Journal of Research on Women and Patriarchy and Volume 10, Pages 3-22 © Emmanuel Olorunfemi Jaiyeola and Colonization: The Aladegbola Isaac, 2020

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Emmanuel Olorunfemi Jaiyeola and Aladegbola Isaac

Abstract The battle for women’s suffrage at English Parliament in 1866 marked the earliest recorded legal battle for equality between men and women. Since then, the issue of has grown to become a global concern. While it is generally agreed that apply to all human beings (men and women included), women’s fundamental rights and freedom have been limited by patriarchal practices and traditions. The situation is worse in many African societies where colonial legacies and patriarchal culture assign superior roles to men and subordinate roles to women. In Nigeria, these practices have reduced the status of women to be inferior to their male counterparts. This in turn makes it difficult for women to fully participate in as many social, political, and economic activities as men do. Patriarchal culture has brought tremendous setbacks for women in Nigeria, which is the focus of this paper. In addition, stereotyping and stratification of jobs, skills, political offices and businesses have become so deep-rooted in patriarchy because of the cultures and ideologies of the society. This began with the traditional gender roles in the pre-colonial era and was reinforced during the colonial era when women were forced out of commercial farming and trading to do food-crop farming and petty trading, which both bring in less money. Presently, this practice keeps women under glass ceilings and in low paying jobs, which contributes largely to most Nigerian women being in poverty, experiencing poor health, and suffering from various abuse due to the inequality of social status between . Therefore, this paper critically discusses the historical perspective and analyzes how colonial legacies and patriarchy are nurturing gender inequality in Nigeria using hegemonic and Nigerian masculinity as the theoretical frame work of analysis. Keywords Patriarchy, gender inequality, Africa, colonialism

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Introduction Chibokk’s by Boko Haram in Nigeria n its 2014 report, the World Bank in 2014 was a clear indication of prejudice claimed that gender inequality gaps are against female children (Okebukola, 2014), Igradually closing globally. For example, which consequently led to reduced in Nigeria in 2006, the percentage of enrollment of girls in schools in Northern women’s participation in national Nigeria. Additionally, women and girls are economic activities such as government subjects of the social construction of and private employment and inferiority to boys and men (Nealon & entrepreneurship was 56%, but when Giroux 2012; Leon-Guerrero, 2009) that measured in 2014, that percentage had further places them in an unequal status grown to 60%. Also, in Cameroon, a with men and boys. Patriarchy manifests in neighboring country to Nigeria, it was every area possible, whether in recorded that in employment, or access to resources, or 1999 the elementary enrollment ratio was domestic and corporate roles, constraining 85 girls to 100 boys, but in 2008 it had both women and girls in a marginalized moved to lifestyle. Presently, women face challenges 91 girls to 100 boys (WEF, 2016). Despite of glass ceilings at workplaces, poor these noticeable improvements, there are political representation, no reproductive, still many gaps left. In many parts of Africa, legal or inheritance rights, and limited women still suffer complications and death access to education (Olawoye, et al., 2004). from childbirth and other reproductive Reviewing relevant literatures on this health issues. The World Bank reported subject provides succinct background and that 1 out of every 31 women dies of theories crucial for understanding the maternal issues in Africa compared to 1 out patriarchal culture, its attendant relations to of 4,300 in developed countries (World colonialism and the concept of gender Bank, 2015). Moreover, in secondary inequality in Nigeria. Therefore, this paper education enrollment, girls still lag behind critically discusses gender relations in boys. This is due to many factors, which Nigeria through the lens of hegemonic and include traditional practices that prefer a Nigerian masculinity and the historical boy child above a child, early and forced perspectives of the colonial activities; marriages for girls, and domestic and sexual although, the account does not depict the violence (Olawoye et al., 2004). For chronological order of events, but it shows instance, the abduction of over 250 the evolution of the present gender position in Nigeria.

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measured. However, it must be made clear Theoretical Framework that the performance of masculinity and Contextual differs by race or class and time (Gurfinkel, 2012; Omadjohwoefe, 2013). Perspective of Gender This concept of hegemonic masculinity is a model that expresses male dominant

Relations in Africa roles over female. Fundamentally, Hegemonic Masculinity, Nigerian hegemonic masculinity is mostly attained masculinity, Gender inequality through institutions or inclusion into a set of cultural practices, which exclude or Masculinity is a set of attributes, oppress females (Connell, 2005). behaviors, traits and roles connected with men and boys in varying contexts and Since the performance of locations, which attests to their quality of masculinity differs by race, class and time, manliness. While these traits are socially it is certain that there will be a Nigerian constructed, it also has some biological dominant masculinity performance based and cultural factors (Voices 4Change, on Nigerian culture, race and a particular 2015). The expressions of these traits and period different from any part in the attributes are accompanied with world. Thus, masculinity is dynamic. patriarchal power between men and Nigeria is diverse in , ethnic culture women (Connell, 2005). Nevertheless, and economic class, which may make it when these traits are passively expressed it difficult to specify the type of masculinity is referred to as subordinate masculinity, in performance (Omadjohwoefe, 2013). which is devoid of power and does not So, the type of masculinity adopted by the meet with social expectations of being the Nigerian male is largely influenced by the ideal man (Gurfinkel, 2012). colonialization of more than 250 ethnic groups by the colonizers with several However, hegemonic masculinity tribal affiliations, cultures and refers to an ideal masculinity, a normative (Aransi, 2013). The British colonizers masculine identity that all men are either imposed a form of a dominant, masculine directly or indirectly taught by individuals culture on Nigerian men when they as well as socializing institutions — such removed women from public spaces and as the media or school, community, and denied them access to Western education; the cultural value expectations — to this was later reinforced by patriarchal adhere to; however, these traits of the culture and a neo-colonization agenda. ideal man is actually never achieved This masculine culture prevented the (Connell, 2005). Hegemonic masculinity women from having roles and positions in positions men as superior to women, not society and could not work or earn money. allowing for any sort of weakness or Women became dependent on men who ‘feminine’ emotions i.e. nurturing, were referred to as bread winners. sadness, sensitivity, and However, Nigerian masculinity is largely caringness/kindness (Uchendu, 2007). formed along the tribal origin, but there is There are central aspects of hegemonic dominant masculinity traits common to masculinity by which all males are every man. Because there is an expected

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 6 code of masculine conduct reinforced by Nigeria is ranked 152 in gender index by the the society that is operative virtually report, one of the poorest everywhere, each father tries to instill this nations but with huge resources because of code into his young son through the high level of gender inequality (UNDP, masculine clothing, hair style, types of job 2016). and associations, traditional recreation The crux of this discourse on types and expected levels of violence that gender inequality is Nigerian masculinity support masculinity (Adu, 2013). Men feel it is a form of when others have which came as a result of the dominant different attitudes toward established culture of men. Women suffer beyond masculine conduct. For example, it is exclusion, and they also bear the impact of taught to a boy to begin to develop modern conflicts and civil wars which often qualities of a man through bravery, a job include rape, , through physical skills with less or no subordination, trafficking, abductions and kidnappings, forced marriage, forced labor, display of emotion or military enrollment, and sexual violence (O’Connell, 2009). a good education, devotion to religion, While all these are global concerns and ability to control and be strong; these are need to be ultimately eliminated (Wotipka regarded as masculine role models & Ramirez, 2007), the United Nations (Uchendu, 2007). Millennium Development Declaration of In addition, masculinity in Nigeria 2000 was a timely response which placed varies slightly from culture to culture in gender equality as a goal for all nations by performance, but it is commonly expressed year 2015 and by extension to 2030 (UN, at every interaction to limit the role of 2006; UN, 2015). However, much effort women and their benefits during the development process (Adu, 2013). It is and many resources have been placed into believed that women are to operate behind this eradication process, which is commendable, but the outcome has been the scenes — not seen in public spaces, further making men act superior and minimal due to many reasons. These isolating women from active roles and reasons include cultural context of gender decisions. Men in Nigeria discriminate inequality, post-colonial legacies and globalization building up into many cultural against and dominate women because they barriers. Although gender inequality is a live with the neo-colonized masculine global phenomenon (Leon-Guerrero, ideologies of the colonizers, treating 2009), it has different meanings in many women as inferior. Nigerian men enact this regions since it is a social construct (Adu, dominant attitude to perpetuate inequality. 2013; Hadebe, 2009). Therefore, it will be One of the resultant effects of this appropriate to contextually define gender inequality is a restricted access for women inequality using cultural interpretation and from opportunities for self-development the roles society assigns to women. Each and growth (UN Women, 2011), and society acquires peculiar knowledge based formidable barriers are produced that hinder social, economic and political on the meaning constructed by their society development. Consequently, Nigerian (Barker, 2012). women and the country at large are led into poverty (Metcalfe & Afanassieva, 2005).

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number make decisions for women about Contextual Perspective of everything including how women should Gender Relations in live their lives (UNDP, 1999; African Development Bank, 2010). This cultural Nigeria practice that bars women from decision making at home and at the community level Gender inequality is the space and also denies them a choice and voice in role that society assigns for each gender and national matters. Again, in Nigeria, women their expected behaviors (O’Connor, 2016). do not have because it Therefore, the space and role that African is culturally acceptable for men to decide patriarchal culture has assigned for women the reproductive agenda of the family. The and girls in African society and the man dictates how many children to have expected behaviors are imposed on them and when to have them, without and reinforced in their subordinate considering the interests of the positions to men in an African context (Olawoye et al., 2004). However, most (Adu, 2013; Fatile et al., 2017). The women have accepted that such decisions assigned roles of are are a man’s right, and they wait for that to subordinate to the roles of men. For happen. Culturally, women are not allowed instance, under the traditional patrilineal to use contraceptives or other methods of system which has influenced present protection against sexual diseases caused by society, women are not allowed to make multiple sexual partners in polygamous or decisions at home because Africans mostly extramarital affairs. Furthermore, only men live in homesteads under the authority of a can engage in this type of activity (Smith, male family head who makes all decisions 2007). (Adu, 2013). In an African homestead, which usually comprises of several So, in general, gender refers to the households, each household is made up of roles and behavior of men and women in the husband, wife (or wives, as is daily social, cultural, economic and political allowed in Africa) and children. Several relationships (Adu, 2013). Thus, gender in households constitute a lineage and several an African context is socio-culturally joint lineages form a community, which constructed, and it socially positions makes up a village or township; this is the biological females and males as women and arrangement in the traditional social unit. men, as feminine and masculine. Gender The community, or the village, is ruled by a issues are not just about women but are male chosen from a lineage and supported everyday societal issues which affect both by other elderly men from other lineages. men and women in their endeavors (WHO, From this type of traditional setting, 2010; Connell, 2005). Thus, gender women do not occupy leadership positions relations in African society have been in any level of the groups and are not given molded by a combination of common daily any decision-making rights on matters factors which include customs, cultural concerning the homestead, family, or the practices, education, social economic community. Sometimes women status, traditional and modern laws, outnumber men in the community and patterns of social organization, infiltrations townships, but the men who are fewer in of cultures and globalization.

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Historical Background to Gender and political development of their families Inequality in Nigeria and the communities, but they had different roles as assigned by each Nigeria is populated by over 250 community. There was no term like ethnic groups with three dominant ethnic 'housewife' as it is commonly used now groups and two dominant religions. The because both men and women participated dominant ethnic groups are the Hausas actively, taking on different roles as much who are the most populous, predominantly as they could to complement each other Islamic by religion and occupy the (Ako-Nai, 2013). The cultural ideology is Northern region. Then, there are the Igbos expressed in this common saying in Yoruba who occupy the Eastern region and the (A Nigeria native language): bi okunrin ri ejo, Yorubas who occupy the Western region. ki obinrin pa, ki ejo ti ku ni, meaning literally The Igbos and Yorubas are both mostly that “If a man saw a poisonous snake and a Christian (Omadjohwoefe, 2013). The woman killed it, the important thing is that coming together of these three dominant the snake was killed.” This statement ethnic groups and other minor ethnic means that domestic work or community groups was a result of the 1914 services were not gendered; rather, the amalgamation by the British colonial important thing was that the task was imperialists for their administrative accomplished. However, this does not convenience as the colonizer. These three seem to be the same across other ethnic main ethnic groups had previously groups, especially the Igbos’ culture where constituted different kingdoms, caliphates, masculinity is expressed like it was empires, languages and cultures, with exemplified in Chinua Achebe’s novel different names. These factors have direct Things Fall Apart (Achebe, 1958). Although influence on gender relation in the country. women were not generally relegated to the Remarkably, the name Nigeria, which was background in the pre-colonial era, they the unifier for all these distinct nations, was were denied the honor and respect given to the brainchild of Floral Shaw who was the men of the same status or that performed wife of Lord Lugard — the colonial the same tasks. For example, in the pre- administrator of Nigeria (Federal Republic colonial era, Nigerian society had a good of Nigeria, 2017). Presently, Nigeria is number of female leaders who ruled over made up of 36 states and a federal capital empires and kingdoms, and there were city. The population in 2015 stood at 183 women who were warlords and exhibited million people, of which over 90 million are great military heroism. Some of the women females and 92 million are males (NBS, who occupied such positions include 2015). BakwaTuruku and her daughter Queen The Pre-colonial Era Amina who both fought wars. Amina founded the present city of Zaria in the In the pre-colonial era, Nigerians, in northern Nigeria and like many other people in other African started the famous traditional systems of countries, lived in communities in their building walls around cities, which is traditional settings and gender roles. In common in northern Nigeria to this day these communities, both men and women (Udodinma 2013). Other prominent worked together for the socio-economic women include Madam Tinubu of Lagos,

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EfunsetanAniwura, princess Dauranna of tormentors. She succeeded and escaped to Bayayida, princess Inkpi of Igala, queen her homeland after learning the military Kambasen of Ijaw, and queen Quari of secrets of Ile Ife’s enemies. Though she did Ilesha (Adu 2013). In the southwestern part not fight in the war, Moremi Ajasoro of Nigeria where the Yorubas are settled, shared those secrets to her people and women were members of town and village brought them permanent victory (Harris, councils, which is where top decisions were 2012). She was neither made the king nor made. There were reserved political the captain, but she remained one of the positions for women, e.g. Iyalode, a high- wives of the king on her return. Women did ranking chieftain in the community, Iyaloja not have full control or the same control as (head of all market squares), among a host men in this era; they were marginalized and of other offices. Women who held these oppressed but not to the same degree of the two positions wielded much political power post-colonial era, as will be discussed and influence that was on par with or shortly. While women had limited voice, greater than men in some cases in their they could be a part of the community with communities. Women were appointed as an active role in the community’s affairs, regents (acting kings) after the demise of such as Efunsetan Aniwura, the Iyalode of the ruler in the towns, while some were and Tinubu, Iyalode of Egba. active kings, like Luwe, a female Oni — the However, there were demarcations and title for the kings of Ile Ife. They were also boundaries which women could not cross spiritual leaders as they held the offices of as designed by patriarchal domination. chief priests to some of the goddesses of These limitations became the practice that the lands and rivers (Udodinma, 2013). has defined gender relations in Nigerian Some of these prominent community society (Harris, 2012). services and family roles were done according to hierarchy of age, not by Colonial Incursion biological sex because the roles were not The colonial incursion which came absolutely seen as gendered (Udodinma, in 1884 brought many changes to Nigerian 2013). Men were considered superior to traditions and practices in terms of religion, women because men were mostly used as political arrangement, education, and footmen combatants because of their gender relation (Udodinma, 2013). The physical body structures. Patriarchal incursion of the British colonists had a society disregards the intellectual prowess significant effect on existing power of women and prefers to recognize men’s relationships. It stripped women of the superior physical strength. However, roles and power they had before women participated in the strategic colonization. The British colonists came planning and execution of wars. According with the practice of isolating women from to Yoruba history, Moremi Ajasoro — a socio-economic and political activities. The queen of Ile Ife in the present Osun state in women’s protest in the West for suffrage southwestern Nigeria — bravely proved and political representation is an example that a woman could win a war through of women fighting against this (Fawcett military tactics. She used her beauty as a Society, 2016). Likewise, the waves of weapon of war. She allowed herself to be in the United States of America captured and served as a slave to spy on and the founding of the feminist

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 10 movement were a result of women’s men. With this deliberate disruption of pre- marginalization and male dominance in colonial socio-economic and political politics and economic activities systems in Nigeria, men were positioned (Udodinma, 2013). In Nigeria and other for the leadership roles in politics and in the African communities, women were economy, as well as in other social and removed from public and political domains religious circles. This marginalization soon and confined solely to their homes. Men became a way of life in Nigeria and in were given access to Western education for Africa in general. Men became more ease of communication and to assist with dominant in every institution, including the colonial administration; thus, men became home (Adu 2013; Udodinma, 2013). clerks, teachers, mission workers, cooks, and took other roles in the offices. This Most Nigerian daily activities such further established class structures as men as religion, politics, business, recreation, became the new working, lower middle entertainment, economy, education and culture are male dominated. The culture class, but women were still not allowed to presents males as the most significant and work (Adu 2013; Udodinma, 2013). This dominant figures because policies and action further reduced the status of women discourses are constructed around because men earned money from work masculinity, further encouraging men to while women could not work and had to dominate women psychologically, rely on men for financial support. Women emotionally, financially and violently (bell thus began to carry the extra burden of hooks, 2004). Consequently, toughness, colonization and inequality due to anger and rage became acceptable social marginalization and segregation. behaviors for men which shaped their lives Similarly, the colonists introduced and encouraged them to demonstrate cadres of trades to Nigeria that were power over women (Johnson, 2005). beneficial and further marginalized women. Subsequently, this culture entrenches During the pre-colonial times, Nigerians gender inequality in African society. were cash and food crop farmers, and there Post-colonial Era was no segregation of farming duties. Both jobs were done either by women or men The British colonial rule in Nigeria according to individual abilities and access ended in 1960, but the British have already to resources. Although, more men did the passed on their cultural practices to the cash-crop farming while women did more communities they left. These African food-crop farming because of family communities relinquished most of their feeding concerns. The British colonizers original culture and embraced British withdrew women from the farming of cash colonial culture. Furthermore, the crops, such as cocoa, rubber, cotton, and amalgamation of the three protectorates of coffee that were exports to England for Niger, by the colonizers for administrative industrialization. Women were left to farm convenience, was a major fracture to these food crops only to feed the family and got ethnic groups which were not socially, less cash income because almost no one culturally and linguistically connected. bought food then (Ako-Nai, 2013). Barker (2012) claims that language is Ultimately, women were a lower rank than culture; therefore, the imposition of the

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English language upon Nigeria was a bell hooks (2004) describes disruption to a host of existing linguistic patriarchy as a social menace and disease practices and brought a change in culture. that plagues the life of men in both body Through the teaching of their language, the and spirit. It is the dominant character British colonizers also taught skills mostly exhibited by men using the socio-political to men, and thus the men gained more systems and institutions to maintain their power. These cultural transfers also supremacy above females. Patriarchy influenced clothing, food, social makes men also consider themselves weak interactions, and enforced respect for to the point of being psychologically educated men. Women began to feel terrorized. It is simply a system to exclude inferior for not being able to participate in females. This description of the patriarchy the ‘new world’ setting. Through this new pattern exists in Nigeria, and this language and the learned business skills, oppressive situation has become the norm. many women could not participate because Patriarchy in Nigeria is associated of the skill barriers and segregation of trade with authoritative, domineering masculinity classes. Moreover, the Nigerian public and characterized by social supremacy that service administrative structure was is generally identifiable in men. It is a social, patterned after the colonizer’s civil service psychological, political and emotional systems, which were male dominated with weapon that makes women see themselves few females holding public offices. This as a weak object of subordination, fear and adoption of the colonizer’s culture created victims of hard and high-handedness a new male elite structure and led to more (Idowu, 2013). Patriarchy is reproduced in gaps within the social and working rank Nigeria by teaching young males to systems (Adu, 2013). understand and demonstrate that they are After the final exit of the British in control, while women are taught to colonial officers and administrators, they submit to the authority of men. Also, men left behind a class of Nigerian men who had learn to assert authority by force, and been educated and served them. These violence is an acceptable behavior for them; Nigerian men then assumed their offices. in contrast, women must remain calm and The men relinquished low-paying jobs to submissive (Adichie, 2012; Idowu, 2013). women who had been attending schools by Patriarchy is a social system organized then, although not as many as men (Adu, around some societal institutions that are 2013). These low-paying jobs did not male dominated, male identified and male require much formal education and have cultured. This system’s construction is used been stereotyped as women’s work. This to demean women and exalt men and unfortunate belief permeated the school masculinity (Johnson, 2005). After systems and led to a segregation of subjects colonization, the system showed that and roles in sports where girls could Nigeria was purely built for men because it participate. Furthermore, stereotyping has was redesigned for men’s domination. For become one of the tools for entrenching instance, governance in Nigeria was patriarchy and gender inequality. militarized for more than three decades by males in the military. The administration, Overview of Patriarchy in Nigeria economy, educational and public

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 12 institutions and councils were so masculine beliefs that are still popular but not relevant that women could not work in most to this age. Unfortunately, African women organizations except in primary schools also reinforce patriarchy by culturally and a few girls’ secondary schools as reproducing the elevation of men and teachers. In some cases, military personnel inferiority of women in young women. were sent to some schools to enforce law Older women teach the girls to respect and order on children. Patriarchal culture is gender traditions that make them inferior dictatorial (Johnson, 2005). The patriarchal and promote the boys’ power (Bvuktwa, system has labeled men as the 2014). These traditions reinforce breadwinners that women must depend on. masculinity. Nigerian society prefers male Society has stereotyped men to be in the children to female children, so women army, to act as security, or to do desire to bear male children. Therefore, construction and other physically hard jobs. female children see themselves as inferior, Recreation and sports are also stereotyped while males see themselves as a better and based on gender in Nigeria, as men higher form of a human. African society traditionally play soccer, drink alcohol, visit gives more recognition to women who bear the bars and drive cars around the streets. male children and mocks those who do not. The women are culturally required to be Thus far, hegemonic masculinity positions stay-at-home and homecare men as superior to women and explains the providers; they must engage in sex with Nigerian masculinity present that promotes their partners at any time, be friendly and patriarchal dominance. Hegemonic gentle and never be firm or rigid. A woman masculinity serves as a theoretical must not express her sexual desires and expression for the consistent and historical must see men as superior (Adu, 2013). In societal preference for male children in Nigerian patriarchal society, men who Nigeria. show signs of weakness or are not Patriarchy in Politics and Governance aggressive are ridiculed for behaving like a woman because the culture sees a woman The colonial administration brought as weak. Having socially constructed Nigeria a new political structure which women in this manner, Nigerian culture favored men. Women had been removed believes that it is unacceptable to see a from public spheres during the colonial woman as being agile, exhibiting high regime; therefore, women had a double physical strength and having outstanding burden of marginalization and colonization intellectual capabilities. This belief is from British colonialists and Nigerian men because patriarchy in Nigeria always (Oni & Iyanda, 2013). During the first regards women’s reasoning as non- Nigerian republic in the early 1960s, no constructive compared to men’s (Adu, woman was appointed to the parliament 2013; Johnson, 2005). However, Adichie and none sat in the federal cabinet; they had (2012) argued that women should show no place in the political order of the day. their ambitions and display their skills and This is contrary to what happened in the talents. The world is no longer about pre-colonial era before colonization, when physical strength but rather intelligence, a few women still had a place in the which women also possess. This statement community. The first post-colonial national argues against traditional and cultural government was overthrown by the

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 13 military in 1966 (Nigeria, 2017) who were 6 states with female deputy governors out in control of the country until 1979 when of 36 states, and not a single female the second republic was inaugurated. The governor (Nigeria, 2017; The Scoop, 2016). military government had no woman in any Again, this section has explained how of its cabinets and leadership offices. This dominant Nigerian masculinity and was also the case in the second republic, colonial legacy had reposition women to act where there were no women in political behind the scenes and mostly put women leadership cadre. The three decades of out of decision-making offices and roles. In military rule were male dominated. This the patriarchal Nigerian culture, woman’s pattern had continued for too long for place is said to be in the kitchen. Feminism upcoming generations to remember that therefore has become a global advocacy women and men had led the community where gender inequality and women together in the pre-colonial era. However, marginalization are discussed it was only in 1999 in the fourth republic Patriarchy in Marriage Contract, that 13% of women were appointed into Childbearing and Home Responsibilities the country’s leadership capacities in the parliament of Nigeria. In 2007, a woman Nigerian traditional marriages are speaker was elected for a few months, but contracted between the families of the man she was later removed to be replaced by a and woman. The woman does not have the man in what was essentially a conspiracy power to decide who and when to marry. plot; This was because Nigerian masculinity Rather, at an appointed time, the man’s and ego could not bear a woman leading a family would bring the specified bride’s majority of men (Oni & Iyanda, 2013). The token, according to the tribal culture, which political outlook, policies, and practices are includes some amount of money as decided masculine in structure and even the few by the customs in the family. This suggests were perceived that women are taken as an exchange for doing something that was not approved, as the gifts and appreciation to the bride’s the society is biased against women in family for their gesture; hence the man power. There are constructed roles for owns the woman and she is a property of women in the society but not in power or the family, and they see her as a commodity leadership (Napikoski, 2017). Nigerian (Adu, 2013). Although this process is society is shaped for male dominance. But gradually changing in this post-colonial age, feminists fight against these ideologies and oppression and domination is still in agitate for change in society to end male practice. Men violently abuse women and dominance and give women the same leave them to fend for themselves and recognition for tasks accomplished and children. In the polygamous family setting, authority like men (Lewis, 2017). The the first wife, who is the senior, coordinates national government in Nigeria, which was and manages other wives; she makes the elected in May 2015, is no better than the younger co-wives take on the daily previous — it has males as the president household chores while the senior wife and the vice-president, and only 7 out of handles the financial responsibilities for the the 109 senators across the nation are family. This places much burden on women. In the lower house there are 15 women as homemakers and keepers and as women out of the 360 members. There are a possession of the man who denies her

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 14 right to pursue her career goals (Adu, many homes, the male child is given 2013). Andrea Dworkin wrote that women preferred nutrition while the girl child is have been robbed by men of the potential less catered for and may be subjected to for human choice, thereby women have hard domestic chores. The girl child been forced to conform in body, behavior, sometimes is sent to a wealthy home as a and values to become object of men’s house helper in exchange for money for the desire. She further states that there is no family or to pay school fees of the male room for women to make variety of choices child (Adu, 2013). for themselves since they are not free Furthermore, it is the belief of men (Lewis, 2017). This is true of African that a woman’s place is in the kitchen, women. Unfortunately, the society sees a whatever her status. Unfortunately, this woman as a child bearer, and she is held patriarchal tradition has become a norm for responsible for that failure to have one. She women (Adu, 2013). This makes men not is further oppressed if she does not bear a invest too much on the girl child on male child. In African society, the more training or education, while they keep the children a woman has, the more respected boys away from the kitchen. An example of she is, and she is given even more respect this is found in a social response to a for having male children. (Opara, 2005). woman who contested for a governorship Because of this cultural intimidation, every seat of a state in Nigeria in 2015 April, as married woman desires to have male stated below (Vanguard Newspaper children. Although these cultural practices Nigeria, November 11, 2015): are declining in some urban areas, there is still considerable humiliation and However, not everyone supports Ms. derogatory treatment given to both urban Aisha Al-Hassan as some people believe and rural women who do not bear children; that a woman’s place is in the kitchen and culturally, they are labelled and most times it would be a disaster to have а female forced out of marriage (Adu, 2013). governor. . . [according to] comments about Similarly, gender stereotyping begins as Ms. Al-Hassan circling around social soon as the sex of a child is identified. The media. female children become affiliated to the This is typical of the social inequalities and her several traditional gender entrenched in a patriarchal society which roles in the house, such as fetching water portrays males as the dominant figure in all and wood, cooking, cleaning, doing areas. Women are denied leadership laundry, and completing other domestic positions and denied decision-making chores. The male children are expected to powers in all spaces of society (HDR, 1999; do chores like farming, gardening, and ADB, 2010). Thereby, women have limited completing other related jobs called 'boys’ say in matters that affect their lives such as jobs' and are encouraged to take after a marriages, career, education and thus are man's way of life. Oftentimes, boys take victims of masculine dominated policies after their father’s professional careers, emanating from culture and colonial while girls are left to take on any of the legacies which have stereotyped and stereotyped ‘jobs for women,’ thus reduced women to a subordinate role of perpetuating this aspect of patriarchal homemakers, child bearers and voiceless society (Ako-Nai, 2013). Moreover, in

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 15 citizens (UN women, 2011). The patrilineal was given mostly to men who benefited culture disallows a woman the right of greatly from that ahead of women (Adu, inheritance to the family assets in the 2013; Fagunwa, 2014). This is a major occurrence of the death of her husband or factor responsible for women’s low father in a homestead, usually referred to as participation in the nation’s development the family head. Instead, the eldest son activities. In 2006, the percentage of takes over no matter his age and position in women’s participation in national the family. If there is no male child, a male economic activities, such as government, relative of the deceased man takes over the private employment, and household. In some cultures, the male entrepreneurships, was 61.2% of the relative also inherits the wife (Adu, 2013). population. A national report from Nigeria This section shows how hegemonic shows that 40% of men that are literate are masculinity is passed down directly and employed in the educational sector indirectly through the institution of compared to 13% of women, and this is the marriage and homes. Gender socialization trend across all sectors of occupation in towards cultural expectations of boys and Nigeria (Acha, 2014). This also establishes girls are built into the acceptable norms and the huge gap between men and women in practices in a society, corporate offices and academic positions in Nigerian universities. in religious places. These practices have From the table shown below (Ukertor, n.d.), become the Nigerian masculine cultures only a few women compared to a much which every man wants to attain to oppress higher number of men rise to top academic women. positions such as dean, provost, president, or

Table 1: University Governance Structure

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

HODS 30 02 40 05 45 08 50 10 52 15

DEANS 25 03 28 05 35 07 40 10 45 12

130 08 158 13 175 20 200 22 222 27 SENATE COUNCIL 40 05 43 05 50 10 61 10 65 15

President 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0

Patriarchy in Education/Academia serve in the council. The data was taken from random sampling of male and female Historically in Nigeria, formal academia in five universities chosen in the education was introduced by the British North Western universities for five years. colonizers and missionaries, but the access This shows the masculine culture

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 16 manifesting in university system jobs. reinforced by a colonization agenda. There are more men than women holding Culturally, to date, roles and positions in top academic positions, and this is the society are differentiated by the common all around the country. Men were stereotyped characteristics of gender. In positioned for dominance with colonial this regard, women are expected to operate legacy and they kept the structure and behind the scenes where they are isolated policy in leadership and all decision-making from active roles of decision making. In the positions. This is not an indication that analysis, has become a women are incapable of performing these strong response to this societally imposed roles efficiently, but men’s ego denies discrimination and is more of an advocacy women access to power because of to challenge male dominance in patriarchal patriarchal culture (bell hooks, 2004), Africa. This situation has received global which also assigns the traditional socially awareness and attention championed to constructed stereotyped low paid jobs for correct women’s marginalization and male women, such as nursing, day care, and dominance. Arising from these elementary school teachers (Ukertor, n.d) frameworks, the history of gender Here, Hegemonic masculine explains the inequality in relation to Africa from the pre- social structure in Nigeria, its culture of colonial era is reinforced by colonization women exclusion and gives reasons why and sadly has a strong impact on African men are in every place of power, authority, documented history. and places of work, including the The imbalance in the social academics. structure in Africa has a negative effect on national development, because the Conclusion patriarchal ideology entrenched in Nigerian So far, this study has opened up society creates a divide that keeps women masculinity, African feminism and gender at home, in the role of a mother and wife inequality as frameworks of analysis. or in low-paying jobs which impoverish Masculinity is used to explain the social them and their families. They live with low construct in Africa imbued with men’s morale which inhibits them from aspiring patriarchal power, expressed as a behavior to reach their potentials or professional of social superiority over women. In Africa career goals, as in the case of academia generally and in Nigeria specifically, this shown above. This structure that reinforces culture has resulted to hegemonic gender roles destroys potentials and masculinity of being ‘manly’ where men are capabilities, which results in a loss for the seen to be superior to women. Often, nation’s economic, social, and political women are rendered as exhibitors of the development, among other area. emotional features of sadness, sensitivity Moreover, the patriarchal society does not and caringness. This perception explains expect women to have life ambitions and the male dominant roles present in African aspirations for greater roles and positions role analysis. This work has explained as men do in all areas of their lives, gender inequality via the framework of including careers, sports, politics, and masculinity. Historically, Africa’s and leadership roles. Similarly, the long- Nigeria’s patriarchal culture were standing African tradition that brought in

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 17 popular African feminism proponents of This study advocates that policies and Nego feminism — a strand of popular structures should be deliberate to remove African feminism — argues that African traditional gender roles and other barriers women are expected to be satisfied and that keep women from career paths and settle with positions and titles that are of spaces that inhibit them from attaining collateral status to their husband’s their goals and aspirations. For example, professional or social attainment. In other there should be a paternal commitment to words, women should earn their social childbearing, equal to the maternal statuses by their husband’s title, such as commitment, as part of employment and a first lady, wife of president or the wife of labor policy for men. So, men could take the chief, among others (Fagunwa, 2014; turns and commit to the same length of Udodinma, 2013). This practice reduces time out of work to allow their wives to stay women to the shadows of men and does at their job. In addition, Molara Ogundipe’s not make women aspire to reach their Stiwanism, an intellectual strand of African goals. To attain gender equality, this paper feminism, advocates for women’s inclusion recommends that men should engage in the in social transformation. Thus, women’s struggle for equality. Hopefully, this will voices and choices should be part of social, lead to a social reform that changes the economic and political development in the patriarchal structures that view women as society (Ogundipe, 1994). This means that subordinates into structures that promote women should not be relegated or women’s rights (Freedman & Jacobson, marginalized, but rather they should be 2012). Gender inequality will quickly actively involved in all forms of decision disappear if men who benefit from the making towards overall development. inequality stand up and advocate for a Involving women in the decision-making transformation, while encouraging fellow process would disrupt the brooding of men and boys to engage in the process of gender inequality when the system of change and challenge the dominant masculinity collapses. practices of masculinity (Connell, 2005).

Address correspondence to: Emmanuel Olorunfemi Jaiyeola, Washington State University Email: [email protected] Aladegbola Isaac, Ekti State University Email: [email protected]

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 18

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