the traditional gender roles in the pre-colonial era and was reinforced during the colonial era when women were forced out of commercial farming and trading to do food-crop farming and petty trading, which both bring in less money. Presently, this practice keeps women under glass ceilings and in low paying jobs, which contributes largely to most Nigerian women being in poverty, experiencing poor health, and suffering from various abuse due to the inequality of social status between genders. Therefore, this paper critically discusses the historical perspective and analyzes how colonial legacies and patriarchy are nurturing gender inequality in Nigeria using hegemonic and Nigerian masculinity as the theoretical frame work of analysis. Keywords Patriarchy, gender inequality, Africa, colonialism Journal of Research on Women and Gender 4 Introduction Chibokk’s girls by Boko Haram in Nigeria n its 2014 report, the World Bank in 2014 was a clear indication of prejudice claimed that gender inequality gaps are against female children (Okebukola, 2014), Igradually closing globally. For example, which consequently led to reduced in Nigeria in 2006, the percentage of enrollment of girls in schools in Northern women’s participation in national Nigeria. Additionally, women and girls are economic activities such as government subjects of the social construction of and private employment and inferiority to boys and men (Nealon & entrepreneurship was 56%, but when Giroux 2012; Leon-Guerrero, 2009) that measured in 2014, that percentage had further places them in an unequal status grown to 60%. Also, in Cameroon, a with men and boys. Patriarchy manifests in neighboring country to Nigeria, it was every area possible, whether in recorded that in employment, or access to resources, or 1999 the elementary enrollment ratio was domestic and corporate roles, constraining 85 girls to 100 boys, but in 2008 it had both women and girls in a marginalized moved to lifestyle. Presently, women face challenges 91 girls to 100 boys (WEF, 2016). Despite of glass ceilings at workplaces, poor these noticeable improvements, there are political representation, no reproductive, still many gaps left. In many parts of Africa, legal or inheritance rights, and limited women still suffer complications and death access to education (Olawoye, et al., 2004). from childbirth and other reproductive Reviewing relevant literatures on this health issues. The World Bank reported subject provides succinct background and that 1 out of every 31 women dies of theories crucial for understanding the maternal issues in Africa compared to 1 out patriarchal culture, its attendant relations to of 4,300 in developed countries (World colonialism and the concept of gender Bank, 2015). Moreover, in secondary inequality in Nigeria. Therefore, this paper education enrollment, girls still lag behind critically discusses gender relations in boys. This is due to many factors, which Nigeria through the lens of hegemonic and include traditional practices that prefer a Nigerian masculinity and the historical boy child above a girl child, early and forced perspectives of the colonial activities; marriages for girls, and domestic and sexual although, the account does not depict the violence (Olawoye et al., 2004). For chronological order of events, but it shows instance, the abduction of over 250 the evolution of the present gender position in Nigeria. Journal of Research on Women and Gender 5 measured. However, it must be made clear Theoretical Framework that the performance of masculinity and Contextual differs by race or class and time (Gurfinkel, 2012; Omadjohwoefe, 2013). Perspective of Gender This concept of hegemonic masculinity is a model that expresses male dominant Relations in Africa roles over female. Fundamentally, Hegemonic Masculinity, Nigerian hegemonic masculinity is mostly attained masculinity, Gender inequality through institutions or inclusion into a set of cultural practices, which exclude or Masculinity is a set of attributes, oppress females (Connell, 2005). behaviors, traits and roles connected with men and boys in varying contexts and Since the performance of locations, which attests to their quality of masculinity differs by race, class and time, manliness. While these traits are socially it is certain that there will be a Nigerian constructed, it also has some biological dominant masculinity performance based and cultural factors (Voices 4Change, on Nigerian culture, race and a particular 2015). The expressions of these traits and period different from any part in the attributes are accompanied with world. Thus, masculinity is dynamic. patriarchal power between men and Nigeria is diverse in religion, ethnic culture women (Connell, 2005). Nevertheless, and economic class, which may make it when these traits are passively expressed it difficult to specify the type of masculinity is referred to as subordinate masculinity, in performance (Omadjohwoefe, 2013). which is devoid of power and does not So, the type of masculinity adopted by the meet with social expectations of being the Nigerian male is largely influenced by the ideal man (Gurfinkel, 2012). colonialization of more than 250 ethnic groups by the colonizers with several However, hegemonic masculinity tribal affiliations, cultures and religions refers to an ideal masculinity, a normative (Aransi, 2013). The British colonizers masculine identity that all men are either imposed a form of a dominant, masculine directly or indirectly taught by individuals culture on Nigerian men when they as well as socializing institutions — such removed women from public spaces and as the media or school, community, and denied them access to Western education; the cultural value expectations — to this was later reinforced by patriarchal adhere to; however, these traits of the culture and a neo-colonization agenda. ideal man is actually never achieved This masculine culture prevented the (Connell, 2005). Hegemonic masculinity women from having roles and positions in positions men as superior to women, not society and could not work or earn money. allowing for any sort of weakness or Women became dependent on men who ‘feminine’ emotions i.e. nurturing, were referred to as bread winners. sadness, sensitivity, and However, Nigerian masculinity is largely caringness/kindness (Uchendu, 2007). formed along the tribal origin, but there is There are central aspects of hegemonic dominant masculinity traits common to masculinity by which all males are every man. Because there is an expected Journal of Research on Women and Gender 6 code of masculine conduct reinforced by Nigeria is ranked 152 in gender index by the the society that is operative virtually United Nations report, one of the poorest everywhere, each father tries to instill this nations but with huge resources because of code into his young son through the high level of gender inequality (UNDP, masculine clothing, hair style, types of job 2016). and associations, traditional recreation The crux of this discourse on types and expected levels of violence that gender inequality is Nigerian masculinity support masculinity (Adu, 2013). Men feel it is a form of femininity when others have which came as a result of the dominant different attitudes toward established culture of men. Women suffer beyond masculine conduct. For example, it is exclusion, and they also bear the impact of taught to a boy to begin to develop modern conflicts and civil wars which often qualities of a man through bravery, a job include rape, domestic violence, through physical skills with less or no subordination, trafficking, abductions and kidnappings, forced marriage, forced labor, display of emotion or military enrollment, and sexual violence (O’Connell, 2009). a good education, devotion to religion, While all these are global concerns and ability to control and be strong; these are need to be ultimately eliminated (Wotipka regarded as masculine role models & Ramirez, 2007), the United Nations (Uchendu, 2007). Millennium Development Declaration of In addition, masculinity
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