SDG : Sustainable Development Goals

A GUIDE TO SDG INTERACTIONS: FROM SCIENCE TO IMPLEMENTATION A GUIDE TO SDG INTERACTIONS: FROM SCIENCE TO IMPLEMENTATION A GUIDE TO SDG INTERACTIONS: FROM SCIENCE TO IMPLEMENTATION 04 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS 81 75 121 91 85 43 35 31 18 07 119 73 34 84

David McCollum(iiasa) Martin Visbeck(geomarandcau), ClaudiaRingler(ifpri) Nilsson Måns Christopher N.H.Doll(unu-ias),AnthonyCapon(UniversityofSydney) Cities), Ralph Chapman (NewZealandCentreforSustainableCities), JoséSiri(unu-iigh),ElinorChisholm(NewZealandCentreforSustainable Philippa Howden-Chapman(NewZealandCentreforSustainableCities), Jean-Luc Chotte(ird),ClaudiaRingler(ifpri) uoi Mollier Ludovic DEVELOPMENT GOALINTERACTIONS A FRAMEWORKFORUNDERSTANDING SUSTAINABLE INTRODUCTION EXECUTIVE SUMMARY WELL-BEING FORALLAT ALLAGES ENSURE HEALTHY LIVESANDPROMOTE SDG 3 CONCLUDING COMMENTS KNOWLEDGE GAPS SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND IMPROVEDNUTRITIONPROMOTE END HUNGER,ACHIEVEFOODSECURITY SDG 2 CONCLUDING COMMENTS KNOWLEDGE GAPS KEY INTERACTIONSAT TARGET LEVEL KEY INTERACTIONSAT GOALLEVEL INTRODUCTION KEY INTERACTIONSAT TARGET LEVEL KEY INTERACTIONSAT GOALLEVEL INTRODUCTION SDG SDG SDG SDG SDG SDG SDG SDG SDG SDG SDG SDG

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The United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted in September 2015. It is underpinned by 17 Sustainable Development Goals (sdgs) and 169 targets. National policymakers now face the challenge of implementing this indivisible agenda and achieving progress across the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development worldwide. As the process moves towards implementation, there is a need to address the scope and systemic nature of the 2030 Agenda and the urgency of the challenges. This requires a wide range of tools and science-based analysis to navigate that complexity and to realise the ambition. This report explores the nature of interlinkages between the sdgs. It is based on the premise that a science-informed analysis of interactions across sdg domains – which is currently lacking – can support more coherent and effective decision- making, and better facilitate follow-up and monitoring of progress. Understanding possible trade-offs as well as synergistic relations between the different sdgs is crucial for achieving long-lasting sustainable development outcomes. A key objective of the scoring approach described here is to stimulate more science-policy dialogue on the importance of interactions, to provide a starting point for policy-makers and other stakeholders to set their priorities and implementation strategies, and to engage the policy community in further knowledge developments in this field.

UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES All sdgs interact with one another – by design they are an inte gra ted set of global priorities and objectives that are fundamentally interdependent. Understanding the range of positive and negative interactions among sdgs is key to unlocking their full potential at any scale, as well as to ensuring that progress made in some areas is not made at the expense of progress in others. The nature, strengths and potential impact of these interactions are largely context-specific and depend on the policy options and strategies chosen to pursue them. sdg 16 (good governance) and sdg 17 (means of implementation) are key to turning the potential for synergies into reality, although they are not always specifically highlighted as such throughout the report. For many if not all goals, having in place effective governance systems, institutions, partnerships, and intellectual and financial resources is key to an effective, efficient and coherent approach to implementation. 08 Policymakers, practitioners and scientists working at the global, regional, national and local levels on implementing or supporting the implementation of the sdgs are the intended au- dience for this report.

KEY FINDINGS The four sdgs analysed in detail in this report (sdg 2, sdg 3, sdg 7, sdg 14) are mostly synergistic with the other sdgs. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Using a 7-point scale, a team of scientists evaluated the key target-level interactions between an ‘entry goal’ and all other goals, and attributed a score to these interactions based on their expert judgment and as justified through the scientific literature. The score most often allocated is +2 (‘reinforcing’).

The assessment identified 316 target-level interactions overall, of which 238 are positive, 66 are negative, and 12 are neutral.

This analysis found no fundamental incompatibilities between goals (i.e. where one target as defined in the 2030 Agenda would make it impossible to achieve another). However, it did identify a set of potential constraints and conditionalities that require coordinated policy interventions to shelter the most vulnerable groups, promote equitable access to services and development opportunities, and manage competing demands over natural resources to support economic and social development within environmental limits.

The process of systematically identifying and scoring inter actions across the 17 sdgs using a common terminology is very valuable. It allows broad multi-disciplinary and multi- sectoral conversations, makes it possible to synthesise knowledge and to scope knowledge needs, and provides rat ional and concrete focal points (clusters of targets that need to be addressed together) for an integrated approach to implementation and monitoring.

This approach provides a basis for a science-policy dialogue on translating integrated science for the achievement of the sdgs. As a tool for policy coherence, it provides an understan ding of the conflicts and synergies to be managed across government departments and sectors, understanding where the emphasis should be put for efficient and effective action, and identifies who needs to be brought to the table to achieve collective impacts across multiple interacting policy domains.

There is clearly no one-size-fits-all approach to understanding target interactions, and building on this work will require a commitment to continuous iteration and improvement. 09 SCIENCE-INFORMED ANALYSIS OF THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND THEIR INTERACTIONS

ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK The framework on which this work is based identifies causal and functional relations underlying progress or achievement of the sustainable development goals and targets: positive interactions EXECUTIVE SUMMARY are assigned scores of +1 (‘enabling’), +2 (‘reinforcing’) or +3 (‘indivisible’), while interactions characterised by trade-offs are scored with -1 (‘constraining’), -2 (‘counteracting’), or -3 (‘cancelling’); neutral interactions between sdgs are assigned 0. By systematically assessing the interactions and relationships between goals and targets, this report supports horizontal coherence across sectors. The framework informs, but is not in itself a priority setting exercise nor is it a comprehensive mapping of all potential interactions. It can be applied at multiple scales (international, national, sub-national) through a thematic or geographic entry, and the analysis is based on existing literature and expert judgment.

SCORING EXAMPLE: EFFECTS OF CLEAN ENERGY ON AIR QUALITY AND HEALTH Sustainable energy that is carbon-free is largely also pollution-free. This means that, in most cases, efforts to increase energy access (target 7.1), expand the share of renewables in the energy mix (target 7.2), and promote energy efficiency (target 7.3) will lead to a simultaneous reduction in air pollutant emissions. As a conse- quence, interaction between the sdg 7 targets and target 3.9 (reducing air pollution) is considered reinforcing and so is allocated a score of +2. Nevertheless, achieving sdg 7 may not in itself be enough to meet the air quality targets of sdg 3: additional pollution control technologies and measures may be required.

FIRST APPLICATION Key interactions for Food / Agriculture (sdg 2), Health (sdg 3), Energy (sdg 7) and Oceans (sdg 14) are tested using the scoring frame-work. This selection represents a mixture of key goals aimed at human well-being, ecosystem services and natural resources – it does not imply any prioritisation. This selection also covers a range of development and environmental priorities, including three goals under review at the 2017 High-Level Political Forum (sdg 2, sdg 3, sdg 14). Each of these goals exhibits both positive and negative target-level interactions with the other sdgs. In attempting to combine expert judgment, the seeking of new evidence in the scientific literature and extensive deliberations about the character of different interactions, it soon became clear that despite starting from similar understanding about interactions and the main conceptual underpinnings of the framework, the different 10 teams quickly developed different interpretations of how to apply the framework and score the interactions. This poses a challenge in terms of replicating the study. Nevertheless, a strength of the approach was that it generated a highly iterative process for deepening the understanding of target interactions. Each team had valuable debates about the terms of the scale and several revisions were made to scores in different chapters over the course of the work. In fact, in many respects it could be argued that the process of deciding on the score was EXECUTIVE SUMMARY possibly more valuable than the final result, since it required a detailed study of the literature, a consideration of the issues and potential context dependencies, a review of limitations and gaps in current knowledge, and discussion with others. To this extent, the assessment becomes a vehicle for triggering the conversation, interpretation and learning process.

SDG 2: END HUNGER, ACHIEVE FOOD SECURITY AND IMPROVED NUTRITION AND PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE Together with ending poverty, eradicating hunger around the world is central to the 2030 Agenda. sdg 2 frames this in the context of eradicating malnutrition through increasing agricultural production sustainably. sdg 2 in itself is a compelling case for recognising and managing interdependencies: achieving food and nutrition security, and increasing agricultural production and income for farmers, while achieving resilient and sustainable food systems will be challenging to achieve simultaneously.

KEY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER GOALS

2 + 1 Eradicating poverty cannot be achieved without ensuring food and nutrition security for all. While sdg 2 is a strong enabler for sdg 1, increasing agricultural production, productivity and incomes require complementary policies that benefit the poor and vulnerable communities in rural areas and reduce their exposure to adverse environmental shocks.

2 + 3 Health and well-being cannot be achieved without access to a suffic ient quantity and quality of food. How the sdg 2 targets related to increasing agricultural production and productivity are implemen ted, will have a major influence on soil and water quality, land use, and ecosystem health and functioning, which are key environmental determinants of health. Other factors such as rural income stability from agriculture and related sectors are also important. Achieving sdg 3 supports sdg 2, because a healthy population is essential for achieving nutrition and agricultural production targets. 11 2 + 5 Achieving the targets related to access to food, quality nutrition for all, and agricultural incomes will provide key enabling conditions for women’s empowerment and gender equality as it opens up development opportunities for women. Conversely, gender equality and enhancing women’s rights can help achieve the targets related to sustainable, increased food production and nutrition, and can enhance the role of women in agriculture. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2 + 6 Food production is strongly dependent on and affects the quality and availability of water, because boosting agricultural production can increase water withdrawals and worsen land and water de gradation. Moreover, achieving nutrition targets requires access to clean water and sanitation. Counteracting these potential trade-offs will require sustainable agricultural systems and practices, and enhanced water governance to manage growing and competing demands on water resources.

2 + 7 Agriculture, food production and consumption are strongly dependent on energy services; conversely biomass and agricultural waste are potential sources of renewable energy. However, competition over the same resources (land, water) can result in trade-offs between both goals.

2 + 13 Agriculture is an important source of greenhouse gas emissions and so contributes to climate change. Conversely, climate change has wide-ranging impacts on agriculture and food security through extreme weather events as well as long-term climatic changes (such as warming and precipitation changes) and will significantly constrain the achievement of sdg 2. Sustainable agricultural practices play an important role in climate adaptation and mitigation (such as improving soils and land quality, genetic diversity, and bioenergy).

2 + 15 Healthy ecosystems provide vital services, from soil and water quality, to genetic diversity and pollination. Agriculture is a key driver impacting ecosystems. Sustainable agricultural systems and practices contribute to ecosystem health. However, increased agricultural production and productivity, if not sustainable, can result in deforestation and land degradation, jeopardising long- term food security. A careful balance is needed between achieving food for all and conserving and restoring ecosystems.

75 target-level interactions: 50 (positive), 1 (neutral) and 24 (negative) 12 IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION Eradicating hunger and ensuring food security is a bottom-line requirement for achieving sustainable development and well- being. This will require a careful and context-sensitive assessment of the needs and critical trade-offs that may occur with other goals and targets. Multi-level governance and multi-stakeholder partnerships, capacity development from the institutional to the individual level, resource mobilisa tion towards research, innovation and technology development to mitigate trade-offs and EXECUTIVE SUMMARY supportive policies and investments are needed to realise the full potential of sdg 2 and related targets and goals.

SDG 3: ENSURE HEALTHY LIVES AND PROMOTE WELL-BEING FOR ALL AT ALL AGES Health is both a key enabler and a critical outcome of sustainable development. The health of people and the health of the planet are fundamentally interdependent. Poverty is a structural factor influencing health. In the future, climate change is likely to become the key determinant of health. There are strong synergies among the sdg 3 targets which require progress to be made on all 12 targets to achieve health outcomes for all.

KEY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER GOALS

3 + 1 Universal health care linked with a strong workforce and supportive research infrastructure underpins all health targets. Reducing communicable diseases combined with enhanced sexual and reproductive health care can reduce newborn, infant and maternal mortality. Controlling tobacco and reducing substance abuse and exposure to hazardous chemicals also reduces mortality.

3 + 2 Health cannot be achieved without access to sufficient and quality nutrition. Moreover, food production and agricultural practices may also affect health directly, including through improved soil and water quality, and indirectly through changes in incomes. But if not properly managed, increasing agricultural productivity could harm health through, for example, damaging ecosystems and increasing pathogen habitats.

3 + 8 A healthy population is a prerequisite for development and underpins economic growth. The interaction between health and economic growth is mostly synergistic because economic growth, when sustainable and equitable, enables health and well-being through access to decent work, food, housing, medical care and education, which in turn contribute to higher productivity and 13 income generation. However, the synergies are highly dependent on economic development being directed towards enhancing social and natural capital to achieve long-term health gains.

3 + 11 Cities concentrate a growing part of the global population and have a critical influence on physical and mental health. Sus- tainable urban planning, and decent and affordable housing support mental health and access to health services, and reduce EXECUTIVE SUMMARY non-communicable diseases and limit environmental impacts.

3 + 13 Climate change is already having significant impacts on health. Many of these impacts are direct (such as the effects of heat stress on ability to work outside), while others are indirect and arise through climate change that promotes the spread of disease or contributes to food and water insecurity, or to mass movements of people. Failure to address the climate action goal will make achieving the health goal impossible. As well as major long-lasting health impacts, climate mitigation would have some immediate health benefits (such as through better air quality).

86 target-level interactions: 81 (positive) and 5 (negative)

IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION Implementing the health dimensions of the sdgs will require strengthening national health systems, dedicated laws and regulations to protect people and the natural environment from harmful substances, increased investment in health but also infrastructure that supports health and well-being (i.e. sustainable urban design and planning), and policies that mainstream health concerns from the local (city planning, health and safety in work places) to the global scale (preventing and preparing for large epidemics, engaging in multi-stakeholder alliances to tackle antimicrobial resistance, preparing for health impacts of climate change). 14 SDG 7: ENSURE ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE, RELIABLE, SUSTAINABLE AND MODERN ENERGY FOR ALL Modern energy is fundamental to human development, and the services that energy makes possible are widespread throughout the industrialised world. But not everyone has access to the benefits that modern energy can provide. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY KEY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER GOALS 7 + 1 Ensuring the world’s poor have access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services supports the goal of poverty eradication. However, decarbonising energy systems by promoting renewables and increasing energy efficiency could cause price shocks, and so prevent universal access to modern energy supplies. Because some of the poorest parts of the world have some of the highest renewable energy potential, making use of this potential could help to reduce poverty.

7 + 2 Energy supports food production; conversely, agriculture can play an important role in meeting the energy goal, especially through biofuels. A well-studied (potential) trade-off is competition between biomass for energy and crops for food.

7 + 6 Thermal cooling and resource extraction require substantial am ounts of water; while wastewater from the energy sector releases large quantities of thermal and chemical pollution into aquatic ecosystems. In most cases, increasing the share of renewables in the energy mix and increasing energy efficiency would support the water targets. However, expanding biofuels or hydropower use could increase pressure on water resources.

7 + 8 Deploying renewables and energy-efficient technologies can encourage innovation and reinforce local, regional and national industrial and employment objectives. Decarbonising energy systems through greater use of renewables and energy efficiency could constrain economic growth in some countries.

7 + 13 An immediate and significant increase in renewables and increased energy efficiency is an essential part of efforts to keep global warming to well below 2°c above pre-industrial levels. Providing access to modern energy services to all will not exacerbate climate change.

58 target-level interactions: 46 (positive), 10 (neutral) and 2 (negative) 15 IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION The transition towards clean, efficient and modern energy for all will require policies geared toward avoiding potential negative impacts as well compensation mechanisms that support the most vulnerable groups. Policies to manage the energy-land-water nexus are critical for avoiding competition over resources and adverse environmental impacts. Policy frameworks that help mobilise investment would be helpful in achieving each of the three sdg 7 targets.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

SDG 14: CONSERVE AND SUSTAINABLY USE THE OCEANS, SEAS AND MARINE RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT The oceans provide vital services to people and the planet. A decline in ocean health, productivity and resilience due to increasing human pressures by mostly land-based pollution, climate change-induced warming and sea-level rise, ocean acidification and over-exploitation of marine resources is a major threat to achieving sufficient nutrition, livelihoods and economic growth, especially for coastal communities. Other important ecosystem services such as recreation and coastal protection are also affected. Achieving sdg14 strongly depends on progress under other goals.

KEY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER GOALS

14 + 1 Healthy, productive and resilient oceans and coasts are a critical enabler of poverty alleviation, environmentally sustainable economic growth, and human well-being, especially in coastal communities. But despite various co-benefits for building resilient communities, achieving sdg 14 could limit access to the resources and ecosystem services necessary to alleviate poverty.

14 + 2 Oceans are essential for ensuring food security and meeting nutr iti onal needs. Establishing marine protected areas could limit access to marine resources for food and nutrition security; however, fisheries and other natural resource uses generally benefit from sustainable practices and balanced conservation measures. Increased agricultural production could damage ocean health through nutrient run-off and related pollution.

14 + 8 Sustainable growth of marine and maritime sectors supports employment and economic growth. Short-term resource exploitation may impact the productivity and resilience of oceans and coasts while trade-offs are possible where management and conservation measures limit economic growth. 16 14 + 11 Coasts are attractive for urban development, often due to oppor tunities for economic activities and the availability of natural resources, but coastal settlements are a major factor in increasing environmental pressures along the coast-sea interface. Conflicts may occur where ocean and coastal conservation limit options for housing, infrastructure or transport upgrading, but achieving sdg14 also reinforces sustainable urban planning and resilient coastal settlements. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

14 + 12 Achieving sdg 14 and sustainable consumption and production go hand in hand, not only in ocean-based industries and coastal communities. Ending overfishing, sustainably managing marine and coastal ecosystems and reducing marine pollution supports the efficient use of natural resources and reduces food loss while sustainable consumption and production patterns will reduce marine pollution and support sustainable resource extraction practices.

14 + 13 Oceans and coastal ecosystems both affect and are affected by climate change. Thus, achieving sdg 14 and sdg 13 is highly synergistic, such as through conservation of coastal ecosystems acting as blue carbon sinks. Careful management is needed to ensure that climate adaptation and coastal and marine protection measures do not conflict.

97 target-level interactions: 61 (positive), 1 (neutral) and 35 (negative)

IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION Achieving sdg 14 without compromising the achievement of other sdgs means much needed protection and restoration measures for coastal and marine ecosystems must be carefully balanced against the sustainable exploitation of marine resources. Integ ra ted management and planning across geographical scales and administrative silos, particularly at the regional level, will enable coastal states to better safeguard, conserve and sustainably use ocean resources within their jurisdiction and in areas beyond national jurisdiction. The current ocean governance framework is fragmented and needs to be strengthened. In addi tion, ocean literacy is still poor and enhanced capacity building and awareness raising are needed to support the implementation of sdg 14 at all levels. Ocean and coastal monitoring frameworks need to be further developed, harmonised and strengthened, since they provide the data to assess progress in the full implementation of sdg 14. 17 NEXT STEPS

The conceptual framework and assessment of key interactions between the four Sustainable Development Goals presented here are intended to represent a starting point for further work towards a more complete understanding of how the full set of goals fit together. The framework guides a more detailed analysis and enables structured deliberations on how to implement the 2030 Agenda coherently, in order to maximise development EXECUTIVE SUMMARY outcomes. Making interactions explicit and understanding the full impacts of policies and actions across goals, stimulates important knowledge gathering and learning processes and has very concrete and tangible value for achieving efficiency and effectiveness in goal implementation, for driving meaningful multi-stakeholder partnerships, and for country-level monitoring, evaluation and review. INTRODUCTION A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL INTERACTIONS Måns Nilsson David Griggs Martin Visbeck Claudia Ringler David McCollum 19 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS THE SUSTAINABLE Although governmentshave stressedtheintegrated,indivisibleand 2016. Thesdgs The SustainableDevelopmentGoals(sdgs)promotehumandignity The OVERALL AIMOFTHESDGS ) and their associated 169 targets, began on 1 January Goals (sdgs)andtheirassociated169targets,beganon1January Con Nations Summit and underpinned by 17 Sustainable Development Nations Summitandunderpinnedby17SustainableDevelopment Implementation ofthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment, BACKGROUND and their associated 169 targets Detailed informationonthe17sdgsandtheirassociated169targets Brundtland Commission(un,1987)andtheRio complexities andtrade-offs thatwillundoubtedlyemergeduring nei regional plansfortheirimplementation.The2030Agendais endorsed normativeframeworkfordevelopment.Governments of thegoalsortheirassociated targets.In2015,theInternational processes andecosystemservices.Theyrecognisethatendingpover- protection, andjobopportunities;doallthiswhile also on Environment andDevelopment(un,1992).Theyaredesigned are meant each focusesonadifferentto topicarea,thesdgsare DEVELOPMENT GOALS dimensions of sustainability. (see blue text below) text dimensions ofsustainability.blue (see adopted by world leaders in September 2015 at a historic United adopted byworldleadersinSeptember2015atahistoricUnited address someofthemostpressingchallengesfacinghumanity. and otherstakeholdersareexpectedtoestablishnational and interdependenciesare generallynotexplicitinthedescription and prosperitywhilesafeguardingtheEarth’svitalbiophysical build ontheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(mdgs)adopted ty andinequalitymustgohand-in-handwithstrategiesthat tackling climatechangeandenhancingenvironmental protection. , thus continuing the legacy of the to developmentthanthemdgs,thuscontinuinglegacyof to beuniversalandthereforeapply and middle-incomealike–toallsegments of society. Although agenda balancingtheecon in September2000aspartoftheunMillenniumDeclaration. be integrated, indivisible and collectively support a development development a support be integrated,indivisibleandcollectively implementation. interlinked natureofthesdgs ( is available athttps://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300. fundamental socialneeds,includingeducation,health, social support sustainableeconomicgrowth,peaceandjustice;address t While notlegallybinding,the The her ablueprintforspecificactionnornavigating the f sdgs provideamoreholisticandintegratedapproach e rence onSustainableDevelopmentin2012(‘Rio+20’)and sdgs weredevelopedfollowingtheUnitedNations are expected to guide governments as they work to areexpectedtoguidegovernmentsastheywork o mic, socialandenvironmental un, 2015),importantinteractions

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20 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS WHY AREINTERACTIONSIMPORTANT? starting point in one of the three pillars, most actually embed startingpointinoneofthe threepillars,mostactuallyembed The 2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopmentisoften referred human well-being,ecosystemservicesandnaturalresources,but highlight inequalities concerning progress made, which will in turn highlight inequalitiesconcerningprogressmade,whichwillinturn pbl, 2012;seiStafford Smithetal., Council forScience Cities, andtheStockholmEnvironment Institute(sei).Itisbased University, theNewZealandCentreforSustainable Monash First, in contrast to the conception of the Rio ‘pillars’ of economic First, incontrasttotheconceptionofRio‘pillars’ ofeconomic goes further, by exploring the important interlinkages within and goes further,and byexploringtheimportantinterlinkageswithin ), National ResearchInstituteforSustainableDevelopment(ird), It hasbeenledbyicsuwiththesupportofseveralinternationally ding ontheworkofNilssonetal.(2016),andteststhisapp make it easier to identify corrective measures as well as help to make iteasiertoidentifycorrectivemeasuresaswellhelp development, socialdevelopmentandenvironmental protection, positive andnegativeinteractionsbetweenthevarioussdgs, buil report presentsaframeworkforcharacterisingtherangeof does notimplyany prioritisation. of progress. Such an analysis will also make it possible to better of progress.Suchananalysiswillalsomakeitpossibletobetter decision-making, andbetterfacilitatefollow-upmonitoring different contexts,cansupportmorecoherentandeffective on thepremisethatascience-informedanalysisofinteractions renowned scientificinstitutes,includingtheInstituteforAdvanced environmental dimensionsworldwide. developed thesdgs cutting acrosstheentireAgenda.Theseinteractions alsofeatured sdg , 2015). This report sdgs atthegoalandtarget-level(icsuissc,2015).Thisreport avoid unintendedside-effects. , sdg 7and sdg 3, by applyingittoaninitialsetoffoursdgs:sdg 2, a morestrategicandintegratedimplementation.Specifically, the a systemsapproachtosustainabledevelopment(e.g.gea,2012; across the InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis(iiasa ), to as an integrated agenda and its advocates frequently describe to asanintegratedagendaanditsadvocatesfrequently describe all threedimensionswithin theirtargets.Forexample,sdg the introductorysectionsof2030Agendaasintertwined, the threedimensionsofsustainabledevelopmentare describedin between thesegoalsandassociatedtargetstosupport ), the French the InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute(ifpri),French the aimofachievingprogressacrosseconomic,socialand Sustainability Studies(iass),theKielbasedFutureOceancluster, it asan‘indivisiblewhole’. Whatdoesthismeanin practice? face thechallengeofimplementingsdgssimultaneouslywith strongly inthedeliberationsofOpenWorking Groupthat While thescientificcommunityhasemphasisedneedfor

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21 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS “End hunger, achievefoodsecurityandimprovednutrition ‘indivisible whole’. However, inthatphrasethereisahidden certain goals,targetsandindicatorsoverothers.Asaresult of linkages, achievingtargetsunderthesegoalscanleadtotrade-offs lies inthenexusbetweenfood,waterandenergy(Weitz etal., levels withinashorttimeframe.Moreover, duetoglobalisation and irp, 2015;LeBlanc,2015). Finally, the For instance,waterisrequiredintheenergysectorforcooling prioritised’ goalsandtargets.Anexampleisthepo compete withbioenergyproductionforthesamelandorwater. research communityandpolicymakershave alreadyhighlighted ensuring rightstocontroloverlandandnaturalresources(target1.4). reducing foodwaste(target12.3),encouragingsustainablebusiness example of pumping waterforirrigation;andisneededallfood continue underbusiness-as-usualconditionsforagricultural example byconverting rainforesttoagriculture.Evenifcountries productivity andagriculturaltrade)environmental dimensions promote sustainableagriculture”containstargetswithsocial practices (target 12.6), conserving marine areas (target 14.5) and practices (target12.6),conservingmarineareas14.5)and presumption thattheinteractionsbetweengoalsandtargetsare– production, terrestrial ecosystems could deteriorate below current current production, terrestrialecosystemscoulddeteriorate below or therecouldbechanges innationaltradingpoliciesthatimpact of enforcedloggingbansin other, often neighbouring,countries, could beincreaseddeforestation insomecountriesasaresult countries orregions’pursuitoftheirobjectives.For example, there tion ofsdg are significantinteractionsbetween this prioritisation could lead to negative developments for ‘non- this prioritisationcouldleadtonegativedevelopmentsfor the positiveandnegativeinteractionsbetweengoalstargets, as specificneedsandpolicyagendas,countriesarelikelytoprioritise and goals, such as those preventing childhood death (target 3.2), and goals,suchasthosepreventingchildhooddeath(target3.2), between competinginterests:forexample,foodproductionmay bioenergy production.Third,becauseofthestrengththese thermal powerplantsandforgeneratinghydro-electricity; energy as reflectedinthelinkagesbetweensdg , 2012; that therecanbeconflictsandtrade-offs betweengoals(pbl,2012; to explainwhy the2030Agendamustindeedbetreatedasan (e.g. genetic diversity and climate resilience). Second, there (e.g. geneticdiversityandclimateresilience).Second,there (e.g. malnutritionandvulnerability),economicagricultural is required for residential and industrial water usage, and for is requiredforresidentialandindustrialwaterusage, in onearea,progressmustalsobemadeothers.Yet, boththe for themostpart–mutuallysupporting:inordertomakeprogress for severalofthesdg interventions have implicationsthataretrans increasing tradeofgoodsandservices,many policiesandother such that pursuing objectives in one region can impact on other such thatpursuingobjectivesinoneregioncanimpact onother Articulating andunderstandingthemany interlinkageshelps Given budgetary, political andresourceconstraints,aswell

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7. 7.

2014)

22 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS andtomovethediscoursebeyondsimplenotionoftrade-offs have alsopublishedincreasinglyadvancedapproachesto which theyconstrainorenablepolicyandaction.Indeed,there enabling andrelying(withsub-categories).Internationalagencies example, Weitz etal. conducted with a view to providing a useable knowledge base conducted withaviewtoprovidinguseableknowledgebase nat of implementationaction.Thenatureanddynamicstheinter cally abouttherangeofdifferent typesofinteractionisim (2016) and Nilsson et al. research isneeded.Forthisreason,icsu(2016)andNilssonetal. na need forapproachesandtoolsthatcansupportanalysisofthe conceptual andscientificunderpinning,thereisaclear costs, aswellmaximisesynergies(e.g.pbl,2012;irp2015). establishing thatthereisalink,ordiscussingtheexistenceof overall foodsecurity(Osseweijeretal., encourage investment andmarketdevelopmentsthatim on theavailability ofgoodsandservicesinothercountries. and risksofachievingthevariousgoalstargets.Inparticular, approach forinterlinkageswiththreecategories–supporting, and synergies.Attempts have beenmadeinrecentyears. For actions needtobebetterunderstoodbeforepolicycan and the extent to which the relationship is positive or negative and theextenttowhichrelationshipispositive ornegative because theymay have verydifferent implicationsinterms an interactionisbroadlybeneficialoradverse)andtheneedtomap tation strategies. between the individual chaptersofthecurrentreport. the them andidentifyways toalleviateorremovetrade-offs ortheir trade-offs andsynergiesbetweentopicareas(representingwhether the poorest–yet,sustain (2016) have developedatool,or framework,wherebyinteractions (see graphicp.24).Thisframeworkhasbeenapplied throughout Similarly, pursuingapolicyforbiofuelsinoneregioncandrive it is importanttodeployamorenuancedviewofinteractions, identifying andevaluatinginteractions(e.g.unesco,2016;un2016). formulated, including the setting of context-specific (such as formulated, includingthesettingofcontext-specific(suchas investors andotheractorstoidentifymanagethebenefits is aneedtodevelopguidanceandtoolsthatcanhelppolicymakers, for bothpolicy-leveldecisionsupportandthedesignofimplemen interlinkages inthe2030Agendahave focusedoneithersimply scale, indicatingthenatureofinteractionwith othertargets, up pricesoffoodcropselse ture andstrengthsoftheseinteractions,theextentto io Thinking carefullyaboutsdginteractionsandmorespecifi In short,thereisalackofinformationonthistopic andmore However, interactionsbetweensdgscurrentlyhave aweak In thepolicyarena,mostdiscussionsaboutcoherenceand nal or local) targets and indicators. Such analyses should be nal orlocal)targetsandindicators.Suchanalysesshouldbe sdgs andtargetsareclassifiedonaseven-pointordinal (2014) andCoopmanetal.(2016)appliedan able developmentofbiofuelscouldalso -where andthusfosterhungerfor 2015; Klineetal., prove 2016). portant portant

GOALS SCORING

INDIVISIBLE REINFORCING ENABLING CONSISTENT CONSTRAINING COUNTERACTING CANCELLING The strongest form of positive One objective directly The pursuit of one objective A neutral relationship where A mild form of negative The pursuit of one The most negative interaction interaction in which one creates conditions that lead enables the achievement of one objective does not interaction when the pursuit objective counteracts is where progress in one goal objective is inextricably linked to the achievement of another objective. significantly interact with of one objective sets a another objective. makes it impossible to reach to the achievement of another. another objective. Developing infrastructure another or where interactions condition or a constraint on Ensuring access to safe, another goal and possibly Reduction of air pollution Increasing economic benefits for transport (9.1) enables are deemed to be neither the achievement of another. nutritious and su cient leads to a deteriorating state (12.4) is indivisible from from sustainable marine participation of women in positive nor negative. Conserving coastal areas food can counteract of the second. A choice has to improved health and reducing resources use (14.7) the work force and By 2025, prevent and signifi- (14.5) and development of safe sustainable water be made between the two. non-communicable diseases reinforces the creation of in political life (5.5) cantly reduce marine pollution aordable housing and basic withdrawals (6.4) Developing infrastructure (9.1) (3.4). decent jobs and small of all kinds, in particular from services (11.1) may constrain and reduction of chemicals could be cancelling the enterprise in e.g. tourism (8.5 land-based activities, including each other releases (12.4) reduction of degradation of and 8.9) marine debris and nutrient natural habitats in terrestrial pollution (14.1) is consistent ecosystems (15.1) +3 with target 3.5 Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and +2 harmful use of alcohol. +1

Outdoor and indoor air pollution 0 is responsible for 7 million Sustainable and diversi ed -1 deaths annually, as strategies for using the Affordable public transport well as respiratory and cardio- marine resource base open promotes social inclusion, vascular disease but also up opportunities for small more equal access to different increases in perinatal deaths. -2 enterprises in sheries or parts of the city, and enabling In 2012, ambient (outdoor) air other harvesting and employment for marginalized There is no signi cant Establishing protection areas in pollution was responsible for associated value-addition groups. In many places, interaction between the two the coastal zone and expanding 3 million deaths, representing targets. -3 activities, as well as women do not have access to urbanization, infrastructure or 5.4% of the total deaths. activities related to tourism. a car and depend on public transport risks spatial competition Worldwide, ambient air Many SIDS and LDCs that transport, walking or bicycling especially in densely populated pollution is estimated to cause Increasing productivity in are rich in these resources to get around, to work places areas. Integrated coastal zone about 25% of the lung cancer agriculture is a necessary also have poor, vulnerable and to social or political management and marine spatial deaths. Major urban centers in (but not suf cient) condition and marginalized coastal activities (NCE, 2016; GSDR, planning tools are readily low and middle-income to improve food security. communities. 2016) available to mitigate spatial In underdeveloped regions, countries are the most exposed In many places, this might competition. developing roads, dams, entail increased and/or to this burden. (WHO, 2016). and power grids might be a better irrigation as well as high priority, although it increased use of agro- will cause some unavoidable chemical inputs. fragmentation of habitats and compromising the integrity of the natural ecosystem, leading to risks to biodiversity as well as social risks. 24 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS A SEVEN-POINTSCALE The scalerangesfrom- The frameworkidentifiescategoriesofcausalandfunctionalre Thus, the magnitude of the score, in whichever direction, provides Thus, themagnitudeofscore,inwhicheverdirection,provides linked to theachievementofanother. Forexample,ending while interactionscharacterisedbytrade-offs arescoredwith-1 waste prevention or substantially increasing recycling rates). waste preventionorsubstantiallyincreasingrecyclingrates). with thelatter(unlessmechanismsareputinplacetopreventthis, Complementing thescaleareanumberofkeydimensions BEYOND TRADE-OFFSANDSYNERGIES– y for Finally, Because interactionscanmanifestatthebroadgoal level, themore (‘indivisible’), of either+1(‘enabling’),+2(‘reinforcing’),or+3(‘indivisible’), de on onetargetactstocancelprogressanotherwhere negative inter con education, relationship, whereintheachievementofoneobjective progress ononegoalisinextricablylinkedtoanother. partici other reducingwaste determining theimpactsofplannedactionsaswell as opment actions,theframeworkhasbeendesignedto beapplicable detailed target-levelandevenatthelevelofindividual devel negative interactions,ascoreof0(‘consistent’)is assigned. one ofthesevenpointsonscale,butscaledoes providea and puttinginplacetherightpoliciestechnologiesmight all formsofdiscriminationagainstwomenandgirls(target5.1) to an‘indivi they occur. Mostinteractionscoresdependonthesedimensions– another. Forinstance,avalueof+1correspondstoan‘enabling’ an across multiplegeographicscales(localtoglobal), economic growth(target8.1)andonthe country’s a boosting (‘constraining’), (time, geography, governance,technology, directionality)that ) creates (such asprovidingelectricityaccessinruralhomes,sdg 7)creates ions underlyingprogressorachievementofgoalsandtargets. action) dependsonthepurposeofassessment.In somecases, is absolu shift thescoretoamorepositiveone. ing the wider implications of actions that have already taken place. ing thewiderimplicationsofactionsthathave alreadytaken such ascirculareconomy strategiesthatincludeeffective score of- sufficiently widerangeto classifymostrelationships. scribe the interactions and define the context in which scribe theinteractionsanddefinecontextinwhich indicationofhowinfluentialagivensdgortargetison di To bemorespecific,positiveinteractionsareassignedscores Choosing the level at which to apply the scale (goal, target or Choosing thelevelatwhich toapplythescale(goal,targetor Not alllinkagesbetweensdgs tions forfurtheringanother(suchaschildandadult pation insociety(target5.5).Asanexampleofa tely necessaryforensuringwomen’sfullandeffective 2 (‘counteracting’), since the former potentially clashes 2 (‘counteracting’),sincetheformerpotentiallyclashes sdgs andtargetsexhibitingnosignificantposi sdg sible’ relationship, wherein one objective is inextricably sible’ relationship,whereinoneobjectiveisinextricably action, therelationshipbetweenononehand

4). Meanwhile ahigherscoreof+3corresponds -2 (‘counteracting’),and-3(‘cancelling’). generation(target12.5)mightbeassigneda 3 to+ 3, frominstanceswhereprogress and targets will fall neatly into andtargetswillfallneatlyinto and for for evaluat-

tive or tive or

- lat

25 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS – how A numberofdimensionscanbeusedtocontextualise theassess having reachedatarget,theissueisthenwhetherthiswilldi- INTERACTIONS occurs. Itshouldalsobeclearthatagooddevelopmentaction matically monitoringprogress. men energy efficiencyinitselfmay nothave suchconsequences.It on, orwhethertheyareintrinsic, iskeytomitigatingnegative discuss thesecontextualconsiderations atthesametimeas ment ofspecificsynergiesandtrade-offs, providingdeeper rectly affect anotherpolicyareaortargetunderthesamegoal our abilitytoattainanothersetofobjectives.Inothercases,the pursue anotherpolicyarea.Thelatterreflectsstandardimpact energy efficiency(target 7.3) willhave certaindistributional are associatedwithsignificantnegativeinteractions–itmerely the interactiondependoncontextwithinwhich and monitorempiricallythenatureofinteractionsduringimple are disproportionatelyaffected bythetax,althoughimproved assess the assignedscore.Understanding whatinteractionsdepend to aidtheexplanation.Incase-studyanalysis,itisimportant to fully whendesigningpoliciesandstrategies. interactions; butthisbynomeanssuggeststhatpolicymakers imised, whileatthesametimemaximisingsignificantpositive is onewhereallnegativeinteractionsareavoided oratleastmin- integrated assessmentmodelsthattesttherelation interactions dependon.Theseincludedirectionality, place- insights intoelementsandareasthatthesdg-target-level frame. Eachisnowdiscussedinturn,withexamples given ( in place topursueonesdgtargetwouldaffect theabilityto could behowpolicyinstruments,actionsorinvestments put issue interactions alreadyintheprojectorpolicyformulationstage. ins suggests thatinthesecasespolicymakersshouldtreadmorecar should avoid attemptingprogressinthosetargetsandgoalsthat KEY DIMENSIONSTHAT SHAPE seven-point scaleisrarelyabsolute.Thepositionandnatureof should beabletodevelopaneverimprovingdatasetforsyste scientific community, thoseinchargeofmonitoringthesdgs should bepossiblebothtosimulateimplementationstrategieswith specific contextdependencies,governance,technology andtime- strategy. Forexample,theintroductionofafueltaxto under another goal.Thefocusthenshifts tothephysical interaction under sdg tru It shouldbenotedthatthepositionofagiveninteractionon In practice,itwillusuallybeacombinationofexamining

10) consequences,suchthatlowerincomeorruralpopulations t onesetofconditionsinsocietyortheenvironment affects ation inreality. Over time,withthesupportof ment procedure,andcanbeusedtomitigatenegative ments andtargetsthatisrequiredtoidentifyaneffec ship promote

tive

26 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS highly location-specific;andthescaleofanalysiscanhave a hand, abidirectionalrelationshipmeansthatAaffects B,andB vulnerable asawhole.Asresult,farmersmay invest more Interaction betweentwosdgsortargetscanbeunidirectional, In amultiplerelationshipAaffects B,C,Detc. given interactionshould,ifpossible,includeanassessmentofthe clinics andhospitalsforthedeliveryofessentialhealthcare example, electricityaccess(target7.1)isneededforpowering means thatobjectiveAaffects B,butBdoesnotaffect A.For response toincreasednational bioenergyproductionwouldstill diversification ofmarkets,becauseitmakestheirsupply chainsless contrary, farmersandforestownerscanbothbenefitfromthe countries suchasSwedenorFinland(Ericssonetal., et al., matrix andjuxtaposed,allpotentialinteractionsareanalysed relationship Aaffects B,whichaffects C,whichinturn affects A. or, morecommonly, asymmetrical,whereAaffects Bmore,or are notneededforprovidingelectricityaccess.Ontheother between bioenergy(target7.2) andfood and scored,includingAtoBA. ality canbepursuedwherebysdgtargetsarepresentedina a morepositiveinteraction,orviceversa.Also, ananalysisofa access. Inthecaseofbidirectionality, interactionscanalsobe affects A.Forexample,providingmoreaccesstotransporttoday bidirectional, circularormultiple.Aunidirectionalrelationship their foodsecurity, achangeintheirfoodexportpatterns and bothfoodsystemsproductionenergy arestronger taken toreducegreenhousegasemissionscanconstraintransport Some relationshipsaregenericacrossborderswhileothers (target 13.2),thusexacerbatingclimatechange,whilemeasures (target 11.2)islikelytoleadhighergreenhousegasemissions (Kline etal., international prices of agricultural commodities. This dependency international pricesofagricultural commodities.Thisdependency impact foodsecurityglobally, throughchangesintradeand in thesedimensions interactions andmaximisingpositiveones.Inotherwords,changes in different ways, comparedtohowBaffects A.Ina circular if bioenergyintheNordiccountriesisnotconsidered toaffect significant effect onresults.Forexample,theissueoftrade-off services (target3.8),buthealthcareinclinicsandhospitals significant attentioninpolicydebates(seeforexample,Rosegrant symmetrical (wheretheimpactissimilarintypeandstrength) significant spill-overeffects, duetointernationaltrade.Hence,even uncertainty giventhecurrentstateofknowledge. DIRECTIONALITY PLACE-SPECIFIC CONTEXTDEPENDENCY A comprehensiveapproachthattakesintoaccountdirection However, suchgeography-dependent relationships canhave 2008) doesnotappearprominentlyinnorthernEuropean 2016). can often enableashift fromanegativeto ( sdg

2), whichhasgained 2004). Onthe

27 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS TIME-FRAME DEPENDENCY TECHNOLOGY DEPENDENCY has sometimesbeenassociatedwithinfringementofrights know highly contradictoryatfirstglance.Butusingthesdgsasa vehicle impactonland-usechangewillremain. with climatechangemitigationefforts. Inthefuture,however, where commercialactorshave takenoverlandsusedbylocal In somecases,thenegativenatureofarelationshipcanbe In somecases,whileastrongtrade-off may exist,theremay be Negative impactsonlocalcommunitiesaremorelikelytooccur, or Irreversible impactsarewell knowninlandandoceaneco can have important food security (target 2.1), nutrition (target 2.2) can have importantfoodsecurity (target2.1),nutrition2.2) over theshortterm.Similarly, harvestingremaining fishstocks electricity couldlargelyremovethistrade-off. Howeverpersonal result ofpoorgovernance.Forexample,industrialisation(target9.2) refers towhatcontext,andhowknowledgecanbegeneralised. does notholdforadifferent scaleortargetareamay appear one scaletothenext.Hencescientificevidenceinareathat exclusion ofthosecommunitiesfromworkopportunities.However, communities withoutconsultationorcompensationandwiththe possibly to2030.However, thesepracticesmightwellhave longer- others. Moreover, someinteractionsmay berestrictedintime on thesustainableuseofoceanstosdg 2, development, configurationofpoliticalandeconomicinterests, and povertyalleviation(target1.1)benefitsintheshort term, activity itself, but rather derives from inadequate governance. activity itself,butratherderivesfrominadequategovernance. term adverseimpactsonseveralsdgs,rangingfrom sdg boost agriculturalproductivitythatseason(target2.4),thereby the transitiontowardszero a verylongtimetodissipate (i.e.untiltheaffected systemsrecover). this negative interaction is not necessarily intrinsic to the industrial this negativeinteractionisnotnecessarilyintrinsictotheindustrial trade-off, orevenremoveit.Oneexampleisgrowthinmobility technologies that,whendeployed,willsignificantlymitigatethis tend tobestronger, wheninstitutionsandrightsareweak. to theactualperiodofintervention(i.e.when cea GOVERNANCE DEPENDENCY Some interactionsdevelopinrealtime,whileothersshow (namely personalmotorisedtransport)which,atpresent,conflicts increasing foodavailability andcontributingtofoodsecurity (e.g. intheBalticSea,Lindegren, 2009;helcom,2010). interaction candiffer fromonecontexttoanotherand is notlimitedtonaturalconditions,butcanincludelevelof significant timelags.Forexample,increasesinfertiliserusewill ses, theinteractionstops),whileothersareirreversible ortake social andculturalattitudes,many otheraspects. such asspeciesextinction, collapsedfisheriesoreutrophication Thus, whatconstitutesapositiveinteractionandnegative l edge managementgridcouldhelptoclarifywhatevidence -emission carsfuelledbyrenewable , among sdg 15 and1,among

14 (target 1.4), sys

tems,

28 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS sector toanother from onepolicy COHERENCE SECTORAL COHERENCE RELATIONSHIPS HORIZONTAL ANDVERTICALINTERACTIONS THE ROADTOPOLICYCOHERENCE Agenda, theremay beamismatchbetweenthegoalsandtargets An importanttypeofcoherencerelationshipexistsacrosstrans- 2016; GuptaandNilsson,2017). legal frameworks,investment frameworks,capacitydevelopment ween By systematicallyassessingtheinteractionsandrelationshipsbet ground. Thelatteroften deviatessubstantiallyfromtheoriginal Coherence canalsobeexaminedacrossgovernanceinterventions. For example,policymakersandplannersputinplacedifferent governance mechanisms,andacrosstheimplementationcontinuum. cohe policy (PressmanandWildavsky, 1973;Nilssonetal., policy intentions,asactors maketheirinterpretationsand mechanisms andpolicyinstrumentsthatmay ormay notpull , 2016, see graphic). These additional dimensions, coherence (oecd,2016,seegraphic).Theseadditionaldimensions, national levelandacteduponatthelocallevel. established atthegloballevel,andagendaasinterpreted multiple levelsofgovernment.Here,inthecontext2030 policies andgoalscanbeeasilyintroduced,institutional capacities or affects theabilitiesofanothertopursueitssovereignobjectives. development agenda(oecd,2016)–observingtowhatextentthe national jurisdictions.Thistiesindirectlytothepolicycoherencefor pursuit of objectives in one country has international repercussions pursuit ofobjectivesinonecountryhasinternationalrepercussions of policythatsystematicallyreducesconflictsandpromotessynergies the implementationcontinuum:frompolicyobjective, through because theformerarecommonlymoredifficultto develop(oecd, that between and across countries, across levels of government, across between andacrosscountries,levelsofgovernment, institutional barriersand drivers influencetheirresponsetothe instruments andmeasuresagreed,toimplementation onthe for implementationarenotalignedwiththenewpolicy designs, in thesamedirection.Infact,itisoften thecasethatwhilenew is also important to keep in mind the other dimensions of policy is alsoimportanttokeepinmindtheotherdimensionsofpolicy with jointlyagreedpolicyobjectives”(Nilssonetal., between and within different policy areas to achieve the outcomes associated policyareastoachievetheoutcomesassociated between andwithindifferent

Finally, coherencerelationshipsshouldbeconsidered along In addition,coherencerelationshipsneedtobeobservedacross become visible during implementation, concern alignment becomevisibleduringimplementation,concernalignment rence acrosssectors.Coherencecanbedefinedas sdgs and targets, this report aims to support horizontal andtargets,thisreportaimstosupporthorizontal TRANSNATIONAL to another( from onejurisdiction COHERENCE PCD )

another interventions to from onesetof COHERENCE GOVERNANCE

2012:396). However, it local policy to nationaland agreements global/international from COHERENCE MULTILEVEL

“an attribute “an attribute 2012).

design topractice through instrument from policyobjective COHERENCE IMPLEMENTATION

29 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS ‘entry goal’focusofthechapter)andother16sdgs,staying key interactionsforsdg 2,37and hoped thatthisreportinspiresthedevelopmentandsynthesisof gea, 2012.GlobalEnergyAssessment– Toward aSustainableFuture,CambridgeUniversity gaps relatedtotheinteractionsstudied. gathered fromscientificresearchcanbefedintodeliberations options areidentifiedforhowtomaximisepositiveinteractions regions showhowtheselinkagesmanifestinpractice.Policy multidimensional, complexandwide-rangingscientificevidence can be‘translated’andsummarisedintheformof described earlier, thechapterthenprovidesanassessmentof ex communities. pretive framework.Theendproductissuchthatevi ecosystem servicesandnaturalresources,butdoesnotimplyany of thistypecould,andshould,becarriedoutonall entry goal,asetofkeyinteractionsisthenidentifiedbetween parts oftheworld,andamongdifferent scientificandpolicy presenting anoverviewofinteractionsbetweenasingle prioritisation. presents amixtureofkeysdgsaimedathumanwell-being, empirical researchoninteractionsacrossallthe and beyond.Eachchapterconcludeswithalistofkeyknowledge and minimisenegativeinteractionsbetweennow2030, FIRST APPLICATION OFTHESCALE they , principally the entrygoaltargetsandthoseofnumerousothersdgs,principally a subsetofthekeyinteractions,howscoringframeworkcan analysis ofallpossibleinteractionsforagivensdgandits at goallevel.Taking intoaccountalltheunderlyingtargetsof be appliedinpractice.Goingforward,acomprehensiveanalysis between policymakersfordifferent topicareasinanaccessible, Subsequent chaptersapplytheframeworkaspresentedhereto interactions withintherangeofhighestmagnitudeor selected target-levelinteractionsandthecontextinwhich stron Gupta, J.andM.Nilsson,2017.Toward a multi-level actionframeworkforsustainable understandable anddirectlycomparableform. underlying targets.Rather, theaimistoillustrate,byfocusingon Coopman, A., D. Osborn, F. Ullah, E. Auckland and G. Long, 2016. Seeing the Whole: Coopman, A.,D.Osborn,F.Ullah,E.AucklandandG.Long,2016.Seeing theWhole: Ericsson, K.,S.Huttunen,L.J.NilssonandP. Svenningsson,2004.Bioenergypolicyand REFERENCES pert knowledge.Usingthetypologyandseven-pointscale The scoringapproachdescribedhereoffers ameansbywhich The reportdoesnotaimtopresentafullycomprehensive The chaptersfollowasimilarstructure.Eachstartsby development goals.In:Kanie,N.and F.Biermann(eds.),GoverningthroughGoals: market developmentinFinlandandSweden.EnergyPolicy, 3:1707-1721. Stakeholder ForumforaSustainableFuture. Press, andtheInternationalInstitute forAppliedSystemsAnalysis,Laxenburg,Austria. inanIntegratedandCoherentWay.Implementing thesdgs ResearchPilotReport. typically occur. Illustrativeexamplesfromdifferent world gest impactsbasedonavailable scientificliteratureand

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30 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS Weitz, N.,M.NilssonandDavis,2014. Anexusapproachtothepost-2015agenda: oecd, 2016.BetterPoliciesforSustainableDevelopment2016:ANewFrameworkPolicy sei, 2012.EnergyforaSharedDevelopmentAgenda:GlobalScenariosandGovernance un, 2016.GlobalSustainableDevelopmentReport.2016Edition.Department ofEconomic un, 2015.GeneralAssemblyresolution70/1,Transforming ourworld:the2030Agendafor un, 1992.TheRioDeclarationonEnvironmentandDevelopment. un, 1987.ReportoftheWorld CommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment:OurCommon , 2015. Policy coherence of the sustainable development goals – a natural resource perspective. irp, 2015.Policycoherenceofthesustainabledevelopmentgoals–anaturalresourceperspective. icsu andissc,2015.ReviewoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals:TheSciencePerspective. Interactions.Working Framework forUnderstandingsdg icsu, 2016.ADraft paper. helcom, 2010.EcosystemHealthoftheBalticSea.InitialHolisticAssessment2003– pbl, 2012.RoadsfromRio+20Pathwaystoachieveglobalsustainabilitygoalsby2050. unesco, 2016.Educationforpeopleandplanet.GlobalMonitoring Report.United Osseweijer, P., H.K.Watson, F.X.Johnson,M.Batistella,L.A.B.Cortez,L.R.Lynd, S.R.Kaffka, Kline, K.,S.Msangi,V.H. Dale,J.Woosd, G.M.Souza,P. Osseweijer, J.S.Clancy, J.A.Hilbetr, Le Blanc,D.,2015.Towards integrationatlast?Thesustainabledevelopmentgoalsasa Nilsson, M.,T. Zamparutti,J.-E.Petersen,B.Nykvist,P. RudbergandJ.McQuinn,2012. Lindegren, M.,C.Möllmann,A.NielsenandN.C.Stenseth,2009.Preventingthecollapseof Stafford Smith,M.,O.Gaffney,Stafford L.Brito,E.OstromandS.Seitzinger, 2012.Interconnected Rosegrant, M.W., T. Zhu,S.MsangiandT.B. Sulser, 2008.Globalscenariosforbiofuels: Pressman, J.andA.Wildavsky, 1973.Implementation.UniversityofCaliforniaPress. Nilsson, M.,D.GriggsandM.Visbeck,2016.MaptheinteractionsbetweenSustainable Affairs, 34:37-50. Affairs, 2007. BalticSeaEnvironmentalProceedings122.HelsinkiCommission(helcom). (un desa), Working PaperNo.141. and SocialAffairs. security. In:Souza,G.M.,R.L.Victoria,C.A.JolyandL.M.Verdale (eds.),Bioenergy& policy interactionsintheeu.EnvironmentalPolicyandGovernance,22:395-423. risks andsolutionsforaplanetunderpressure–overviewintroduction.Current network of targets. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs network oftargets.UnitedNationsDepartmentEconomicandSocialAffairs United NationsEnvironmentProgramme–InternationalResourcePanel(irp). Understanding policycoherence:Analyticalframeworkandexamplesofsector-environment Opinion onEnvironmentalSustainability, 4:3-6. the NationalAcademyofSciencesusa the Balticcodstockthroughanecosystem-basedmanagementapproach.Proceedingsof Coherence. oecdPublishing,Paris. impacts andimplications.ReviewofAgriculturalEconomics,30:495-505. Sustainable developmentgoalsasgovernanceinnovation.mitPress. formulating integratedwater, energy,. sais andfoodsdgs ReviewofInternational F.X. Johnson,P.C. McDonnellandH.K.Mugera,2016.Reconcilingfoodsecurity International CouncilforScience(icsu),Paris. International CouncilforScience(icsu). Sustainability: BridgingtheGaps.pp.90-136.scopereport. S.P. Long,H.vanMeijl,A.M.NassarandJ.Woods, 2015.Bioenergy, waterandfood Sustainable Development,a/res/70/1(25September2015) Netherlands EnvironmentalAssessmentAgency. Development Goals.Nature,534:320-322. Implications. StockholmEnvironmentInstitute(sei),Stockholm. Nations Educational,Scientificand CulturalOrganization(unesco). Future. A/42/427. bioenergy: prioritiesforaction.gcbBioenergy, doi:10.1111/gcbb.12366. , 106:14722-14727.

31 SDG 2 END HUNGER, ACHIEVE FOOD SECURITY AND AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY IMPROVED GOAL #7 NUTRITION AND PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE Ludovic Mollier Frédérique Seyler Jean-Luc Chotte Claudia Ringler 32 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER 33 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER 34 INTRODUCTION

sdg 2 integrates and links food security, nutrition and a sustainable and climate- resilient agriculture. A focus on the role of small producers in the agriculture sectors is an important element. This multi-dimen- sional goal encompasses several specific targets, and these can be subdivided into three interrelated components: ending hunger and improving nutrition (social dimension: 2.1, 2.2), achieving food security through productivity improvement and income increase (economic dimension: 2.3, 2.a, and to a certain extent 2.b and 2.c), and promoting sustainable agriculture (environment dimension: 2.4, 2.5). This brief description of sdg 2 – the ‘entry level goal’ for this assessment – is followed by an overview of interactions at goal level between sdg 2 and the other 16 sdgs. Taking into account all the underlying targets of this entry goal, a set of key interactions is then identified between the sdg 2 targets and those of other sdgs, focusing on interactions with high magnitude or strong impacts based on available scientific literature and expert knowledge. The typology and seven-point scale for characterising the range of positive and negative interactions described in the opening chapter to this report is used to assess the selected target-level interactions and the context in which they typically occur. Illustrative examples from different world regions show how these linkages manifest in practice. Policy options that can enhance positive and reduce negative interactions between now and 2030, and beyond are also described. The chapter concludes with a list of key knowledge gaps related to the interactions studied. 35 KEY INTERACTIONS AT GOAL LEVEL

2 + 1 Africa (World Bank, 2016), South Asia Ensuring that all people have access to remains home to the largest concentration safe, nutritious and sufficient food all of undernourished people. year round is inextricably linked to poverty eradication and, as such, addressing 2 + 2 undernutrition is indivisible from Synergies and trade-offs can also occur addressing poverty. According to the World between the five targets and three Bank (2007), growth in agriculture is at implementation mechanisms of sdg 2. least twice as effective in reducing poverty Generally the targets of ending as growth in any other sector. There hunger and achieving food security are multiple pathways through which benefit from achievements on the increases in agricultural productivity can economic (productivity improvement) reduce poverty; key among these are and environmental front (sustainable increased incomes and associated agriculture) and are supported by multiplier effects stimulating employment investments in agricultural research, in the rural and urban non-farm sectors trade and market development. However, through forward and backward linkages. trade-offs can occur between the agri- However, success in agriculture does cultural economy versus sustainability not always reduce poverty and not for focused targets. For example, yield everyone. This is the case in Brazil where gaps are particularly high in sub-Saharan agricultural growth in some regions has Africa for some of the region’s major been concentrated in a dynamic export- staple crops (World Bank, 2007). Closing oriented sector of large capital-intensive these gaps through agricultural produc- farms. As a result, agricultural employment tivity improvement can, however, declined with few poverty reduction constrain the sustainability of agriculture. effects. Moreover, in pursuing some of the As an example, Duflo et al. (2008) found sdg2 means of implementation, such as that in the short term, productivity trade liberalisation, poverty levels might increases in Kenya may be achieved increase for some strata of society, at most cost-effectively through the use of least in the short term and if no safety inorganic fertilisers, but this can adversely nets are established (Winters et al., 2004). affect ecosystems and, in the long-term, Furthermore, some policies developed the sustainability of the agricultural sector to improve food security for the poor, and its productive capacity. Based on such as price controls, may have perverse a comprehensive meta-analysis, Ponisio impacts, such as depressing farm income. et al. (2015) found a large heterogeneity Although some evidence indicates a shift in the performance of all types of in the concentration of poverty levels from production system and that diversification rural to urban areas, rural people continue practices appear to be key in enhancing to represent the largest segment of the yields and profit. In this sense, solu- world’s extreme poor. However, while tions that support both productivity a large proportion of the world’s extreme enhancements and sustainable agro- poor are concentrated in sub-Saharan ecosystems do exist. Examples are context- 36 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER a rangeofmicronutrients overthecourse safety practices.Adequate consumptionof culture), zoonoticdiseases andpoorfood or swampdrainageandclearingforagri- with airpollution(e.g.sugarcaneburning, agement practices;healthrisksassociated ticides) andpoorcroplivestockman- excessive useofchemicals(fertilisers,pes- degradation andwaterpollutiondueto counteract healthy livesasaresultofsoil agricultural practicescanconstrainoreven and well-being.However, unsustainable fundamental andcrucialdriverforhealth place. Qualityfoodandnutritionstatusisa household consumptionorinthemarket- quantity ofnutritiousfoodsfordirect through itsabilitytoprovideasufficient emotional andphysical healthdirectly well-being. Agricultureinfluencesmental, form carriessignificantriskstohealthand In otherwords,beingmalnourishedinany inently insub-SaharanAfrica (who,2016). of fivearelinkedtomalnutrition–prom- Globally, 45%ofchild deathsundertheage tributors totheglobalburdenofdisease. Malnutrition remainsoneofthemaincon- et al., management approaches(Rosegrant fertility andintegratedlandwater cultural methods,integratedsoil efficiency, low-orhigh-techprecisionagri till agriculture,increasednutrientuse protection bycovercropsorresidues,no- enhance soilhealth,permanent specific andcanincludecroprotationto situation ofsmall-scalefoodproducers. may enhanceorconstraintheeconomic tection. Lastly, internationaltradepatterns producers aswellbiodiversitypro- attention totheneedsofsmallholderfood infrastructure developmentdoesnotpay addition, trade-offs may ariseifrural (Johnston etal., deficiencies can contributetomacroandmicronutrient of low-nutrientandenergy-richfoods agricultural productionandaffordability and nutrition,becauseincreaseinthe between targetsforagriculturalproduction 2

3 2014). Trade-offs canalsooccur 2014). In

nutritional outcomes(Rueletal., the householdthatareimportanttoachieve practices, andempowermentofwomenin nutrition education,enhancedchildcare many complementarypathways including essential fornutritionoutcome,thereare while improvingagriculturalproductionis by thediversityoffoodsgrown.However, and balanceddietcanbeinfluenced of alifetimeisalsokeytoensurehealthy in countrieswithhighobesity rates, standing nutritioninformation. Similarly, sustainable farmingmethods, andforunder in helpingpeoplemovetowardsmore culture. Sucheducationcanplay akeyrole security andalsomoresustainableagri- interacts positivelywithfoodandnutrition development andsustainablelifestyles access toeducationforsustainable on earningcapacityandwell-being.Equal potentially lifelongpositiveimpacts trate andperformbetterinschoolwith tional efforts becausechildrencanconcen- undernutrition canreinforceeduca- levels ( with uptoa15-pointreductioniniq 240 millionchildren,andthisiscorrelated in dietaryiodine,includingaround people worldwidearebelievedtobelacking affect learningability. Almost 2billion dren. Micronutrientdeficienciesalso minant ofthenutritionalstatusherchil- educational levelisanimportantdeter- mutually supportive.Moreover, amother’s to learnandthenutritionofachildare status areinextricablylinked,theability Just ashealthoutcomesandnutritional ness, anddrop-outbeforecompletion. concentration, moreschoolinglosttoill- delayed schoolenrolment,impaired acteristics ofpoverty, itisassociated with the negativeeffects ofmany otherchar- acts asadragoneducation:compounding (Victora etal., might alsoaffect subsequentgenerations lifelong, irreversibleconsequencesand reduces intellectualcapacitywithpossibly Chronic undernutrition,suchasstunting, 2

4 who, 2013;Webb, 2014).Tackling 2008). Undernutritionthus 2013).

37 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER for sustainableagriculture towomen, access toresourcesandproductive assets 2011). Thus,throughproviding greater million inthe34countriesstudied(fao people couldbereducedby100–150 kets asmenthenumberofhungry to agriculturalinputs,educationandmar- if womenfarmershadthesameaccess nutrition outcomes.Accordingtothefao to improvebothfamilyhealthand production andincomeshasbeenshown their decision-makingoveragricultural women inagriculturethroughincreasing equality andempowerment.Empowering less abletocontributethegoalsof be totheirbenefit.Theyaretherefore to travel orjoinmeetingsthatcould to undernutrition,sicknessandinability because oflowerworkcapacitydue (be itmicrocredit,schoolingorpaidjobs) advantage ofdevelopmentresources and womenareoften leastabletotake Furthermore, undernourishedgirls related toreproductivehealth. because oftheirspecialvulnerabilities preparation, andchildcare,butalso their keyrolesinfoodproduction, nutrition iscrucialforwomendueto strong. Endinghungerandimproving between thisgoalandtheothersdgsare of allinequalities,andinteractions Gender inequalitiesarethemostpervasive girls andboys(ilo,2016). livestock), amountingtoover98million farming, fishing,aquaculture,forestry, and are engagedinagriculture(including child labourersinthe5–17yearagegroup to purchasefood.Worldwide, 60%ofall or elsewheretohelpgenerateincome work onfarmsforsubsistenceproduction kept outofschoolbecausetheyneedto outcomes negativelywhenchildrenare production practicesalsoaffects education nutrition andassociatedagricultural cancer. Notaddressingfoodsecurityand as heartdisease,stroke,diabetesand of non-communicablediseasessuch nutrition educationcanreducetherisk 2

, , women’s empowerment. sdg2 isalsoenablinggenderequalityand targets islikelytoincrease asaresult. water (andland)withsdg2targetsand6 gation strategies;competitionfor medium-term underdifferent climatemiti- jected toincreasedramaticallyinthe 2013). Finally, demandforbiofuelsispro- of thesmallintestine(Dangouretal., dysfunction, anacquireddisorder enteric phenomenon calledenvironmental as wellamorerecentlystudied infections as malaria,diarrhealdisease,andnematode borne and water-relatedsuchdiseases, outcomes throughvariousinfectiouswater- drinking waterandadversenutrition suggests adirectlinkbetweenunsafe sanitation (unicef have not access to do adequate billion 2.4 people stilllackaccesstosafewaterand constraint. Currentlyabout663million production systemscanhelpaddressthis Ensuring sustainabilityofagricultural the protectionofwater-basedecosystems. Similarly, livestockwastecanconstrain for agricultureandotherwaterusers. ity, sustainabilityandqualityofwater the potentialtoundermineavailabil- and managed,bothactivitieshave pesticides. Butunlesscarefullyplanned the useofsyntheticfertilisersand expand accesstoirrigationandincrease to lift agriculturalproductivityareto conflict. Two ofthemostobviousways are constrainingandyetothersin the achievementofothers,whileothers withsometargetsenabling undisputable actions betweensdg2and6are share of waterconsumption.Theinter- 70% ofwaterwithdrawals andahigher user. Irrigatedagricultureaccountsfor Agriculture isbyfarthemainwater able managementofwaterandsanitation. in ensuringavailability andsustain- hunger’ is highlydependentonprogress Progress inworkingtowards‘zero 2

6 / who, 2015).Evidence

38 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER (agroforestry orbiofuelscrops). as candedicatedbioenergyresources the renewableenergytargetssetfor2030, plant-based) cancontributetomeeting from agriculturalwastes(animalor biofuels. Furthermore,methaneproduction more cropsaredivertedforuseas fossil energyprices,butcouldmeanthat sdg2 dependon(climate)policyand interactions betweenthesetrendsand non-oecd nations(eia,2016).The most oftheincreaseamongdeveloping by 48%between2012and2040–with energy demandisexpectedtoincrease tion ofbiofuelsandbiogas.Global modern energyforallthroughtheproduc- affordable, reliable,sustainableand can play animportantroleinachieving Conversely, agriculturalproduction in increasingagriculturalproductivity. solar pumps)facegreaterchallenges pesticides orelectricityconnections(or areas withoutaccesstofertilisersand transportation, etc.).Remoteagricultural post-harvest processing,storageand chemicals, machinery, irrigation, to increasefoodproduction(agricultural supplies), becauseenergyisoften used easily accessible,andreliableenergy dependent onenergysecurity(affordable, securityandnutritionarehighly Sustainable agricultureaswellfood Especially inremoterural areasthatare investment inruralinfrastructure. ity toclimateadaption,andincreasing markets, strengtheningagriculturecapac- to financialservicesknowledgeand agriculture includeensuringtheiraccess cipation ineconomicgrowththrough growth. Keyareasforwomen’sparti- can participateinsustainableeconomic smallholder womenandmen,sdg2 cultural productivityandincomesof ment. Byincreasingsustainableagri- and supportspro-pooreconomicdevelop- of themostpoorandvulnerablepeople Agriculture providesalivelihoodformany 2 2

+ +

7 8

(Rosegrant andHazell,2000). the resourcestoindustrialsector the agriculturalsurplusandmoving into industrialisedeconomies,bytaxing industrialisation policiestomoveagrarian if countrieschooseimport-substitution of theagriculturesector, forexample, strategies canconstrainadvancement protection. Finally, someeconomicgrowth often withlimitedlegalandother thrives ontemporarymigrantworkers, agriculture sectorinsomecountries in agriculture(ilo,2010).Moreover, the in the5–17yearagegroupareengaged employment as60%ofallchildlabourers constrain theachievementofdecent production strategiesandsystemscan relates toemployment.Agricultural Hazell, 2000).Anotherimportantlinkage crisis of1989/1990(e.g.Rosegrantand during theAsianfinancialandeconomic sector. Thiswaswelldocumented temporary employmentintheagriculture during financialturmoilswitchingto with peoplelosingtheirjobsincities buffer functionduringeconomiccrises, sector isknowntohave animportant productivity. Moreover, theagriculture focus limitedtodoublingagricultural degradation may beconstrainedbya economic growthfromenvironmental overall economy. Advancesindecoupling growth inthesesectorsandthe non-agricultural sectors,therebyspurring through releasingsurpluslabourto be akeyaidtooveralleconomicgrowth growth inagriculturehasshownto rural economiesdevelop,productivity and foodandnutritionsecurity. When only viablesourceofbothemployment opportunities, agricultureisoften the cut off frommostalternativeemployment preservation anddistribution aswell ted systemsoffoodproduction, processing, development ofmoreefficient integra- there isagrowingneedforthedesignand and changingpatternsoffooddemand, With changingdemographicconditions 2

39 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER access toresourcessuchas land,facilitates extremely poor)andensuring theirequal an importantsegmentof the world’s both womenandmen(whorepresent Empowering small-scalefoodproducers, as sustainableagriculturalproduction. hance foodandnutritionsecurityaswell the policyandlegalarenasshoulden- Reduction oreliminationofinequalityin related topoverty, andthustoinequality. Hunger andfoodsecurityareclosely market (e.g.coldchain)facilities,could communication (e.g.internetaccess)and use efficientirrigation,transportation, tructure includingaffordable andwater- to markets(Knoxetal., infrastructure withroadsfacilitatingaccess reliable transportationandlogistics unsustainable practices. extract ofwaterresources,andigniteother may alsoacceleratebiodiversityloss,over- the foodinsecure.Suchinfrastructure while ignoringthoseofsmallholdersand may addresstheneedsofagri-exporters infrastructure, orwider, asphaltedroads such aslargerdamssupportingirrigation For instance,moreresilientinfrastructure, access tosuchinfrastructure(un,2016). some sdg sdg over others,thenachievingtargetsunder financial servicesfavours someproducers if suchinfrastructure,researchand research arealignedwithsdg9;however, enhancing investment inagricultural scale enterprisesintovaluechains,and rural infrastructure,integratingsmall- perspective, developingandupgrading productivity andincome.Fromansdg2 factor fortheinteractionbetween tructure isinthissenseanimportant important. Accesstophysical infras- stressed areas,willbecomeincreasingly food transportfromsurplustoclimate transportation infrastructure,allowing variability andextremes,resilient sdg2. Moreover, withgrowingclimate make amajorcontributiontoachieving 2

+ 9 mightconstrainachievementof

10 2 targetsand/orreduceequityin 2013). Infras

to consumers. most ofwhomarenetbuyersfood,and food moreaffordable topoorfarmers, support achievingsdg2throughmaking However, tradeliberalisationcanalso consumers toaddressinternalinequalities. forms ofsubsidiestodomesticfarmersor a country’scapacitytoprovidesome Trade liberalisationcanalsoconstrain below localandnationalproductioncosts. farming enterprisesfaceimportprices and marketsothernon-competitive farmers arenotlinkedtovaluechains targets undersdg10,ifsmall-scale adversely affect achievingtheequality mechanism suggestedundersdg2,can trade liberalisation,animplementation the reductionofinequality. Ofnote, urban linkageswillsupport sustainable (Goldstein etal., and recyclingoforganicwaste incities It canalsocontributetowasteavoidance support developmentofgreenspaces. able developmentofcitiesandcan contribute tosocialwelfareandsustain- wastewater. Urbanagriculturethuscan and throughrecyclingofnutrientsin nutrient-film-techniques, aquaponics, hydroponics, verticalfarming, aeroponics, growing foodonsoil-lessagricultureor potential trade-off tosomeextent,through Urban agriculturecanaddressthis consuming andpollutingwaterresources. removing furtherlandresourcesandby might constrainachievingsdg uncontrolled expansionontheseareas land withstablewaterresourcesand are generallybuiltonprimeagricultural city expansionneeds.However, cities on expandinggreenspacesandother urban growth–cansupportprogress tivity –freeingupagriculturallandfor cally, increasedagriculturalproduc- ness andsustainabilityofcities.Specifi- systems willreinforcetheinclusive- and moresustainablefoodproduction increased agriculturalproductivity Progress infoodsecurityandnutrition, 2

11 2016). Advancingrural- 2, by

40 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER An additionalconstraintcould developif sdg2 (and12)mightnotbeachieved. ing onprogress,thensome aspectsof from industrialisedcountriesbeforeembark- or wouldawait fundingandsupport not makeprogressonsdg12themselves industrialised countriesasareasonto consumed, wouldusethesdg12focuson most foodisproduced,distributedand However, ifdevelopingcountries,where completes thefoodsystemperspective. the foodsystem,whichcomplementsand distribution andprocurementsideof outcomes, on theproductionendandnutritional resource use.Whilesdg2focusesmore productivity andmoresustainablenatural directly supportsdg2intermsofincreased aim tomanagechemicalsmorejudiciously waste andlossreductiontargetsthe sdg which directlystrengthenallareasof toward moresustainablefoodsystems, as wellsynergiesandcooperation building capacity, developinginformation un fao Patterns ishousedatunep(andnot Sustainable ConsumptionandProduction 10-year FrameworkofProgrammeson in sdg Most aspectsofsdg12supportprogress that deservesfurtherattention. important linkagebetweensdg2and11 micronutrient deficiencies)isthereforean malnutrition (obesity, undernutrition and areas. Addressingthetripleburdenof more undernourishedpeoplethanrural cities inLatinAmericaandelsewhere)also obese peopleandinsomeplaces(e.g. developing countries,tendtohousemore processed foodsand,atleastinlow-income urban dwellerstendtoconsumemore food andnutritionsecurity. Ofnote, sustainable managementiskeytourban livestock productionsystemswhose often househigh-valuevegetableand generation –peri-urbanenvironments agricultural productivityandincome 2

+ 2. Similarly, thesubsequentefficiency,

12 2 andviceversa.Forexample,the ) andaimsatraisingawareness, sdg 12 focusesontheprocessing,

less affordable tothepoor. achieving ‘zerohunger’bymakingfood food priceswhich,inturn,couldconstrain of suchsubsidiescouldleadtoincreased tives inplace.Thedirectelimination food valuechainwithoutputtingalterna- is implementedinagricultureandthe rationalising inefficientfossil-fuelsubsidies the implementationmodeproposedfor livestock productionsystems, increased or peatlands,ataxonhighly emitting agricultural areasintotropical forests torium onfurtherexpansionof impactful inthisarea,suchasamora- at all. Arangeofactionscouldbe be achieved fasterorslower, may ornot sustainable foodproductionsystems productivity andensuringmore ending hunger, doublingagricultural depending onwhichactionsaretaken, agriculture andrelatedactivities the reductionofghgemissionsin 2014). Achievingsdg13willthusrequire greenhouse gas(ghg)emissionsipcc, for about24%oftotalanthropogenic and othertypesoflanduseaccount unsustainable agriculture,deforestation for achievingsdg2.At thesametime, mitigation strategies) willbedecisive anisms orlong-termadaptation development, short-termcopingmech- frameworks (e.g.throughbiofuel culture sectorundertheclimatechange options areimplementedintheagri- How climateadaptationandmitigation for climatemitigationandadaptation. for example,bymobilisinglargefunds and adaptivecapacitytoclimatechange; culture increasethesector’sresilience It isimportantthatinvestments inagri- nutritional objectivesundersdg2. the achievementof‘zerohunger’and countries, whichinturnconstrains systems, particularlythoseindeveloping adversely affect agriculturalproduction frequency ofextremeweatherevents tation patterns,andtheintensity Rising temperatures,changingprecipi- 2

13 /

41 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER concerns overthelongterm. but couldalsoexacerbate foodsecurity improve nutritionoverthe shortterm, production, couldhelpendhungerand coastal habitatforintensiveaquaculture forests thatprotectcoastlinesandsustain clearing coastalhabitatssuchasmangrove (Hufnagl-Eichiner etal., is thehypoxia intheGulfofMexico of largelyagricultural-drivenpollution and theoceans.Awell-knownexample may have adverse impactsonwatersupply as nutrientrunoff anddiffuse pollution) agricultural processesandactivities(such of theoceans.However, poorlymanaged conservation andsustainabledevelopment nutrient pollution,andcanfacilitatethe from land-basedactivities,including support thepreventionofmarinepollution Sustainable agriculturalpracticescan of poorpopulationsincoastalareas. constrain livelihoodsandfoodsecurity and nutritiontargetsofsdg term, canadverselyaffect thehunger limiting fisheriesdevelopmentintheshort However, strongmarineprotection also supportfoodsecurityandnutrition. solutions foroceanacidificationwould in thelongterm.Moreresearchand will supportfoodsecurityandnutrition of small-islandstatestotheseresources access forsmall-scalefishersandresidents sustainable oceanfisheriesandbetter livelihoods (UnitedNations,2015b).More marine andcoastalresourcesfortheir More than3billionpeopledependon strengthen adaptationstrategies. agricultural ghgemissionsbutalsoto as partofthesolutionnotonlytomitigate sequestration, agriculturecouldbeseen (smart agriculture)andsoilorganicmatter action onproductivityimprovement integrating actiononsustainabilitywith support toagroforestrysystems.By of no-tillagriculture,andadditional levels ofplants,theacceleratedadoption increase fertilisernutrientuseefficiency R&D towardnewtechnologiesthat 2

14 2011). Similarly, 2 andcan sdg production andgeneticdiversity. For largely supportssustainableagricultural dramatically. On the otherhand,sdg the worldhasreduceddeforestationrates focus onintensificationinmuchof deforestation, butglobally, thelong-term sified agriculturemightaccelerate some cases,increasedincomefrominten- and pollutantrunoff areincreased.In areas, inmany caseswaterconsumption reduces theneedtoexpandagricultural ment practices.Whileintensification seed andothertechnologiesmanage- are substantiallyincreasedwithbetter intensification whereinputsperunitofland preserve existingagro-ecosystemsversus (e.g. someorganicagriculturalsystems),to namely afocusonlow-inputagriculture short term.Akeytrade-off isextensification, agricultural productivity, atleastin the hunger, improvednutritionandincreased sdg and desertification(mea,2005).Assuch, of landusechange,degradation identified agricultureasthemajorcause The MillenniumEcosystemAssessment societies, andeffective accountable political stability, peace,justandinclusive Achieving sdg linkages betweensdg sustainable managementpractices.Other production isachievedusingmore number andyield,unlessthisincreased area andcropyieldaswelllivestock increases inbothagriculturalproduction mountains anddrylandscanconstrain The conservationofforests,wetlands, losses andclimatechangeimpacts. deforestation andassociatedbiodiversity (e.g. pollinators)andwithoutfurther impacts onland,waterandbiodiversity need tobesupported,withoutadverse forcing, sustainableecologicalprocesses shared targets. of seeds,plantsandanimals;anareawith the conservationofgeneticdiversity 2 2

+ + 2 andsdg 15 couldconstraintheaimofzero

16 15 15 tobecomemutuallyrein- 2 ishighlydependenton 2 andsdg 15 concern 15 42 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER war andconflictarealsodetrimentaltothe sustainable agriculturalsystems.Civil of foodsecurity, improved nutritionand undoubtedly underminetheachievement conflict andbroaderformsofviolence markets andopportunities.Armed and inputs,knowledge,financialservices, access toland,otherproductiveresources directly orindirectlytosecuringfair for allandnon-discriminatorylaws lead farmers, pastoralistsandfishers.Justice as women,indigenouspeoples,family erment ofcertainmarginalgroupssuch and nutritionsecuritytheempow- to supportsustainableagriculture,food are neededatalllevelsofgovernment transparent andaccountableinstitutions available. Ontheotherhand,effective, through foodaidisoften restrictedornot where theyareneeded,andsupport inputs oroutputscannotbemovedto abuse anddestructionand/oragricultural need toleave theirlandtofleeinsecurity, the resultofsuchactivities,asfarmers then hungerandundernutritionareoften contributing towarandcivilstrife, food insecurityisnotalreadyafactor farmers, land-mining,etc.).And,if off marketedsuppliesoffood,targeting destroying foodstocks,livestock,cutting opponents intosubmission(seizingor used inconflictsasaweapontostarve that hungeris,attimes,deliberately instability, conflictandwar–tothepoint food insecurityaresourcesofpolitical and inclusiveinstitutions.Hunger solidarity, particularlyincrisissituations. global politicalmeasurestoenhancefood in theabsenceofnational,regionaland leading causeofconflictinthe21stcentury insecurity hasthepotentialtobecome (Bhattacharya, 2016).Conversely, food Dry Areas)genebankinSyriahasshown Center forAgriculturalResearchinthe as theimpactsonicarda’s (International preservation ofseedandplantbanks,

sdg production andsmall-scalefoodproducers. to protecttheirnationalagriculture countries, mostlythoseindevelopment, regulation may limitthecapacityforsome non-discriminatory internationaltrade sustainable development.Furthermore, policies forpovertyeradicationand if theyseektoestablishandimplement fit withsomecountries’policyspaces, insofar astradeliberalisationmay not sdg2. Sometrade-offs canemerge coherence, shouldalsopositivelyimpact and especiallypolicyinstitutional data, monitoringandaccountability, Enhancing multi-stakeholderpartnerships, drought, floodingandotherdisasters. to climatechange,extremeweather, of agriculture’scapacityforadaptation building canalsoleadtothestrengthening Enhancing technologyandcapacity in ruralinfrastructureforagriculture. enhancement canreinforceinvestment linked withsdg2.Forinstance,finance toring andaccountability).Theseareall stakeholder partnerships,data,moni- policy andinstitutionalcoherence,multi- trade, andsystemicissues(including finance, technology, capacity-building, with structuresaroundfivesub-categories: menting theentiresdgframework, 2

+ 17 liststhemainenablersforimple-

43 KEY INTERACTIONS AT TARGET-LEVEL

sdg 2 is an integral part of the 2030 Agenda, Seven goals were selected for detailed linking to all 16 other sdgs. This section analysis: analyses some of these interactions, from the perspective of sdg 2, with a selected SDG 1 set of sdgs in detail at the target-level. SDG 3 sdgs were selected based on the strength SDG 5 of the interactions with sdg 2 and the SDG 6 magnitude and scale of impact in relation SDG 7 to the overall objective of the 2030 Agenda, SDG 13 while ensuring a balanced consideration SDG 15 of the economic, social and environmental dimensions. Target-level interactions sdgs were selected based on the strength are judged to fall within one of seven cate- of the interactions with sdg 2, while gories and are scored accordingly: indi- ensuring a balanced consideration of the visible (+3), reinforcing (+2), enabling (+1), economic, social and environmental consistent (0), constraining (-1), counter- dimensions. While there are also obvious acting (-2), and cancelling (-3). Following linkages between sdg 12 and sdg 2, it a generic analysis of the selected inter- was considered that these are less insight- actions, specific examples are provided to ful than those between sdg 2 and the illustrate how interactions unfold in other sdgs selected for detailed analysis. different geographical and policy contexts. Illustrative examples are used to show the context-dependency of the interactions and provide a more practical entry point to characterising sdg 2 interactions among the ‘integrated and indivisible’ sdgs. These concern three geographic regions:

West Africa (Senegal) Amazonia California (USA) SDG 2 + SDG 1

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

2.1, 2.2 1.1, 1.2 Food and nutrition security are Strengthen interaction issues via national, regional indivisible from the eradication + and international governance. Co-design and and reduction of poverty 3 co-develop mechanisms to mitigate the negative interactions and target particular resiliency 2.3 Increasing small-scale food needs by ensuring that the poor and small-scale overall SDG 1 producer productivity and income + food producers’ interests are fully addressed reinforce the fight against poverty 2 Advance agricultural research and development 2.3 1.4 Equal access to land and other with a focus on pro-poor technology development; productive resources is directly + with complementary investments in safe drinking aligned with securing equal rights 2 water, social protection systems, and rural roads to economic resources Increase small-scale food producer capacities 2.3 1.5 Increasing agricultural productivity and empowerment (knowledge, economic without sustainability (2.4) will - resources, basic services, rights); in particular increase vulnerability to climate- 1/ put in place the economic mechanisms that related extreme events and other increase the wealth of small farmers and reduce shocks – primarily in developing - their vulnerability to uncertainties: access to land, countries and for poor segments of 2 access to productive and non-productive assets societies. Thus, 2.3 and 2.4 need to be achieved in tandem Enhance diets and improve nutritional outcomes of a population to break the intergenerational 2.4 1.5 Enhancing adaptive capacity cycle of poverty and at the same time generate in agriculture may enhance accelerated shared economic growth. the resilience of the poor as long 0/ Such interactions could be reinforced via social as they are fully included in programmes in nutrition education adaptation strategies + 1 Build resilience by setting up pro-poor policy frameworks and safeguards for poor and 2.b 1.b Removal of trade restrictions could vulnerable small-scale food producers within constrain the creation of pro-poor - a competitive market environment policy frameworks by limiting the 1 range of policy actions, at least in Ensure inclusive participation in trade negotiations the short term and in addressing trade related issues. Consider the situation of the poorest countries in the agriculture sector and design trade policy accordingly. Address factors leading to market failure such as limited market access. Set up complementary policies to trade reform – such as strengthening social protection systems for those losing out from trade and develop capacities to explore beneficial changes

Consider the role of diversification in strategies to improve production, productivity, employment, income nutrition and sustainability, as well as to reduce risks associated with market volatility, climate change and natural disasters 45 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER sdg KEY POINTS shared economic growth.Effects willhave shared at the same timegenerateaccelerated the intergenerationalcycle ofpovertyand of apopulationisimportanttobreak diets andimprovingnutritionaloutcomes reach theirfullpotential.Enhancing Without propernutrition,humanscannot reducing anderadicatingpoverty(1.1,1.2). security (2.1,2.2)areinextricablylinkedto can reducepoverty. Foodandnutrition increases inagriculturalproductivity There aremany pathways throughwhich KEY INTERACTIONS are likelytobemostaffected and thoseinvulnerablesituations implemented intandem,thepoor sustainable foodproductionarenot productivity andonensuring If targetsonagricultural products orfooddumpingpractices and highlycompetitiveforeign adversely affected by importsurges least intheshortterm,mightbe because small-scalefarmers,at impact oftradeliberalisation, A possibleconstraintisthepotential world’s ultra-poor constitute thelargestsegmentof poverty reductionasruralpeople producers canleadtosubstantial Supporting small-scalefood eradicate extremepoverty essential toreducepoverty and nutrition security–whichare sdg 1 throughenhancedfoodand 2 enablesandcanreinforce

achieve should providesignificantmeansto agriculture andadaptationpractices(2.4) resources andinputs)(2.3),onresilient access tolandandotherproductive productivity andincomes(throughequal and aimingatdoublingtheiragricultural sense, afocusonsmall-scalefoodproducers other sector(World Bank,2007).Inthis in reducingpovertythanchangeany agriculture isatleasttwicemoreeffective education (World Bank,2016). old oryounger, and39%have noformal 64% workinagriculture,44%are14years 80% oftheworld’spoorliveinruralareas, per day). Withwideregionalvariation, poor (i.e.thoselivingonlessthanus$1.90 large proportionoftheworld’sextreme lion, 2007),ruralpeoplestillrepresenta population asawhole(ChenandRaval- with thepoorurbanisingfasterthan urban gapinpovertytobedeclining, (ifpri, 2015). families, communitiesandcountries many beneficialimpactsonindividuals, countries, liberalisationcan beasourceof very uneven.Inmiddle-income developing of agriculturaltradeliberalisation are research suggeststhattheconsequences In termsofdevelopingcountries,some often asserted(Chabe-Ferretet al., gains, whichremainelusiveeventhough disputed evidenceon‘automatic’long-term trade liberalisationandpoverty, with ing numberofknowledgegapsabout (1.b) canbeconstraining.Thereisasurpris- creation ofpro-poorpolicyframeworks world agriculturalmarkets(2.b)versusthe such asremovaloftraderestrictionsin means ofimplementingsdg group tosupportandempower. identified inbothsdg1and in vulnerablesituations(1.5).Women are on buildingresilienceofthepoorandthose (including controloverland)(1.4)and to economicresourcesandbasicservices force targetsonaccesstoequalrights It is usually assumed that growth in It isusuallyassumedthatgrowthin Although recentdatashowtherural/ However, interactionsbetweenthe sdg

1 . Suchafocuscanevenrein-

2 andsdg

2 as a target 2 asatarget 2007).

46 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER and leave many farmersworse off unless prices, renderingfarming non-profitable, lead tosubstantialdeclines inproducer ductivity doubled agricultural of pro- objective the capacity toreachsdg1(ipbes,2016).Finally, income formillionsofpeopleandlimit economic development,employmentand income. Pollinatorlosswillconstrain countries, representanimportantsourceof ing countries,oralmondsindeveloped crops suchascoffee andcocoa indevelop- cash cropsarepollinator-dependent– nation. Many oftheworld’smostimportant pollinators andtheprovisionofpolli- negatively onthehealthanddiversityof tices andpesticideusecanimpact use change,conventional agriculturalprac- segments ofsocieties.Inaddition,land- primarily indevelopingcountriesandpoor environmental shocksanddisasters– events andothereconomic,social populations toclimate-relatedextreme by increasingtheexposureofvulnerable sions (ipcc,2014),cancounteracttarget responsible for24%ofglobalghgemis- tion andotherlandusechanges,currently tions. Unsustainableagriculture,deforesta- the poorandthoseinvulnerablesitua- counteract theother, andnegativelyaffect to beachievedintandemasonecan farmers. implemented forpoorandvulnerable in theformofsocialsafetynets,are be pro-poorunlesssafeguards,forexample market environment, whichmightnot producers (2.3)bysetting-upacompetitive of doublingincomessmall-scalefood target tries intraderegulations.Withoutthese, special anddifferential measuresbycoun- consequences willnecessitatefurther constraints (Bureaual., et effects andsupply-side terms-of-trade consequences, owingto negative overall Countries (ldcs), liberalisation canhave in poorercountriessuchasLeastDeveloping performing exportsector. However, substantial growth,particularlyinahigh- Furthermore, targets2.3and2.4need 2.b (2.3) could,ifsuccessfullyachieved, can constraintheachievement 2006). Negative 2006). 1.5

Time: Thecontributionofsdg KEY DIMENSIONS food secure. policies donotnecessarilymakeeveryone fits all,whichiswhy povertyreduction status ofdevelopment.Thereisnoone-size framework thatdiffers bygeography and agriculture requiresacomplexpolicy food andnutritionsecuritysustainable policies arealways conducivetoenhanced everywhere. To ensurethatpro-poor focused policiesimprovefoodsecurity poverty everywhereorthatpoverty- agriculturaldevelopmentpoliciesreduce As such,thereisnoguaranteethatpro-poor security everywhereandforeveryone. poverty andimprovefoodnutrition and The mainuncertaintyisthatpursuingsdg1 KEY UNCERTAINTIES into otheremploymentopportunities. itive farmersaresuccessfullyintegrated safety netsareputinplaceandnon-compet- achieve sdg help alleviatehungerandthus based onsyntheticchemicalinputscould For instance,conventional agriculture the policyinstrumentorinvestment made. different timedimensionsdependingon sdg Governance: Trade-offs between sdg to come. and mostfoodinsecurepeople for decades poorest the of likely tocontainsome Nevertheless, remoteruralareasarestill parts ofAsiaandespeciallyinAfrica. America andthatwillsoonbecompletein sition thathasalreadyhappenedinLatin poor andfoodinsecurepopulations,atran- rural tourbanforthemajorityof Geography: Thereisagradualshift from future generations. the long-termabilitytoproducefoodfor sustainability intoaccountcanreduce however, intenseagriculturewithouttaking on moresustainableagriculturemight; 1 canbemitigatedbynational, sdg2 targetsdoesnotalways reduce

1 inashortertimethanfocus 2 tosdg 2 and

1 has

47 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER systems. affect sustainableagriculturalproduction and nutritiondoesnot adversely reduction doesnotreduceaccesstofood being unidirectional,aslongpoverty Directionality: Theinteractionsarecloseto benefit thepoorestandmostvulnerable. resilience toclimatechangewhichwould farmers’ incomes,andcanhelpbuild increases inagriculturalproductivity, Agriculture couldsupportsustainable under sdg1.Forinstance,ClimateSmart 2.3 and2.4thushelpreachtargets potential constraintsbetweentargets knowledge inagriculturecanmitigate of traditionalpracticesandancestral agricultural practices,andtheapplication Technology development,innovative to growandaccessfood,arealsocrucial. access bythepoortonaturalresources governance mechanismsthatensure secure landandwaterrights,sound security. Supporting institutions,suchas while alsoenhancingfoodandnutrition would allsupportpovertyalleviation protection systems,andruralroads, investments insafedrinkingwater, social development), withcomplementary on gender-responsive,pro-poortechnology research anddevelopment(withafocus Technology: Advancesinagricultural and synergiesbetweenthetwogoals. important rolesinensuringconvergence and landrightsforruraldwellers,canplay Purchase ProgrammeinBrazil)orwater School FeedingProgramme,andFood public procurement(e.g.theNational for smallholderproductionthrough based mechanismstoincreasedemand for theruralandurbanpoor, market- targeted cashandfoodtransfersystems Furthermore, mechanismssuchas design ofpro-poorpolicyframeworks. interests aretakenintoaccountinthe poor andsmall-scalefoodproducers’ designed, ifneeded,toensurethatthe Compensation mechanismscanbe regional andinternationalgovernance. 48 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER SDG 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.1, TARGETS 2.1, 2.2,2.3,2.4 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.2, 3.1, 3.9, 3.1, 3.2 3.1, 2

+ SDG newborns and preventabledeathsof reduction ofmaternalmortality conditions thatleadtothe security directlycreates Ensuring foodandnutrition prevention as malaria,counteractingits in communicablediseasessuch taken, leadingtoanincrease hazard mitigationmeasuresare of waterbornediseasesifno regions, increasetheincidence intensification can,insome Often accompaniedbyirrigation, may increasedeforestation. Extensification ofagriculture nutrition counterbalanced bytargetson diseases. Thisinteractionisalso against non-communicable (calories) willconstrainthefight nutrient andenergy-richfoods by mainlyfocusingonlow- Doubling agricultureproductivity leading tocommunicablediseases the pursuitofunsafepractices better ruralincomeshelpprevent and healthstatusbecause diseases owingtobetternutrition help reducecommunicable stable agriculturalemployment Food andnutritionsecurity KEY INTERACTIONS outcomes intheoverallpopulation perinatal deathandcancer of newborns,butcanalsoaffect affect humanhealth,particularly Such chemicalscanadversely caused byhazardouschemicals. reduction ofdeathsandillness pollution constrainingthe can increasesoilandwater tivity viaconventionalagriculture Increasing agriculturalproduc- 3

+ + + + SCORE - - - - 2 1 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1 / and otherdiseases estation tolimitmalariaincrease and againstuncontrolleddefor- in favourofsustainableagriculture Set upincentivesandregulations fertilisers associated withpesticidesand related healthrisks,suchasthose (e.g. malaria);orotheragriculture- risks fromirrigationservices counteract theincreasedhealth Set upappropriatemeasuresto interdependent achievement ofSDGsarestrongly the environment,and food, nutrition,health,culture, consumers, thatagriculture, governments, industry, and and raiseawarenessamong Further supportunderstanding diseases practices leadingtocommunicable help preventthepursuitofunsafe nutrition andhealthstatus, stable agriculturalemployment, Support betterruralincomes, hazardous chemicalinputs techniques thatreduceuseof including farmingdiversification Promote sustainableagriculture women inthehousehold practices, andempowermentof education, enhancedchildcare opment, includingonnutrition human capitalprogrammedevel pathways suchassocialand security throughcomplementary focused policies;supportnutrition the twogoals;implementnutrition- reinforce thesynergiesbetween mote nutritiveandhealthyfoodto pendent institutionsthatpro- Develop strong,openandinde- POLICY OPTIONS 49 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER communicable diseases of prematuremortalityfromnon- may counteractthereduction nutrient andenergy-richfoods embraced, afocusonlow- If nutritionsecurityisnotfully malaria communicable diseasessuchas and theendingepidemicsof from waterandsoilpollution elimination ofdeathandillness productivity may constrainthe practices used,doublingagricultural Depending ontheagricultural others malaria, andtuberculosis,among communicable diseasessuchasaids, can alsohelpreduceepidemicsof stable agriculturalemployment Food andnutritionsecurity and childrenunder5yearsofage. preventable deathsofnewborns reduced maternalmortalityand and nutritiousfoodcontributesto situations withsufficient,safe Providing thoseinvulnerable KEY POINTS address thefundamentalproblem ofmal- sense, amajoritemoftarget 2.2isto children under5yearsofage (3.2).Inthis preventable deathsofnewbornsand positive conditionsforendingthe of maternalmortality(3.1)andcreates able agriculturereinforcesthereduction achieving foodsecuritythroughsustain- Ending hunger, improvingnutritionand nutrition –thetwoareindivisible. Good healthisnotpossiblewithoutgood KEY INTERACTIONS

soil pollution(3.9).Forexample,forest hazardous chemicalsand air, waterand number ofdeathsandillnesses from constraints canoccurforreducingthe used todoubleproductivity, potential gets aimedatfightingmalnutrition(2.1,2.2). Negative interactionsaremitigatedbytar- other chronicdiseases(Lustigetal., lead todiseasessuchaslivertoxicityand studies asadriverforabusethatcould ‘added sugar’hasbeenidentifiedinmany worldwide. Liketobaccoandalcohol, years, consumptionofsugarhastripled increase worldwide.Overthepast50 processed food,whichcontinueto and dietsdominatedbylow-cost,highly from non-communicablediseases(3.4) between reducingprematuremortality households manageincomeriskbetter. prevention couldbebolsteredbyhelping suggesting existingapproachestohiv hiv prevalenceacrossAfrican countries, shocks explainupto20%ofvariationin al., rates inhiv-endemicruralareas(Burkeet households andcanincreaseinfection source ofincomevariationforrural how localrainfallshockscanbealarge instance, arecentstudyinAfrica showed leading tocommunicablediseases.For prevent thepursuitofunsafepractices status andbetterruralincomeshelping hiv the reductionofepidemicssuchas agricultural employmentstronglyenable in thehousehold(Rueletal., practices, andempowermentofwomen tion education,enhancedchildcare capital programmedevelopment,nutri- cluding investment insocialandhuman requires moreholisticapproaches,in- environment fornutritionimprovements (Masset etal., for childrendoesnotfollowautomatically improves foodavailability, betternutrition Although agriculturalproductivity nutrition, bothundernutritionandobesity. 2015). Accordingtothisstudy, income Depending ontheagriculturepractices There arenegativeinteractions Food andnutritionsecuritystable due to better nutrition and health (3.3) duetobetternutritionandhealth 2011). Creatinganenabling 2013).

2012). 50 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER eliminating bothunder-nutrition and tious foodandtarget2.2focuseson by pointingtotheneedfor safeandnutri- aims tolimitthisnegativeinteraction worldwide (Bernard,2015).Target 2.1 are becomingmoreaffordable tothem because energy-rich,low-nutrientfoods are adverselyaffected inthis respect and diabetes(Tappy etal., health issues,suchasstunting,anaemia, deficiency, andobesitywithitsassociated burden ofundernutrition,micronutrient products arecontributingtothetriple cereals, tubers,andfats.Theseagricultural nutrient andenergy-richfoods,suchas diseases ture mortalityfromnon-communicable could constrainthereductionofprema- increase (ipbes,2016). which therisksofmalnutritioncould micronutrients andminerals,without are importantdietarysourcesofvitamins, pollinator-dependent foodproducts fruits, nuts,seeds,andoils.Many ofthese of pollinatedcropssuchasvegetables, pollinator lossmay constrainproduction agricultural practicesleadingto et al., et al., communicable diseases(3.4)(Daniels five years(3.2)andmortalityfromnon- newborns andchildrenundertheageof maternal mortality(3.1),of ing theachievementoftargetsconcerning in theoverallpopulation–thusconstrain- affect perinataldeathandcanceroutcomes particularly fornewborns,butcanalso tilisers canadverselyaffect humanhealth, (Roulet andMaury-Brachet,2001). ecosystems innewlycolonisedwatersheds in mercuryburdenAmazonianaquatic by runoff, whichmay explaintheincrease thus increases soil mercury mobilisation thus increasessoilmercurymobilisation ment processesinfloodplains.Deforestation fied asoneofthemainmercuryenrich- land surfaces.Erosionofoxisolswasidenti- responsible forasignificanterosionof fires andsoilcultivationinAmazoniaare Doubling agriculturalproductivity(2.3) Chemicals usedinpesticidesandfer- 2014). Inaddition,conventional 1997; Vinsonetal., (3.4) ifthisincreasefocusesonlow- 2011; Brainerd 2010). Thepoor

broader optionsforhealthy diets. (not mentionedintarget for diversificationoffoodproduction While emphasisingproductivity, theneed related conditionsandhospitalisation. avoiding disease,aworseningofhealth- and well-balanceddiet,ispivotalto obesity. Prevention,includingahealthy nutritional status. with furtherincreasesdrivenbypoor can increasehivaidsinfectionrates, of thepooresttoagriculturalshocks failures inagricultureandvulnerability dams (Ghebreyesusetal., dren under10yearsofagelivingnear the incidenceofmalariaamongchil- production systemsledtoanincreasein rainfed agricultureandimprovefood systems tominimisedependenceon construction ofmicro-damsandirrigation instance, innorthernEthiopia,the fringes (IjumbaandLindsay, 2001).For as intheAfrican highlandsanddesert no immunitytomalariaparasites,such transmission, wherepeoplehave littleor increased malariainareasofunstable of vectorsfollowingirrigationcanleadto have shownthatincreasednumbers (e.g. byincreasinghumidity).Paststudies mosquitoes tosurviveandreproduce of favourable microclimatesfor predators/prey relations),andthecreation in biodiversity(includingimpactson creation ofnewbreedingsites,areduction benefit fromdeforestationduetothe Mosquitoes thattransmitmalariacan (Whitmee etal., in theBrazilianandPeruvianregions adverse effects ontheriskofmalaria deforestation have beenreportedtohave (3.3). Changesinbiodiversitydueto malaria in communicablediseasessuchas irrigation that,inturn,leadtoan increase and outcomessuchasdeforestationor tivity the targettodoubleagriculturalproduc- Potential trade-offs couldarisebetween (2.3), whichmay leadtopractices 2015; Lietal., 2.3) may provide 1999). Similarly, 2016).

51 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER sdg5. some ofthetrade-offs betweensdg2and products (insects,etc.)can alsoaddress practices, orinhighlynutritive(new)food Technology: Innovationinagricultural mitigate someofthetrade-offs. against uncontrolleddeforestationwould favour ofsustainableagriculture and and sdg3.Incentivesregulationsin reinforcing thesynergiesbetweensdg2 healthy foodcanplay asignificantrolein in favour ofpromotingnutritiousand Governance: Strongandopeninstitutions urban settings. middle-income countries,especiallyin are nowanincreasingissueinlow-and country problem,overweightandobesity 2014). Onceconsideredahigh-income quarters ofdeathsoccur(28million)(who, income countrieswherenearlythree disproportionately affects low-andmiddle- communicable diseases,chronicdisease Although allregions areaffected bynon- and healthinsecurepeople(75%). some ofthepoorestandmostfood Geography: Remoteruralareascontain be difficulttoaddress. practices canbequicklyvisiblebutmight adverse impactsfrompooragricultural take muchlongertoachieve;similarly dietary patternstoaddressobesitycan overall foodavailability. However, changing nutrition, withoutadverselyaffecting on agriculturalproductsthatenhance in arelativelyshortperiod–focusing support healthy livescanbeimplemented and nutrition-sensitiveagricultureto Time: Changestowardmoresustainable KEY DIMENSIONS agricultural intensificationandlanduse. or beaffected bytrendsandmethodsfor consumption patterns,andmightaffect cially regardingtheadoptionofhealthier might changeovertimeisunclear, espe- How consumerbehaviour andpreferences KEY UNCERTAINTIES sdg2 outcomes. health-based solutionscanhelpimproving also reducetheabsorptionoffood;here affects sdg Directionality: Mostlyunidirectional–sdg2 3, butpoorhealthstatuscan 52 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER SDG 2.a 2.2 2.1, TARGETS 2.3 overall SDG 5.5, 5.a 5.5, 5.b

5 2

+ SDG empowerment andgenderequality income strengthenswomen’s (including land),andincreasing access toproductiveresources infrastructure, securingequal Promoting investmentinrural each other implementation mutuallyreinforce and overall–thetwomeansof empowerment inagriculture important levertoenablewomen’s Access totechnologyisan family nutritionandhealth spend resourcestheycontrolon and theirgreaterinclinationto in foodproductionandpreparation security duepartlytotheirrole empowerment isenablingnutrition empowerment. Inturn,women’s rity reinforceswomen’s Ensuring foodandnutritionsecu- KEY INTERACTIONS 5

+ + + SCORE 2 2 1 women’s empowerment time areparticularlyimportantfor resources andsavewomen’s improve accesstoassetsand innovations. Technologies that gender-equitable agricultural Further exploreandinvestin nutrition security empowerment andfood interactions betweenwomen’s can reinforcesthesynergetic rights andservicesinagriculture access toproductiveresources, in agriculture.Promoteequal strengthen women’s empowerment everyone; aswellpoliciesthat adequate andsufficientdietsfor Support policiesthatensure POLICY OPTIONS 53 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER sdg KEY POINTS gender sensitivedevelopment strategies. with theestablishmentof pro-poorand investment insustainableagriculture particularly women.Target 2.3links incomes ofsmall-scalefoodproducers, of theagriculturalproductivityand rural poor, target2.3callsforadoubling are often over-representedamong the Duflo, 2012).Recognisingthatwomen ductive health(Pinstrup-Andersen, 2011; cific vulnerabilitiesrelatedtorepro- outcome infamilies,aswelltheirspe- child careandforoverallnutritional have infoodproduction,preparation, to theimportantrolemany women women iscrucialforachievingsdg development resources.Empowering support themtotakefulladvantageof girls andwomenofchildbearingagewill reducing undernutritioninadolescent food securitywithaspecialfocuson nutrition potentialenvisioned. Ensuring for achievingthefullagriculturaland reference totheneedforgenderequality Targets KEY INTERACTIONS of geneticresources outcomes, andinthemaintenance value chains,forenhancednutrition empowerment alongagricultural technologies topromotewomen’s sdg investment inruralinfrastructure to promotinggender-equitable to productiveresources,and girls, togenderequalityinaccess and especiallyforwomen and nutritionsecurityforall, many ways, rangingfromfood the achievement ofsdg 2 facilitatestheuseof 2 interactswithandreinforces 2.2 and2.3includeaspecific 5 in 2 due

integrated research, policies and investments. therefore requirecontextualisedand equality arehighlylocation-specificand aspects ofsdg between genderequalityandseveral There isinsufficientknowledgeaboutlinks KEY UNCERTAINTIES to promotewomen’sempowerment(5.b). enhances theuseofenablingtechnologies well astechnologydevelopment,target2.a tural researchandextensionservices,as (fao 100–150 millioninthe34countriesstudied of hungrypeoplecouldbereducedby education andmarketsasmenthenumber the sameaccesstoagriculturalinputs, such ascredit.Ifwomenfarmershad and foraccessingothergoodsservices, resource formeetingsubsistenceneeds, women farmersbecauselandisapivotal is amajorfactorlimitingempowermentof of property(5.a).Unequalaccesstoland ownership overtheirlandandotherforms well asaccesstofinancialservicesand equal righttoeconomicresourcesas making (5.5),andcanreinforcewomen’s participation atalllevelsofdecision- help increasewomen’sfullandeffective gies andfinancialservices),target2.3can (including equalaccesstoland,technolo- equal accesstoproductiveresources investment inruralinfrastructurewith opment Bank,2013),bypromoting men aseconomicagents(AsianDevel- are poorerandoften lessefficientthan is amongthemainreasonswhy they or limitedaccessto,productiveresources tries andregions.Sincewomen’slackof, unequal accesstoeducationinmany coun- compounding restrictionsimposedby and voiceinfarmer-relatedassociations, information, technologies,finance, productivity, suchasrestrictedaccessto barriers toincreasingagricultural Smallholder femalefarmersfacespecific By promotinginvestment inagricul- , 2011). 2. Foodsystemsandgender

54 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER Time: Forimprovementsinsdg KEY DIMENSIONS sdg are keytocapitalisingonsynergiesbetween gender responsivedevelopmentstrategies Governance: Stronginstitutionsestablishing sdg Geography: Linkagesbetweensdg to genderinequalitychangeslowly. generations becausesocialnormsrelated into improvementsofsdg synergies betweensdg nutrition, andcanreinforcepositive agricultural productivity, foodsecurityand potential tobridgethegendergapin technologies andinnovationshave alarge Technology: Gender-responsiveagricultural and sdg tional positiveinteractionbetweensdg Directionality: Thetendencyisabidirec- erment inagriculture. particularly importantforwomen’sempow- resources andsave women’stimeare nologies thatimprove accesstoassetsand 2 andsdg 2 arehighlylocation-specific. 5. 5. 2 andsdg 2 may take 5 totranslate 5. Tech- 5 and

55 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER SDG 2.3 2.3 2.1 2.2, 2.4 TARGETS 2.4 6.3, 6.6 6.3, 6.4 6.2, 6.1, 6.6 6.3 6.1, 6.2 6.1, 2

+ SDG undernutrition sanitation areessentialtoaddress water andadequateequitable Safe andaffordabledrinking ecosystems restoration ofwaterandrelated pollution andtheprotection/ counteract thereductionofwater agriculture canconstrainoreven Pollution duetounsustainable the fightagainstwaterscarcity water, propersanitation,and counteract accesstosafedrinking constrain andinsomecases conventional agriculturecan result intrade-offs.Intensive Competition overwatercan related ecosystems the protection/restorationofwater- land andsoilqualityreinforces Sustainable agriculture,improving by reducingpollution the improvementofwaterquality Sustainable agricultureenables KEY INTERACTIONS 6

+ + + SCORE - - - - 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 2 1 water scarcityandpollution regulatory practicestoaddress water resourcepoliciesand departments todesigncoherent coordination betweenpublic and improvecommunication Enhance institutionalcapacity, important topicofwatersavings use toengageallsectorsonthe for sustainableagriculturalwater in agriculture;developguidelines technologies toreducewateruse or useofadvancedirrigation breeding ofdroughttolerantcrops, technology activities,suchas technologies andresearch/ Promote sustainableagricultural lowering freshwatertoxicity use fewerpesticidesandfertilisers, often lessenergy-consumingand (including industrialagriculture)are and associationsinagriculture instance: morediverserotations water relatedecosystems.For and theprotection/restorationof and soilqualityimprovement technologies thatsupportland Promote sustainableagricultural POLICY OPTIONS 56 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER sdg Some targetsarereinforcing,with ecosystems and restorationofwater-related and shouldreinforcetheprotection quantity throughreducedpollution improvement ofwaterqualityand land qualityshouldleadtothe progressively improves soiland helps maintainecosystemsand Sustainable agriculturethat KEY POINTS sdg dependent ontheachievement ofseveral of freshwater withdrawals, sdg production responsibleforthelargestshare ing throughouttheworld.Withfood Pressure onfreshwater resourcesisincreas- KEY INTERACTIONS ecosystems, includingaquifers and restorationofwater-related and cancounteracttheprotection the reductionofwaterpollution processing systemscanconstrain Conventional foodproductionand pollution affected by waterscarcityand increase thenumberofpeople sanitation, which,inturn,can water andadequateequitable can limitaccesstosafedrinking Increasing agriculturalproductivity ending allformsofmalnutrition sanitation forallbeingessential all, andadequateequitable and affordable drinkingwaterfor 6 targets. 6 enhancingaccesstosafe 2 is highly 2 ishighly by climatechange.Intensification of energy-intensive, andadversely affected greater deptharegenerally verycostly, and pumpingofgroundwaterfrom Reversal oflandandwaterdegradation, siltation ofdownstreamreservoirs). (e.g. throughsoildegradationandresulting and use,suchasfordrinkingwater reduce non-agriculturalwateravailability water bodies(e.g.eutrophication),andcan deplete groundwaterresources,pollute 2.3, 2.a)andsdg trade-off betweensdg competition overwatercanresultin patterns (oecd urbanisation, andchangingdietary to populationgrowth,growingwealth, dramatically inthemedium-term,due of biomassisprojectedtoincrease concerns. Demandforvarioustypes in turncouldexacerbatefoodsecurity pollution ofwaterresources,which help endhungercanleadtooveruse,and intensification ofagriculture(2.3)to based ecosystems.Similarly, unsustainable estation andadverseimpactsonwater- overuse ofchemicals,canleadtodefor- and equitablesanitationforall(6.2). drinking waterforall(6.1),andadequate enhancing accesstosafeandaffordable (2.2) hasstronganddirectlinkswith example, endingallformsofmalnutrition synergies areoften bidirectional.For related ecosystems(6.6).Thesepositive protection andrestorationofwater- improvement ofwaterquality(6.3)and and landquality(2.4)shouldleadto systems andprogressivelyimprovesoil tural practicesthathelpmaintaineco- this context,ensuringsustainableagricul- by 2050(ConnorandWebber, 2014).In demand expectedtoincreasebyabout20% for allmajorwaterusesectors,withtotal for waterisexpectedtogrowsignificantly (fao can risetomorethan80%insomeregions water withdrawals globally, andthis Irrigated agricultureaccountsfor70%of Conventional foodproduction can Expansion ofagriculturallandtoavoid -aquastat, 2016).Globaldemand / fao 6. , 2014).Inthiscontext, 2 (mainly2.1,2.2,

57 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER climate-specific, butsome general‘rules’ Geography: (1)Linkagesaregeography- and degradation). (e.g. waterpollutionandlonger-term nutrition), whileothersarelonger-term no safedrinkingwater, andnoproper are short-term(i.e.nowater, nofood, Time: Someelementsoftheinteractions KEY DIMENSIONS further uncertainty. reduce theserisksanduncertaintiesisa type ofinvestments willbeundertakento factors willplay outandwhatlevel and climatechange.Howthesevarious agricultural demands,uses, growing threatfromincreasingnon- Water availability forfoodsystemsisunder KEY UNCERTAINTIES to morewaterconstrainedregions(2.b). can helpmovefoodfromwaterabundant in agriculture,functioningfoodmarkets higher withinsufficientwater availability Nevertheless, whilefoodpricevolatilityis constraining allothertargetsundersdg2. food pricevolatility(2.c),inadditionto adversely affect foodpricesandincrease ecosystems, includingaquifers(6.6). protection andrestorationofwaterrelated reduction ofwaterpollution(6.3)andthe ecosystem services–whichconstrainthe efficiency ofwaterandlanduseforother They alsohave negativeimpactsonoverall waste andpollutionofwatersupplies. build upintheenvironment, including processing systemsreleasepollutantsthat water scarcity(6.4). the reductionofpeoplesuffering from equitable sanitation(6.2)andcounteract safe drinkingwater(6.1),andadequate negative impactsonuniversalaccessto agriculture productivity(2.3)couldhave replenishment. Inthiscontext,doubling extraction forirrigationexceedratesof and availability whereratesofwater land usemightalsoreducewaterquality Non-achievement ofsdg Conventional foodproductionand 6, can observations, technologies, modellingand of soil,plantandweather sensors.Further agriculture techniques,including theuse water demandsandtheuseofprecision ing andaccuratelyontimemeetcrop nologies thatsupportirrigationschedul- tolerant crops,toadvancedirrigationtech- ing ofdrought,heatandsubmergence such asrainwater harvestingtothebreed- They rangefromlow-costtechnologies, in useandmoreareunderdevelopment. that affect wateruseinagricultureare Technology: Awiderangeoftechnologies some sdg6targets. which inturnenabletheachievementof through sustainableagriculturalpractices, that agriculturalproductivityisincreased strong institutionscouldalsohelpensure and sdg6targets.Goodgovernance competition overwaterusebetweensdg2 are essentialforaddressingsomeofthe as wellregulationsonwaterresources ways. Stronginstitutionsandpolicies affects foodandnutritionsecurityinmany ularly intermsofwaterquality, which resources remainsrelativelyweak,partic- Governance: overwater can arise. tensions andconflictsbetweencountries transboundary waterresourcesincreases, where competitionoverandpollutionof economic interdependencies.Incountries hydrological andassociatedsocial transboundary riverorlakebasinswith of theworld’spopulationlivesin in othercountries.Approximately40% resources torelyonwater allowing countrieswithlimitedwater high nationalwaterconsumptionlevels, products (virtualwaterflows)canoffset trade ingoodsandwater-intensive preferences andtraditions.(2)Global tices, whicharesubjecttocultural water andagriculturalmanagementprac- among crops,croppingsystems,and productivity inkcalperm³varieswidely in foodiswellestablished).Water hold (i.e.nowater, nofoodunlesstrade

58 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER support nutritionsecurity. of agriculturalproductivitybutwould quality mightconstrainthedoubling tional. Forexample,maintainingwater Directionality: Interactionsarebi-direc- sustainable useoffreshwater. play animportantroleinenhancingthe moisture toimprovetargetedirrigationcan decision-support systemsbasedonsoil

59 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER SDG 2.1, 2.2 2.1, 2.3 2.4 2.3, TARGETS 2.3, 2.1 2.3, 7.1, 7.2 7.1, 7.1, 7.2 7.1, 7.1 7.3, 7.2 7.1, 2

+ SDG production suchasbioenergy and land,attheexpenseofenergy constrain theuseofwater Food andnutritionsecuritymay security and indirectlyfoodnutrition production, farmerrevenues, may facilitateincreasesinfood energy efficiencyforagriculture Affordable energyandimproving modern energyservices access toaffordable,reliableand production. Thismayalsoincrease the globalenergymixviabiofuel increase ofrenewableenergyin farmers’ revenuesmayenablethe Increasing foodproductivityand energy sources or theuseofotherwater-related energy sources(e.g.hydropower) expense ofincreasingrenewable constrain theuseofwaterat agricultural productionmay can resultsintrade-offs.Doubling Competition overlandandwater KEY INTERACTIONS 7

+ + SCORE - - - 2 1 1 2 1 / water forfoodcanbeavoided land ifcompetitionwithand bioenergy productionondegraded higher cropyields,andtarget Further exploretechnologyfor and localcommunities’livelihoods. ecosystems, agriculturallands that mayimpactfreshwater infrastructure developmentprojects stakeholder participationinlarge careful planningandmulti- renewable energyandensure Promote localproductionof agricultural wastes Maximise energyproductionfrom producers diversified incomeforsmallfood bioenergy-related jobsand Promote thecreationofsustainable and ‘landgrabbing’ between energyandfoodpurposes avoiding competitionforland Design policiesgearedtoward POLICY OPTIONS 60 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER for land,waterandbiomass security targetsthroughcompetition adversely affect foodand nutrition fertility enhancementandcan of agriculturalby-products forsoil development canconstrainuse access toenergy. Similarly, bioenergy energy andconstraininguniversal limiting theincreaseofrenewable of landandwaterforbioenergy, thus security may constraintheuse production andfoodnutrition and sdg negative interactionsbetweensdg (land andwater)may resultin Competition over the same resources and malnutrition broader supportforendinghunger revenues andby doingso,provide agricultural productivityand efficiency canenableincreased Affordable energyandbetter energy services affordable, reliableandmodern and supportuniversalaccessto more diversifiedproduction, of smallfarmers’revenues through duction canenabletheincrease Agriculture aimingatenergypro- the globalenergymix an increaseinrenewable energyin use ofagriculturalwastecanenable Agroforestry, biofuelcrops,andthe KEY POINTS

7. Increasedagricultural 2 production, coal,solarsystems (7.1,7.2). bioenergy, hydropower, thermalpower of energyproduction,but particularlyfor – thatis,waterisneededforalltypes and overallrenewableenergydeployment at theexpenseofbioenergyproduction may constraintheuseoflandand water in agriculturalproductivityandincome(2.3) security (2.1,2.2)aswelltheincrease negative interactions.Foodandnutrition over thesameresourcesmay resultin and malnutrition(2.1,2.2).Competition incomes the targetsonproductivityandenhanced Such positiveinteractionsshouldenable systems foragriculturalcommodities. processing, storageandtransportation sive agriculturetechnologies,suchas irrigation systems,orotherenergy-inten- betteraccesstowater-pumpingand (7.1) canprovidecrucialleveragesuchas reliable andmodernenergyservices ciency (7.3)andbetteraccesstoaffordable, energy services(7.1). access toaffordable, reliableandmodern This canfacilitateandenableuniversal revenues ofsmall-scalefoodproducers. focusing, amongotherthings,ondoubling to positivesynergieswithtarget2.3 which farmerscanbenefitandthuslead to thediversificationofagriculturefrom as partoftheproductionmixcanlead the globalmix(7.2).Inaddition,biofuels increase theshareofrenewableenergyin food productionsystems(2.4)canhelp productivity (2.3)andensuringsustainable mainly throughdoublingagricultural In thissense,sustainableagriculture, or plant),cansupportprogressonsdg and theuseofagriculturalwastes(animal 2040 (eia,2016),agroforestry, biofuelcrops, to increaseby48%between2012and With worldwideenergydemandexpected sustainable andmodernenergyforall. ensuring accesstoaffordable, reliable, culture interactsatseverallevelswith insecuritythroughsustainableagri- Ending hunger, undernutritionandfood KEY INTERACTIONS Reciprocally, improving energyeffi- (2.3) andonendinghunger

61 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER technologies. structures andsubsidiesfor alternative changes ininnovation,and changesincost sdg over naturalresourcesbetweensdg2and critical uncertaintiesconcerncompetition other renewableenergysources.Other and canconstrainsdg and constraintheachievementofsdg bioenergy productioncanbothsupport subsidies andclimatepolicies.Theroleof which arecurrentlylargelydrivenby future bioenergyproductionlevels, Key uncertaintiesremainregarding KEY UNCERTAINTIES and 2.4targets7.17.2. reinforced synergiesbetweentargets2.3 production fromagriculturalwastes,and be promotedtowardmaximisingenergy sdg explore thesynergiesbetweensdg2and to mitigatenegativeinteractionsand Good governanceandcoherencearekey international tradestructuresandpatterns. potential indirectspillovereffects dueto biofuel production(andsubsidies),andthe biomass, therelativesharesoffoodand can emergedependingonthetypeof dependent, andsynergiesortrade-offs and deepen negative interactionsbetweensdg deepen exacerbate thiscompetitionandfurther pumping wateroverlongdistancescould also thehigherenergyrequirementsfor to increaseagriculturalproductivity, but Furthermore, raisinglevelsofirrigation sustainable managementpractices. would needtobeimplementedusing impact water, soilandlandquality biofuel productionsystemscanadversely agricultural commodities,large-scale similar tootherlarge-scaleenergy-dense water releasedforirrigation.Moreover, timing, quantityandqualityofthe for foodsupplyduetochangesinthe food systems,bothforfisheriesand large daminfrastructurecanconstrain In thecaseofhydropower production, Those interactionsarehighlycontext 7, many ofwhicharedrivenby rapid 7. Inthissense,farmactivitiescould sdg 7. 7. 2 moresothan 2, 2 between sdg potential positiveandnegativelinkages governance mechanismsneedtostudy open policymakingareimportant.Such planning designedviainclusiveand Governance: Goodgovernance,careful international tradestructuresandpatterns. parts oftheworldgivennature also have spill-overimpactsonother specific, butchangesinonecountrycan Geography: Linkagesarehighlylocation- might takeyearstomaterialize. quality andsustainabilityimplications while longer-termsoil,landandwater (or afewyearsdependingontheplant) energy sourcescanbeachievedinaseason and longer-termelements:productionof sdg2 linkageshave bothshorter-term the endofgrowingseason.Bioenergy- food productionwithresultsvisibleat the formoffertiliserscanquicklyboost can taketime.Applicationofenergyin solar pumpsareaccessible,aprocessthat until theareaiselectrifiedordiesel deep groundwaterresourcesforirrigation rural areaspreventstheextractionof example, lackofenergyavailability in immediate andlonger-termimpacts.For (synergies andtrade-offs), canhave both Time: Interactionsbetweensdg KEY DIMENSIONS sdg nificant impactontheinteractionsbetween Technology: Technological changehasasig- of impacts. among thegoalsandidentifyawiderrange production iskeytoensurecoherence (e.g. hydropower) orlarge-scalebiofuel able infrastructureconstruction of localsmallfoodproducersinrenew- For instance,integrativeparticipation and sustainableenergyproduction. wastes (animalorplant)in supportoflocal tices canenhancetheuse of agricultural agriculture. Climatesmartagriculturalprac- crease water, landandenergyefficiencyin energy-based innovationishelpingtoin- 7 andsdg 2 andsdg 2. For example, continued 2. Forexample,continued 7 investments. 2 andsdg

7 62 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER energy sources. and limitthegenerationofrenewable than implementationofsdg undermine theeradicationofhungermore example, growingbioenergycropsmay relations mightbeasymmetric.For use (suchasfertilisers).Regardingbiofuel, hands oftheruralpoorforagricultural to allshouldalsoputmoreenergyinthe production. Butmakingenergyaccessible compete withthesustainabilityoffood thus makingenergyaccessibletoallmight that arefundamentaltofoodsecurity; pumps candepletegroundwaterresources tional. Forexample,solar-powered Directionality: Thelinkagecanbebi-direc- 2 wouldaffect

63 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER SDG 2.4, 2.5 2.4, TARGETS 2.3 2.3, 2.4,2.5 2.a 13.b 13.1 13.2, 13.3, 13.2, 13.1 2 13.b

+ SDG maintaining biodiversity agriculture practices,and up sustainableandproductive tion andadaptation)tosetting climate changeimpacts(mitiga- awareness andcapacityon Positive feedbackfromraising adaptation toclimatechange genetic diversityshouldreinforce access toseeds/plant/animal and maintaininggiving Resilient agriculturalpractices extreme events increasing climateinstabilityand counteract climateadaptionby solely onproductivitymay Unsustainable agriculturefocusing KEY INTERACTIONS mechanisms toaddressthem climate challenges,andpromote ments andraiseawarenesson enable climatechangemeasure- science, andservicesshould eration inagricultureresearch, Enhancing internationalcoop- 13

+ + + SCORE - 2 2 2 2 policy decision-makers civil societyorganisations,farmers, interfaces: includingscientists, and science/societypolicy Support multi-stakeholdersplatform services science, andclimatescience countries) inagricultureresearch, capacity (especiallyindeveloping cooperation andbuildscientific mitigation. Enhanceinternational agricultural adaptationand Support scienceandresearchin measures market- andregulatory-based strategies andpractices,including and mitigation.Promoteresilient for foodsecurity, adaptation action planswithtriplewins to fosterandsupportagricultural Design policiesandmechanisms SDG HIGHLIGHTED FOR COMPLEMENTARY ONES IN ADDITIONTOTHE POLICY OPTIONS 2 /SDG 7 ANDSDG –

6 64 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER emissions. Similarly, sdg for about14%ofgreenhousegas today’s agriculturedirectlyaccounts synergies withsdg to berealisedintandemensure affects sdg sdg improvement withinsdg sustainability andproductivity capacity toclimatechange.Instead, counteract resilienceandadaptive usual’ agriculturalpracticesmay relying solelyon‘business-as- Boosting agricultureproductivity climate mitigationandadaptation planning andawareness raisingon national policies,strategiesand climate changemeasuresinto sdg eration and building joint initiatives, By enhancinginternationalcoop- mitigation they canalsosupportclimate and risks.Undersomeconditions, adaptive capacitytoclimatechange diversity reinforceresilienceand food productionandgenetic sdg KEY POINTS

2 enablestheintegrationof 2 targetsonresilient,sustainable 2 directlyaffects sdg

13 targets

13, since

13 directly

2 need variability, thatis,higherSoilCarbonstock will contributetoadaption toclimate soil propertiessuchasCarbon Stock climate changeandrisks(13.1).Improving of resilienceandadaptivecapacityto land qualitywillreinforcethepursuit that progressivelyimprovesoiland strengthen capacityforadaptation,and food productionssystems(2.4)that with theParisAgreement. needed. Overall,sdg climate changeinagriculturearestill on theintegrationofstrategiestomitigate underway butclosefollow-upwork into nationalplanning(13.2)isalready gration ofclimatechangemeasures benchmarks. Throughthendcs,inte- agricultural sector;albeitwithoutclear (ndcs) doincludemitigationactioninthe Nationally DeterminedContributions level strategies(94%)presentedthrough preamble, butmany ofthecountry- briefly mentionedwithintheAgreement for theagriculturesectorwhichisvery parameters onclimatemitigationtargets Paris Agreementdoesnotsetspecific pre-industrial levels(un,2015a).The ture risethiscenturywellbelow2°cabove December 2015tokeepglobaltempera- main aimoftheParisAgreementsignedin addresses climatemitigationandthe Climate Change,thegoalalsoindirectly Nations FrameworkConvention on in acknowledgingtheroleofUnited mainly onclimateadaptationissues,but especially livestockproducts.sdg13focuses demand forallagriculturalcommodities person whichimpliesanincreasein population andrisingaverage incomesper is tomeettheneedsofagrowingworld key drivers.At thesametime,challenge nutrient management,aresomeofthe estation, livestockemissions,andsoil electricity andheatproduction.Defor- close secondinglobalghgemissionsafter other landusesareincluded(ipcc,2014),a emissions and24%whenforestry Agriculture accountsforabout14%ofghg KEY INTERACTIONS Beyond climate mitigation, sustainable Beyond climatemitigation,sustainable 2 targetsconverge

65 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER fully realisedintandemto ensure improvement withinsdg2needstobe climate mitigationefforts willbeoffset. capacity toclimatechange(13.1)and or deforestation;resilienceandadaptive impacts suchassoilqualitydecreaseand/ improvements andleadingtonegative driven byshorttermproductivity unsustainable agricultureproduction as-usual’ practiceswithconventional and Should target2.3relysolelyon‘business- achievement may counteractsdg Potential interactionsfromsdg food productionfrommarineecosystems. countries (Cline,2007)aswellglobal dramatically, especially indeveloping agricultural productivitycouldfall practical effect tothissynergybecause awareness raisingisessentialtogive is veryrelevant.However, goingbeyond capacity onclimatechangemitigation target 13.3onraisingawareness and In thissense,thepositivefeedbackfrom of marinebiodiversityandfishresources. ocean acidificationand,indirectly, theloss because thatlimitsoceanwarmingand reinforced byprotectingtheclimate, Food fromfisheriesforinstanceisalso weather events(droughts,floods). stable climate–incontrasttoextreme production isgenerallyreinforcedbya to sdg adaptation (13.3).Feedbacksfromsdg13 awareness onclimatemitigationand International supportcanalsohelpraise for example,science-basedevidence. strategies andplanning(13.2)byproviding, change measuresintonationalpolicies, might facilitatetheintegrationofclimate on enhancinginternationalcooperation climate change.Furthermore,target2.a options foradaptationandresilienceto their accesstofarmerswilloffer efficient and theirwildspecies(2.5),ensuring plants, farmedanddomesticatedanimals the geneticdiversityofseeds,cultivated weather. Inaddition,bymaintaining and cropswilladapttoadverseerratic will improvewateravailability forcrops, Sustainability andproductivity 2 arealsosynergeticaslandfood 2 13. Saharan Africa. are muchsmaller, suchasthoseinsub- forestry. Otheragriculturalghgemitters the topemitterinland-use changeand an importantagriculturalghgemitterand Indonesia, alargeemergingeconomy, is also have largeagriculturalghgemissions. tural producerssuchastheusa and Brazil.Advancedeconomy agricultural ghgemitter, isfollowedbyIndia, agriculture. China,thelargestagricul- country-level approachestoclimateand Geography: Thereisstrongvariationin can beachievedprogressively. food securityworldwidewilltaketimebut sustainable agriculturepracticesand and longterm.Bridgingthegapbetween and adaptationovertheshort,medium impact negativelyonclimatemitigation Time: Conventional agriculturewill KEY DIMENSIONS ecology andadaptiveagriculturalpractices. variability anditsimpactoncurrentagro- There arealsouncertaintiesonclimate uncertain andcannotyetbepredicted. and foodsecurityworldwideishighly between sustainableagriculturepractices The timerequiredtobridgethegap KEY UNCERTAINTIES crop varietiesaswellnewbiotechnologies. climate resilience,suchastraditional well adaptednaturalresourcesforbetter climate change,andensuretheuseof production inasustainableway, combat converging actionsindoublingagricultural awareness raisingarealsokeytodesign agriculture practices.Buildingcapacityand by engaginginresilientandsustainable food securitywithclimatemitigation upstream ofcop22,aimatreconciling of African Agriculture(aaa)launched cop21, ortheinitiativeforAdaptation tive’ launchedbyFranceonthesideof approaches, suchasthe‘4per1000Initia- ‘smart andclimate-sensitiveagriculture to morepositiveinteractions.Forinstance, exist toenableashift fromanegative synergies withsdg 13 targets.Solutionsdo orAustralia,

66 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER including market-andregulatory- promoted byarangeofpolicyapproaches, resilient strategiesandpracticescanbe Governance: ClimateSmartAgricultureand stable climate. and foodproductionisreinforcedbya global climatechangeoverthelongterm, agriculture practicesisnecessarytolimit Directionality: Bidirectional.Achangein agriculture, landscapemanagement). (e.g. agroecology, agroforestry, conservation methods thatmatchlocalconditions food securitythroughtheuseoffarming climate changechallenges,aswell can helpprovidepracticalsolutionsto and mitigation.ClimateSmartAgriculture to reinforcesynergiesbetweenadaptation organic carbonstockshouldbepromoted management tomaintainandincreasesoil adaptation solutionstofarmers.Land precipitation arekeytoprovideclimate to fluctuationsintemperatureand appropriate cropvarietiesthatareresistant mitigation. Biotechnology, andlocation- major roleinagricultureadaptationand Technology: Scienceandresearchplay a productivity measures. forward theadoptionofagricultural a carbonpriceforagriculturecouldpush by policymaking.Furthermore,setting preferences canbeguidedandsupported resilient technologiesandconsumer based measures.Sustainablepractices,

67 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER SDG 2.3 2.a 2.4 TARGETS 2.3, 2.4 2.3, 15.8 15.3, 15.5 15.3, 15.4 15.1, 15.2, 15.1, 15.2, 15.1, 15.a, 15.b 15.a, 15.3, 15.5, 15.3, 2

+ SDG ecosystems sustainable managementof in resourcemobilisationfor cooperation canparticipate international agriculture Enhancing investmentin KEY INTERACTIONS sustainable agriculture access togeneticresourceenable species aswellfairandbetter reducing theimpactofinvasive restoring degradedland,and Combatting desertification, land degradation and increasedeforestation ecosystem protection/restoration, sustainability maycounteract agricultural productivitywithout increase basedsolelyon Intense agricultureandrevenue biodiversity erosion the preventionoflandaswell of terrestrialecosystemsand should reinforcethemaintenance system andagriculturepractices) (sustainable foodproduction being ofterrestrialecosystems Agriculture impactsonthewell- 15

+ + + SCORE - 1 2 1 2 SDG key inthisregard space totraditionalknowledgeis policy decision-makers.Giving civil societyorganizations,farmers, interfaces: includingscientists, and science/societypolicy Support multi-stakeholderplatforms development conservation andagriculture the trade-offsbetweenbiodiversity approaches toaddresssomeof landscape-scale management and biodiversityloss.Developed impacts onlanddegradation to understandhowagriculture systems atthecorrectscales Set upappropriatemonitoring diversity to seeds/plant/animalgenetic Maintain andprovideaccess HIGHLIGHTED FORSDG COMPLEMENTARY ONES ADDITION TOTHE POLICY OPTIONS–IN 13

2 / 68 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER biodiversity mightnot beachieved ecosystems, forests,soils and and sustainableuseofterrestrial on theconservation,restoration ghg emissions,targetsfocused land andsoildegradationhigh technologies thatcontributeto tivity reliesonpracticesand If increasingagriculturalproduc- deforestation income butcanalsoincrease lead toanincreaseinagricultural Extension ofagriculturalareascan biodiversity to conserveandsustainablyuse mobilisation offinancialresources and genebankscouldfacilitatethe tional cooperation,technology, Enhancing investment ininterna- extinction ofendangeredspecies and slowing orpreventing the the fairsharingofgeneticresources, access isalignedwithpromoting Maintaining geneticdiversityandits combatting desertification degraded landandsoils,aswell contribute totherestorationof and arrestingdeforestation, systems, sustainableforestry sustainable useofterrestrialeco- conservation, restorationand ecosystems protectioncanreinforce culture practicesalignedto Sustainable andresilientagri- KEY POINTS on haltingdeforestationand increasing deforestation –counteracting target15.2 al., productivity andincome(Khandkeret might leadtoanincreaseinagricultural particularly forcashcropcultivation,and the extensionofagriculturalareas, markets (mainlyviaroads)canpromote and indirectly2.12.2).Accessto income improvementtargets(i.e.2.3, ductivity andsmall-scalefarmers’ need tobefullyintegratedwithfoodpro- with othergoals,sustainabilitytargets contributing toareductionindesertification. and restoredegradedlandssoils,thus use biodiversityandecosystems(15.a,15.b) tant resourcestoconserveandsustainably technology (2.a)canalsoprovideimpor- in internationalcooperation,researchand of threatenedspecies(15.5).Investment resources, andtheextinctionprevention target 15.6ontheutilisationofgenetic fair accesstofarmers(2.5),isalignedwith and theirwildspeciesensuring plants, farmedanddomesticatedanimals geneticdiversityofseeds,cultivated and soil(15.3).Inaddition,maintainingthe moting restorationofdegradedland and combattingdesertificationpro- and thehalttodeforestation(15.2); mountain ecosystems);sustainableforestry and theirservices(15.115.4on restrial andinlandfreshwater ecosystems restoration andsustainableuseofter- quality wouldreinforcetheconservation, sive improvementoflandandsoil to ecosystemsprotection,andtheprogres- resilient agriculturepracticesaligned achieving target2.4onsustainableand with tices. sdg ing needforsustainableagricultureprac- productivity andincome,withagrow- closely relatedtotherelationshipbetween quality. Thoseinteractionsareusually forests, desertification,andlandsoil change inbiodiversity, ecosystems, Agriculture isoneofthekeydrivers KEY INTERACTIONS 2009). However, thiscouldleadto Similar toseveralsdg2interactions sdg 15. Any actionsaimingat 2 hasmany directinteractions

69 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER 15.2, 15.3and15.5. pollution, thiswillcounteracttargets15.1, ‘business-as-usual’ scenario),andland degradation, highghgemission(i.e.the tices andtechniquesresponsibleforland need forfoodproductivityrelyonprac- the environment. Furthermore,shouldthe and othernegativeexternalitiesfor afforestation andreforestationglobally; rights andlivelihoods valuablelocal to another. Localandindigenouspeoples’ biodiversity statusdiffer fromoneregion since theleveloflanddegradationand Geography: Linkagesarecontextdependent positive impacts. take severalyearstoachievelasting Time: Restorationofdegradedlandmight KEY DIMENSIONS landscape-scale approaches. and requiredifferent analyticalframesand actions arehighlycontextdependent and sdg and analyseinteractionsbetweensdg2 The appropriatescaleatwhichtotakestock KEY UNCERTAINTIES ecosystems. their multipleimplicationsonterrestrial to addresspollinatordeclineand control methodsneedtobepromoted forms ofagricultureandsustainablepest facing extinction(ipbes,2016).Alternative species suchasbeesandbutterfliesare more than40%ofinvertebrate pollinator 16.5% ofglobalvertebratepollinatorsand pollinators. Ithasbeenestimatedthat to have lethalandsublethaleffects on neonicotinoids) have beendemonstrated pollinator loss.Insecticides(especially use andland-usechangearekeydriversof sive agriculturalmanagement,pesticide plants dependonanimalpollination.Inten- nature –almost90%ofwildflowering is akeyregulatingecosystemservicein sdg15 (especially15.5).Animalpollination tillage, grazingormowing,cancounteract high useofagrochemicalsandintense Intensive agriculturalmanagementwith 15 isakeyuncertainty. Suchinter-

between icant roleindevelopingbetterinteractions Governance: canplay asignif- and restoringbiodiversity. conservation efforts aimedatpreserving knowledge shouldbeconsideredin use ofterrestrialecosystems. new practicesalignedwith thesustainable such agriculturalpractices andcouldfoster Biodiversity protectionshouldconstrain and globalecosystemsviaghgemissions. tainable agriculturepracticesimpactlocal Directionality: Mostlybidirectional.Unsus- for biologicalcontrolofkeypestspecies. arthropod predatorsandparasitoids or theuseofkeybeneficialinsectssuchas plants (pull)tocontrolagriculturalpests, – usingrepellentplants(push)andtrap sdg positive interactionbetweensdg2and play animportantroleinreinforcing such asecologicalpestmanagementcan resource. quality oftheland(soil,waterandair) while maintainingandenhancingthe benefit ofpresentandfuturegenerations, economic, andsocialopportunitiesforthe goals ofprovidingenvironmental, is away toharmonizethecomplementary promoted. Sustainablelandmanagement Dumanski andSmyth, 1993)shouldbe tenance oftheirenvironmental functions; tial oftheseresourcesandthemain- ensuring thelong-termproductivepoten- human needs,whilesimultaneously the productionofgoodstomeetchanging soils, water, animalsandplants,for (i.e. theuseoflandresources,including Technology: Sustainablelandmanagement food security. Biodiversity (ipbes)aimedatachieving dation neutrality(ldn;Orretal., including targetstoachievelanddegra- un Convention toCombatDesertification, the planforActionslaunchedby gramme andplanningsettingssuchas Innovative agroecologytechniques 15. Forinstance,thepush-pullsystem sdg2 and 15 throughpro- 2017), and 2017), and

70 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER developing economy, thesechallenges demographic pressuresandafast- onset ofclimatechange.Withgrowing drought, andincreasinglysowiththe country isalsohighlyvulnerableto population employedinthissector. The on agriculture,withabout60%ofthe Senegal inWest Africa ishighlydependent DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY SENEGAL’S NATIONAL MANAGEMENT AT THEHEARTOF PUTTING SUSTAINABLE LAND such astheAmazon. other targetswillbeessentialforareas sdg targetswithoutirreversiblelossesto framework andactionplantomeetkey in thisfragileecosystem.Developinga are mutuallyconstrainingandreinforcing health. Thus,alargesetoftargetsandsdgs change mitigation,biodiversityandhuman water availability andquality, climate with cascadingeffects andfeedbackson to deforestationandlanddegradation, generation andbiofuelproduction,leading cattle ranching,large-scalehydropower development tosupportagriculture, rainforest, issubjecttointenseeconomic The Amazon,theworld’slargesttropical HEALTH INTHEAMAZONREGION ECOSYSTEM PROTECTIONAND PRODUCTION FORCLIMATE MITIGATION, DEFORESTATION, FOODANDENERGY THE COMPOUNDCHALLENGESOF goals presentedinAnnex1. interactions betweensdg more detailedcountryanalysesofcritical This boxpresentsasummaryofthe SDG INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLESOF sequestration. food productionandoptimal carbon identified bythegovernment toensure and watermanagementarekeyareas are exacerbating.Sustainableland 2 ANDTHEOTHERSDGS

2 andtheother

goals andtargets. achievement ofsdg Smart Agriculturewillbekeytothe to periodicdrought,achievingClimate and availability targets.Inaregionprone the achievementofhealth,waterquality substantial waterconsumptionconstrain fertilisers anddust,nitrateleaching such asassociatedwithparticulatesfrom exports. However, environmental impacts, diversity tothecountryandnational sector contributessubstantialnutritional Valley, adynamic,high-valueagriculture While CaliforniaisbestknownforSilicon WATER CHALLENGES AGRICULTURE TOADDRESSCALIFORNIA’S IMPLEMENTING CLIMATE SMART 2 andotherinterlinked E NERAON SDG 2 WITH OTHER GOALS

+ SDG 1 + SDG 3 + SDG 5 + SDG 6 + SDG 7 + SDG 13 + SDG 15

SCORE SCORE

+3 +3

+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2

+2 +2 / / 0 +1 +1 / +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 0 +1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 / / / / /

-2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2

-3 -3

SCORE +3 -3 0 + SDG E NERAON

SDG + 3 + 2 + 2

2 -2 -1 1 / WITHOTHERGOALS + 0 / 1 -1 +

SDG + + / 2 1 + + / 2 1 -2 -1 / -1 3 -2 +

SDG + 2 + 2 + 1 5 + 72 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER SDG + 1 + 2 + 2 -2 -1 6 / -2 -1 / +

SDG + 1 + 2 -2 -1 / 7 -1 + SDG + 2 +

2 + 2 -2 13 + + 2

SDG + 1 + 1 -2

15 +3 0 -3 SCORE 73 KNOWLEDGE GAPS

Knowledge gaps and their order of magni- agricultural technologies and practices, are tude differ for various reasons, and can most detrimental to water availability vary from one geographical area to anoth- and water quality for downstream urban er. In this context, science empower- and industrial developments and coastal ment and capacity building on research, ecosystems. Access to existing data may data collection, analysis and assessments also be an issue. Some government on sdg 2 and its linkages are essential agencies are reluctant to share data with to identify pathways toward meeting mul- other agencies; this could be due to poor tiple sdgs. Investments and advances in data quality, because the data show poor agricultural research and development will performance by the agency concerned, be important for reducing negative linkages or because sharing the data might be among sdg2 targets and between sdg 2 perceived as losing power. These challenges targets and other sdg goals and targets. are heightened in interdisciplinary and For example, global scientific cooperation multi-agency settings. (south-north, south-south, triangular) is neces- The broad scope of the sdgs challenges sary for universal science to make progress research, policymakers and the devel- on issues such as the impact of climate opment community to work across disci- change on agricultural production and plines and silos – something that is easily nutritious quality of food produced, or the proclaimed but remains difficult to achieve. spread of pathogens and invasive species. The section provides a non-exclusive list Building and strengthening long-term of knowledge gaps that have been identified observation and information systems in relation to the goal and target interaction for sustainable development is key. To date, analysis in the previous sections. sdg 2-related observation systems and systems that might help identify risks for related sdg goals and targets receive 2 + 1 insufficient financial support, and are The extent to which progress in sdg2 therefore subject to uneven quality and supports achievements in sdg1 is not poor coverage. For example, adequate data a priority knowledge gap because systems are not yet in place to predict achievements are largely synergetic. food crises with sufficient accuracy, because However, a better understanding is data are not collected at a high enough needed of how trade openness may impact frequency or to a sufficient level of detail. smallholder farmers and how adverse Lack of standardisation of data is a further impacts can be prevented. challenge. Similarly, data are not yet available to identify when and where uses 2 + 2 of agricultural land for biofuels (to support There is a need to develop new science, energy and climate goals) may harm the technology and innovation and associated environment or reduce food security institutions to reconcile targets 2.3 and and increase stunting. Information is 2.4; these will be location-specific and will insufficient concerning which agricultural change dynamically over time. There is lands in a watershed, as well as which also a need for better understanding of 74 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER of theimpactclimatechange(e.g.co and foodquality, aswellunderstanding Linkages betweenagro-ecologicalpractices tional andhealthoutcomes. production practicesthatbenefitnutri- contribute tomoresustainablefood- and processorstousetheirpotential would allowagriculturalproducers Insights areneededonincentivesthat most with potentiallyadverseimpacts for tainty toagriculturalproduction systems Growing watervariabilityisaddinguncer- raphy, agriculturalpracticeand target. counteracting targets,dependingongeog- andsdg Large uncertaintiesremainbetweensdg new technologies. in thedevelopmentandintroductionof gender responsivemethodologiescanhelp support socialtransformation.Adopting agricultural researchanddevelopmentcan Women’s participationandperspectivesin new technologiesareusuallynotaddressed. eties ofplant,livestock,andfish,for needs forinnovation–suchasnewvari- generallygender-blind;thatis,women’s Agricultural researchanddevelopmentare specific. and genderequalityarehighlylocation- in many regions,giventhatfoodsystems gender equalityandseveralsdg There isinsufficientknowledgeconcerning pollution onhumanhealth. regarding theimpactofagriculturalwater There arealsoimportantknowledgegaps research gaps. concentration) onfoodqualityaremajor sdg timeframe. zero malnutrition,particularlyintheshort which interventionsworkbesttoachieve 2 2 2

+ + +

2 targets. More research is needed sdg2 targets.Moreresearchis needed 3 6 5 2 asaresultofsynergisticand 2 targets ²

6 on howsdg becoming increasinglyenergydependent. agricultural andfoodsystemsarerapidly the energysectorishighlydynamicand This isparticularlychallengingbecause both sdgsachieveprogressintandem. (and energy)systems,tohelpensurethat agricultural linkagesandimpactsonfood More analysesareneededonenergy- knowledge needstobegenerated onagri- cially inthetropics.Additional scientific global climatemustalsobe clarified,espe- Feedbacks betweenlandusechangeand patterns needfurtherstudy. change inareasthataffect precipitation insights onmeasurestomitigatelanduse regional precipitationpatternsand The effect of landusechangeonlocaland in onsetofprecipitation. drought predictions,aswellonchanges for accurate,highlygranularseasonal become lesscertain,newtoolsareneeded food production.Asprecipitationpatterns on theregularityofseasonalcyclesfor sub-Saharan Africa dependalmostentirely nate globallyandsomeregions,suchas Rainfed agriculturecontinuestopredomi- agriculture. more sustainablewaterstewardshipin as areinstitutionalinnovationsfor and spatialplanningtoolsareneeded, understood andmanaged.Observational competition forwatermustbebetter Groundwater depletionandthegrowing depends ongroundwatersources. climate change.Irrigationincreasingly productivity andevenmoresounder Irrigation isessentialforincreasingcrop agricultural practices. can bemetthroughmoresustainable key watertargets(i.e.safedrinkingwater) research isneededtounderstandhow achieved intandem.Inparticular, more 2 2

+ +

13 7 2 andsdg 6 targetscanbe

75 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER is urgentlyrequired. species) andpollinationaroundtheworld of pollinators(statusandtrendsformost in severalregions.Long-termmonitoring (species identity, distribution, abundance) There isalackofwildpollinatordata concurrently. landscape scaleandachievesdg215 allocation ofmanagementoptionsatthe are, however, keytodefinetheoptimal impacts fromvariousagriculturalpractices lacking –dataonlong-termecological and provisionofecosystemsservicesare ships betweenecosystemsmanagement tion atthelandscapescaleonrelation- smallholder farmers.Dataandinforma- sizes, withparticularsupportneededfor ent ecologies,geographiesandfarm research needstobetailoreddiffer- forestation andlanddegradation.Such water resourcesandavoid furtherde- impacts onterrestrialhabitatsandfresh- tutions thatoptimallyreduceadverse identify technologies,practicesandinsti- technological advances,isneededto Research, combininglocalknowledgewith Finally, theimpactofclimatechange(co both mitigationandadaptationtargets. vations andassociatedinstitutionsthatmeet cultural science,technologiesandinno- be furtherstudiedandassessed. on thenutrientcontentofcropsneedsto 2

15 ² ) in practice. how policycouldaddress the interactions interactions sectionprovide optionsfor seven summarytablesinthetarget-level on thesegeneralconsiderations,the environmental boundaries.Building ngo, privatesector, etc.)thatfullyconsider stakeholders (researchinstitutions, ment departments multi-sector approachesacrossgovern- trade-offs. management optionswithminimum and theothersgoals,providespecific understand interactionsbetweensdg2 local situationswillbecriticaltobetter contexts, in-depthunderstandingof food andnutritionsecurityitself.Insuch water andenergysecurityaswellto related toclimate,health,biodiversity, other goalsandtargetssuchasthose longer-term adverseimpactsonseveral dominate policyagendaswithpotentially ronmental contexts,foodsecuritytargets political, social,economicandenvi- avoided. However, inmany geographical, that adverseimpactscanbereducedor situations andinsodoing,canhelpensure and developmentgainsincomplex institutions canenablenetenvironmental policies togetherwithappropriate mental role:coherentandcoordinated countries. particularly crucialforlessindustrialized mitigation strategies,adaptationbeing key tonationaladaptationandclimate associated changesinland-usearealso linkages tohumanhealth.Agricultureand water-climate nexusandalsohasstrong is atthecenteroffood-energy- counteracting interactions.Agriculture solutions toreinforcepositiveandmitigate both challengesandsubstantialscopefor 16 sdgs.Thesemultiplelinkagesprovide and constraininglinkageswiththeother The sdg2targetshave multiplereinforcing COMMENTS CONCLUDING Overall, thereisaneedforinclusive Policy andgovernanceplay afunda- / ministries andother

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Biodiversityand and J.A.S.Zuanon,2016.Hydropowerthe bce01d2d7277/v20n2_1.pdf. giannini_public/be/d6/bed6d711-f117-4ee0-8b1c- Update, 20:2.https://s.giannini.ucop.edu/uploads/ Challenges FacedbytheCaliforniaDairyIndustry. are Evaluation, London. Review cee11-007.InternationalInitiativeforImpact 79 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER Rosegrant, M.W., J.Koo,N.Cenacchi,C.Ringler, R. Rosegrant, M.W. andP.B.R. Hazell,2000.Transforming Richardson, V.A. andC.A.Peres,2016.Temporal decayin République duSénégal,2014.RecensementGénéralde Ponisio L.C.,L.G.M’Gonigle,K.Mace,J.Palomino,P. de Pinstrup-Andersen, P., 2011.TheFoodSystemand its Orr, B.J.,A.L.Cowie,V.M. CastilloSanchez,P. Chasek,N.D. oecd/fao, 2014.-AgriculturalOutlook Nobre, C.A.,G.Sampaio,L.S.Borma,J.C.Castilla-Rubio, Ndiaye, M.L.,S.Niang,H.-H.Pfeiffer, R.Peduzzi,M. Ministry ofEconomy, FinanceandPlanning,2014. and P. 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Welton, 2017.ScientificConceptualFrameworkfor Metternicht, S.Minelli,A.E.Tengberg, S.Walter and Crossman, A.Erlewein,G.Louwagie,M.Maron,G.I. Organization (fao),oecdPublishing,Paris Development (oecd)andunFoodAgriculture Organisation forEconomicCo-operationand National AcademyofSciencesuas sustainable developmentparadigm.Proceedingsofthe change risksintheAmazonandneedofanovel J.S. SilvaandM.Cardoso,2016.Land-useclimate Irrigation andDrainage,60:509-517. produced andsoldonmarketsinDakar(Sénégal). and processingonthemicrobialqualityoflettuces Tonolla ofirrigationwater andY.Dieng,2011.Effect Docpdf/pap Actions Plan2014-2018.www.finances.gouv.sn/en/ Executive Summary. 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80 GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER World Bank,2017.Senegal.Countryoverview. Accessed World Bank,2016.PovertyandSharedProsperity2016: World Bank,2007.World DevelopmentReport2008: Wood, S.A.,N.Sokol,C.W. Bell,M.A.Bradford,S.Naeem, Winters, L.A.,N.McCullochandA.McKay, 2004.Trade who/unicef, 2015.ProgressonSanitationandDrinking who, 2016.Children:Reducingmortality, Factsheet.World who, 2014.GlobalStatusReportonnoncommunicable who, 2013.Isittruethatlackofiodinereallycausesbrain February 2017. Taking onInequality. Washington, usa Agriculture forDevelopment. yields. EcologicalandApplications,26:2072-2085. soilorganicmatterfractionsoncrop ofdifferent effects M.D. Wallenstein andC.A.Palm,2016.Opposing of EconomicLiterature,42:72-115. liberalization andpoverty:Theevidencesofar. Journal Fund (who/unicef). Health Organization&UnitedNationsChildren’s Water: assessment.World 2015updateandmdg who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs178/en Health Organization(who).November2016.www. diseases. World HealthOrganisation(who). features/qa/17/en/ Topics Q&A,updatedMay2013.www.who.int/ damage? World HealthOrganization(who), 386:1973-2028. Commission onplanetaryhealth.TheLancet, epoch: reportofTheRockefellerFoundation–Lancet Safeguarding humanhealthintheAnthropocene . 81 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING ALL AGES BEING FORALLAT PROMOTE WELL- HEALTHY LIVESAND SDG Anthony Capon Christopher N.H.Doll Ralph Chapman Elinor Chisholm José Siri Philippa Howden-Chapman 3

ENSURE 82 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 83 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 84 INTRODUCTION

sdg 3 seeks to ensure health and well- (sdg 11). Health and well-being are also being for all, at every stage of life. In critically dependent on a safe and enabling its 1948 constitution, the World Health environment, supported by mitigation Organization defined health as “a state of of climate change (sdg 13) and sustainable complete physical, mental, and social well- protection and use of the oceans (sdg 14) being and not merely the absence of disease and land (sdg 15) (Waage et al., 2015). or infirmity” and this is the definition The broad interdependence between envi- adopted here. sdg 3 is underpinned by nine ronmental and human health is recognised targets that broadly fall into separate, but in systems thinking and the new focus overlapping groups: reducing morbidity on planetary health (Whitmee et al., 2015; and mortality for vulnerable groups Gatzweiler et al., 2017). (mothers, newborns, the elderly and The text that follows provides an children), reducing communicable and overview of interactions at the goal level non-communicable diseases, reducing risk between sdg 3 – the ‘entry level goal’ factors (tobacco, substance abuse, road for this assessment – and the other 16 SDGs. traffic injuries and hazardous chemicals Taking into account all the underlying and pollution), providing universal targets of this entry goal, a set of key health coverage, and strengthening the interactions is identified between the sdg 3 health sector. While sdg 3 targets do not targets and those of other sdgs, principally specifically address the social determi- interactions within the range of the nants of health and well-being (csdh, highest magnitude or strongest impacts 2008; Solar and Irwin, 2010; Berkman et based on available scientific literature al., 2014), the importance of social factors, and expert knowledge. The typology and such as working conditions, income, seven-point scale for characterising the education, and housing, is recognised range of positive and negative interactions within other sdgs. Waage and colleagues described in the opening chapter to this noted that achieving health and well- report is used to assess the selected target- being for all relies not only on meeting the level interactions and the context in which sdg 3 targets, but also on ending poverty they typically occur. Illustrative examples (sdg 1), providing access to education (sdg 4), from different world regions show how achieving gender equity (sdg 5), reducing these linkages manifest in practice. Policy inequality between and within countries options are identified for how to max- (sdg 10), and promoting peace (sdg 16). imise positive interactions and minimise Health and well-being also relies on negative interactions between now and adequate services and resources, including 2030, and beyond. The chapter concludes infrastructure (sdg 9), food security and with a list of key knowledge gaps related agricultural production (sdg 2), decent to the interactions studied. work (sdg 8), sustainable consumption (sdg 12), provision of water and sanitation (sdg 6), access to energy (sdg 7), and resilient and inclusive cities that provide universal access to housing and transport 85 KEY INTERACTIONS AT GOAL LEVEL

3 + 1 3 + 2 Poverty reduction leads to improved health Health and nutrition are inextricably and well-being, while good health is a linked. The relationship between food strong enabling factor for effective poverty consumption and health is highly reduction. In fact, a healthy population context-dependent. Under-nutrition is is a prerequisite for development, consti- generally associated with poverty, whereas tuting an engine for economic growth. overconsumption can accompany either Conversely, it is very difficult to ensure poverty or wealth and may be associated health without addressing poverty. At with poor nutritional intake. The rela- low income levels, rising incomes lead to tionship between food and nutrition is health gains as basic needs are fulfilled bidirectional: in some cases, ill health (such as nutrition, health care, health can diminish the ability of households or awareness, and shelter). Increased income individuals to farm and produce food, or is likely to enable positive interaction to work and acquire food. Fundamentally, effects, yet beyond a certain threshold, meeting caloric and micro/macro nutri- further increases may not lead to further ent needs is a primary requirement positive health effects. Similarly, poverty for health. Interruptions in food intake reduction will have a greater effect and quality, whether short- or long- on health in the presence of diseases asso- term, can have lasting impacts on mental ciated with poverty, including aids, and physical development, impacts tuberculosis and malaria, as well as ne- that begin during pre-natal growth and glected tropical diseases, diarrheal and continue through childhood. Good respiratory diseases, and the consequences health also depends on consumption of of malnutrition. Where poverty reduction sufficient micronutrients over the life is most needed, governance structures course. Reducing hunger will result in are often ineffective, and great health immediate improvements in health, challenges usually exist. Reducing poverty and carries long-term implications for will generally result in immediate and physical, psychological and neurological long-term improvements in health. This development. Increasing agricultural relationship is highly bidirectional – production may improve food security and ill health can constitute an inescapable reduce hunger; however, it also impacts poverty trap, where governmental on the environment, with potential impli- redistribution is absent. Before conven- cations for infectious disease transmission, tional poverty reduction policies can and can negatively affect health through be effective, the poorest of the poor often contamination of local environments with need special assistance to enable them arsenic, cadmium and other pesticide to engage effectively with poverty reduction residues. Technological elements of food measures. Good governance, plus invest- and agricultural systems, including ment in health, skills, infrastructure and genetically modified organisms (gmos), education, is crucial to reducing poverty. monocultural crop production, food processing, forest clearing, and irrigation, have the potential to increase production, 86 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING adversely affect futurefoodsecurity. but alsotoharmtheenvironment and geopolitical and economic considerations. geopolitical andeconomicconsiderations. induced extremeweatherevents,aswell also beincreasinglyaffected byclimate- agricultural production.Foodsecuritywill managezoonoticdiseasesrelatedto There ismuchuncertaintyabouthowto achievement. limits schoolattendanceandeducational can bebidirectional,aspoorhealth tionship betweenhealthandeducation knowledge tomorepeople.Therela- ciency ofhealthinterventionsandspread technologies) may increasetheeffi- using informationandcommunication technologies (suchashealthpromotion in developing-worldcontexts.New are universal,greatergainspossible rapid change.Whiletheserelationships important opportunitiesincontextsof early schooling–lifelonglearningoffers fits fromeducationarenotlimitedto reliance andempowerment.Healthbene- increased income,opportunity, self- can alsoaffect long-termhealththrough or theadoptionofnewtechnologies.It immediately throughchangedbehaviour sentiment). Educationcanaffect health contexts (asinthecaseofanti-vaccine both developing-anddeveloped-world can leadtopoorhealthdecisionsin ill health:forexample,misinformation can alsoplay astrongroleingoodor cation andothersourcesofinformation in thedevelopedworld.Informaledu- countries andhasalsobeendemonstrated education iswellknownindeveloping indeed, thefavourable impactofmaternal ence thehealthstatusofchildren– and paternaleducationcaneachinflu- individual andcommunitylevels.Maternal ciated withbetterhealth,atboth Access tohigh-qualityeducationisasso- 3

decision-making andeconomicactivities. more timeandresourcestoparticipatein of womenorchildrencanoffer women equality, although improvedhealth effect onhealththangender In general,genderequalityhasagreater women facethegreatestinequalities. among thesegoalswillbegreatestwhere The strengthoftheenablinginteraction term (mediatedthroughchildcare). resources oraccessforwomen)long- immediate (whentheydirectlyimprove improved health.Healthgainsmay be economic gainsandhence overall to lead of women in the paidworkforcecan health outcomes.Increasingparticipation empowerment leadstoimprovedchild health decisionsfortheirchildren,so gains. Moreover, mothersmakemost in thesecasesandleadtoeasyhealth funded, andpromotinggenderequality contexts under-prioritisedandunder- Women’s healthissuesareinsome ables theachievementofbetterhealth. Improving genderequalitygenerallyen- management ofwatertreatment systems. themselves areaddingto the poor poor, itmay bethatwater-bornepathogens unidirectional, althoughwherehealthis contexts. Thisrelationshipisessentially also widespreadinmany high-income and environmental pollutionissues are disease isstillprevalent,butwaterquality world wherewater-borneinfectious is strongestinpartsofthedeveloping gains. Theinteractionbetweenthesegoals also leadstolong-termdevelopmental improving waterqualityandsanitation hepatitis) andimprovednutrition; (e.g. acutediarrhealinfections,viral of decreasedwater-borneinfections gains. Thelatterareimmediateinterms sanitation itisdifficulttoachievehealth – withoutcleanwaterandadequate and accessleadstoimprovedhealth In allcontexts,improvingwaterquality 3 3

+ +

5 6 87 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING air pollution)althoughoften avoidable. impacts arelikely(e.g.mortality from environment, avarietyofadversehealth health issues.Whereitdamagesthe rapid economicgrowthmay leadtonew gains asworkers’incomeincreases.Yet, (sdg1), economicgrowthleadstohealth example, whereitreducespoverty sdg8 ishighlycontext-dependent.For The relationshipbetweensdg3and sources whereavailable. access cleaner(moreexpensive)energy poverty canreducehouseholdabilityto some cases,poorhealthandconcomitant use arestronglytechnology-dependent.In interactions betweenhealthandenergy temperature andweatherpatterns.The imity tolow-lyingcoastalzonesandlocal locally uncertainbutmodifiedbyprox- offs. Long-termclimate-relatedrisksare and agriculturalactivitiessuchasburn- modes oftransport,andregionalindustries risk ismodifiedbylocaltopography, health –forexample,urbanairpollution interactions ofenergyproductionwith erate release.Geography canmodifythe of wastestorageandaccidentalordelib- Nuclear energyposesuniquerisksinterms caused bygreenhousegasemissions). and indirectimpactsfromclimatechange in themedium-tolong-term(e.g.direct unclean cookstoves)andverylargethreats pollutants orindoorairpollutionfrom from directexposuretoshort-livedclimate substantial short-termhealthissues(e.g. involving non-cleanenergysourcescreates countries. However, energydevelopment hospitalisation andmortalityintemperate health risks,suchasexcess-winter of affordable energycancreateoramplify have consequencesforhealth.Lack transport, andheating/cooling,allofwhich of otherbasicserviceslikehealthcare, economic developmentandtheavailability Affordable energycontributestoboth relationship betweenenergyandhealth. There aresynergiesandtrade-offs inthe 3 3

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8 7

medium aswellhigh-incomesettings. health canconstituteamajordraininlow-, growth andhealthisbidirectional.Ill The relationshipbetweeneconomic ful socialandenvironmental regulation. growth needtobemitigatedbycare wealth. Inaddition,theadverseimpactsof periods ofunemploymentorlack nets, whichmitigatetheconsequencesof the presenceandqualityofsocialsafety growth andhealthisstronglymodifiedby The relationshipbetweeneconomic growth andbetterworkingenvironments. see greaterhealthgainsfromeconomic level. Ingeneral,low-incomecountrieswill growth may maskinequalitiesatlocal lifestyles. Aswell,nationaleconomic communicable diseaseswithchanged tend toexperienceanincreaseinnon- traffic accidents,whilewealthiercountries mortality relatedtopollutionandroad economies often experiencesignificant are complex:forexample,transitional health. However, long-termhealthgains lead tolong-termimprovementsin increases innationalwealthgenerally enable immediatehealthgains,while provision ofdecentworkandbasicincome affects healthovervarioustimescales: heat stress,andinjury. Economicgrowth suffer fromexposuretocontaminants, are notinplace,workers’healthmay construction, ifappropriateprotections such asmanufacturing,agricultureor deaths relatedtoviolence.Inindustries health problemsandofillnesses lead toahigherincidenceofmental new issues–forexample,inequalitymay health benefits,butcanalsocreate gains cannotonlyexcludesomefrom Inequities inthedistributionofwealth health challenges–most prominent isthe been associatedwithtypical patternsof Historically, developmentstageshave vations andinfrastructuresarefavoured. choices aboutwhichindustries,inno- and Synergies ortrade-offs betweenhealth 3

+ sdg9 arestronglydependenton

88 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING can leadtofeedbackloops withnegative This relationshipisbidirectional and ments (e.g.higherlevelsof airpollution). as smoking,andpoorphysical environ- rates ofadversehealthbehaviours such heightened psycho-socialstress,higher through multiplepathways, including Inequalities may createhealthimpacts low-, medium-andhigh-incomecontexts. substantial adversehealthoutcomesin that incomeandsocialinequalitieshave goals. Inparticular, thereisevidence achievement ofhealthandwell-being access topowercancontributethe education, healthcareservicesand Reducing inequalitiesinincome,wealth, technological /infrastructuraladvances. nations toinnovateorimplementvarious participation, andthereforetheabilityof although poorhealthcaninfluencelabour and healthisbasicallyunidirectional, The relationshipbetweeninfrastructure advance ofthecompletionconstruction. quences may belocked-indecadesin infrastructure development,healthconse- term. Duetothelongtimescaleof Health effects canbeimmediatetolong- through promotionofactivetransport. impacts andimprovehealth,suchas especially incities,canminimiseadverse sprawl. However, appropriateplanning, and reducedphysical activityfromurban traffic congestion,roadaccidents ing airpollutionfromvehicleemissions, unintended healthconsequences,includ- investment haswell-establishedadverse motor vehicle-basedinfrastructural and residentialdevelopment.Forexample, urbanisation, transport/mobilitysystems, particularly associatedwithlanduseand there may alsobenegativeimpacts, ture tendtofavour betterhealth.However, in industry, innovationandinfrastruc- decisions. Overthelong-term,advances gated byindustrialandinfrastructural disease, whichcanbeexacerbatedormiti- from infectioustonon-communicable characteristic epidemiologicaltransition 3

10 lated ruralareas. some slums/informalsettlementsandiso- and thusentrenchinequalities,asin can limitavailable resourcesandrevenues nity level,ahighburdenofillhealth capacity toassurehealth.At thecommu- opportunities andfurtherreducingtheir or care,thusreducingtheirlivelihood to selltheirlandpay formedication high interestratesforcehouseholders borrowing-related ‘poverty-traps’, where limiting workcapacityandthrough can limithouseholdincomebydirectly consequences: forexample,illhealth the longterm;dependence ofhealth is stronglyconnectedwith healthover Sustainable consumption andproduction options forurbandevelopment. of activetravel optionsandthuspolicy participation andtheattractiveness disability canlimitresources,labour unidirectional, althoughillhealthor sustainable citiesandhealthisbasically the long-term.Therelationshipbetween emissions, whichsupportshealthin and hencelimitingorreducingcarbon options foravoiding carbonlock-in design offer someofthemostcost-effective health. Sustainableurbanformand work andeducation,whichsupports access tohealthcareand immediately anddirectlybyimproving port infrastructurepromoteshealth space supportshealth.Inaddition,trans- provides adequatetemperaturesand free ofpollutantsandhazardswhich In theshortterm,housingwhichis illness andnon-communicablediseases. ous traffic,andcontributingtomental hazards suchasairpollutionanddanger- physical activity, exposingpeopleto unhealthy environments, discouraging of health andsupporttheachievement recognised. Well-designed citiespromote The impactof‘place’onhealthiswell 3 3 3 while poorly designed cities create sdg3 whilepoorlydesignedcitiescreate

+ +

12 11

89 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING sources. trajectories andusezero-carbon energy adopt climate-friendlydevelopment needed toencouragepoorercountries gains. Newfinancingmechanismsare (multi-century) healthanddevelopmental well-being butmajorandlong-lasting immediate improvementsinhealthand Climate actionwillresultinmodest climate changeislargeandgrowing. morbidity andmortalityfromminimising scale ofpotentialsavings withrespectto to achievehealthgoals.Conversely, the of theseeffects, itwillbeverydifficult and massiveflowsofpeople.Intheface breakdown ofgovernanceorsocialnorms, precipitate localorregionalconflicts, tion, whichhave thepotentialto rapidly withthescaleofclimatedisrup- trition. Suchimpactsmay increase tributes tofoodinsecurityandundernu- (e.g. fordengueandmalaria)con- that promotesthespreadofdiseasevectors are indirect,includingclimaticchange frequency ofintensestorms.Othereffects floods anddroughts,increased impacts ofsevereweatherevents,especially heat stressonabilitytoworkoutside, are direct,suchastheeffect ofincreasing Many healthimpactsfromclimatechange goals onsustainableactionisstrongly where regulationisweakest. are mostsevereinlow-incomecontexts some fishstocks)orglobal,butoften (e.g. ecosystemdepletion/collapse,asfor of failingtoachievethiscanbelocal and production.Thehealthconsequences losses toenablesustainableconsumption by whichglobalfinancingmightoffset and researchisneededintomechanisms debates overtherighttodevelopment, gains. Thistensionhasbeenrecognisedin require foregoingimmediateeconomic tainable consumptionandproductionmay or may involve trade-offs. Indeed,sus- these goalsarelesspronounced between planetary health. Short-termconnections recognised inthenewparadigmof 3

short- andlong-termimpactsonhealth. and willtaketime,butshouldhave both and multi-scaleintegratedgovernance, overfishing, requirescross-sectoralaction challenges, includingpollutionand marine bioprospecting.Tackling marine new pharmaceuticalcompoundsfrom stocks orthepotentialfordiscoveryof availability of thus fish and systems as itaffects theviabilityofmarineeco- short orlongtimescales,particularly diversity canaffect humanhealthover tant healthrisks.Lossofmarinebio- freshwater resourcesandposeconcomi- extreme weatherevents,cancontaminate aquifers, potentiallyexacerbatedby intrusion intogroundwaterincoastal reduce morbidityandmortality. Seawater tion ofmarinepollutionwilllikewise and thusonhealthinthesecontexts.Reduc- can have directimpactsonnutrition, and collapseoffishstocksfromoverfishing marine food sources.Marinepollution and wherepopulationsdepend on areas connected tohumanhealthincoastal The healthofmarinesystemsisdirectly Each hasadirectorindirect connection sioning, regulating,andcultural services. in fourserviceareas:supporting, provi- categorises theroleofnaturalecosystems The MillenniumEcosystemAssessment on carefulmanagementofsuchecosystems. achievement ofhealthgoalsdepends of infectiousdiseasetransmission.Assuch, degrade waterways, increasingtherisk can expandpathogenhabitatsand associated withagriculturalproduction, human health.Changesinlanduse,often can affect agriculturalyieldsandthus resulting fromenvironmental disruptions populations ofbeesorotherpollinators of pathways. Forexample,reductionsin sity, canaffect healthalonganumber ination, andassociatedlossesofbiodiver- desertification, pollutionandcontam- human actions,includingdeforestation, Changes totheenvironment causedby 3 3

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90 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING often siloed,andfailtoappreciatesuch to managementandgovernance are consequences inotherareas. Approaches system arelikelytoleadunintended problems, interventionsinonesub- recognised thatwithcomplexsystemic achieving health.Itisincreasingly Effective partnerships arecriticalfor inclusive institutions. is likelytosupportstrongerandmore reciprocally, good communityhealth better healthandwell-beingoutcomes; high-quality governance.Thiscansupport institutions andthepreconditionsfor important roleinmaintainingtrust and governanceprocessescanplay an resistance. Inclusionineconomiclife may have contributedtoantimicrobial have disruptedhealthservicesand and destructionofinfrastructure,which devastating civilstrife,massmigration, in Libya,SyriaandIraqhave promoted development discourse.Thecurrentcrises are often notwellrecognisedinthe of inter-statewarsandconflictsonhealth can posechallengestopeace.Theimpact extreme cases,emerginghealththreats and implementstronginstitutions.In capacity ofgovernmentstodeliverjustice ill healthorofviolenceitselfcanlimitthe exacerbate inequalities.Highburdensof impede initiativestoimprovehealthand health. Conversely, theirabsencecan strongenablersofimprovementsin Peace, justiceandstronginstitutionsare (Millennium EcosystemAssessment,2005). income provisionandculturalidentity necessary forhumanwell-beingsuchas health butalsosupportbroaderaspects aspects ofbothphysical andmental together thesenotonlymapdirectlyto and recreationalcomponents.Taken regulation ofwaterquality, tothespiritual provision offoodandshelter, and basic functionssuchasnutrientcycling, to humanhealthandwell-beingfrom 3 3

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poorer countries). easy importationofcaloriedensefoodsto could have adversehealthimpacts(e.g. relation toremovaloftradebarriersthat increasing costsofmedicines,andin qualified healthworkers,patentsand These couldbethroughabraindrainof especially inlow-incomecountries. adverse impactsoftradeagreements, trade liberalisation,andthepotential concern aboutdiminishingreturnsfrom (sdg8). However, there isincreasing primarily througheconomicgrowth Substantively, trade contributestohealth relation toprivate-publicpartnerships. present, exceptdiscussionsmainlyin ‘outside’ theundevelopmentagendaat and somebilateraltradeagreementsare tionally, themajorityofmultilateral international tradeonhealth.Institu- adequately emphasisingtheroleof The sdgshave beencriticisedfornot its impactsoneducationandcapital. partnerships, bothdirectlyandthrough the capacitytoparticipateineffective is bidirectional,asillhealthitselflimits thinking areneeded.Thisrelationship information groundedinsystems regional partnershipsandexchangeof Cross-sectoral, cross-spatialandmulti- lation ofpotentiallywiserinterventions. or positiveconsequencesandformu- the anticipationofunintendednegative tion ofsystemsapproachesallowsfor cross-sectoral feedbacks.Incontrast,adop-

91 KEY INTERACTIONS AT TARGET-LEVEL

A comprehensive assessment of all SDG 2 sdg interactions at target-level was beyond Specifically target 2.3 the scope of this chapter, but several SDG 3 proposed frameworks exist for integrating Illustrated using the example of improving health and well-being across the sdgs, health outcomes by improving air quality encompassing both health and non-health SDG 8 sectors and locating health and well- Illustrated using the example of the being as both pre-conditions and outcomes interaction between work, labour of sustainable development (Dora et productivity and health in the context of al., 2015; Nunes et al., 2016). This section high temperatures analyses some of these interactions SDG 11 in detail at the target-level. sdgs were se- Specifically targets 11.1 and 11.2; the lected based on the strength of the latter illustrated using the example of interlinkages and the magnitude and the Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration scale of impact in relation to the overall Project, Seoul objective of the 2030 Agenda, while SDG 13 ensuring a balanced consideration of the Specifically target 13.2 economic, social and environmental dimensions. Target-level interactions are Given the comparatively large number of judged to fall within one of seven cate- target-level interactions for sdg 3, the gories and are scored accordingly: focus is largely on interactions with only indivisible (+3), reinforcing (+2), enabling one target from other sdgs. (+1), consistent (0), constraining (-1), counteracting (-2), and cancelling (-3). Following a generic analysis of the selected interactions, specific examples are provided to illustrate how interactions unfold in different geographical and policy contexts.

Six targets/goals were selected for detailed analysis, with three accompanied by an illustrative example: 92 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING SDG 3.1, 3.2 3.1, TARGETS 3.9 3.3 3.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 3

+ SDG mothers, newbornsandchildren which supportsthehealthof to foodandeconomicresources, producers willimproveaccess tivity andincomesofsmall-scale Increasing theagriculturalproduc- productivity andincomegrowth the targetsrelatedtoagricultural of thelabourforcetoachieve effect ontheavailabilityandhealth will haveasignificantpositive Ending communicablediseases communicable disease can exposepeopletotheriskof drinking water, allofwhich resistance invectors,andpollute in pathogensandinsecticide promote antimicrobialresistance transmission, damageecosystems, the riskofanimal-humandisease new pathogenhabitats,increase even atthesmallscale,cancreate Increased agriculturalproduction, people tohazardouschemicals Agriculture labourmayexpose KEY INTERACTIONS 2

+ + SCORE - - 1 1 2 2 degradation regulation topreventecosystem Develop resourcemanagement agricultural productivity support smallholderstoincrease educational policiesthat Implement financialand POLICY OPTIONS Invest inhealthcareservices on thesafeuseofchemicals education toagriculturalworkers to hazardouschemicals.Provide Regulate tominimiseexposure 93 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING workers. or causedirectharmtoagricultural and surfacewatercontamination, water throughsoilpollution,ground production canpollutedrinking in vectors.Intensiveagricultural pathogens andinsecticideresistance promote antimicrobialresistancein antibiotics foranimalscan Use ofinsecticidesforcropsand disease transmission which may intensifycommunicable activity canleadtoecosystemshifts induced by humanagricultural Environmental andhabitatchanges households welfare amongindividualsand gains throughincreasedeconomic tion canalsoleadtoindirecthealth supports health.Increasedproduc- can improve nutrition,which Increasing agriculturalproductivity KEY POINTS should occurintandemwith provisionof increasing agriculturalproductivity (2.3) targets provideimportant contextforthis: and non-farmemployment.Othersdg2 and opportunitiesforvalueaddition knowledge, financialservices,markets other productiveresourcesandinputs, through secureandequalaccesstoland, pastoralists andfishers,including indigenous peoples,familyfarmers, food producers,especiallywomen, productivity andincomesofsmall-scale a doubling,by2030,oftheagricultural interact withhealth.Target 2.3callsfor crease agriculturalproductivitycan This sectionconsidershowefforts toin- KEY INTERACTIONS positioned tobenefitfrom suchefforts. involved inagriculturalwork,soarewell of theruralandperi-urban poorare households; inparticular, highproportions economic welfareofindividualsand indirect healthgainsthroughtheimproved Increased productioncanalsoleadto micronutrients essentialforhealth. mote consumptionoftherange local agriculturalproductioncanpro- cardiovascular disease(3.4).Variety in with infectiousdisease(3.3) mortality (3.1), infant mortality(3.2), nutrition supportsreductionsin and neurologicaldevelopment.Sufficient lasting effects onhealthandphysical household economicshocks)canhave conflict, extremeclimaticeventsor (e.g. resultingfromdrought, intake even short-terminterruptionsoffood consumption ofsufficientcalories; increases thelikelihoodofuninterrupted agricultural productivity(2.3)often and livelihoodsforthepoor. scarcity andprovidemuch-neededincome tional inefficienciesthatleadtoregional vulnerable, cancounterthedistribu- production, especiallyamongthemost moreover, promotionofsmall-scale feed unprecedentednumbersofpeople; creased agriculturalproductivityto coming century. Thereisaneedforin- at bothglobalandlocalscalesinthe human populationswillfacefoodscarcity creases inproduction,rapidlygrowing which directly supportshealth.Withoutin- the localscalecanimprovenutrition, at (2.3) commodity markets(2.c). (2.b), andtheproperfunctioningoffood cultural infrastructure(2.a),freetrade knowledge (2.5),andsupportforagri- nance ofgeneticdiversityandtraditional supports ecosystems(2.4),themainte- is sustainable,resilient,adaptableand all (2.1),aguaranteethatfoodproduction organic,safeandnutritiousfoodfor At themostbasiclevel,increased Increasing agriculturalproductivity through cost-effective technologies

and mortality associated and mortalityassociated

newborn/child newborn/child and and

94 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING vector management. of ricewithdrylandcropsorintegrated context, forexamplethroughalternation full awareness ofecologicalandsocial countered bycarefulmanagementwith (World Bank,2008).Suchriskscanbe particularly trueinlow-incomesettings of malariaandotherdiseases–thisis can createnewhabitatsforvectors irrigation (orotheragriculturalpractices) (McCauley etal., that efficientlytransmitthedisease increases inspeciesofrodentsandfleas agricultural sites,mediatedbysubstantial of plague-seropositiverodentsasnon- to harbourdoubletheabundance example, agriculturalsiteswerefound promote disease.InTanzania, for pathogen speciesassemblagesinways that agricultural usescanshift vectorsor In somecases,theconversion oflandto etal., sylvatic systems(Jones in humansasaresultofspilloverfrom humans appeartohave originated range ofotherimportantdiseases 2008); forexample,hiv,sars, anda Medicine (us)ForumonMicrobialThreats, over ofzoonoticpathogens(Institute tems, andagreateropportunityforcross- livestock interfaceswithnaturalsys- generally leadstoexpandedhumanand agriculturallands.Suchexpansion production often requiresexpansionof a basiclevel,increasingagricultural ability isnotexplicitlyconsidered.At factors arenotaccountedfor, orifsustain- contextual environmental andsocial control communicabledisease(3.3),if tivity livestock orpoultrypopulationsand may beaccompaniedbyincreases in However, increasedagriculturalproduc- ducks, humanpopulation andrice- with abundanceoffree-grazing domestic influenza, whichhasbeen associated disease. AsignalcaseisthatofH5N1avian cally intensifytransmissionofzoonotic humans andanimals,whichcandramati- closerphysical associationsbetween Increasing agriculturalproductivity(2.3) (2.3) may challengeefforts to 2015). Inothersituations, 2013).

/ or

be harmful to human health, whether be harmfultohumanhealth, whether Insecticides, pesticidesand fertiliserscan air, soilandwatercontamination(3.9). mortality andmorbidityassociatedwith (2.3) may alsochallengeefforts toreduce (who, 2013). class ofemerginginfectiousdisease been conceptuallyomittedasanimportant that insecticideresistancehasgenerally significant issuethatwhohasargued (Reid andMcKenzie,2016).Thisissucha ciated withagriculturalinsecticideuse vector mosquitopopulationswasasso- across Africa, higherresistanceinmalaria review foundthatin23of25studies resistance invectors;forexample,arecent of insecticidesinagriculturecanleadto pathogens (who,2013).Similarly, the use of antimicrobialresistanceinhuman has beenlinkedtotheemergence al., infectious diseaseseverity(Spellberget management canalsocontributeto prevent diseaseinanimalstocks,livestock mote growthandfeedefficiencyor antibiotics areroutinelyusedtopro- (tapeworm infection)(who,2013).Where tosomiasis (bilharzia) ments withpathogensthatcauseofschis- and contaminationofnaturalenviron- ment, canleadtoincreasedeffluentflows accompanied bypoorlandmanage- across systemstonegativelyaffect health. rity, withresultsthatpotentiallycascade change. Suchsystemsthreatenfoodsecu- to plantoranimalpathogensclimate of biodiversityandincreasedvulnerability of production,butmay alsoleadtoloss and yieldallowincreasesinthescale inputs, thismay increaseefficiency fertilisers, pesticides,antibioticsorother panied byextensiveapplicationof involving gmos,andfrequentlyaccom- plant andanimalproduction.Often through afocusonmonoculturesincrop, in agriculturearesometimesachieved (Gilbert etal., cropping intensityinSoutheastAsia Large-scale livestockproduction,when 2011). Antibioticuseinagriculture Increasing agriculturalproductivity 2008). Productivity increases 2008). Productivityincreases and taeniasis

95 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING disease spread,thusaffecting foodsystems. also increasethelikelihood ofcatastrophic evolution ofresistance.Monocultures may of chemicalsorantibiotics,promotingthe cultural andmay involve heavier inputs developed worldtendtobemoremono- Agricultural productionsystemsinthe diseases aremorelikelyinthesecontexts. poisoning andemergenceofzoonotic exposed toitseffects. Thus, unintentional in agriculture,andarethereforedirectly where largerproportionsofpeoplework more relevantinlow-incomesettings, between target2.3andhealthtargetsare cancers orotherhealthissues. or long-term,asinthedevelopmentof acute,asinunintentionalpoisoning, longer periods,anditseffects canbe other extremeevents,orcanbuildupover from agriculturecanfollowfloodsor of severalyears.Contaminationresulting generally operatesoveratimescale of antibioticandinsecticideresistance by urbanmobilitypatterns.Theevolution tural borderlands,butwasintensified is likelytohave haditsoriginsinagricul- recent West African Ebolaepidemic travel backandforthbetweenthem.The lands andwhereworkersfrequently proximity tonewly-clearedagricultural urban areasareinrelativelyclose canbeextremelyfast,especiallywhere of agriculturallandsorecosystemshifts in epidemicriskthroughexpansion both short-andlong-termscales.Increases and thehealthtargetsoperateon logical disruptions. ease, birthdefects,andsignificanteco- cancers, neurologicalandrespiratorydis- and long-termincreasedriskofsome been associatedwithbothacutetoxicity and lostlabour. Pesticideexposurehas economic burdens,includingdirectcosts 2008) andisassociatedwithserious of amillionpeopleperyear(World Bank, Unintentional exposurekillsoverathird or throughoccupationalexposure. through contaminationoffoodorwater Many ofthetrade-offs observed The interactionsbetweentarget2.3

comes andfoodsupply, allsupportiveof positive effects onfoodsecurity, in- small-scale producers,and have long-term produce quickgainsinnutritionfor Time: Increasedagriculturalproductioncan KEY DIMENSIONS regulation, whichwillvarywithcontext. should bemitigatedthroughappropriate human harm.Increasedhealthrisks without creatingecologicalordirect to scaleuphealthy small-scaleproduction The largestuncertaintiesconcernhow KEY UNCERTAINTIES lead tonegativehealthconsequences. are morelikelytoadopttechnologiesthat efficiency, growingagriculturalsystems To achieve increases inthroughputand but areinpartafunctionofscale. offs betweenagricultureandhealthvary, sector (World Bank,2008). of skillsandcapacityintheagricultural in somecasesledtosignificantlosses al., Antimalarial Drugs,2004;Audibert et (us) CommitteeontheEconomicsof mitigate theseeffects (InstituteofMedicine substitution withinhouseholdsmay limit agriculturalearnings,althoughlabour have beenshowninsomecontextsto example, highlevelsofendemicmalaria tional capacitiesandknowledge.For in thehealthy labourforceorininstitu- pact onagriculturethroughreductions is bidirectional.Healthissuescanim- livestock choices. ments, croppingpractices)andcrop (e.g. irrigationsystems,feedsupple mental effects ofagriculturaltechnologies of thelikelyecologicalandenviron clear understandingoflocalecologyand offs withhealth,butthisrequiresa achieved whileavoiding negativetrade- productivity. Inmany cases,thiscanbe local andsmall-scaleagricultural to regulationandtechnologyinincreasing Careful considerationmustbegiven 2012). Highratesofhivmortalityhave The strengthofthelistedtrade- The relationshipbetweenthesetargets /

plant

96 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING disease. increases theriskofnon-communicable or resultinecosystemsdegradationthat expose workerstohazardouschemicals and increasingagriculturalproductivitycan reductions inthehealthy labourforce, can have animpactonagriculture through Directionality: Bidirectional.Healthissues inform appropriateregulation. pacts ofincreasedproductivityinorderto and inmonitoringtheecologicalim- practices) andcrop/plant/livestockchoices systems, feedsupplements,cropping in improvingproductivity(e.g.irrigation Technology: Technology canassistboth agriculture atallscales. mitigating impactsonecosystemsfrom governance iskeytoanticipatingand their localcommunities.Moreover, effective tion accruetosmall-scalefarmersand benefits ofincreasedagriculturalproduc- planning arekeytoensurethatthe Governance: Goodgovernanceandcareful may have globalimpactsondiseases. changes inagriculturalproductionlocally of communicablediseasesmeansthat increase somerisks.Theborderlessnature cultures, large-scaleproduction)may of developed-worldagriculture(e.g.mono- production, althoughspecificelements opportunities fromchangesinagricultural income countriesfacehigherrisksand Geography: Ingeneral,producersinlow- effects. poisoning) andlong-term(e.g.cancers) ture canalsohave bothacute(e.g. habitats). Contaminationfromagricul diseases) orlong-term(e.g.shifts invector acute (e.g.outbreaksofnewzoonotic tion. Resultingriskstohealthcanthusbe shifts inecosystemstructureandfunc- techniques canproducerapidorlong-term tural landsorchangesinagricultural long-term health.Expansionofagricul-

97 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING SDG 3.1 TARGETS 3.7 3.3 3.2 3.b, 3.c 3.b, 3.8 3.8, 3.9,3.a 3.3, 3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7, 3.4, 3.5,3.6,3.7,3.a,3.10 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3.3 3.2, 3.b 3.a, 3.5, 3.4 3.3, 3.3 3.1, 3.2, 3.1, 3

SDG communicable disease mortality andhelpcontrol will assistinreducingmaternal sexual healthcareprovision Targets aroundreproductiveand communicable disease ture mortalityassociatedwithnon- will assistinreducingprema- exposure tohazardouschemicals, stance abuse,andreducing Controlling tobacco,reducingsub- maternal mortality disease willassistinreducing communicable and Achieving targetsfornon- newborn/infant mortality contribute totargetsreduce disease willsubstantially Efforts toeradicatecommunicable KEY INTERACTIONS other healthtargets support theachievementofall supportive researchinfrastructure A stronghealthworkforceand targets will assisttoachievemostother Provision ofuniversalhealthcare 3

+ + + + + + SCORE 2 2 3 2 2 2 and controlstobaccouse exposure tohazardouschemicals, Ensure regulationprevents medical environments during ante-natalcareandin to thecontrolofinfectiousdisease pregnancy. Giveparticularfocus obesity. Eliminatesmokingduring diabetes andriskfactorssuchas communicable diseases,suchas Reduce prevalenceofnon- and medicalenvironments of infectiousdiseaseineducational Give particularfocustothecontrol POLICY OPTIONS in researchinfrastructure Invest inthehealthworkforceand healthcare Prioritise theprovisionofuniversal services andeducation reproductive andsexualhealthcare Support fundingtowards 98 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING targets will assistinachieving allother Provision ofuniversalhealthcare communicable disease infant mortalityandhelpcontrol will assistinreducingmaternaland sexual healthcareprovision Targets aroundreproductiveand communicable disease mortality associatedwithnon- will assistinreducingpremature exposure tohazardouschemicals, stance abuse,andreducing Controlling tobacco,reducingsub- and maternalmortality reduce newborn/infant mortality disease willassistintargetsto Efforts toeradicatecommunicable KEY POINTS rate reductions inthematernal mortality ally supportive.Forexample, achieving general thehealthtargetsaremutu- to achievingothertargets.However, in limit resourcespotentiallyapplicable achieve particularhealthtargetscould where fundingislimited,efforts to De Maeseneeretal., health outcomes(Atun etal., and thustheirabilitytodeliverother particularly inlow-incomesettings– integrated operationofhealthsystems, programmes cannegativelyaffect the vertical disease-orientatedhealth whether andunderwhatcircumstances For example,thereismuchdebateover interactions amonghealthtargets. There areseveralpotentialnegative KEY INTERACTIONS will be made easier by achieving (3.1) willbemadeeasierbyachieving 2008). Moreover, 2008;

toxic substancesandtobacco (3.9). incidence by efforts to reduceinfectiousdisease mortality infant Similarly, achievingreductionsinnewborn examples: disease. Thisisillustratedinthefollowing infectious disease,andnon-communicable health, universalhealthcoverage, the targetsconcerningsexual/reproductive newborn deaths(Pattinsonetal., 45% andalsotopreventmaternal shown toreducestillbirthsbyup comprehensive antenatalpackagewas diabetes inpregnancyaspartofa detection andmanagementof communicable diseases(3.3):Early Reducing theincidenceofnon- (Say etal., malaria, andaidsduringpregnancy by orassociatedwithdiseasessuchas pregnancy orchildbirtharecaused maternal deathsduringorfollowing epidemics (3.3):Around25%of Ending communicabledisease deaths (who,2016). significantly reducecomplicationsand access toskilledattendancewill doctor ortrainednurse.Improved currently notassistedbyamidwife, 40% inAfrica andSouth-EastAsia)are (3.8): Millionsofbirths(morethan Achieving universalhealthcoverage (Redden, 2016). legislature’s budgetforfamilyplanning response tomajorcutsinthestate of women’shealthclinicsin2011 after adrasticreductioninthenumber 2014 (MacDormanetal., pregnancy doubledbetween2010and died fromcomplicationsrelatedto United States,therateofwomenwho healthcare services(3.7):InTexas, Increasing accesstoreproductive and to reduce exposure to to (3.3) andtoreduceexposure 2014). will be supported supported be (3.2) will 2016), soon 2011). /

99 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING tract infections,pretermbirthcompli- five yearsofagewerelowerrespiratory in 2013amongchildrenyoungerthan The leadingcausesofdeathintheworld to hazardouschemicalssuch asparticulate Convention onTobacco Control (3.a). World HealthOrganizationFramework strengthening theimplementationof the achievementofthistarget,aswill harmful useofalcohol(3.5)willsupport treatment ofsubstanceabuse,including strengthening thepreventionand communicable diseases.Assuch, of alcoholincreasetheriskthesenon- unhealthy dietandtheharmfuluse diseases. Tobacco use,physical inactivity, of deathsfromnon-communicable and asthma)diabetesaccountfor82% chronic obstructivepulmonarydisease cancers, chronicrespiratorydiseases(e.g. diseases (e.g.heartattacksandstroke), chemical exposure(3.9).Cardiovascular tobacco control(3.a),andhazardous towards targetsonsubstanceabuse(3.5), disease (3.4)willbemadeeasierbyaction associated withnon-communicable target ofreducingprematuremortality (Lumley etal., low birth-weightandprematuredelivery complications, includingfoetaldeaths, pregnancy increasesriskof smoke andindoorairpollutionduring (3.2). Smoking,exposuretosecond-hand reductions innewborn/infantmortality and controllingtobacco(3.10)eachsupport children andinfants(3.2). role inendingpreventabledeaths diseases and waterborneothercommunicable coverage 2016). Providingforuniversalhealth Burden ofDiseasePediatricsCollaboration, children youngerthanfiveyears(Global million deathsor54%ofallamong diarrheal deaths.Theseaccountedfor3.4 birth traumaandasphyxia, malaria,and cations, neonatalencephalopathy following Some cancersarelinkedto exposure Along similarlines,achieving the Protecting againsttoxichazards(3.11) (3.3) willclearlyplay animportant , malaria, (3.8) andcombatingaids,malaria, 2004; Popeetal., 2010).

improve populationhealth. Otheractions support fromdonors,and arelikelyto be achievedlocally, insomecaseswith workforce developmentandresearch–can tobacco control,hazardsreduction, health careprovision,promotion, targets Many oftheactionsrequiredto meet other healthtargets(Nilssonetal., of thehealthtargetsenablesorreinforces infectious diseaseincidence.Thuseach ly, efforts to achievethelatterwillreduce (3.1) help reachtargetsformaternalmortality eradicating infectiousdisease(3.4)will gets areclearlybidirectional.Forexample, vaccines andmedicines(3.11). by researchanddevelopmentofessential retention ofastrongworkforce(3.12)and recruitment, training,developmentand health coveragecanbesupportedbythe and tobacco(3.10).Achievinguniversal reductions inconsumptionofalcohol(3.5) healthy sexualbehaviour (3.7)and messaging, educationandresourcesfor service iscriticaltotheprovisionof care professionals.Astrongpublichealth effective andsafetreatmentbyhealth- traffic accidents(3.6)allrelyonaffordable, icals (3.9),orofthoseimpactedbyroad disease (3.4)orfromexposuretochem- communicable (3.3)ornon-communicable infants (3.2),ofpeoplesuffering from women duringchildbirth(3.1),ofnewborns and diseaseprevention.Thehealthof can provideeducationonhealthy lifestyles only provideessentialtreatment,but for accesstohealthprofessionals,whonot sdg3 targets.Universalcoverageallows facilitate achievementofvirtuallyallother essential medicinesandvaccines(3.8)will including accessataffordable pricesto mortality. to reductionsinnon-communicabledisease the air, water, andsoil(3.9)willcontribute illnesses fromhazardouschemicalsin such, reducingthenumberofdeathsand matter wood-smoke,leadandasbestos.As Many interactionsbetweensdg3tar- Achieving universalhealthcoverage, and infantmortality(3.2);converse- – investment invaccines,medicines, 2016).

100 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING other healthtargets. health targetssuppOrtachievementof Directionality: Bidirectional.Eachofthe its spread–arecrucialtoachievingtargets. prevent infectiousdiseaseandmonitor Technology: Technologies –forexample,to efficient andinclusive. programmes areequitable,effective, planning arekeytoensurethathealth Governance: Goodgovernanceandcareful much greatereffort incertainareas. to achieveparticulartargetscanimply socio-economic context,suchthatefforts icantly dependingongeographicand co-operation. Diseaseburdensvarysignif- clean airandwaterrequireregional and environmental healthissuessuchas be managedlocally, infectiousdiseases Geography: Whilesomeofthetargetscan to becomesafe. may takesometimeforair, waterandsoil chemicals canbeintroducedquickly, it while policiestoreducehazardous actions aremorelong-term.Forexample, – wouldhave immediateeffects. Other investing inmaternalandnewbornhealth Time: Actiononseveraltargets–suchas KEY DIMENSIONS strengthening. disease programmesandhealthsystem over thepotentialconflictbetweenvertical discussed. Thereisconsiderabledebate interactions betweenthehealthtargets The evidencebaseisstrongforthepositive KEY UNCERTAINTIES cooperation andlong-termplanning. and cleanairpolicies–requireregional – suchascontrolofinfectiousdisease 1.7 millionasthmaattacks (usepa attacks, 13millionlostwork days, and cases ofprematuremortality, 130,000heart amendments preventedmorethan160,000 resulting fromthe1990CleanAirAct in fineparticlematterandozonepollution stone, 2003).In2010alone,reductions absence oftheCleanAirAct(Chay andGreen- in 1972thanwouldhave doneinthe it isestimatedthat1300fewerinfantsdied immediate impactonhealth.Forexample, The reductioninparticulatematterhadan enforce regulationstolimitairpollution. the FederalGovernmentauthorityto and wasstrengthenedin1990,giving The thus arehighlysupportiveofhealth. et al., at particularrisk(Rossetal., heart diseaseandstroke;elderlypeopleare the developmentofhighbloodpressure, In adults,exposuretoairpollutionpromotes respiratory symptomsincludingasthma. children atgreaterriskofdevelopment negatively affects lunggrowthandplaces death syndrome.Exposuretoairpollution infant mortality, includingsuddeninfant is associatedwithincreasedpost-neonatal diminished lungfunction. Airpollution development ofrespiratorydiseasesand placing babiesatgreaterriskforthe pollution inuteroandlowerbirthweight, a relationshipbetweenexposuretoair course. Severalstudieshave demonstrated gases, affects healththroughoutthelife- matter, ozone,heavy metalsandacidic the UnitedStates’CleanAirActof1970. health (3.2),asshownbytheexperienceof communicable diseases(3.4)andinfant towards meetingtargetsaroundnon- water, airandsoil(3.9)alsoassistcountries hazardous chemicalsubstancesinthe Policies aimedatreducingexposureto AIR ACT AIR QUALITY: THEUSCLEAN OUTCOMES BYIMPROVING IMPROVING HEALTH ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE Air pollution,includingparticulate us CleanAirActbecamelaw in1970 2013). Policiestoreduceairpollution 1970 2012; Shah , 2011).

101 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING SDG 3.1, 3.2,3.3 3.9 3.3, TARGETS 8.5, 8.6 3.7, 3.8,3.9 3.1, 3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6, 3.8 3.8 8.8 8.1 8.1 3 8.5 8.1,

+ SDG education andmedicalcare for health,suchasfood,shelter, gaining accesstotheconditions employed supportspeople Increasing thenumberofpeople disease, illnessanddeath increase theriskofcommunicable ecosystem change,whichcan water, airandsoilpollution the environment,including ciated withadverseeffectson Economic growthcanbeasso- coverage towards providinguniversalhealth spending onhealthcare,including enable governmentstoincrease Increasing economicgrowthcan chemicals reduce exposuretohazardous Safer workingenvironments KEY INTERACTIONS economic growthandemployment the workforceandcontributesto supports peopletoenter Increased health/well-being 8 + + + + SCORE - 1 2 1 3 2 services Invest inhealthcareandsocial inclusive workforce while movingtoequalpayandan and strengthenthetaxbase, lift productivity, createemployment Invest ineducationandtrainingto not degradetheenvironment economic growthdoes relevant industriestoensurethat Put inplacemechanisms POLICY OPTIONS safety intheworkplace protect labourrightsandhealth Strengthen unionsandregulateto into employment in socialservicesthatassistpeople Invest inthecreationofdecentjobs 102 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING consequent lossofhealth with environmental damageand but may alsobeassociated to low- ormiddle-incomecountries, Growth isparticularlyattractive well-being outcomes consumption criticallyinfluence the sustainabilityofproductionand of growth anditsrelationshipwith the quality, natureandsustainability well-being iscontextdependent: The interactionbetweengrowth and and othersocialservices government investment inhealth higher growth canenablegreater and health/well-being.Forexample, between growth/employment/work There aremany positiveinteractions KEY POINTS risk ofillnessandinjury unsafe workplacescanputpeopleat conditions, poorlabourrightsand However, stressfulworking medical care,andeducation. enable ahealthy life:food,shelter, access totheresourcesthathelp incomes areassociatedwithgreater At theindividuallevel, higher allocation ofitsbenefits for growth andanappropriate must ensureappropriateconditions being; context-dependentpolicies / well- quality oflifeatleastforsome, eitherin can be‘uneconomic’, namelylowering 2009).Inthelatter,tries (Jackson, growth countries thaninhigher-incomecoun- strongly positiveinlow-tomiddle-income The associationismorelikelytobe health/well-being (Layard andLayard, 2005). the relationshipbetweengrowthand ceived relativedeprivation,whichweakens tries cancreatedifficultiessuchasper- countries andacrossgroupswithincoun- ular, inequalityinincomegrowthacross ‘full’ world(DalyandFarley, 2004).Inpartic- be endlesslysustainableinafiniteand in practicenotuniversal,norcangrowth well-being fromeconomicgrowthare better humanhealth. in thedirectionofeconomicgainand In suchacontext,reducingwastecanwork species, maintainingdietarydiversity. food supplies,andavailability ofcertain populations includelowercostsofmarine The longer-termbenefitsforhuman the discardingofnon-targetspecies. methods arenotwastefulandavoiding include ensuringthatfishharvesting ecosystem-damaging waste.Examples nomic growthpotentialandminimises are usedandallocated–increaseseco- which resources(physical andnatural) resource efficiency–thewith positive linksarewidelyunderstood. andviceversa(Nilssonetal., reinforcing ofhealth stronger employmentcanbeenablingor 2002). Thus,economicgrowthand (Bloom andCanning,2001;Wagstaff, being raisingproductivityandincomes tional, withincreasedhealthandwell- well-being. Interactionsarebidirec- mental protection,whichfurthersupports healthcare, educationandenviron- and enablesgreaterpublicinvestment in ment (8.5,8.6),whichsupportshealth and supportfullproductiveemploy- tivity (8.2)encouragejobcreation(8.3) Economic growth(8.1) KEY INTERACTIONS However, thegainsintermsofhealth It iswidelyacceptedthatgreater /well-being goals, and higherproduc- 2016). These

103 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING more likelytoincreasewell-being, growth countries, whereeconomic growthis urgently required(8.4). consumption significantlygreenerare is thatpoliciestomakeproductionand gains inhealth/well-being.Theimplication some casesconstrainorevencounteract short, high-incomecountrygrowthmay in diminishing benefitsatthemargin.In side-effects ofgrowthcanexceedgrowth’s water. Insuchcases,increasingadverse require theavailability ofcleandrinking maternal andchildmortality(3.1,3.2) water-borne diseases(3.3)andaddress health targets.Forexample,efforts toend health andconstrainefforts toachieve cause damagetoecosystemorhuman water usethatdamagesaquifers)which loss ofsoils/farmlandtourbanexpansion, (e.g. carbon-emittingenergyproduction, which often have environmental impacts growth isdrivenbyproductionsystems, automation associatedwithgrowth.Yet work hours,work-lifebalanceandrapid concern indevelopedcountriesaboutlong Aggarwala, 2008).Thereisalsogrowing by lifeexpectancy(Bloombergand health/welfare asindicatedforexample smaller gainsatthemarginintermsof countries generallyyieldsincreasingly because economicgrowthinhigh-income Costanza etal., mental capital(Kubiszewskietal., based onunderminingsocialandenviron- is adverselyaffected wheregrowthis and considersincomedistribution.Thegpi and pollutioncountagainst‘progress’; so thatnegativeoutcomessuchascrime declining. Thegpiadaptsthegdpmeasure Indicator (gpi)may bestaticoreven well-being, suchastheGenuineProgress more effectively measuresociety’s may beincreasing,butindicatorswhich (gdp) andgrossnationalincomegni circumstances, grossdomesticproduct (e.g. climatechangeimpacts).Insuch spillover impactsonothercountries rich countriesthemselvesorowingto Even withinlow-ormiddle-income Diminishing returnstowell-beingarise 2014). 2013; in ordertoenhanceprofits; butinthe economies inhealthandsafety conditions short term,someemployers may pursue (Concha-Barrientos etal., are exposedtoasbestosintheworkplace yet about125millionpeopleworldwide number ofcancers(Nielsenetal., Exposure toasbestosisassociatedwitha environments forallworkers(8.8) . and promotingsafesecureworking aligned withprotectinglabourrights from hazardouschemicals,isclosely the numberofdeathsandillnesses lated arestillbeingencounteredtoday. irrigation systemsthatarepoorlyregu- but theunintendedconsequencesofnew history ofcivilisation(Diamond,2005), as inSumeria,isalessonfromthedeep cular regionsfollowingsalination,such the shortterm.Theneedtoabandonpartic- cultural productionmay increasein and healthimpacts,eventhoughagri- leading tolonger-termfoodshortages (Millennium EcosystemAssessment,2005), or foodgrowninaparticularregion levels graduallyriseinwatersupplies becomes contaminatedandcontamination to cumulativeeffects assoilgradually chemicals fromagriculturemay lead For example,minorinputsofpolluting outcomes may beindirectorincremental. tainable productiontoadversehealth gated bygovernments. resource base,andtheway thesearemiti- such asphysical effects onthenatural being dependsonthenatureofimpacts, ing’) betweengrowthandhealth tive linkage(‘constraining’or‘counteract- 2014; Stern,2015).Thispotentiallynega- Commission ontheEconomy andClimate, to alossofup13%gdp(Global is estimatedtocausedamageequivalent able. Forexample,airpollutioninChina system processesareespeciallyvulner- specific domainsorregionswhereearth loss ofhealth/well-being,especiallyin environmental damageandconsequent may neverthelessbeassociatedwith Target 3.8,whichinvolves reducing The pathfromenvironmentally unsus- 2004). Inthe /well- 2014);

104 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING governments have arole inensuringthat agriculture, horticulture and forestry work, in mostcountries–affecting especially temperatures drivenbyclimatechange For example,withtheincreased sectors may beparticularlyaffected. globalisation andotherimpacts,certain impacts ofclimatechange,continuing time, withchangingtechnologiesandthe of theneedforimprovedhealthandsafety. ployers canleadtogreaterawareness king conditionsbylabourunionsandem- In suchcases,jointmonitoringofwor- with morbidity/mortality(eu-osha,2013). employment, themoreitisassociated safety andthatthehigherinstabilityof association withoccupationalhealthand precarious employmentfoundanegative Studies onthehealthandsafetyeffects of and othersinprecariousemployment. for thehealthandsafetyofmigrantworks risks (eu-osha,2013),orevenpoorregard such asinadequateinformationabout labour conditionsmay reflectotherfactors the levelofregulationbygovernment economy). However, insomecountries (diminishing thequantityofjobsin of productionoff theinternationalmarket production conditionsleadtothepricing costs arisingifandwhenmorecostly and productivityofwork)thesocial better conditionsenhancethequality conditions intheworkplace(where ferred balancebetweenhealthandsafety individual employersaretoassessthepre- are typicallyinabetterpositionthan Governments, givensufficientresources, is advancedattheexpenseofothers. cases, onegoal(thatofgrowthandjobs) environmental degradation:inboth are analogoustogrowthsecuredthrough continuing abrogationoflabourrights upon poorlabourconditions,orthe nomic growthandjobsthataredependent the commercialenterpriseitself.Eco- in somecases–thesustainabilityof sometimes livesofemployeesbutalso– jeopardise notonlythehealthand longer term,pursuitofsuchsavings can As workingconditionschangeover

air pollutioninpartsofChina). populations areespecially vulnerable(e.g. weather andtechnologymean some interacting factorsincludingtopography, especially severeinsomeregionswhere Geography: Lossofhealth/well-beingcanbe well-being overtime. itreduceshealth pressures ronmental growth contributestogrowingenvi- effects. Many impactsarelong-term:where con for Time: Taking actiononseveraltargets– KEY DIMENSIONS But mostinteractionsarepositiveandclear. might leadtonegativehealthoutcomes. increased incomeandassociatedspending actions, suchasconditionsunderwhich There areuncertaintiesaboutsomeinter- KEY UNCERTAINTIES long-term health/well-being. minimising trade-offs betweengrowthand sdg3 and8conflictisimportantfor specific contextsandpolicieswhere duction (8.4).Betterunderstandingofthe on sustainableconsumptionandpro- in accordancewiththe10-yearframework growth fromenvironmental degradation, endeavouring todecoupleeconomic dynamic isimplicitinsdg8,whichincludes et al., sustainedhealthandwell-being(Biermann towards agreeneconomy isessentialfor Thus, areorientationofbusinessactivity (Rockström etal., conditions forlong-termwell-being space’ forhumanity, itunderminesthe crosses boundariesofthe‘safeoperating atmosphere, bio-geochemicalcycles)or (biodiversity, forests,waterbodies,oceans, growth damagesthenaturalresourcebase being (vandenBergh,2011).Where ritical ifgrowthistobebeneficialforwell- In short,contextandconditionsare 2011; MaloneyandForbes,undp, 2016). stays uptodate(KjellstromandCrowe, regulation ofhealthandsafetyconditions examplebyimprovingoccupational ditions –wouldhave immediate ditions 2012). Anunderstandingofthis 2009; Griggsetal.,

2013). /

105 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING (Meadows, 1998). aspiration thangrowthandemployment and well-beingisahigher-levelhuman employment. Morefundamentally, health contributes toeconomicgrowthand increased health/well-beingalmostalways always contributetohealth/well-being, while growthandemploymentdonot Directionality: Bidirectional.However, adverse socialandenvironmental impacts. technologies ortheirapplicationcanhave well-being cannotbeassumedwhensome Technology: Netbenefitsforhealthand can bemitigatedbygovernments. employment. Negativeimpactsofgrowth conditions forgrowthandrewarding planning arekeytoensuringthe‘right’ Governance: Goodgovernanceandcareful hours aresohotthatproductivity islost worldwide, upto10–15%of annualdaylight growth. Modellingsuggests thatcurrently, can limitlabourproductivityandeconomic work (undp,2016).Thismeansthatheat capacity toundertakephysical andmental the riskofhaving accidents,andimpairs Working inhightemperatures increases kidney disease(3.4)(Xiangetal., diseases, mentalhealthissuesandchronic heat exposurecanleadtocardiovascular exhaustion, anddeath.Inaddition,chronic people atriskofacuteheatstroke, High temperaturesanddehydration place place representsanoccupationalhazard. For example,excessiveheatinthework unsafe environment (8.8),harmshealth. supports health.However, workinginan Access toworkincreaseincomes,which Health andworkarecloselyrelated. TEMPERATURES IN THECONTEXTOFHIGH PRODUCTIVITY ANDHEALTH BETWEEN WORK,LABOUR THE INTERACTION ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2014).

gies toreduceexposureheat(amc,2013). workers, employers,andofficialswithstrate- response strategiestoprotectresidents, out anearlywarningsystemandplanned Ahmedabad HeatActionPlan.Thissets risk ofheatstressbydevelopingthe cials andpartnersfocussedonreducingthe Azharetal., direct impactonproductivity(nrdc,2013; estimated excess1344deaths,witha heatwave inAhmedabad resultedinan impact offutureheatwaves. The2010 and proactivepolicyactiontoreducethe tating consequencesofheatwaves, India, providesanexampleofthedevas- Crowe, 2011).ThecityofAhmedabad, and labourproductivity(Kjellstrom waves, whichdirectlyimpactonhealth increasing frequencyandseverityofheat of year(undp,2016). labour forlongperiodsatthehottesttimes sectors whereworkerscarryoutheavy tropical environments withlargeprimary especially severeintropicalandsub- mediated byheatstresswouldbe mate changeonlabourproductivityas (Dunne etal., ductivity may beoverus$2trillionby2030 global economiccostofreducedpro- during thelatterhalfofcentury. The output inaffected sectorsofover20% warmer climatecouldresultinreduced labour productivityassociatedwitha to globalwarming.Furtherreductionsin is likelytobeofincreasingconcerndue health, productivityandeconomicgrowth work inthehottestperiodsofday. ing providing shadeorventilationandavoid- reduce workers’exposuretoheat,through policies shouldensurethatemployers both healthandeconomicgrowth,labour ( undp, 2016).Therefore,tosupport Climate changeisassociatedwith The crucialconnectionbetweenheat, 2014). Asaresult,cityoffi- 2013). Theimpactsofcli-

106 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING SDG 3.9 3.4 3.3 3.2 TARGETS 11.1 11.1 11.1 11.1 3

+ SDG communicable disease and henceexposureto housing reducescrowding Improving accesstoadequate KEY INTERACTIONS and lead housing, suchaspollutedair currently presentinsome to hazardoussubstances housing willreduceexposure Ensuring accesstoadequate cardiovascular symptoms housing isassociatedwith diseases. Forexample,cold from non-communicable reduce prematuremortality adequate housingislikelyto Improving accessto respiratory illnessinchildren housing isassociatedwith children. Forexample,cold deaths ofnewbornsand the reductionofpreventable adequate housingsupports Improving accessto 11

+ + + + SCORE 2 2 2 2 safety measures) heating orcoolingsystems, clean cook-stoves,ventilation, through installinginsulation, existing dwellings(including support theimprovementof regulation andsubsidiesto and adequatehousingsupply; ensure high-qualityhousing building andtaxpoliciesthat homeless people;planning, of permanenthousingto slum upgrading;theprovision to thelocalcontext,including: range ofmeasuresappropriate adequate housingthrougha Ensure peoplehaveaccessto POLICY OPTIONS 107 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING community stability well-being, socialcohesionand enables householdhealthand Adequate provision of socialhousing contact infectiousdiseases crowding andexposuretoclose- housing reduceshousehold Providing safeandaffordable improves mentalandphysical health Providing goodqualityhousing deaths inolderpeople effective inreducingcardio-vascular cooling. Thesemeasuresarealso and installingeffective heatingand prevented by retrofittinginsulation communicable diseasescanbe people fromrespiratoryand under fiveyearsofageandolder Deaths ofnewborn babies,children or areinsevere housingdeprivation unaffordable housing,liveinslums population, notcountingthosein Thirty percentoftheurban KEY POINTS many people,whetherinslumsornot,live and cleanwater(who,2011b).Inaddition, of tenure,sanitationand infrastructure, housing, sufficientlivingspace,security settlements (un,2015b),lackingdurable lion peopleliveinslumsandinformal particular riskstohealth.About 880mil- in slumsandinformalhousingposes grow, housingissuesintensify. Housing of abetterlifeandurbanpopulations As morepeoplemigratetocitiesinsearch KEY INTERACTIONS disease (associatedwithlead; Lanphear brain developmentandcardiovascular asbestos; Goswamietal., reduces theriskofcancer(associatedwith Barnard etal., (Howden-Chapman etal., ventilation, helpsprotectagainstdisease tight andinstallinginsulation,heating cluding throughmakinghousingweather- 2004). Improvinghousingtemperatures,in- et al., (Dhainaut people summer deaths,particularlyforolder Extreme indoor heat alsoincreasesexcess in 11Europeancountries(who,2011a). estimated at38,200peryear(12.8/100,000) winter deathsduetocoldhousingwere et al., disease(Thomson respiratory and vascular cardio- and lowindoortemperatureswith et al., health outcomes(Kimetal., with highbloodpressureandotherpoor dence connectshighindoortemperatures also contributestowardstarget3.4.Evi- (Baker etal., risk ofclose-contactcommunicablediseases dwelling habitable,islikelytoreducethe housing, orthroughmakingpartsofa building newhousing,extendingexisting al., water, sanitationandhygiene (Bakeret testinal diseases,aswellriskfactorsfor culosis, anddiarrhoealgastroin- including flu,pneumonia,typhoid,tuber- ciated withseveralinfectiousdiseases, demics (3.3).Householdcrowdingisasso- or combatcommunicablediseaseepi- and affordable housing(11.1)helpstoend Ensuring accessforalltoadequate,safe high-income countries(Hainesetal., poses riskstohealthinlow-,medium-and (Amore etal., without privacyorany securityoftenure) poor quality, unaffordable housing, tion (definedaspeoplelivingincrowded, hold income)orinseverehousingdepriva- more than30%oftotalmonthlyhouse- in unaffordable housing(definedascosting 2013). Reducinghouseholdcrowding,by Removing dangerous building materials Removing dangerousbuildingmaterials Improving accesstoadequatehousing 2013; Maidment et al., 2013; Maidmentet 2016; van Loenhout et al., 2016; vanLoenhoutet 2013). 2011). Inadequatehousing 2011). 2003; Stedman, 2013) and impaired 2013) andimpaired 2007, 2012;Telfar

2014). Excess Excess 2014).

2012a,b; Uejio

2016), 2016),

2013).

108 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING et al., children. and soilwhereitmay beingestedby lead paintdegradesandmixeswithdust also pollutewaterandsoil.Forexample, as leadandasbestos.Thesesubstancescan of exposuretohazardoussubstancessuch contamination (3.9).Housingcanbeasite icals andair, water andsoilpollution deaths andillnessesfromhazardouschem- major roleinreducingthenumberof mote mentalhealthandwell-being(3.4). non-communicable diseasesandpro- reducingprematuremortalityfrom towards housing (11.1)arelikelytocontribute et al., improved mentalhealth(Howden-Chapman with reducingstressandcontributingto ing warmdryhomeshasbeenassociated 2014b). Improvinghousing,throughprovid- mainly inlow-incomecountries(who, using solidfuelsforcookingandheating, hold airpollution,closelyassociatedwith prematurely fromillnessescausedbyhouse- 2014a).In2012,4.3millionpeopledied disease, includingasthma(who,2009,2010, reduces theriskofchronicrespiratory pollutants improvesindoorairqualityand and mould,protectingagainstoutdoor lation, takingmeasurestoreducedampness cooking-stoves, installingventi- (Keall etal., injury hazards reducestheriskoffallsand et al., and respiratorysymptoms. outdoor heatandcoldcardiovascular response relationshipsbetweenindoorand research isneededtounderstandexposure- outcomes areclear, althoughfurther and unaffordable housingand poorhealth Associations betweeninadequate,unsafe KEY UNCERTAINTIES housing (Levinetal., lead poisoningcasesareassociatedwith Improving housing(11.1)willplay a 2008). Modifying homes to reduce reduce to 2008). Modifyinghomes 2007). Thusefforts toimprove 2005; Navas-Acien etal.,

In theus,about70%ofchildhood 2015b). Removingpolluting 2008).

2007; Levin

occupants. affordable housingimprovesthehealth of Directionality: Unidirectional.Betterquality, lamps canreduceindoorpollution. use solidfuelandopencooking-stoves chimneys andventilationwhenpeople housing safer. Forexample,installing Technology: Technology canassistinmaking strong cooperativetradition. requires aredistributivetaxsystemor quality control.Providingsocialhousing good healthandsafetyprocedures tural integrity)requireatrainedworkforce, installing insulation,improvingstruc- improve housing(retrofittinginsulation, Governance: Severalinterventionsto graphical context. to improvehousingalsodependongeo- health. Theeffectiveness ofinterventions housing andposeadditionalrisksto some places,naturaldisasterscandamage with indoorairpollutionaregreater. In the risksofrespiratoryillnessassociated use ofsolidfueliscommon,whichmeans respiratory health.Inlow-incomesettings, cold anddamphousingposesariskto while incoldandtemperatecountries, tures posearisktocardiovascularhealth, in hotcountries,highindoortempera- health dependongeography. Forexample, Geography: Theriskshousingposesto the season. to ahealthy temperaturewilldependon enabling housingtobeheatedorcooled other interventions,suchasthoseaimedat ing leadpipes).Timingoftheeffects of smoke alarmsormosquitonetsreplac- health outcomesimmediately(e.g.installing housing canreducetheriskofadverse housing). Someinterventionstoimprove in paintorexposuretodampandcold tively overtime(e.g.exposuretolead to badwiringorbrokensteps)cumula- mediately (e.g.injuriessustaineddue Time: Poorhousingcanaffect healthim- KEY DIMENSIONS

109 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING SDG 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.4 TARGETS

11.2

11.2 11.2 11.2 3

+ SDG diseases or preventnon-communicable activity andhelpstomitigate travel modes,promotesphysical particularly supportingactive Improving transportand pollution and reduceexposuretoair to reductionsincarbonemissions reduced caruseandcontribute and walkingnetworksenable designed publictransport,cycling Compact citieswithwell- and friends,education to healthcare,employment,family Transport systemssupportaccess traffic accidents pedestrians, willreduceharmfrom road userssuchascyclistsand particular regardtovulnerable Improving roadsafety, with KEY INTERACTIONS 11 + + + + SCORE 3 2 3 2 and services and well-connectedtohomes,jobs, transport systemsareintegrated Ensure thatpublicandactive legislation comprehensive roadsafety vulnerable roadusers.Ensure prioritises safetyandprotects Design infrastructurethat crossings lanes, shading,andpedestrian slowing measures,footpaths,cycle such asstreetlighting,traffic appropriate tothelocalcontext, and walkingthroughmeasures modes, andencouragecycling connect activeandpublictransport Ensure thattransportsystems POLICY OPTIONS physical activity of urbantransportandencourage dependence andcarbonintensity development inordertoreducecar accessible mixed-landuseurban Promote policiesforcompact, 110 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING to relyonprivatemotorvehicleuse developments, whicharemorelikely transport networksthangreenfield can bettersupportimproved Infill orbrownfield development education amenities, suchashealthcareand networks supportaccesstokey Better andmoreaffordable transport accidents users willreduceharmfromtraffic Improved roadsafetyforvulnerable communicable diseases from, andprevention of,non- support reductioninmortality Enhanced activetravel networks disease incidence ofairpollution-related improves airqualityandreducesthe A reductionintransportemissions KEY POINTS associated withimproving housingand support thepositivehealth outcomes of vulnerableroadusers. and employment;improvingthesafety improving accesstohealthcare,education, air quality;encouragingphysical activity; exposure toharmfulsubstancesandpoor 3.9), viaanumberofpathways: reducing related topollutionandroadtraffic(3.6, incidence ofmortalityandmorbidity communicable diseases(3.4)andthe targets ofreducingtheincidencenon- likely tocontributetowardsthehealth Improving transportsystems(11.2)is KEY INTERACTIONS Achieving target11.2islikely to Improving transportsystems willplay a towards areductionintransport emissions. motorised transportcanalso contribute as wellpublictransport,overprivate tive means(who,2015). encouraging morepeopletotravel byac- roads safercanpreventfatalitieswhile the rolloutofkeyinterventionstomake fic crashesarepredictableandpreventable: ans andcyclists(who,2015).Mosttraf- road trafficdeathsoccuramongpedestri- African region,forexample,43%ofall needs ofmotoristsinmind.Yet inthe ture ismainlyconstructedwiththe road trafficaccidents(3.6).Roadinfrastruc- help reducedeathsandinjuriesfrom such aspedestriansandcyclistscanalso particularly forvulnerableroadusers pollution. a 9.6%increaseinpercapitahazardous per-capita carbondioxideemissionsand urban sprawl thereisa5.7%increasein is estimatedthatforevery10%increasein tions betweenresidents(Litman,2006).It walkable cities,withincreasedinterac- There arealsosocialbenefitstocompact options fornon-drivers(Litman,2016). effects oftravel, andincreasingmobility port, avoiding thecostsandadverse cities canalsoreducetheneedfortrans- et al., al., (Andersenetal., diabetes, andmentalhealthproblems(3.4) obesity andobesity-relatedillnesses, the riskofcardiovasculardisease,cancer, which cancontributetowardsreducing work toencouragewalkingandcycling cycle ways thataresafeandattractive,all for cyclists,andinvesting infootpathsand cities, greenspaces,makingroadssafer et al., comes (HineandMitchell,2003;Syed are associatedwithimprovedhealthout- and tofriendsfamily, allofwhich education opportunities,medicalservices, connect housingtoemploymentand settlements. Affordable transportsystems 2007; Boone-Heinonenetal., The promotionofwalkingandcycling, Improving transportsystems(11.2), 2013; Sagrestanoetal., 2012; Kealletal., 2000; Matthewset 2015a). Compact 2015). Compact 2015). Compact 2009; Lim

111 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING vision cantakedecades. developing orredevelopingcitiestofitthis carbon emissionsarereduced.However, is improved,airqualityimproves,and the medium-tolong-term,physical activity for thosewhousetransportnetworks.In the short-term,greateraccessisachieved immediate andlong-termbenefits.In Time: Improvingtransportnetworkshas KEY DIMENSIONS networks andhealtharewell-established. linksbetweenimprovedtransport There arefewuncertainties,becausethe KEY UNCERTAINTIES and illnessesfromhazardousairquality(3.9). and tohelpreducethenumberofdeaths non-communicable diseaseby2030(3.4) help reduceprematuremortalityfrom decisions intourbanplanningislikelyto sions. Integratingimprovedtransport of affected populationsandvehicleemis- including therelativephysical activity effects laterfortransportinfrastructure, to atime-lagbetweendecisionsnowand possibilities forthefuture,contributing in thepresentwill‘lockin’infrastructure Sallis etal., and cycling(Howden-Chapmanetal., works, andactivetravel suchaswalking greater relianceonpublictransportnet- opments canfacilitateashift towards commitments, infillandbrownfield devel- 2016). Withtherightinfrastructure cost ofdevelopment(AdamsandChapman, risk forhumanhealthaswellincreased bodies (Mooresetal., zincandcopperintosoilwater- mental burdens,suchasleachingof motor-vehicle transportcarriesenviron- reliance. Increasedrelianceonprivate can encouragecar-orientatedtransport to infillorbrownfielddevelopments chemicals andair, waterandsoils(3.9). deaths andillnessesfromhazardous major roleinreducingthenumberof Greenfield developmentincomparison 2016). Urbandevelopments 2010), whichcarry 2011;

safety, and encouragingphysical activity. reducing airpollution,improvingroad port systemssupporthealthgoalsby Directionality: Unidirectional.Bettertrans- to pollutionandroadtraffic. reducing mortalityandmorbidityrelated emissions andsafetywillcontributeto Technological improvementstovehicle to renewable,fossil-fuelfreeelectricity. will bebeneficialinplacesthathave access ered publictransportinfrastructure Technology: Aconversion toelectric-pow- the city’stransportnetworks. may providethemandateforimproving central governments.Citymunicipalities strong roletoplay, inassociationwith Governance: Localgovernmentshave a may alsorequirespecialattention. to publictransportandactive international interlinks.Culturalattitudes buses, andregional,national, networks topower(forexample)electric what accessexiststorenewableenergy the ageandbuiltenvironment ofacity, networks, forexampledependingon different methodsofimprovingtransport Geography: Different contextswillrequire 112 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING into amultipurposepublic spacewith stream. Cheonggyecheon became reborn for theimmediaterestorationof Myung Bak,whosuccessfullyadvocated election andledtothevictoryofMayor Lee issue duringthe2002Seoulmayoral restoration becomingamajorpolitical contributed totheCheonggyecheon due topoorconstruction.Thesefactors two majorpiecesofinfrastructureinSeoul of thestream,followedcollapse including culturalandhistoricalrenewal in favour ofsustainablewell-being, The dramaticchangeinSeoul’spriorities competitiveness intheareaasawhole. that wascontributingtoalossofeconomic river) werecausinganurbanimbalance infrastructure ofGangnam(southHan stream runs,comparedtothenewer Han river)wheretheCheonggyecheon out infrastructureinGangbook(northof the Cheonggyecheonstream.Theworn motorway ortodeculvertandrestore demolish itcompletelyandbuildanew that adecisionwasneededonwhetherto by theearly2000sitwassodilapidated to rapidindustrialdevelopment.However, Seoul duringthemid-tolate1900sleading easier accesstothedowntownareaof motorway, that covered the stream allowed stream restoration.TheCheonggyecheon being ofitscitizens. sustainability withanewfocusonthewell- government tookstepstowards significant exampleofhowametropolitan Project providesaninternationally The CheonggyecheonStreamRestoration foreseeable futureadverserepercussions. path andacheaperquick-fixsolutionwith expensive butsustainabledevelopment of having tochoosebetweenamore Decision-makers often facethedilemma SEOUL, REPUBLICOFKOREA RESTORATION PROJECT, CHEONGGYECHEON STREAM RESTORATION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE Multiple factorscontributedtothe gyecheon areafellby6–9°C. and average temperatureintheCheong- the stream,reducedheatislandeffect the continuousdepressedlengthof the openingofanewwindingpathalong et al., respectively between2002and2005(Jang gen dioxide(no2)inairby15%and10% fine particulatematter(pm10)andnitro- of vehicles.Therestorationalsoreduced while maintainingtheaverage speed in theCheonggyecheonareabyathird, way usageandreduceddailytraffic the stream. connecting thenorthandsouthsideof length ofthestreamand22bridges continuous pedestrianroadsalongthe new subways stationsclosetothestream, were builtwiththeopeningoftwo trips under10km.Activetravel networks duced, withastandardfixedfeefor tute, 2005).Integratedticketingwasintro- than cartrips(SeoulDevelopmentInsti- bus numbers)andmadeasfast,orfaster improved (e.g.colourcodingandreformed and fasteroption.Busserviceswere ing publictransportthecheaper, easier et al., invested heavily inpublictransport(Chung side ofthestreamandinconjunction, traffic totwo-laneone-way streetsoneither Metropolitan Governmentlimitedcar hicles, butafter itsdemolitiontheSeoul daily trafficflowofaround170,000ve- the lengthofstream. continuous walkways andcycleways along These efforts increasedbusandsub- The motorway hadpreviouslya 2010). Thereductionincarsand 2012). Investment focusedonmak-

113 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING SDG 3.4 3.9 TARGETS

13.2

13.2 3

+ SDG KEY INTERACTIONS quality will supportimprovementsinair sures intonationalpolicies Integrating climatechangemea- indirectly constrainhealthcare negatively affecttheeconomyand in someindustries,whichcould emissions mayleadtojoblosses has somecosts.Reducing measures intonationalpolicies Integrating climatechange 13 - + SCORE 1 3 industries transitioning outoffossilfuel support forretrainingofworkers Invest inrenewableenergyand mitigation policies prioritise urbantransportcarbon frameworks tohelpstructureand Utilise systemsthinkingand change andreducingairpollution. simultaneously mitigatingclimate Recognise theco-benefitsfrom POLICY OPTIONS 114 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING tation andgovernance technologies, meansofimplemen- so areconsiderationsofavailable pollution andclimateisimportant, behind theinteractionofair While understandingthechemistry tion policies ture andprioritiseurbanmitiga- improve framework canhelpstruc- and airpollution;theavoid-shift- fields isakey source of emissions plants andburningofagricultural Urban transport,industries,thermal ever, botharenecessary than high-incomecountries;how- or medium-incomecountries mitigation may begreaterinlow- undertaking simultaneous On average, theco-benefitsfrom matter forhealth short-lived climatepollutantsalso the long-livedgreenhousegases, While themainfocusremainson benefit health air pollution:bothoutcomeswill mitigate climatechangeandreduce combustion willsimultaneously In general,areductioninfossilfuel KEY POINTS Mitigating climatechange, whilereducing gas emissionsandonlocal airquality. have positive impactsongreenhouse non-motorised transportprovisioncan (Dalkmann etal., existing modesofprivatetransport physical activity, toswitchingfuelsfor better publictransportandhealthy from urbanintensificationthatfacilitates for reducingcarbonemissions,ranging There isawidearray ofpotentialsolutions through actioninthetransportsector. as reducingairpollutioncanbeachieved inhaled, andcontributestoclimatechange. carries arisktohumanhealthwhen these pollutantscontributestosmog, brick production(acp generation), cookingwithbiomass,and bustion (forvehiclesandelectricity industrial processessuchasdieselcom- carbon resultsfromvariousdomesticand tropospheric ozone(un,2015a).Black and aerosolssuchasblackcarbon climate pollutantsincludeparticles cooling influence(acp sulphur isremovinga(temporary)climate clear thatthewidespreadabatementof al., dioxide (so trol harmfulemissionssuchassulphur Paris toBeijing.Accordingly, efforts tocon- with ongoingproblemsincitiesfrom international environmental policydriver pollution. to mitigateclimatechangeandreduceair reducing fossilfuelcombustionwillact the combustionoffossilfuels.Therefore, and localairquality, largelyderive from Emissions, whichaffect boththeclimate policies, strategiesandplanning(13.2). of climatechangemeasuresintonational pollution (3.9)andtheintegration the healthimpactsofair, waterand soil section isontheinteractionbetween action isverybroad.Thefocusofthis many ways andthescopeforclimate Climate changeinteractswithhealthin KEY INTERACTIONS 2013) althoughironically, itisnow Mitigating climatechangeaswell Abating airpollutionisarecurring ² ) have alonghistory(Kanadaet 2014). Well planned , 2014).Eachof , 2014).Short-lived

115 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING policies (Howden-Chapmanetal., have lookedintotheco-benefitsofaligned and airpollutionobjectives,many studies Puppim deOliveira,2017). policy packagesinagivensector(Dolland analysis canhelpstructureandprioritise and timescalesforimplementation, different policieshave different challenges relates totechnologiesandbehaviour when the broadercontextofasectorandhowit understanding theco-benefitsofpoliciesin improve framework,whichisaway of conceptualised throughtheavoid-shift- processes. Therangeofstrategiescanbe as wellindustrialandmanufacturing tricity andheatgeneration,especiallycoal, regulation tolimitemissionsfromelec- air pollution,canalsobeachievedthrough Bell etal., review (Nemetetal., care mustbetakentoensure thatsome indivisible. However, within certainsectors, reinforcing. Insomecases, itmay be (3.9) isbroadlyenablingandpotentially health-enhancing airpollutionmeasures climate changemitigation(13.2)and local municipalorregionalpolicygoals. ensuring policymeasurescontributeto climate andairpollutionobjectives,while order tominimisetheriskofmisaligning of implementation,andgovernance,in erations ofavailable technologies,means needs tobecomplementedbyconsid- tion withclimatechangemitigation.This health gainsfromairpollutionreduc- first stepindesigningpoliciesforaligning pollution andclimateisanimportant chemistry behindtheinteractionofair where thereisrelativelylowairpollution. reducing airpollutionlevelsinplaces higher levelsofairpollution,thanfrom health benefitsfromreducing(initially) was becausetherearegreatermarginal countries thanhigh-incomecountries.This mitigation weregreaterinlow-income tonne co average theco-benefits(valuedinus$per Given thealignmentbetweenclimate The interactionbetweenpoliciesaimed Understanding theatmospheric ² ) fromundertakingsimultaneous 2008; Bollenetal., 2010) foundthaton 2009). One 2007; other locations. may be transportedandhave animpacton as airpollutionemittedinonelocation Coordination isvital(eveninternationally) to localmunicipalorregionalpolicygoals. while ensuringpolicymeasurescontribute ing climateandairpollutionobjectives, important tominimisetheriskofmisalign- Governance: Attention togovernanceis than high-incomecountries. higher benefitsinlow-incomecountries with airpollutionreductionyielding benefits andcostsofpolicymeasures, local. Context influencestherelative more gains fromairqualityimprovementsare measures have moreglobalbenefits, Geography: Whilegreenhousegasreduction have fulleffect, ascitiesgrowandchange. of publictransport,willtakedecadesto travel andmaximiseactivetravel anduse policies toalterurbanformminimisecar carbon reductionmeasures,particularly to ‘rebound’overtime.Someinfluential proving vehiclefuelefficiency, aresubject pollution reducingeffects, suchasim- sures withbothcarbonmitigatingandair term influenceonglobalhealth.Somemea- per se.Thelatterwillbeacriticallong- on healththancarbonemissionreduction air qualitygainswillhave afastereffect Time: Healthbenefitsfromconsequential KEY DIMENSIONS strength ofsomepolicymeasures. Uncertainties remainastotheeffect/ KEY UNCERTAINTIES cause moresevereairpollutionevents. well-known andadryorcoldclimatemay Seasonal effects onairpollutionare on airpollutionfromachangingclimate. over alargescale.Therearealsoimpacts and theirlong-termeffects ifdeployed the perspectiveofprecursoremissions, cies inparticularmustbeexaminedfrom counteract thetarget.Fuelswitchingpoli- options donotinadvertentlyconstrainor

116 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING likely tosubstantiallyoutweighsuchcosts. but inthelongterm,healthgainsare although offset byjobgainselsewhere; areas dependentonfossilfuelextraction, spending. Thesecouldbeseriousin knock-on effects onhealthand in theshort-term,whichmay have dent onfossilfuelsmay costsomejobs The transitiontoaneconomy lessdepen- through improvementsinairquality. mitigating climatechangeimmediately Directionality: adaptation. impact onclimatechangemitigationand account changingtechnologiesthat Technology: Publicpoliciesmusttakeinto Largely unidirectional: 117 E INTEATION SDG 3 WITH OTHER GOALS

+ SDG 2 + SDG 3 + SDG 8 + SDG 11 + SDG 13 AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY GOAL #7

SCORE SCORE

+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3

+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2

+1 +1 0 0 -1 -1 -1 -1

-3 -3 SCORE +3 -3 0 + SDG E INTEATION

+ SDG 2 + -1 -1

3 + 2 2 WITHOTHERGOALS +

SDG + 3 + 2 + 2 + 3 2 + 2 + 2 +

SDG -1 +

1 + 2 + 8 2 + 3 118 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER +

+ SDG 2 + 2 + 2 + 11 3 + + 1 1 + 2 + 3 +

+ SDG 3 -1 13 +3 0 -3 SCORE 119 KNOWLEDGE GAPS

The preceding sections have illustrated 3 + 2 (2.3) some of the many interactions between Careful case-by-case analysis is needed sdg 3 and the other sdgs. These inter- concerning how intensifying agricultural actions can be positive, negative, or neutral, production is expected to affect the uni- or bi-directional, short- or long-term, environment, including the expansion of and often depend on geography, gov- pathogen habitats and the degradation of ernance and technology. For some inter- waterways actions, the state of science is not yet advanced enough to provide accurate 3 + 3 and reliable assessments. As science More research is needed to strengthen advances and the evidence base grows, the evidence base for connections more comprehensive assessments between sdg 3 targets; for example, the should be possible, enabling significant connection between air pollution and improvements to sdg implementation maternal mortality rates is only beginning strategies at regional, national and local to become clear. However, standalone scales. In general terms, integrated programmes may detract resources from research, monitoring and data analyses broader aspects of the health system will be needed in combination with targeted capacity development to fill 3 + 8 existing knowledge gaps. The section pro- Economic growth occurs differently in vides a non-exclusive list of knowl different contexts: some forms of growth edge gaps that have been identified in are environmentally and socially damag- relation to the complex web of trade- ing, while others (e.g. growth in the supply offs involving the sdg 3 target interactions of infrastructure for renewable energy) described in this chapter. are generally not. Expanding understanding of the specific contexts and policies mediating the interdependency between growth and long-term health and well- being is important for minimising critical trade-offs. Further research is needed on the relationship between income gains, employment and health at higher levels of development, given observed diminishing returns at high levels of wealth and income for the rich and the engendering of a sense of relative social and economic deprivation among the poor

3 + 11 (11.1) More work is needed on the health impacts of quality, compact city environments with high access to amenities and a mix of 120 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING localities climate changeactionsindifferent these pollutantscanbemitigatedthrough information isrequiredonhowmany of locally andfromsurroundingareas.Better multiple (diffuse orpoint)sourcesboth pollution isacomplexissuearisingfrom housing, transportandurbanform.Air developments includingmoresustainable measures contributetolow-carbonurban measures, forexample,howcansuch measures andclimatechangemitigation the alignmentbetweenairpollution Better understandingisneededabout sharing transport andnewmodessuchascar choices, includingactivetransport, public can bestfosterhealth-promotingtransport ing developmentsandredevelopments More researchisneededonhownewhous- dwellings indifferent climates rity ofexistinghousingincludingslum contexts, suchasthequalityandsecu- dwellings contributestohealthinvarious the volumeofenergyefficient,quality knowledge isneededonhowincreasing land uses,includingpublicspaces.Better 3 3

+ +

13 11 (13.2) (11.2)

121 CONCLUDING COMMENTS

With so many interactions between tar- Building on these general considera- gets, it is clear that government-led tions, the six summary tables in the target- actions and policies will be important level interactions section provide for ensuring that positive outcomes options for how policy could address the are achieved as frequently as possible and specific target interactions in practice. negative outcomes are minimised or Although addressed to specific target avoided. This requires the development interactions, many of these policy options of policy frameworks that take a are also relevant for other interactions. systemic, integrated, holistic perspective. For example, it is helpful to focus on interlinked policy goals of cities to gain insights for policy to advance health and well-being outcomes. Governments could usefully engage in policy experimentation to address increasingly urgent climate change issues. Some governments have demonstrated the importance of linking diverse policy measures to create mutually reinforcing measures for change. It is important that planning agencies make use of systems thinking to develop a more integrated view of outcomes that increase health and well-being (Chapman et al., 2016). It may also help to understand where existing vested interests may be working against the achievement of particular targets, and where business and civil society partners can collaborate with policies of local and national governments. Pro-active engagement and enhanced coordination across government departments and ministries, as well as across different levels of government (from international to national to local), and between state and non-state actors including business and non-government organisations, will be required for this to happen effectively. 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On Environment,AgricultureandInfectiousDiseases Technical paperofthetdrThematicReferenceGroup Agriculture andInfectiousDiseasesofPoverty. Development. World HealthOrganization. (who). and D.Ormandy(eds.).World Health Organization with InadequateHousing.Braubach,M.,D.E.Jacobs (who). Selected Pollutants.World Health Organization 127 SDG 7 ENSURE ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE, RELIABLE, AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY SUSTAINABLE AND GOAL #7 MODERN ENERGY FOR ALL David McCollum Luis Gomez Echeverri Keywan Riahi Simon Parkinson 128 AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY GOAL #7 129 AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY GOAL #7 130 A GUIDE TO SDG INTERACTIONS: FROM SCIENCE TO IMPLEMENTATION developing countries(7.b). structure andupgradetechnologyin investment (7.a) andtoexpandinfra- international cooperationandpromote for implementingsdg energy efficiency(7.3). Thepriorities in theenergymix(7.2), andimproving (7.1), increasingtheshareofrenewables ing universalaccesstoenergyservices It isunderpinnedbythreetargets:ensur- and modernenergyisthefocusofsdg 7. Access toaffordable, reliable,sustainable INTRODUCTION that thereareinterlinkages (somepositive, chapter, itisalsoimportant tonote Yet, whilethisisthefocusof current along themany othersdgdimensions. pact, andbeimpactedby, progress energy society. among usbeingleft outofthemodern human capitaloften resultinsome bring online.Constraintstofinancialand requires significantsumsofmoneyto turbines, electricitytransmissionlines) (e.g. gasdrilling,oilrefineries,wind extraction andconversion infrastructure easy toproduce,thenecessaryenergy and wheretheyexistarerelatively unevenly distributedaroundtheworld, can provide,however. Energyresourcesare the benefitsthatmodernenergyforms vices possible.Noteveryonehasenjoyed take forgrantedwhatmakestheseser- around forsolongthatpeoplecommonly industrialised world,andhave been and lighting–areubiquitousinthe to manufacturing,agricultureheating energy makespossible–frommobility ally sincethattime.Theservices nomic growththathasbeenachievedglob- tributed tothenear-continuouseco- more thantwocenturiesagoandhascon- it launchedtheindustrialrevolution is fundamentaltohumandevelopment: ment priority. Indeed,modernenergy sdg ber oftargetsany sdg(alongwith While sdg Achieving thetargetsofsdg 13), itisnolessimportantadevelop- 7 containsthefewestnum- 7 aretoenhance 7 willim-

attaining each. provision, therebyeasingtheburdenof renewables expansionanduniversalaccess lowers theenergyrequirementsfor not needtobeproduced.This,inturn, conservation means,isaunitthatdoes through technologicalorbehavioural/ accounts. Everyunitofenergysaved, either is a‘win-win’strategyonessentiallyall energy efficiencytarget,meanwhile, holds toforegoaccessthenetwork.The energy pricescouldcausesomehouse- possible, butthereisariskthatelevated tructure-heavy approachwouldalsobe Doing thisviaamorecentralised,infras- communities achieveenergyaccess. energy (solar, biogas)couldhelprural distributed sourcesofrenewable energy targetsthemselves.Forexample, others negative)betweenthethree et al.(2017). of theseissuesisdescribed inMcCollum actions studied.Anelaboratedanalysis key knowledgegapsrelatedtotheinter- chapter concludeswithalistof between nowand2030,beyond.The and minimisenegativeinteractions how tomaximisepositiveinteractions practice. Policyoptionsareidentifiedfor show howtheselinkagesmanifestin examples fromdifferent world regions which theytypicallyoccur. Illustrative level interactionsandthecontextin report isusedtoassesstheselectedtarget- described intheopeningchaptertothis range ofpositiveandnegativeinteractions seven-point scaleforcharacterisingthe and expertknowledge.Thetypology based onavailable scientificliterature highest magnitudeorstrongestimpacts pally interactionswithintherangeof targets andthoseofothersdgs,princi- interactions isidentifiedbetweenthesdg 7 targets ofthisentrygoal,asetkey Taking intoaccountalltheunderlying this assessment–andtheother16sdgs. between sdg view ofinteractionsatthegoallevel The textthatfollowsprovidesanover- 7 –the‘entrylevelgoal’for

131 KEY INTERACTIONS AT GOAL LEVEL

7 + 1 (aiding food security). However, develop- Ensuring the world’s poor have access ing agrofuels could also lead to higher to affordable, reliable and modern energy global food prices (and thus reduced access services enables the goal of poverty to affordable food by the poor) as well eradication. However, decarbonising as to competition between agrofuels and energy systems by promoting renewables food crops over scarce agricultural land, and boosting efficiency could result in water and energy for agrofuels production. price shocks if the costs of transition to a Another key interaction is energy for low-carbon economy are not buffered in agricultural operations. Providing energy some way. This could prevent universal to impoverished farmers is likely to energy access, since higher energy prices make it easier for them to pump ground- would add to the challenges of improving water and mechanise their farm equip- the standard of living for the world’s ment to increase food crop yields, and will poorest. Investment costs for many small- enable easier maintenance of cold chains scale renewable energy technologies (such (temperature-controlled supply chains) as household solar photovoltaic systems) for marketing produce and thus improving have decreased considerably in recent regional diet diversity. Some forms of years, and in some areas are now the least- bioenergy – such as fuels produced from cost electricity supply option. If technology domestic wastes – do not compete with innovation trends continue, renewable food production, although transportation electricity generation will become prof- of waste residues and operation of agrofuel itable in a greater number of regions. processing plants can be energy-intensive. This could enable poor communities with electricity transmission access to make 7 + 3 use of local clean energy resources, poten- The sdg 7 targets are directly linked to tially allowing for revenue generation. achieving major reductions in air Moreover, some of the poorer regions of pollution. Improving air quality, and by the world possess some of the highest extension human health, is especially quality renewable energy supplies (e.g. important for those living in the dense biomass and solar power in Africa). urban centres of both developed and Progress in making use of those potentials rapidly developing countries. Thermal could help to reduce poverty, as long as comfort (heating and cooling) and the benefits accrue to local suppliers. cooking are key to good health, which highlights the need to ensure access 7 + 2 to affordable and reliable energy. Use of As a renewable energy source, bioenergy energy-efficient appliances such as is likely to form an increasingly important clean cook-stoves is fundamental to part of the energy mix. Commercialising improving indoor air quality. Energy is bioenergy production could lead to the also essential for refrigeration, which creation of agricultural and forestry jobs, contributes to food conservation along as well as to higher wages and more the supply chain and helps avoid the diversified income streams for land owners health risks associated with bacterial 132 contamination. Refrigeration enables over time. The more empowered women be- rural populations to store the medicines come, the more likely they are to push and vaccines necessary for ensuring local initiatives that directly benefit them community health. Energy-saving mea- from an energy-access perspective, since sures related to ‘active travel’ (cycling they are often the ones to gain most from and walking) can help improve health and the use of cleaner, easier-to-obtain fuels well-being by lowering rates of diabetes, for cooking and lighting. Access to energy heart disease, dementia, and some cancers; reduces the importance of physical gender but at the same time can offset efforts differences in the labour force, increas- to reduce deaths and injuries from road ing access to the professions for women. traffic accidents if the infrastructure Public outdoor lighting would increase provided is unsatisfactory. security for women and girls, potentially AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY allowing them to continue autonomous 7 + 4 activities outside their households after dark. Well-lit, well-heated, and well-cooled GOAL #7 schools and households are essential for 7 + 6 creating comfortable learning spaces for Thermal cooling and resource extraction children and adults and reduce depen require vast amounts of water; while dency on natural variations in daylight. wastewater from the energy sector releases The information and communication large quantities of thermal and chemical technologies on which modern learning is pollution into aquatic ecosystems. In based also require energy input. Ensuring most cases, a shift from fossil energy energy access in countries where access technology to renewables and boosting to reliable energy services may be lacking energy efficiency would reinforce the can therefore reinforce education goals. achievement of sustainability objectives The level of educational attainment within related to water access, scarcity, man- a society can influence its collective agement and pollution. However, some awareness about sustainable development renewable energy sources (including and sustainable lifestyles, including bioenergy and hydropower) could, if not an understanding of why transformative managed correctly, have counteracting changes in the energy system are neces- effects that compound existing water- sary. Knowledge and skills in the area related problems. Installing and operating of energy sustainability may then influence water extraction, transport and treat- which technological, financial and ment systems requires a considerable political solutions are feasible to implement. amount of energy (‘energy-for-water’). Thus, quality education is an enabling Expanding these services to poorer factor in achieving sdg 7. Energy is also populations will be enabled by universal a key element of science education; energy access. A shift toward uncon- and better inclusion of energy in school ventional water supply options (e.g. curricula may foster better science literacy desalination) in the world’s water-stressed at all levels of society. regions will generally increase energy demand. This may benefit renewables: 7 + 5 if water-related infrastructure and equip- Access to energy would expand the num- ment can be used for real-time demand- ber and range of opportunities for women, side power management, developing for example enabling women to work water and sanitation systems could help from home and thereby generate an inde- grid integration of intermittent electricity pendent source of income. Impacts will sources. However, water-related energy initially be greatest at the household level, demand increases could be challenging with society-wide implications emerging if there are constraints to up-scaling renewables quickly. 133 7 + 8 financial and technical support to promote Deploying renewables and energy-efficient technological development; and encour- technologies can spur innovation and aging innovation through scientific reinforce local, regional and national in- research funding – will each directly bene- dustrial and employment objectives. fit countries’ energy industries. Eco Active measures may need to be taken to nomic, social and environmental bene- minimise the negative impacts of a large- fits could accrue to individuals and firms scale switch to renewable energy on those in urban areas, since this is where most currently working in the fossil fuels sector: innovation and industrial activity tends government support may be needed to to occur, and where recycling and reuse is help businesses re-tool and workers re- highly-efficient. One concern could be train. Workforce migration may also be the early retirement of fossil energy AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY needed because fossil fuel development is infrastructure (power plants, refineries, highly concentrated whereas renewable pipelines), which may be needed to energy projects are distributed across wide mitigate related sustainability challenges. GOAL #7 geographic areas. To support clean energy Unless targeted policies are used to efforts, strengthened financial institutions help alleviate the burden on industry, the in all countries are necessary for providing economic implications could in some capital, credit and insurance to local cases be negative. Carbon pricing through entrepreneurs attempting to enact change. a carbon tax or cap-and-trade market Decarbonising energy systems through mechanism may be used to reduce carbon an up-scaling of renewables and energy intensity in industrial processes and efficiency could potentially constrain provide states with funds to help innova- countries’ economic growth; but strong tion and compliance in the industrial growth decoupled from environmental sector. degradation and job growth from installing and maintaining renewable energy and 7 + 10 energy efficiency technologies that could Ensuring energy access and increasing more than compensate for economic the share of some types of renewable costs associated with these changes means energy (such as agriculture and forest- this interaction seems only mildly coun- based bioenergy) can enable educational, teracting. Decarbonising fossil-fuel based health and employment opportunities energy sources by technologies such as for the rural poor, with positive effects on carbon capture and storage can increase income and equality. Universal access to demand for a skilled workforce and create energy is key to achieving equality, where economic growth, although higher energy all are free to exercise their development prices may stimulate energy efficiency options. Good governance will help to related job creation. avoid clashes between objectives. For example, policymakers must be careful 7 + 9 to ensure that energy remains affordable Building resilient infrastructure, promot- to the poorest, especially if higher-cost ing inclusive and sustainable industriali- renewables are deployed. Ideally, insti- sation and fostering innovation are a tutional and financial capacity should be necessary pre-condition for, and indivisible locally sourced, although foreign from, achieving the sdg 7 targets on access investment and development funding to energy services, increasing the share (from rich to poor countries) is also of renewables in the energy mix, and important. Both can foster socio-economic increasing energy efficiency. Upgrading development and help reduce inequalities and retrofitting infrastructure to make between countries, as well as within them it more reliable and sustainable; providing (across different social, gender, economic, 134 ethnic, religious and racial groups). Locally 7 + 13 available sources of renewable energy An immediate up-scaling of renewables may also reduce inequalities due to inter- and energy efficiency is strongly linked to national fossil fuel market variations keeping global warming to well below that could result from political or specula- 2°c above pre-industrial levels, the legally tive pressures. binding objective of the Paris Agreement. Achieving sdg 7 could put the world on 7 + 11 track for meeting this challenge, though it Energy is central to urbanisation; energy would not be entirely sufficient given allows cities to grow and perform. Clean, the scale of the decarbonisation challenge. efficient energy systems, in particular, In the reverse direction, better integrating create the conditions for cities and human climate change measures into national AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY settlements to be inclusive, safe, resilient, planning, improving education, awareness, less-polluting, and more sustainable. An and capacity on climate issues, and mo- up-scaling of renewable energy and energy- bilising funds for mitigation will all go GOAL #7 efficient technologies and infrastructure a long way in furthering targets for renew- systems (such as transit-orientated, mixed- ables and energy efficiency. Under cer- use developments) can have a large impact tain conditions, providing universal access on the sustainability of a given city or to modern energy services by 2030 is community. Similarly, if cities move in a fully consistent with the Paris Agreement, more sustainable direction in terms of because it is not expected to have more transport, housing and urban planning, air than a minor effect on global carbon quality, resource efficiency, and / or climate emissions. change mitigation, then this will create the necessary enabling conditions for 7 + 14 achieving sdg 7, because renewables and Renewable energy generated from offshore efficiency will need to feature in the wind, wave and tidal power farms is a portfolio of solutions. Smart grids in cities good resource base for coastal communi- will improve energy efficiency and facil- ties. Conserving and sustainably using itate the development of renewable energy marine resources (including fossil fuel at the domestic or neighbourhood scale. reserves – much of which are located offshore), calls for increased scientific 7 + 12 knowledge of the impacts of their exploita- Efforts to reduce waste and pollution, im- tion on aquatic habitats, and for increased prove resource efficiencies, increase re- research, human and institutional cycling and reuse and promote awareness capacity to mitigate the adverse effects of about more sustainable lifestyles coincide these energy-related activities. Upscaling with the requirement for more efficient use of renewables and energy-efficient of natural resources (fossil and renewable). technologies and consumption patterns For example, phasing out inefficient, waste- will help decrease ocean acidification ful, and market-distorting fossil fuel sub- (via lower carbon emissions), accidental sidies – in a way that minimises counteract- impacts from energy-production and ing adverse side-effects on the poor – transport activities on aquatic habitats, could reinforce attempts to deploy renewa- and marine thermal pollution from cooling bles and energy-efficient technologies at coastal power plants. Adverse side- and consumption patterns. Responsible con- effects of ocean-based energy installations sumption triggers responsible production include spatial competition with other and minimises waste, in turn minimising marine activities (such as tourism, ship- the amount of energy associated with waste ping, resource exploitation) and with handling and management. marine and coastal habitats and protected 135 areas. Geoengineering projects such as foreign direct investment, labour migra- ocean fertilisation may have additional tion, policy and institutional arrangements, energy impacts, either positive or negative and technology transfer. Reducing cor- as the need for fertilisers and biomass ruption, where it exists, will help these harvesting are considered. bodies and related domestic institutions maximise their societal impacts and ensure 7 + 15 that the optimal mixes of measures for Ensuring that the world’s poor have access energy access provision, renewable energy to modern energy services would reinforce and energy efficiency are implemented the objective of halting deforestation, since effectively. Eliminating perverse subsidies firewood taken from forests is a commonly for unsustainable energy sources could used energy resource among the poor. help to achieve both better governance and AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY On the other hand, protecting terrestrial sustainable energy goals. ecosystems, sustainably managing forests, halting deforestation, preventing 7 + 17 GOAL #7 biodiversity loss and controlling invasive This goal is about strengthening the means alien species could potentially clash with of implementation for achieving all sdgs. efforts to expand renewables, if that However, to ensure access to affordable, reli- would mean constraining large-scale use able, sustainable and modern energy of bioenergy. Land-use changes involved for all, it is critical that all countries are in extensive renewable energy production able to mobilise the necessary financial such as hydroelectric dams may conflict resources (such as via taxes on fossil with sdg 15. Good governance and sound energy, sustainable financing, foreign implementation practices are critical direct investment, financial transfers from in all such cases. For example, policies industrialised to developing countries); could ensure that bioenergy crops are are willing to disseminate knowledge primarily grown on degraded lands, which and share innovative technologies; follow might mean they have little impact on recognised international trade rules while global agricultural markets and could at the same time ensuring that ldcs are simultaneously improve soil carbon and able to take part in that trade; respect each terrestrial biodiversity. International other’s policy space and decisions; forge coordination is of particular relevance, new partnerships between their public and especially because bioenergy deployment private entities and within civil society; in one country can have indirect land-use and support the collection of high-quality, change impacts elsewhere in the world. timely, and reliable data relevant to the furthering of their aims. 7 + 16 Effective, accountable and transparent institutions are needed at all levels of government (local, national, international) for creating the conditions necessary to be able to ensure universal energy access, increase the share of renewables and increase energy efficiency. Strengthening the capacity of developing countries to participate at the international level (such as within United Nations agencies, the World Trade Organization, regional development banks and beyond) will be important for issues concerning trade, 136 KEY INTERACTIONS AT TARGET-LEVEL

In terms of its three main elements – Six goals were selected for detailed ensuring energy access (7.1), increasing the analysis, with three accompanied by an share of renewables (7.2), and speeding illustrative example (as noted): up the rate of energy efficiency improvement (7.3) – sdg 7 has links with all 16 SDG 1 other sdgs. This section analyses some SDG 2 of these interactions in detail at the SDG 3 target-level for a subset of the sdgs. This Improving air quality and health for selection was based on the strength of the rural poor in India the interlinkages and the magnitude and SDG 6 scale of impact in relation to the over- Groundwater depletion and renewables all objective of the 2030 Agenda, while in Saudi Arabia ensuring a balanced consideration of SDG 8 the economic, social and environmental Renewables and job creation in Germany dimensions. Target-level interactions SDG 13 are judged to fall within one of seven categories and are scored accordingly: indivisible (+3), reinforcing (+2), enabling (+1), consistent (0), constraining (-1), counteracting (-2), and cancelling (-3). Following a general analysis of the selected interactions, specific examples are provided to illustrate how interactions unfold in different geographical and policy contexts. 137 SDG 7 + SDG 1

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

7.1 1.4 Energy is a basic service, there- Develop energy access policies fore universal energy access + that support clean cooking-stove AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY reinforces the achievement of 1.4 2 purchases and lower fuel bills Institute capacity building and education programs to support individuals in the energy industry

GOAL #7 at the local level

7.2, 7.3 1.4 Decarbonising the energy system Where necessary, put in place through renewables and efficiency - compensation mechanisms that is consistent with the provision 0/ 1 could be required to protect the of basic energy services as long as poor from energy price shocks policies help to shield the poor resulting from efforts to boost the from any fuel price increases that deployment of renewables and may result. Lacking such policies, energy efficiency 7.2 and 7.3 could constrain the options for achieving 1.4

7.2, 7.3 1.5 Renewables and energy efficiency Policies ensuring that the energy are a necessary pre-condition + system is decarbonised through for limiting global climate change; 2 an upscaling of renewable in turn, exposure of the poor to energy technologies and energy climate-related extreme events efficiency efforts are critical for will be reduced limiting the extent of global climate change and, in turn, exposure of the poor to climate-related extreme events 138 KEY POINTS KEY INTERACTIONS The principal interactions between sdg 7 sdg 7 affects sdg 1 through the di- and sdg 1 concern targets 1.4 and 1.5. mension of energy poverty and Access to modern energy forms (electricity, the need to provide the world’s poor clean cooking-stoves, high-quality light- with access to affordable, reliable ing, and sustainable fuels) (7.1) is fundamental to human development since and modern services the energy services made possible by modern energy forms can provide a solid Decarbonising the global energy foundation for escaping the poverty system by promoting renewables trap, particularly in the poorest parts of developing countries: namely rural

AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY and boosting energy efficiency and urban communities in South Asia, can lead to major reductions in Southeast Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions over (Pachauri et al., 2012) (1.4, 1.5). Too many GOAL #7 people in these locations still rely on the longer term, which may help polluting and unhealthy fuels (charcoal, reduce the exposure of the poor to firewood, animal dung) for cooking, climate-related extreme events and heating and lighting: roughly 3 billion other environmental disasters people, or 40% of the world’s population lack modern fuels for cooking while an estimated 1.1 billion people live without If policy interventions are not electricity (un, 2016). Clear progress managed properly, the poor could is being made to provide access to these individuals, but in the meantime their experience economic shocks in the health continues to suffer (from the form of higher energy prices, thus harmful effects of burning ‘traditional’ increasing rather than reducing fuels indoors), and they are forced to spend too much time acquiring fuel, poverty and impairing the transition preparing meals, and/or keeping the to universal energy access to modern lights on. Modern fuels and technologies fuels (such as delivered gas powering a clean cooking-stove), whether made available in a centralised or distributed way, The lack of modern energy services can alleviate these burdens, which often contributes to poverty, not only in fall disproportionately to women and absolute terms, but also in terms of children. Impacts can be substantial: time gdp (because the energy, personnel is freed up, which may be used to pursue employment, educational, and leisure and tools involved are often from and wellness opportunities (Pachauri et the ‘informal economy’). Thus, al., 2012). accessing modern energy services Decarbonisation of the global energy system through a major up-scaling of will improve economic exchanges renewables (7.2) and energy efficiency (7.3) locally and raise per-capita economic efforts is needed to dramatically cut ghg activity and productivity emissions (Clarke et al., 2014). Such actions are unavoidable if the exposure of the world’s poor to increased climate-related extreme events and other environmental disasters is to be significantly reduced 139 (ipcc, 2014) (1.5). An acknowledged risk in hard-to-reach rural areas. Achieving of transitioning the energy system away these goals may need a redefinition from fossil fuels toward renewables is of strategies and policies in urban capitals, that energy services could become less and this could take time given the lack affordable for those who need them most. of sufficient resources in many poor coun- In other words, higher energy prices tries and the rigidity of the political sys- could hinder the goal of universal energy tems in some nations. access and slow down some structural and infrastructural changes among the Geography: (1) Lack of energy access is both lesser developed economies (Jakob and a rural and an urban problem, and is most Steckel, 2014). Policies must be designed acute in the poorest parts of South Asia, such that they take an integrated and Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY holistic perspective of multiple policy Modernising the lives of these people, in objectives. For example, Cameron et al. terms of energy service provision, could (2016) found that poorer populations can have global economic consequences GOAL #7 be shielded from fuel price rises through (due to newly created employment and access policies (e.g. subsidies) that support educational opportunities). (2) Increasing clean cooking-stove purchases and lower energy efficiency and substituting fossil fuel bills. Funding support for these fuel energy by renewables in any country policies could be derived from carbon tax of the world, whether rich or poor, will revenues or financial flows from carbon benefit those in poverty by reducing trading – leveraging the same carbon their exposure to climate-related extreme pricing mechanisms being simultaneously events and other environmental disasters. used to incentivise renewables deployment However, reducing exposure to climate and energy efficiency efforts. In addition, change-related extreme events is a the local production of renewable energy complex issue where decarbonisation of (biomass, solar, wind) could lead to new the energy supply plays a minor role in income streams, which could counter- the short term compared to other land use balance any system-wide energy price rises. policies and local governance.

KEY UNCERTAINTIES Governance: (1) The supposed trade-off (1) The level of local skills and knowledge between energy system decarbonisation (technological, business, or otherwise) (renewables / efficiency) and energy that will exist within the individual access is non-genuine. The trade-off is not communities in 10 to 15 years, especially intrinsic to the decarbonisation mea- concerning the capacity to ensure that sures themselves, but to poorly designed energy access provision remains adequate, policies. Compensation mechanisms reliable and affordable. This depends can be designed to ensure that the poor strongly on educational attainment, which are shielded from energy price shocks. itself is affected by energy access in a However renewable energy prices are continuous loop. (2) Exact quantifications generally locally determined and tend to for what a proper, decent level of energy decline with technological advancement. access actually entails, in terms of the full This protects the poorest from the highly range of services required to escape the speculative prices associated with fossil poverty trap. fuel energy. (2) Enabling policies are key to mobilising transformational change KEY DIMENSIONS in energy systems, with respect to technology Time: Major structural and infrastructural investments and infrastructure changes. changes will be needed to achieve energy access targets throughout the world, often 140 Technology: (1) Continued improvements in the design, efficiency, and cost of efficient, portable cooking-stoves and lighting devices are needed, particularly because the up-front capital costs of these technologies can often account for weeks/months of income for the poorest households. If costs are too high, then this could prevent individuals from putting their limited funds toward other useful purposes (such as educational and business opportunities, healthcare, internet and AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY communications tools). However, technical advancement in renewable energy technology (e.g. wind turbines, solar pan- GOAL #7 els, heat exchange devices) drives lower prices for sustainable energy services. (2) Whether new energy systems for the poor are centralised (national grids) or decentralised (local level only) will depend on each country’s geographical and governance context, as well as on the existing state of infrastructure in the region.

Directionality: Unidirectional. Energy access provision is necessary (but not sufficient) for delivering the types of service required for escaping the poverty trap (education, employment, healthcare). Yet, in the reverse direction, provision of those services by some other means (such as programmes to regularly transport disadvantaged individuals to more affluent communities for those services) does not guarantee that energy access will be achieved in those communities where it is most needed. Further- more, demographic pressure is a key issue for energy supply in rural areas as well as urban communities. Without a clear indi- cation of future demand, the supply may never be adequate. 141 SDG 7 + SDG 2

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

7.2 2.1 If not restricted to degraded lands, Design legislation so that large-scale global production - competition of bioenergy crops of purpose-grown energy crops 0/ 1 with land use for other purposes AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY could drive up food prices and is avoided. This can be done by so constrain the achievement of prioritising bioenergy production ending hunger for the poor on degraded land; maximising

GOAL #7 energy production from agricultural wastes (from non-bioenergy crops), and investing in research and technologies that lead to higher crop yields

7.2 2.3 Bioenergy production could Structure policies should be reinforce initiatives pursuing + designed so that they promote the agricultural jobs creation and 2 creation of bioenergy-related jobs higher farm wages. Bioenergy and diversified income streams for from agricultural wastes also farmers, particularly for women, provides higher returns for job indigenous groups, family farmers creation and fishers. Policies should favour waste-to-energy projects for bioenergy

7.2, 7.3 2.3, 2.4 Greater agricultural productivities Put in place mechanisms to for all types of crops, particularly + manage the energy, land, fertiliser bioenergy, can aid the 2 and water inputs to agriculture, achievement of the renewable thereby helping to mitigate any energy target by allowing as much negative effects on the environment bioenergy to be produced on as as well as on agricultural prices little land as possible, thereby (and thus on food security) minimising land use competition. Energy efficiency improvements can also reinforce agricultural productivity by reducing the energy inputs needed. Bioenergy production from agricultural and forest wastes could increase productivity and efficiency in rural areas 142 KEY POINTS Second- and third-generation waste- Basic energy availability is a key to-energy technologies are attractive component in food systems that have because agricultural, forest and the potential to achieve the goal domestic wastes can be used as of zero hunger. Energy is also a stockpiles for energy services. These prerequisite to reduce and recycle do not require supplemental crop food waste, and to preserve the long- production or forest harvest and term value of edible items. provide room for manoeuvring in existing productions. Moreover, fuels

AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY from domestic wastes do not depend Interactions could become stronger on prevailing weather conditions if bioenergy (especially from agro- and so are resilient to climate GOAL #7 fuels) is deployed on a large scale in change order to meet the renewable energy targets

KEY INTERACTIONS If policy interventions are not More mechanised, modern farm practices managed properly, food production can have a strong impact on farm yields, could decrease and food prices could and thus livelihoods (2.3). Large-scale increase, thereby reducing access to bioenergy production could play an increasingly important role as renewable energy affordable food. Access to affordable (7.2) is ramped up in scale toward 2030 and food may also be jeopardised due to beyond. Because of open questions sur- long-term soil depletion associated rounding bioenergy, the following discussion focuses on its benefits and conse- with monocropping of agrofuels, quences. Most closely interacting with sdg 7 and to hydrological changes or are targets 2.1 and 2.3 / 2.4, the latter topsoil loss associated with the supported by increasing the speed of cultivation of marginal or degraded energy efficiency improvements in the agriculture sector. croplands for agrofuels or to replace The impacts of increased bioenergy food production lost to agrofuel utilisation on food and agriculture systems farming are complex and context-dependent. The effects may be positive or negative, depending on the type of bioenergy While agricultural productivity supplied, its source, and the size of the can be increased by raising levels operation (Smith et al., 2014). Creutzig et al. (2013) and others have shown that pro- of energy inputs into agriculture ducing bioenergy crops can contribute (fertiliser, agrochemicals, pumped positively to local economies, for example irrigation, machinery, fossil fuels for by creating jobs in rural areas. Higher wages, and more diversified income streams cultivation and transportation, post- for farmers, are additional benefits harvest storage), the potential trade- (Gohin, 2008). This is true, for instance, off is higher energy requirements for of the Brazilian sugarcane ethanol the sector industry, where average farm incomes are 143 greater than in most other agricultural Certain types of crops, either for energy sectors in the country (de Moraes et or food production, are more land- al., 2010; Satolo and Bacchi, 2013). Good intensive than others. Hence, decreasing governance and careful planning are the area needed for growing crops also key to ensuring that the benefits go to decreases the risk of land competition, and those that deserve them. If poorly by extension the threat of food insecurity regulated, large-scale bioenergy deploy- and community displacement, as well ment could end up harming the very as deforestation. Policies, agricultural farmers that sdg 2 attempts to support, research, and extension programmes that particularly if the revenues accruing incentivise and promote greater agri- from the sale of bioenergy go to cultural productivities (improved and company owners and investors rather sustainable crop yields, that do not AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY than to small-scale, local landowners sacrifice long-term productivity for and tenants, or if the revenues are not short-term yields) can all help. They can shared equally between parties (van also direct farmers toward producing GOAL #7 der Horst and Vermeylen, 2011). In the bioenergy on degraded and marginal land. worst case, small-scale farmers could Another key approach is to maximise even be displaced, either from their energetic valorisation of agricultural lands or in local business networks, or residues and organic wastes. Both strate- both. In other words, the distributional gies would largely avoid competition impacts of bioenergy deployment – while between bioenergy and other land-use still uncertain, given their situational purposes, although there are limits dependencies – could be non-trivial to how much bioenergy can be produced (Davis et al., 2013; Muys et al., 2014). The by these means. Food prices may still topic requires future study, at the rise even if care is taken to avoid such an empirical / case-study level and by national- outcome; yet, according to several and global-scale integrated modelling integrated models, the potential price frameworks. effects induced by unconstrained levels A potential risk of large-scale bioenergy of climate change and the resultant deployment is that crops grown for energy water and temperature impacts are far purposes could compete with existing greater than the bioenergy-induced crops grown for other purposes, such as effects (Lotze-Campen et al., 2014). While food production (Smith et al., 2014). Such bioenergy, strictly speaking, is not neces- concerns are often captured in the ‘food sary to meet target 7.2, its availability versus fuel’ debate; more specifically, could help in certain dimensions, such as concerning food security (higher or more for reducing the global aggregate costs volatile food prices) and the displacement of climate mitigation (Clarke et al., 2014). of communities and their agro-economic activities. While impacts are felt most acutely locally, global market dynamics KEY UNCERTAINTIES may be the ultimate driver, with bioenergy (1) It is not yet clear how quickly traditio- deployment in one country creating nal food systems can be modernised ripple effects that propagate worldwide and mechanised, or what the energy use (so-called ‘indirect land-use change’). In implications of this would be (such fact, bioenergy deployment could lead to as for food conservation via different co-benefits in one country, but adverse energy-related processes, drying facilities side-effects elsewhere. Good governance, for harvests, establishing cold chains in the form of well-designed policies, is during transport and distribution, and key to avoiding adverse impacts, or at least refrigeration at the household level, minimising them to the extent possible. among others). (2) There are large uncer- 144 tainties in terms of the type of indirect and maximising energy production from land-use change impacts that might arise agricultural wastes (from non-bioenergy through deployment of bioenergy in crops). (2) Adverse effects of demand- a given country context (that is, which side driven policies (such as a mandatory types of agricultural lands throughout the percentage of ethanol or biodiesel in world are converted to other purposes fuels) may be more important than in response to changing food/crop prices). their energy security or climate change mitigation effects. KEY DIMENSIONS Time: Some impacts may be short-term in Technology: Greater agricultural produc- nature (i.e., over a few years or crop cycles), tivities (improved and sustainable with a sustainable equilibrium then again crop yields), both for bioenergy and food AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY be reached. Other impacts may be longer crops can help minimise or avoid direct term in nature, perhaps even irreversible competition of different crop types for over the course of a generation (such as land in different countries. Waste-to-energy GOAL #7 if forests are cleared for crop production). technologies and biorefineries are also important options and would benefit from Geography: (1) Some areas could benefit increased r&d effort. while others are, simultaneously, negatively impacted. For example, in Scandi- Directionality: Bidirectional. Large-scale navia farmers and foresters have bene- utilisation of agrofuels can affect fitted from bioenergy production through food production, and thus the goal of the diversification of markets. However, ending hunger. In the reverse direction, to the extent these producers have changed ending hunger may impose limits food export patterns, or do so in the as to how much cropland is available for future, then food security globally could bioenergy production; greater agricul- be affected. (2) While the impacts of large- tural productivities for all types of crops scale bioenergy production are felt most can minimise or avoid land competition acutely locally, global market dynamics may and degradation. be the ultimate driver, with bioenergy deployment in one country creating ripple effects that propagate worldwide. In such situations, it is likely that the most benefits will be obtained when bioenergy is obtained from waste, rather than primary agricultural production.

Governance: (1) Good governance and careful planning are key to ensuring the benefits of bioenergy production accrue to small-scale farmers and their local communities. Well-designed policies are also needed to ensure that adverse side- effects of large-scale bioenergy utilisation are minimised or avoided, including incentives and support mechanisms that (i) promote greater agricultural productivities (improved and sustainable crop yields) and (ii) direct farmers toward producing bioenergy on degraded lands 145 SDG 7 + SDG 3

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

7.1 3.8 Universal energy access Develop energy access policies to enables the provision of food, + facilitate the spread of refrigeration medicines and vaccines because 1 in rural areas, which will be AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY mechanised refrigeration is beneficial for food preservation essential for effective storage (to reduce the amounts of food that normally go to waste) and the

GOAL #7 storage of life-saving medicines and vaccines

7.1, 7.2, 7.3 3.9 In most cases, efforts to Draw up legislation promoting provide energy access, expand + renewable energy and energy renewables, and promote 2 efficiency across multiple sectors energy efficiency will lead to to reduce negative impacts on simultaneous reductions in air the health of rural and urban pollutant emissions; thus the populations. Pay particular targets are reinforcing attention to those sectors that are currently the most energy-intensive and energy-polluting, such as buildings, industry and transport in densely populated urban areas, as well as those rural areas with a high use of chemicals for agricultural production

Energy access policies that promote the use of cleaner energy and which are less-polluting can significantly reduce premature mortality. Policies targeting those sectors of the population with highest exposure to indoor and outdoor pollution will be most beneficial

7.3 3.4 Energy-saving measures related Where possible, ensure urban to ‘active travel’ (cycling and + planning and land use management walking) can lead to improved 1 policies encourage energy-saving health and well-being by lowering ‘active travel’ modes (cycling rates of diabetes, heart disease, and walking). This will benefit dementia, and some cancers community health, in terms of lower rates of diabetes, heart disease, dementia, and some cancers

7.3 3.6 Energy-saving measures related Build cycling and walking to ‘active travel’ (cycling and - infrastructure that is safe for all, walking) can constrain efforts 0/ 1 to reduce deaths and injuries from to reduce deaths and injuries road traffic accidents from road traffic accidents, if the provided infrastructure is unsatisfactory and if higher air quality standards are not required 146 KEY POINTS all types) would drive major reductions in emissions of sulphur dioxide (so ), Providing energy access, promoting ² nitrogen oxides (nox), black carbon (bc), renewables and boosting efficiency fine particulate matter (pm 2.5), and can lead to major reductions in mercury, among others. Targets 7.2 and air pollution, and by extension 7.3 primarily affect outdoor (ambient) air pollution, whereas target 7.1 would significant improvements in most affect indoor (household) pollu- air quality and human health, tion. The level of exposure of a given popu- particularly in the dense urban lation to energy-consuming activities (power plants, factories, cars, kilns) centres of the rapidly developing significantly influences the human health AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY world effects of air pollution – and, by extension, the improvements that can be attained Elevating levels of walking and by meeting or exceeding the three energy GOAL #7 cycling (‘active travel’) in cities can targets. The dense cities of the rapidly developing world (Beijing, Delhi, and also lead to better health and well- many others) have the most to gain; large being among the local population metropolitan centres in the industrialised world (London, Los Angeles) could also benefit substantially. Energy is vital to providing thermal Several forward-looking, integrated comfort in buildings. Energy access scenario studies have estimated the air is also needed for refrigeration, quality co-benefits that could be achieved which is essential for maintaining – in diverse contexts – by providing energy access, promoting renewables, and food quality along the supply chain boosting efficiency. For example, Rose for providing city markets with et al. (2014) found that in China strong healthy products. Refrigeration is efficiency and decarbonisation efforts could result in so emissions reductions of also critical for rural populations; ² 15–75% below reference levels by 2030 and for storing food, medicines and 40–80% by 2050. Chaturvedi and Shukla vaccines (2014) drew similar conclusions for India: reductions of 10–80% in the long term, depending on the scenario and pollutant KEY INTERACTIONS under consideration. At the global level, The principal interactions between sdg 7 Rafaj et al. (2013) found reductions of 40% and sdg 3 concern target 3.9. Present- (so²), 30% (nox), and 5% (pm 2.5), relative day fossil energy extraction, conversion, to a baseline scenario, are possible by 2030. and end-use activities emit a range of Meanwhile, Riahi et al. (2012) showed air pollutants, as do some traditional bio- the importance of providing modern energy fuels (dung, wood, waste, and peat access (fuels, electricity, clean cooking- or charcoal prepared and burned in tradi- stoves) for improving indoor air quality in tional ways) many of which are harmful the developing world. They estimated to humans, leading to respiratory and global reductions of 50% (so²), 35% (nox) cardiovascular diseases and even cancer. and 30% (pm 2.5) by 2030 in scenarios Thus, increased efforts to move the world’s that include a rapid up-scaling of renew- poor towards clean renewables and to ables and energy efficiency measures. significantly increase energy efficiency This could help reduce globally-aggregated (i.e. lower the requirements for energy of disability-adjusted life years (dalys) by 147 more than 10 million over the next one (2) The long-term effects of current/ and a half decades, mostly in developing recent investments in dirty fossil energy countries. Similar conclusions were infrastructure and vehicles, and the reached by the iea (2016). It should be possibilities for retrofitting those facilities noted, however, that not all energy-saving to make them less polluting are also measures are beneficial for air quality: unknown. (3) How consumer behaviour such as when switching from gasoline and preferences might change over time to diesel vehicles. Similarly, although is unclear, especially with respect to biofuels are a form of renewable energy, adopting more active lifestyles that are they are not necessarily low-polluting in less dependent on motorised transport. (4) their life cycle. Some forms of clean energy production There has been some attempt to mone- could potentially create new health issues. AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY tise the air quality co-benefits of energy efficiency and decarbonising the energy system (Nemet et al., 2010). West et al. KEY DIMENSIONS GOAL #7 (2013) estimated the co-benefits of avoided Time: Transformational changes in energy mortality to be usd 50–380 per tonne systems take a considerable amount co² globally (70–840 for China and 20–400 of time to effect, given the long-lived for India). Benefits of this magnitude infrastructure. While vehicles and other are similar to the costs of ramping up consumer appliances may have lives of renewables and energy efficiency over the 5 to 15 years, power plants and facto- coming decades (Clarke et al., 2014). ries can last for 50 years or more. This Energy-saving measures, such as inte- influences how quickly existing infra- grated transport and urban planning structure can replaced and how quickly air strategies that promote ‘active travel’, can quality levels can be improved. also lead to better health and well-being, including lower rates of diabetes, heart Geography: (1) Dense urban areas in both disease, dementia, and some cancers developing and industrialised coun- (Woodcock et al., 2009; Haines, 2012; Shaw tries stand to gain the most from renew- et al., 2014) (3.4). However, if the pro- able energy and energy efficiency policies vided infrastructure is unsatisfactory, that improve outdoor air quality, while increased ‘active travel’ could increase risk providing energy access (upgrading of death and injuries from road traffic to modern fuels and clean cook-stoves) accidents (3.6). would most benefit the indoor air Moreover, though not well researched quality of rural households in the least- up to this point in time, a potential risk developed countries (ldcs). (2) Air quality of certain forms of clean energy is that some is principally a local/regional problem, pathways may create new health issues, although air pollutant emissions can travel either within the region of production across city/state/country borders and or elsewhere (e.g. siloxane emissions from affect other populations. (3) The potential biogas plants, growing hazardous waste for renewables differs widely, which means flow due to photovoltaics or battery pro- different renewable energy technologies duction and disposal). will be the focus of air pollution mitigation strategy in different regions.

KEY UNCERTAINTIES Governance: (1) Air quality is principally a (1) The future climate impacts on local local/regional problem, although national atmospheric conditions affects are energy policies can help or hinder a key uncertainty affecting ambient the situation. (2) Enabling policies are concentrations of harmful pollutants. central to transformational change in 148 energy systems, especially for changes particularly to those in rural areas relying in technology investment (efficiency and on traditional and dirty fuels (firewood, reduced emissions) and infrastructure. charcoal, crop residues, and dung; Bonjour et al., 2013) for cooking and heating. The Technology: (1) Technological change is a number of premature deaths in India due critical enabler for improved air quality to indoor and near-household air pollu- via energy access provision, renewables tion from the use of traditional solid fuels deployment, and efficient devices. (2) is around 1 million annually, the highest Behavioural change is also important if of any country in the world (ihme, 2015). societies are to adopt more active lifestyles Globally, the figure is around 3.9 mil- that are less dependent on motorised lion (Smith and Sagar, 2014). The main transport and to embrace the latest cause is exposure to poor combustion of AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY technological advances in equipment and solid fuels in inefficient cooking-stoves. appliances. India has tried to address this issue by providing subsidised lpg (liquefied GOAL #7 Directionality: Bidirectional, but asymmet- petroleum gas) as an interim cleaner ric. Energy use impacts health and well- substitute for traditional solid fuels. This being. And in the reverse, the collective programme has recently accelerated, health and well-being of a society making India one of the world leaders could potentially influence what trans- in a ‘health-centred strategy for formational changes in the energy air pollution’ (Sagar et al., 2016). Three system they have an appetite to pursue. national initiatives were launched in The former causality is stronger than 2014 to provide lpg to 50 million more the latter and is therefore focused upon families by March 2019 (Smith, 2016). This in this report. major new campaign could ultimately contribute to India reaching its sdg goals for health and energy simultaneously. Elements include over us $ 1 billion com- ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE mitted directly by the national govern- IMPROVING AIR QUALITY ment, with much more provided to state AND THE HEALTH OF THE governments from alternative sources, a RURAL POOR IN INDIA large share of the middle class population voluntarily giving up subsidies to con- India is the third largest economy in the tribute to the programme, wide-scale use world, with its 1.3 billion people making of information technology, use of social up nearly 20% of the global population. marketing and social media, and support Yet, in terms of energy use, it consumes for the programme at the highest levels only 6% of the world’s primary energy. of Indian decision-making, ranging from Meanwhile, some 240 million Indians lack the Prime Minister to the private sector, access to electricity (iea, 2015). Recent community groups and major agencies. commitments to address climate change and the prospects for rapidly increasing energy demand, which is expected to double in India within the next two decades, have triggered a wave of planned reforms of the energy system. These include boosting the share of renewables in the country’s energy mix (7.2) and expanding efforts to provide universal access to modern energy forms (7.1), 149 SDG 7 + SDG 6

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

7.2 6.1, 6.4 Increased utilisation of Ensure that unconventional water unconventional water supply - supply options (e.g. desalination, AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY options to satisfy growing demands 1 wastewater recycling and for safe, affordable freshwater inter-basin water transfers) supplies could constrain renewable do not generate excessively energy deployment if those options high loads on regional power

GOAL #7 (e.g. desalination) are highly systems, particularly if the goal energy-intensive is to integrate high shares of renewables into those systems

7.2, 7.3 6.1, 6.4 Increased electricity demands Better integrate water and energy from the water sector could enable + systems development planning the integration of variable wind 1 in order to capture the benefits and solar resources, if developed of real-time demand-side power in combination with real-time management of water process demand-side power management equipment for the integration of water-related infrastructure and of intermittent solar and wind equipment resources. Coupling water and energy markets, which have historically managed their operations separately, could also be potentially beneficial

7.2, 7.3 6.1, 6.4, Renewables and energy efficiency Ensure that energy policies and 6.5 will, in most instances, reinforce + water resource management plans targets related to water access, 2 for renewable energy options, such scarcity and management by as bioenergy and hydropower, do lowering water demands for not result in adverse side effects energy production (compared to a either nationally or beyond national less-efficient fossil energy supply borders, particularly in water- system) scarce regions

Take care that policies promoting energy efficiency in the electricity generation, buildings, transport agriculture and industry sectors do not temper growth in water demand. Pay particular attention to energy-intensive operations with significant lighting, heating and cooling loads

7.2, 7.3 6.3, 6.6 Renewables and energy efficiency Align energy and water- will, in most instances, reinforce + management policies so that targets related to water pollution 2 negative effects on aquatic and aquatic ecosystems by ecosystems are minimised (such reducing levels of chemical and as thermal and chemical pollution). thermal pollution (compared to a Policies limiting once-through less-efficient fossil energy supply cooling offer an example system) 150 KEY POINTS pollution impacts increase, then existing ecosystem problems could be exacerbated, Ramping up renewables and boosting particularly in areas that are already energy efficiency can help ensure stressed and where demand growth is water availability for all, reduce the likely to be high, such as countries in the number of people suffering from Middle East, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa (Luo et al., 2015). Fossil energy water scarcity, minimise water extraction (e.g. hydraulic fracturing for oil pollution, and protect water-related and natural gas) often demands significant ecosystems. Exceptions could be the water inputs. So too do fossil (coal, gas, oil) and nuclear power plants, which use large-scale deployment of agrofuels freshwater for thermal cooling. In fact, AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY and hydropower, if not managed about half of all water withdrawals in properly, and the use of solar or wind the United States and Western Europe in 2009 were for power-plant cooling (eea,

GOAL #7 pumps for groundwater irrigation, 2009; Maupin et al., 2010). Coal-fired plants as these can accelerate groundwater are of particular concern because their depletion numbers have been increasing rapidly in developing countries, with consequent demands for water. Retrofitting thermal Shifts toward unconventional water cooling technologies to be more water- supply options in water-stressed efficient(6.4) can provide significant regions will generally increase energy reductions in energy sector water use demand; this may be challenging (Davies et al., 2013; Byers et al., 2014; Fricko et al., 2016) and vulnerability of the to accommodate in low-carbon power sector to water scarcity and climate energy systems. On the other hand, change (van Vliet et al., 2016). Potential increased electricity demands measures include minimising on-site losses (such as from storage tanks and pipes), from the water sector may present increasing the amount of water recycled opportunities for real-time demand- internally, moving towards air-cooling side power management, which technology, and improving the efficiency would benefit the integration of of the inherent energy conversion processes. However, there are trade-offs variable wind and solar resources, as with alternative cooling technologies, well as energy efficiency measures including increased water consumption and investment costs, as well as reduced operating efficiency (Webster et al., 2013). KEY INTERACTIONS In general, renewable electricity Freshwater resources throughout the generation, particularly solar photovoltaic world are facing increased pressures, with and wind, impacts local/regional water four billion people living in regions of supplies less than fossil and nuclear water scarcity (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, plants. Thus, ramping up these forms of 2016). The global energy system currently renewable energy by 2030 (7.2) should requires a large amount of water (‘water- ease pressures on local water availability for-energy’); it also releases a large amount (6.1) and contribute to improved water of pollution (thermal and chemical) quality (6.3) (Davies et al., 2013; Fricko et (6.3) back into freshwater and marine al., 2016). The effects are less clear-cut systems (6.6) (Chuang et al., 2009; Stewart for some other types of renewable energy, et al., 2013). If these water demands and namely bioenergy and hydropower. 151 Depending on water management achieve climate and air pollution targets practices, freshwater withdrawal and under concurrent water sdgs (Parkinson et consumption could be significantly al., 2016). higher, especially for the latter two Nevertheless, increased energy demand options. For bioenergy from agrofuels, from expansion of unconventional water the effects depend on the type of crop supply options (6.1, 6.4) can potentially being grown, how much water it requires support the integration of intermittent for growth, and where that water comes wind and solar energy resources (7.2). from (rainwater vs. irrigated water from Operational schedules for water pumps a river, lake or underground aquifer) and processes are relatively flexible, and (Gerbens-Leenes and Hoekstra, 2009; these scheduling features could allow Smith et al., 2014; Hejazi et al., 2015). water sector demand to absorb wind and AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY For hydropower, the main concern is solar variability in real-time (Strbac, 2008). evaporation from the surface of the Providing this service in line with demand contained reservoir, as any water lost to could displace the need to develop costly GOAL #7 the atmosphere is no longer available for dedicated energy-storage technologies, downstream use (whether for municipal, such as batteries. Likewise, waste-heat industrial, or agricultural use). Energy from thermal power plants can be used efficiency(7.3) at the end-use level can also in some desalination processes, thereby have major implications for water demand: reducing water sector energy requirements any unit of fossil energy, bioenergy, and, by extension, power plant cooling or electricity that does not need to be loads. Critical to achieving these efficiency supplied means a certain quantity of water gains will be (i) the integration of water that can be saved (6.4) or a given amount and energy systems development planning, of thermal / chemical pollution that can and (ii) the coupling of water and energy be avoided (6.3) (Vidic et al., 2013; Miara et markets, which have historically managed al., 2014; Fricko et al., 2016). their operations separately. Whether In the reverse direction (‘energy- tapping into these synergies can outweigh for-water’), reliable access to energy the trade-offs associated with increased (7.1) is essential for the supply and water-related energy demand remains an treatment of water. A future shift toward open research question. unconventional water supply options A few scenario studies utilising (6.1, 6.4) (e.g. desalination, wastewater integrated modelling frameworks have recycling, interbasin water transfer) in recently studied the water-energy nexus, water-stressed regions will generally with an eye toward how a rapid up-scaling increase energy demand, because the of renewables and energy efficiency could associated technologies are more energy- impact future water demands. The pbl intensive than conventional supply Netherlands Environmental Assessment options (i.e. pumping from local surface Agency (2012), for instance, showed that and groundwater resources). These total global water demands (6.4) could be increased demands could be additionally reduced by around 25% by 2050, relative challenging to accommodate from the to a baseline scenario, if renewable (7.2) perspective of climate change and air and efficient technologies(7.3) were to be pollution objectives. Greater energy widely deployed. The number of people demand will necessitate lower emissions living in severely water-stressed regions per unit of energy supplied in order to worldwide was estimated to decline from achieve emission levels anticipated prior to 3.7 to 3.4 billion in this case. Hanasaki et water sector transformations. This means al. (2013) and Hejazi et al. (2013) arrived at that different combinations of energy similar conclusions using other integrated technologies are likely to be required to models. 152 KEY UNCERTAINTIES and drastically reduce thermal pollution in (1) The magnitude of future water demands surrounding aquatic ecosystems. Bioenergy for non-energy purposes (i.e. municipal, and hydropower, on the other hand, if not industrial, agricultural) can be difficult to managed properly could drive up water predict. (2) Major uncertainties surround demand. (2) Energy efficiency at all parts the impacts of the future climate on local of the product chain, but especially at the hydrological conditions, and this affects end-use level, is a win-win strategy: if less water availability. (3) The quality of local energy needs to be supplied to consumers, governance on water management issues then water demand can be reduced in is uncertain, particularly in developing upstream energy conversion processes. countries that may have a short history (3) Water supply technologies can be with these institutions. Good governance combined with emerging real-time energy AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY is itself dependent on local skills and demand management technologies to capacities. enable increased operational flexibility in the electricity system. GOAL #7 KEY DIMENSIONS Time: Water and energy supply Directionality: Bidirectional. Energy technologies have long lifetimes. Thus, the conversion activities require freshwater demands of these technologies, once built, for cooling (more or less depending on the can persist far into the future. Retrofits technology) and can damage local aquatic and adapted management practices are ecosystems through thermal and/or possible, but this becomes more difficult chemical pollution (‘water-for-energy’). In after the technologies have been installed. the reverse direction (‘energy-for-water’), a future shift toward unconventional Geography: (1) Water demands are mostly of water supply options (e.g. desalination, local / regional concern (water basin level). wastewater recycling, interbasin water Areas already under water-stress, and transfer) in water-stressed regions will where demand growth is likely to be high, generally increase energy demand, because include countries in the Middle East, South the associated technologies are more Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. (2) Exporting energy-intensive than conventional supply freshwater from distant areas is energy options (i.e. pumping from local surface intensive and will limit the potential of and groundwater resources). distant basin transfers. (3) Not coordinating management of transboundary flows can lead to conflict between countries.

Governance: (1) Strong local institutions are crucial for successful water resource policies and regulatory practices. In industrialised countries, such institutions largely exist, but this may not be the case in many developing countries. (2) Integrated planning of water and energy supply is needed to ensure that cross-sector impacts are not adverse.

Technology: (1) Water demands from renewable energy depend strongly on the type of technology employed. Solar and wind power can cut local water demands 153 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE resource. The estimated rate of groundwater depletion is alarming: more RENEWABLE ENERGY than 20 times the estimated recharge is DEPLOYMENT AND currently extracted from the region’s most GROUNDWATER DEPLETION important aquifers each year (Gleeson et IN SAUDI ARABIA al., 2012). Unless measures are taken to significantly reduce groundwater use in The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (ksa) ksa, severe shortages are likely to develop boasts some of the highest quality solar over the coming decades. energy resources on the planet. As Water conservation at end-use solar technology costs are anticipated is acknowledged as the best way to to improve significantly in the coming avoid groundwater shortages (6.4, 6.5); AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY decades, ksa is planning to exploit its however, such measures can only go so abundant solar potential in a big way far. Thus, expansion of unconventional (7.2): more than 40 gw of new installed water resources will probably be needed GOAL #7 solar energy capacity are planned for to support future growth in urban and development by 2030 (kacare, 2013). The industrial water demand, even if existing aim is to supply increasing electricity water-intensive agricultural practices are demands for a rapidly expanding urban eventually outsourced to other counties. population and industrial sector while Desalination of water extracted from the simultaneously displacing the current adjacent Red Sea and Persian Gulf has electricity generation fleet. This consists already emerged as a key technology in mainly of oil-burning power plants, which ksa’s water supply portfolio. The national are extremely carbon-intensive and can fleet of desalination plants is the largest in require considerable amounts of water for the world, and includes an interprovincial cooling. water conveyance network that transfers The abundance of renewable energy treated water to major inland urban areas. is contrasted, however, by extreme Industrial and municipal wastewater water scarcity (6.1, 6.4). The region can recycling also plays an increasingly be classified almost entirely as a desert important role in managing increased environment and receives very little water demand, especially where lower precipitation annually. Implications quality water can be used in place of water for water availability are substantial: treated to potable standards. on average there are less than 50 m³ of Wastewater recycling, desalination, surface water available on a per capita and long-distance water transport all basis each year (fao, 2008). For perspective, require more energy than conventional the historical per capita demand for surface and groundwater supply systems freshwater across all sectors is more than for providing the same amount of 900 m³ annually (fao, 2008). To make up freshwater to end-users. Thus, widespread this massive shortfall, ksa relies heavily use of these technologies to mitigate on alternative water resources, of which groundwater depletion is likely to pumping water from underground aquifers increase energy demand, which could is most prevalent (fao, 2008). Extracted in turn lead to higher levels of ghg groundwater in ksa can be classified as emissions if the additional water supply ‘fossil’ groundwater, due to the very slow requirements are met by the existing recharge rates that accompany negligible fossil fuel-intensive national energy mix. annual precipitation. The non-renewable Recent analysis suggests that a transition nature of fossil groundwater means away from non-renewable groundwater that current extraction rates are rapidly use by 2050 could increase electricity depleting the available groundwater demands by more than 40% relative 154 to 2010 conditions, and would require investment of a similar magnitude to a transition away from fossil fuel electricity generation in support of the country’s renewable energy goals (Parkinson et al., 2016). Thus, a key challenge facing ksa over the coming decades will be identifying a healthy balance of trade-offs across its objectives for water supply and sustainable energy. Alternatively, ksa will need a suitable financing scheme for the massive infrastructure investment costs AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY that accompany fulfilment of multiple sustainable development objectives concurrently. GOAL #7 Potential synergies between ksa’s water and energy sustainability objectives can be expected in future scenarios that include a rapid up-scaling of solar photovoltaic (pv) and wind energy (7.2). Transitioning to a national power system based largely on these generation technologies will avoid thermal water pollution released from existing fossil-fuelled power plants, which typically use seawater for cooling. Moreover, increased energy demand from expansion of unconventional water supply technologies can potentially support ksa in the large-scale integration of intermittent wind- and solar-energy resources. Real- time demand-side power management technologies will provide electricity system operators with increased flexibility to accommodate variable generation sources, and many of the processes in ksa’s existing and future water supply systems are ideal candidates for this type of technology application (Al-Nory and El-Beltagy, 2014). SDG 7 + SDG 8

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

7.1 8.3, 8.5, 8.6 Having access to modern energy [8.5/8.6] Undertake assessments to determine services allows individuals in + the areas where lack of energy access limits poorer communities, particularly 1 educational attainment, employment acquisition, women and children, to spend and economic growth. Where this is the case, more time at work and school, design policies to remove these obstacles, such thus enabling employment and as by providing the necessary energy access, education opportunities promoting greater equality in per capita income, and supporting small businesses

[8.5/8.6] Design energy access policies in such a way that they are equitable and inclusive, thereby increasing employment for all without regard to gender, age or ability

7.2, 7.3 8.1, 8.4 Decarbonising energy systems Changes in tax codes could help to ensure that through an up-scaling of renew- - household consumption and economic growth ables and energy efficiency 0/ 1 is minimally affected by policies attempting to could constrain countries’ decouple environmental degradation (e.g. GHG economic growth, if only slightly. emissions production) from these growth metrics. However, strong growth decou- For instance, income taxes could be reduced if pled from environmental the same revenue streams can be sourced from degradation is possible carbon taxation

7.2, 7.3 8.2, 8.3, Design, manufacture, and installa- [8.2/8.3/8.10] Policies promoting the deployment 8.5, 8.6, 8.10 tion of renewables and energy + of renewable energy and energy-efficient efficient technologies can create 1 technologies can help spur innovation, economic conditions for new and higher- diversification, and new and higher-paying jobs. paying jobs; although some Governments can assist businesses that need businesses will need to re-tool, to re-tool and workers that need to re-train. and some workers will need to Support of small- and medium-sized enterprises, re-train. Strengthened financial particularly new business ventures, is critical institutions in developing country communities are necessary for [8.2/8.3/8.10] Stable legislation that fosters providing capital, credit, and strengthened financial institutions at the insurance to local entrepreneurs community level, especially in developing attempting to enact change countries, is also key, as these institutions provide the means for local entrepreneurs to access capital, credit, and insurance. Capacity-building would assist these local financial institutions in undertaking assessments of climate change impacts and high-impact actions in order not only to assess financial and other risks but also to mobilise funding for projects to address climate change

7.2, 7.3 8.5 Phase-out of fossil fuels especially coal and tar sands may represent - a permanent loss of jobs in mining 0/ 1 regions. What these jobs are replaced by will determine the net impact. 156 KEY POINTS KEY INTERACTIONS The energy sector is a major contributor to sdg 7 and sdg 8 are closely inter- the economy for many countries. Energy linked through employment also accounts for a significant amount and education (particularly among of consumer (household and business) the poor), innovation and jobs, expenditure: more in some countries than others and more in some parts of society and environmentally sustainable than others (namely the urban and rural economic growth poor in developing countries). Hence, transformative change in the ways that societies produce and consume energy Achieving universal energy access over the period to 2030 will touch upon AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY will create opportunities for every financial and monetary aspect of many employment and educational daily life. In this sense, sdg 7 and sdg 8 are closely interlinked, with the interactions

GOAL #7 opportunities in the world’s poorest falling into three main groups: full and communities productive employment, and number of youth in employment, education, and Deploying renewables and energy- training (8.5, 8.6); high levels of economic efficient technologies / consumption productivity, innovation, and job creation (8.2, 8.3, 8.10); and sustained economic patterns can spur innovation growth globally, but especially in ldcs, and have an impact on local, region- while at the same time decoupling growth al and national employment; from environmental degradation (8.1, 8.4). Provision of universal access to indications are that the net impacts affordable, reliable, and modern energy could be slightly positive services can enable the achievement of targets 8.5 and 8.6. Some of the poorest individuals in society (primarily in Carefully designed policies can parts of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and help decouple economic growth Sub-Saharan Africa) are forced to spend from environmental degradation in a significant amount of time acquiring the coming decades; reductions in fuel for cooking and keeping the lights on. Modern fuels and technologies annualised gdp/consumption growth (such as delivered gas powering a clean rates are expected to be small cooking-stove), whether made available in a centralised or distributed way, can alleviate these burdens, which often fall Energy-related curricula can improve disproportionately to women and children. science literacy in populations, Impacts can be substantial as time is especially for the poorest, giving freed up, which may be used to pursue access to better, more skilled jobs employment, educational, and leisure and wellness opportunities (Anenberg et al., 2012; Pachauri et al., 2012; Raji et al., 2015). Access to modern energy means children can attend school without having to make a sacrifice for the household (as their labour is often needed on the family farm, etc.), and electric lighting makes it easier to complete homework at 157 home outside daylight hours. Information the local labour force and the capacity of and communication technologies (e.g. individuals to be re-trained, as this has an computers and internet servers) can be impact on real wages (Babiker and Eckaus, used to enhance the learning process. 2007; Fankhauser et al., 2008; Guivarch et Street lighting via electrification can al., 2011); and (iv) the influence of subsidies enhance safety, allowing women to attend and tax revenue re-distribution (such as adult-education classes after dark where from carbon pricing in an effort to reduce they might otherwise feel it is unsafe to labour taxes) on the fuel and technology do so. In all cases, local economies would choices of businesses and individuals, benefit over the short and long term, especially for labour- vs. energy-intensive as resident knowledge and capacity can goods and services (Clarke et al., 2014). In be built up and institutionalised within today’s solar power industry, for instance, AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY communities. solar panels are largely produced in Ramping up renewables and boosting developing countries (e.g. China) but energy efficiency efforts (with new are widely purchased and installed by GOAL #7 technologies or via structural changes) households and businesses in wealthier can directly benefit certain segments of nations (e.g. Japan, North America, local, regional, and national economies. Western Europe, Australia/New Zealand). Solar and wind power, in particular, can It still takes local expertise to install such be key to boosting economic growth in devices, however; and that can provide developing regions where the resource much local benefit. The same may be the potentials are high (e.g. Northern case for energy-efficiency measures, such Africa). At the same time, strengthened as building retrofits or operating public financial institutions in developing transit, even if the materials and vehicles country communities are necessary for are manufactured elsewhere (Aether, providing capital, credit, and insurance to 2016). With these context dependencies local entrepreneurs attempting to enact in mind, an analysis and review of the change. Innovative technologies like literature by Blyth et al. (2014) showed solar and wind power, biofuels, and other a small increase in net employment as renewable energy technologies have the renewable energy and energy efficiency potential to raise wages and create new are ramped up over time, primarily jobs, either directly or indirectly, in the because these are generally more labour- countries where they are installed and/ intensive (in terms of electricity produced) or manufactured (Gohin, 2008; Creutzig than the fossil electricity systems they et al., 2013; irena, 2016). Yet, if fossil fuel replace. However, any stranding of fossil sectors contract as a result, then some assets during the transition process could businesses will need to re-tool and some hamper the competitiveness of energy workers will need re-training. Thus, it is providers, at least for a time (Bertram important to consider the net employment et al., 2015; Johnson et al., 2015). At the impacts of an expansion in renewable macro-level, global context, it is not energy and energy-efficient technologies/ clear whether scaling up renewables and consumption patterns. Complicating energy efficiency (or more generally, factors include (i) the cost of the jobs strengthening environmental regulations) created and how this may displace other will adversely affect a given country’s jobs in capital-constrained environments international competitiveness: although (Frondel et al., 2010); (ii) the share of the empirical evidence of past and existing technologies that are designed, engineered, regulations suggests competitiveness or manufactured within a country versus impacts may be fairly small, at least imported from abroad, because this affects compared to other factors such as the trade balance; (iii) the existing skills in prevailing market conditions or the quality 158 of the local workforce (Dechezleprêtre and KEY UNCERTAINTIES Sato, 2014). The distributional effects of the energy Long-term scenario studies using system transformation, both within and forward-looking energy-economic across countries are unknown. These modelling tools indicate that economies are important for understanding which can continue to grow while simultaneously populations benefit more or less, in terms decarbonising their energy systems of employment opportunities and income. through an up-scaling of renewables and energy efficiency (Clarke et al., 2014). KEY DIMENSIONS Essentially all of these analyses have Time: (1) In ldcs, well-targeted policies and focused their attention either at the measures may take time to implement, global level or on individual countries but once established the effects are long- AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY that are either already industrialised or lasting. (2) For employment, the impacts of are rapidly developing; none have done an energy system transformation may be the same for ldcs, for which target 8.1 more pronounced in the short term, before GOAL #7 aims to achieve an annual growth of at macro-economic adjustments (geographical least 7% of gdp. The global studies are and sectoral reallocations) have time to nevertheless useful for providing context, once again reach a stable equilibrium. as they take into account all countries simultaneously, and consider trade Geography: (1) Individuals in poor urban and spill-over effects between them. As and rural areas of ldcs will derive the stated in its Fifth Assessment Report, most benefit from energy access provision, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate in terms of increased educational and Change concluded (Clarke et al., 2014) employment opportunities. (2) The that in the most stringent climate change employment impacts from deploying mitigation pathways, where the expansion renewables and energy-efficiency measures of renewables and efficiency measures is are most likely to be felt in those countries largely consistent with the sdg 7 targets, that have the capacity to design, engineer, global consumption losses amount to and manufacture them (i.e. more advanced 1–4% in 2030 (median: 1.7%) and 2–6% in economies). (3) Potentials of renewables 2050 (median: 3.4%), relative to scenarios vary throughout the regions of the without substantial action to decarbonise world, and these differences will affect the economy. Such losses correspond to employment options. an annual average reduction in household consumption growth of 0.06–0.20%-points Governance: (1) Governments (at local, between now and 2030 (median: 0.09) and regional, and national levels) can create 0.06–0.17%-points through 2050 (median: incentives for innovative businesses to 0.09). In other words, annual reductions establish operations in their respective in growth are miniscule compared to the jurisdictions. (2) Governments may need to 7% per year growth target for ldcs, or the support businesses and workers during the lower growth rates characteristic of more energy transition. Policies that facilitate developed economies (e.g. 1–5% per year). labour mobility (e.g. flexible labour markets, reasonably priced housing, and targeted re-training) can help minimise negative effects for those workers who are displaced. The removal of fossil fuel subsidies can allow renewables to compete in the market more fairly. 159 Technology: Different renewable and have since followed, each preserving the energy-efficient technologies/consumption aim of promoting renewable electricity patterns will have different local impacts generation, even if the fit approach is on jobs and the economy. An important currently being phased out. consideration is what shares of a given These key pieces of energy legislation technology are designed, engineered, or have led to considerable job creation in manufactured within a country/region Germany (8.2, 8.3, 8.5, 8.6). The gross versus imported from abroad. This depends employment effects within the renewable entirely on the decisions of countless energy sector have been estimated at business leaders and is effectively 160,500 new jobs (2004), 277,300 (2007), impossible to predict from the outset. 399,800 (2012), and 371,400 (2013) (Lehr et al., 2015) – for reference, Germany’s total AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY Directionality: Bidirectional. The up-scaling workforce over this period was around of renewables and energy-efficient 40 million. Wind power and bioenergy technologies/consumption patterns can have been the biggest contributors to job GOAL #7 spur innovation and influence local, growth, with hydropower and geothermal regional, and national employment. At energy playing relatively small roles. In the same time, the countries and cities all cases, the number of jobs has grown likely to attract these industries will need fairly consistently over time. Solar power to have strong economies and pre-existing is a notable exception: employment in this skills and capacity within the labour force; sector rose quickly until 2011/2012 but has a strengthening of financial institutions since declined. in lesser developed countries can aid such The rise and fall of Germany’s solar efforts. power industry is well known, often held up as an example of how an industry can fail before reaching self-sufficiency. However, this telling of the story ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE masks important details underlying the RENEWABLE ENERGY macro-level dynamics (Pahle et al., 2016). DEPLOYMENT AND JOB The explanations typically given are that CREATION IN GERMANY solar companies were too optimistic about future demand, leading to an overcapacity Germany is one of the most advanced in production, and that strong competition countries in the world in terms of from low-cost producers in other parts renewable energy. Over the past few of the world, notably China, made it decades, it has seen some of the greatest difficult for German firms to compete deployment of wind, solar, bioenergy, and (bmwi, 2012; Lehr et al., 2015). Yet, what is other forms of renewables of any major often forgotten is that other sub-sectors of economy (7.2), and is a major producer of Germany’s solar industry have performed renewable energy technologies (8.2, 8.3). well over the past decade. German pv The so-called ‘Energiewende’, has also had equipment producers, for instance, a marked impact on employment within achieved a 50% share of the world market Germany – in most ways positive. as recently as 2015 (vdma, 2015). Germany was the first country to The German wind energy industry, enact a green electricity feed-in tariff which has had sustained success in recent (fit) scheme when it did so in 1991 with years, provides a counterexample to the the Electricity Feed-in Act. This was later broader solar industry dynamics. Why is followed by the Renewable Energy Sources this sector different? As Claudy et al. (2010) Act in 2000; several incarnations of this Act noted, German companies responsible for (‘Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz’ in German) manufacturing wind turbines and related 160 equipment (e.g. Siemens and enercon) have long been established worldwide; they also have strong comparative advantages vis-à-vis their global rivals. This was generally not the case for Germany’s solar industry as a whole. The critical question is whether Germany’s comparative advantages can be sustained over the long term and this depends on the skills of the work force and the ability of domestic firms to innovate technologically. Estimates of the net employment effects of AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY renewable energy deployment in Germany provide a less clear-cut picture than for gross employment. Different assessments GOAL #7 yield different answers: overall job creation (net of jobs lost in other sectors outside of renewable energy) may have been either positive or negative over the past decade (Blazejczak et al., 2013; Lutz et al., 2014). Job creation has been described as a ‘welcome side effect’ of Germany’s major policies to support renewable energy deployment (Pahle et al., 2016). Employment was never the express intent of those policies; the main objective has always been environmental concerns (such as reducing emissions causing climate change) and this continues to be the case. Nevertheless, employment aspects are thought to have played a role in creating political support for the ‘Energiewende’, especially with organised labour (e.g. trade groups) (Joas et al., 2016). Federal and state policies that attempt to nurture domestic job growth and industrial development are now emerging, either explicitly or implicitly, including financial tax incentives, favourable customs duties, export credit assistance, quality certification, and special loan structures (Lewis and Wiser, 2007; Kuntze and Moerenhout, 2012; Pahle et al., 2016). 161 SDG 7 + SDG 13

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

7.1 SDG 13* The universal energy access target is fully consistent with the goal of combatting climate 0 AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY change, as it is likely to have only a minor effect on global carbon emissions GOAL #7 7.2, 7.3 SDG 13* Decarbonising energy systems To achieve the temperature targets outlined through an up-scaling of + in the Paris Agreement, all countries will renewables and energy 2 need to decarbonise their energy systems efficiency is a necessary but through an up-scaling of renewables and not sufficient condition for energy efficiency. The pledged Nationally combatting climate change, Determined Contributions (NDCs) provide since less fossil energy means a good start, but these will need to be lower GHG emissions strengthened considerably over time

7.2, 7.3 13.2, To aid the rapid deployment [13.2] Sponsor careful assessments of high- 13.3, 13.a of renewables and energy- + impact areas for climate action and identify efficiency measures, countries 2 where the use of renewable energy and will benefit from integrating energy efficiency can make the most cost- climate change measures effective interventions. Policies should then such as carbon pricing into be designed to promote the incorporation national planning, improving of this knowledge into national and relevant education and regional strategies and planning. Energy awareness, and mobilising and climate policies must be interlinked funds for mitigation and must consider the entire lifecycle of energy services in order to avoid policy inconsistencies between reaching NDCs

[13.3] Provide funding for education, training and public-awareness programmes to help in informing local communities, in both industrialised and developing countries, about the importance of climate change mitigation and the positive contributions that renewable energy and energy efficiency efforts can make. This should be done within the broader context of national development strategies, considering all other SDGs *The 2030 Agenda text on SDG13 does not specifically mention a [13.a] Developing countries should design long-term temperature goal, but it their climate action programmes such that does refer to the United Nations they attract and use available international Framework Convention on Climate funding sources (e.g. from the Green Change (UNFCCC) process, and Climate Funds). By strengthening their the stated objective of the 2015 institutions and capacities to ensure their Paris Agreement is “well below domestic programmes are financially viable 2°C above pre-industrial levels and transparent, these countries should be and to pursue efforts to limit the able to increase the likelihood of obtaining temperature increase to 1.5°C”. funding support 162 KEY POINTS KEY INTERACTIONS sdg 7 has a direct interaction with sdg 13, Replacing a fossil-dominated energy since today’s fossil-dominated energy system by a cleaner, more efficient system is the main contributor to global system would contribute to major ghg emissions. While the sdg 13 targets do reductions in ghg emissions globally not mention specific goals for stabilising global climate, they do acknowledge that the United Nations Framework Convention A dramatic, essentially immediate on Climate Change (unfccc) is the primary up-scaling of renewables and energy international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to efficiency is necessary to limit global climate change. That forum has of course AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY climate change to 2°C, or well below, already taken action, with the result over the long term, the stated goal of being the Paris Agreement of December 2015 (unfccc, 2015), which endeavours

GOAL #7 the Paris Agreement. If achieved by to hold “the increase in the global all countries, the sdg 7 targets could average temperature to well below 2°c put the world on track to meeting above pre-industrial levels and to pursue this challenge efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°c above pre-industrial levels, recognising that this would significantly Pursuing the sdg 13 targets for better reduce the risks and impacts of climate integrating climate change measures change” (Art. 2). Informing that debate were many scientific studies considered into national planning, improving by the Intergovernmental Panel on education, awareness, and capacity Climate Change in its latest assessment on climate issues, and mobilising (Clarke et al., 2014). The ipcc concluded that a dramatic, essentially immediate funds for mitigation will help ensure up-scaling of renewables and energy that the sdg 7 targets for renewables efficiency is necessary to limit global and energy efficiency are achieved climate change to below 2°c over the long term. To achieve this, the vast majority of the world’s countries have pledged Achieving universal access to Nationally Determined Contributions modern energy services by 2030 will (ndcs) – individualised plans for how each not exacerbate climate change nation intends to reduce its emissions over the next few years. Renewables (7.2) and energy efficiency (7.3) are essential elements in nearly all cases. Hence, from this standpoint target 13.2 is already on its way to being achieved; and this will help underpin the sdg 7 targets. Similarly, targets 13.3 and 13.a are also critical for enabling the successful, rapid deployment of renewable and energy-efficient technologies and consumption patterns, especially in developing countries where financial capital may be in short supply, institutions weaker, and information about climate solutions scarcer. 163 Of particular importance to the poor KEY UNCERTAINTIES in developing countries (in South Asia, (1) The speed with which countries are Southeast Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa), willing to decarbonise their energy systems the scientific literature indicates that through a rapid up-scaling of renewables ensuring universal access to modern and energy-efficient technologies/ energy services by 2030 (7.1) is fully consumption patterns is unknown, as consistent with the sdg 13 and Paris is the ambition of such actions post- Agreement climate goals. In other words, 2030. It is the latter that will ensure that energy access provision will not exacerbate long-term climate goals are met. (2) Also climate change, as it is likely to have only unknown are the exact quantifications a minor effect on global carbon emissions, for what a proper, decent level of energy even if the modern fuels being supplied are access actually entails, in terms of the AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY still fossil fuels (e.g. natural gas, kerosene, full range of services required to escape lpg) (pbl Netherlands Environmental the poverty trap. These threshold levels, Assessment Agency, 2012; Riahi et in combination with fuel and technology GOAL #7 al., 2012; Rogelj et al, 2013). Although this choices, will determine the carbon may seem counter-intuitive, it should emissions of the world’s poorest. be remembered that, for instance, advanced (fossil) cooking-stoves are many KEY DIMENSIONS times more efficient than the outdated Time: While transforming the global (renewable) biomass cooking-stoves energy system will be a decades-long they replace. Decentralised renewable process, near-term and immediate actions systems (e.g. solar panels, small-scale promoting renewables and boosting wind, micro-hydro) offer additional low- energy efficiency are critical, given tight carbon possibilities (Kaundinya et al., 2009; cumulative budgets for ghg emissions Reddy et al., 2009). In discussing energy for staying well below the 2°c threshold. access for the world’s poorest (7.1), it is A unit of carbon released into the important to distinguish this target from atmosphere by the energy system between the broader goal of sustained economic now and 2030 will still be there next growth (sdg 8). Unless economic growth century and beyond. is decoupled from carbon emissions, which the scientific literature shows is Geography: Actions to promote renewables feasible, then emissions are likely to rise and boost energy efficiency in one part of considerably as the wealth and livelihoods the world are just as important as in any of developing country households improve. other, since climate change is a global The concern is that the world’s rural and problem. But some countries have bigger urban poor – those living on less than us$ energy systems than others, some have 1.25 per day – could fail to join this wave of more carbon-intensive energy systems, welfare improvement. And for this reason, and some rely more on transportation of dedicated energy access policies are critical goods for their gdp; while some counties for ensuring that, at the very least, their have two or all three of these conditions. basic needs for energy services are met. Such countries can have a larger impact on mitigating climate change through their national actions (e.g. China, India, usa, Europe, Brazil, Russia, Australia, Canada).

Governance: (1) Renewables and energy efficiency can be fostered and incentivised by a range of policy approaches, including market- and policy-based measures. Many 164 measures have already been tested at local, integrating climate change measures into regional, and national level. Experience national planning; improving education, gained in one jurisdiction can help to awareness, and capacity on climate issues; inform policy in another. Moreover, energy and mobilising funds for mitigation and climate policy must be accorded to will go a long way in ensuring that the phase out fossil fuels. Fossil fuel producing sdg 7 targets for renewables and energy states must acknowledge their climate efficiency are achieved. responsibility over the full lifecycle of their resources and act accordingly. (2) With regard to energy access provision, well- designed policies are needed to influence consumer preferences and ensure that AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY households make fuel- and technology- purchasing decisions that are optimal both for them and for society as a whole. GOAL #7

Technology: (1) Advancements in technology are critical for decarbonising the global energy system, namely in the adoption of renewables on the supply side (solar, wind, hydro, geothermal electricity generation; biofuels). Carbon capture and storage technologies must be deployed on fossil fuel plants as well as on biomass- to-energy plants in order to provide opportunity for negative emissions capacity worldwide. The demand side is more complex: designing more energy- efficient devices is necessary, but just as importantly technology adoption depends heavily on human behaviour and consumer preferences. However, it is the sector where some of the most important abatement on emissions can be achieved. (2) Similarly, for the provision of energy access, poverty largely determines the willingness and likelihood of low-income households to adopt modern fuels, cooking-stoves, and lighting technologies.

Directionality: Bidirectional. A dramatic, essentially immediate up-scaling of renewables and energy efficiency is necessary to limit global climate change to well below 2°C over the long term, the stated goal of the Paris Agreement. The sdg 7 targets, if achieved by all countries, could put the world on track to meeting this challenge. In the reverse direction, pursuing the sdg 13 targets for better 165 E ITERATIO SDG 7 WITH OTHER GOALS

+ SDG 1 + SDG 2 + SDG 3 + SDG 6 + SDG 8 + SDG 13 AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY GOAL #7

SCORE SCORE

+3 +3

+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2

+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 / / / -1 / / -1 -1 -1 -1 -1

*The 2030 Agenda text

on SDG13 does not

specifically mention a

long-term temperature

goal, but it does refer to the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process, and the stated -3 objective of the 2015 -3 Paris Agreement is “well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C”. SCORE +3 -3 0 + SDG E ITERATIO

SDG + 2 -1 0 / + 2 7 1 WITHOTHERGOALS +

SDG -1 0 / + 2 + 2 2 +

SDG +

1 + 2 + 1 -1 3 0 / + 166 GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

SDG -1 + 1 + 2 6 + 2 +

SDG +

1 -1 0 / + 1 -1 8 0 / +

SDG ture increaseto1.5°C”. to limitthetempera- and topursueefforts pre-industrial levels “well below2°Cabove Paris Agreementis objective ofthe2015 and thestated (UNFCCC) process, on ClimateChange Framework Convention to theUnitedNations goal, butitdoesrefer long-term temperature specifically mentiona on SDG13doesnot *The 2030Agendatext 0 + 2 + 2 13 +3 0 -3 SCORE 167 A GUIDE TO SDG INTERACTIONS: FROM SCIENCE TO IMPLEMENTATION modelling. engineering, andintegrated systems atmospheric chemistry, healthsciences), sciences, agriculturalhydrology, economics), naturalsciences(climate science, law, communicationstudies, human geography, education,political (sociology, anthropology, demography, disciplines, especiallyinthesocialsciences work betweenscientistsacrossmultiple summarised herewillrequirecollaborative will arisefromsuchinnovations. remain regardingtheknowledgegapsthat printing, amongothers.Realquestions ‘big data’, theInternet ofThings,and3D are alreadyshapingthefuture,suchas of transformationaldrivingforcesthat general uncertaintiesrelatedtoanumber sdg-specific knowledgegapsarethemore section. Moreover, transcendingthese interactions consideredintheprevious as itdraws onlyfromthetarget-level This listisnotintendedtobeexhaustive analytical attentioninthecomingyears. gaps wherescientistsshouldfocustheir section identifiesanumberofknowledge this of interactionsaffected bysdg 7, more holisticviewofthecomplexweb as theevidencebaseadvances. reported herecouldchangeinthefuture that thetarget-levelinteractionscores possible. Thisalsoimplies,byextension, comprehensive assessmentshouldbe and theevidencebasegrows,amore and direction).Asthescienceadvances geography, governance,technology, dependencies (i.e.withrespecttotime, interactions oridentifytheirparticular enough toscoresometarget-level The stateofscienceisnotyetrobust KNOWLEDGE GAPS Filling thegapsinknowledge To providedecision-makerswitha

modelling frameworks(forfuturepolicy). cy) andnational-global-scaleintegrated empirical studies(forpastandexistingpoli- and farmincomes.Researchshouldinclude ant impactsonfoodprices,accesstofood, scale bioenergyutilisation,andtheresult- The indirectland-usechangeimpactsoflarge- to escapethepovertytrap. in termsofthefullrangeservicesrequired decent levelofenergyaccessactuallyentails, work todoindeterminingwhataproper, Researchers andanalystsstillhave some and windresourcesintothe energygrid. equipment forintegrating intermittent solar side powermanagementof waterprocess The potentialbenefitsofreal-timedemand- water availability. hydrological conditions,asthis affects The impactsofthefutureclimateonlocal ‘needs’ ofdevelopingcountryhouseholds. predict thefuturewaterconsumption agricultural. Itisespeciallydifficultto non-energy purposes:municipal,industrial, The magnitudeoffuturewaterdemandsfor studies. should focusonobservational/empirical cycling) onhealthandwell-being.Research The impactsof‘activetravel’ (walkingand different partsofcities/regions). (for different socio-economicgroupsin benefits of renewables and energy efficiency The distributionalimpactsofairqualityco- 7 7 7 7

+ + + +

2 1 6 3

168 7 + 8 The net employment and competitiveness impacts of the energy system transformation on local, regional and national economies, particularly over the near term. The distributional effects of the energy system transformation, within and across countries. This is important for understanding who benefits more and who benefits less, for instance in terms of employment opportunities and incomes. What empirical case studies of past and AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY existing energy policy interventions show about the net impacts on local, regional and national employment and GOAL #7 competitiveness

The lack a welfare metric that goes beyond the strictly economic formulation of gdp.

How energy related curricula can help science literacy and promote better employment and competitiveness?

How to minimise adverse side-effects on those that may lose from the energy system transformation (principally businesses and workers in fossil energy extraction and conversion).

The role of social innovation in decoupling of energy consumption from economic growth.

7 + 13 The role of human behaviour in the adoption of energy-efficient, low-carbon technologies/consumption patterns and how policies can influence consumer preferences toward choices that are beneficial for both individuals and wider society.

How best to increase awareness and capacity about solutions to climate change. The potential for the democratisation of the low-carbon energy system, including greater decentralisation, such as energy cooperatives and other community-based energy initiatives, bioenergy villages and renewable energy municipalities. 169 GOAL #7 AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY are alsorelevantforotherinteractions. interactions, many ofthesepolicyoptions Although addressed to specifictarget avoided orminimisedasfarpossible. pursued inconcert,withpotentialconflicts way thatthetargetsofvarioussdgsare target interactionsinpractice,sucha for howpolicycouldaddressthespecific level interactionssectionprovideoptions achievement ofthesdgswell. indefinitely. This wouldnotservethe approach’ topolicymakingcouldpersist to happeneffectively. Otherwise,the‘silo national tolocal)willberequiredforthis of government(frominternationalto ministries, aswellacrossdifferent levels across governmentdepartmentsand engagement andenhancedcoordination integrated, holisticperspective.Pro-active requires policyframeworksthattakean minimised oravoided. Morethanever, this as possibleandnegativeoutcomesare outcomes areachievedasfrequently be importantforensuringthatthepositive government-led actionsandpolicieswill various With somany interactionsbetweenthe COMMENTS CONCLUDING The sixsummarytablesinthetarget- sdg targets,itisclearthat

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United Nations, New York. un, 2016. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2016, United Nations, New York. unfccc, 2015. Paris Agreement. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (unfccc), 21st Conference of the Parties of the unfccc, Paris, France. van der Horst, D. and S. Vermeylen, 2011. Spatial scale and social impacts of biofuel production. Biomass and Bioenergy, 35:2435-2443. van Vliet, M.T., D. Wiberg, S. Leduc and K. Riahi, 2016. Power-generation system vulnerability 174 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER Martin Visbeck Sebastian Unger Carole Durussel Yvonne Waweru Barbara Neumann Stefanie Schmidt DEVELOPMENT SUSTAINABLE RESOURCES FOR SEAS ANDMARINE USE THEOCEANS, AND SUSTAINABLY SDG14 CONSERVE

175 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER 176 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER 177 INTRODUCTION

sdg 14 focuses on human interactions with cutting role in the 2030 Agenda, and sdg 14 the ocean, seas and marine resources. interacts with all 16 other sdgs. The nature It is underpinned by targets addressing and intensity of these interactions is highly conservation and sustainable use of the context-specific and differs across the sdgs ocean, seas and marine resources including and their associated targets. coastal zones, and targets referring to The text that follows provides an capacity building and ocean governance. overview of interactions at the goal level Oceans cover more than 70% of the planet’s between sdg14 – the ‘entry level goal’ for surface and play a crucial role in planetary this assessment – and the other 16 sdgs. resilience and the provision of vital Taking into account all the underlying ecosystem services. The status of the ocean targets of this entry goal, a set of key and several of its resources and functions interactions is identified between the have been deteriorating over the past sdg14 targets and those of other sdgs, century. Oceans, seas and coastal zones are principally interactions within the range subject to pollution, overexploitation and of the highest magnitude or strongest climate change impacts such as warming, impacts based on available scientific coastal erosion, sea-level rise, ocean literature and expert knowledge. The acidification and deoxygenation. Several typology and seven-point scale for coastal regimes are under noticeable characterising the range of positive and stress, compromising the services they negative interactions described in the provide. sdg 14 and its seven targets and opening chapter to this report is used to three means of implementation are aimed assess the selected target-level interactions at an urgent need to transform human and the context in which they typically behaviour toward sustainable practices occur. Illustrative examples from different when exploiting marine resources, and world regions show how these linkages to taking action to preserve productive manifest themselves in practice. Policy and resilient oceans and seas. The seven options are identified for how to maximise targets largely reflect commitments under positive interactions and minimise other international frameworks such as negative interactions between now and the commitment to maintain or restore 2030, and beyond. The chapter concludes fish stocks to levels that can produce with a list of key knowledge gaps related maximum sustainable yields (made in to the interactions studied. 2002 under the Johannesburg Plan) or the commitment to conserve at least 10% of marine and coastal areas (provided under the cbd Aichi Target 11). However, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development puts use and conservation of the ocean and its resources, including coastal areas, into the wider sustainable development context for the first time. The ocean space in general and sdg 14 in particular have a cross- 178 KEY INTERACTIONS AT GOAL LEVEL

14 + 1 often subject to wasteful fishing practices. sdg14 is a critical enabler of poverty Reducing fishing effort on wild stocks alleviation, and environmentally to sustainable levels will improve fish sustainable economic growth and social stocks and provide a reliable food source well-being (‘blue growth’), particularly in the long-term. Technology transfer and in Small Island Developing States (sids) research capacity building in aquaculture and Least Developed Countries (ldcs). and selective fishing can help enhance Sustained incomes and economic benefits productive capacity and income generation from fisheries, aquaculture and tourism for small-scale food producers. Creating sectors depend heavily on the health mpas can provide fishery benefits and of oceans and coasts. Strengthening remove pressure from key fishing areas the resilience of oceans and coasts, for such as spawning grounds and nurseries, example through conservation and and can enable fish stocks in adjacent protection of coastal wetlands, will help areas to rebound. A potential negative reduce shock exposure and enhance the side-effect of mpas however could be resilience of poor coastal populations to that access to fishery resources and areas extreme climate-related events. However, for aquaculture is limited. Increasing blue growth policy interventions aimed at agriculture productivity and production for achieving rapid economic growth to lift enhanced food security might also impair people out of poverty might impair ocean ocean health through increased pollution health and promote overexploitation of and nutrient run-off. marine resources. Also, creating marine protected areas (mpas) can constrain 14 + 3 access to resources and ecosystem services Many people live in coastal areas and necessary for poverty alleviation. Similarly, depend on the food resources that the prohibiting certain subsidies could limit oceans and seas provide. Contamination options for developing fisheries sectors. of coastal zones or seafood with pollutants can cause health problems. Reducing and 14 + 2 preventing marine pollution will thus Seafood, whether farmed or caught in the help reduce pollution related deaths and wild, is globally important as a source illnesses. In addition, healthy seas and of protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, coasts can contribute to the overall health calcium, zinc, and iron for one billion and well-being of coastal communities people. Sustainable fisheries and aqua- and tourists. The ocean is a biodiversity culture backed by healthy oceans and hotspot, home to a wide range of animals, coasts are a necessary prerequisite to plants (algae) and bacteria that are achieve food security and improved nutri- potentially relevant for the research and tion, and to establish sustainable food development of vaccines and medicines. production systems in islands and coastal However, exploring marine biodiversity regions, particularly in sids and ldcs. for genetic and biochemical resources However, most stocks are already fished (‘bioprospecting’) as part of marine at or beyond sustainable limits and are pharmacology may have negative effects 179 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER sustainable development,globally. can contributetobuildingacultureof sustainable resourceuseandconservation and sids.Inreturn,healthy oceans, important fordevelopingcountries (essentially alltargets)willbeespecially quality educationandtrainingundersdg4 in themarinefield,andactiontakenon and transferofknowledgetechnology affairs. Investment incapacitybuilding context ofbluegrowth)andenvironmental policymaking, society, economy (e.g.inthe including theeducationsector, andacross ocean developmentinallsectors, to supportandcontributesustainable trained andskilledpeoplearerequired understanding ofoceanissues.Likewise, of educationisimportanttoensureglobal programmes earlyandthroughalllevels literacy intothecurriculaofeducation ocean governance.Thus,introducing resource useincludingfisheries,aswell marine pollution,oceanacidification,and under sdg14,especiallythoseaddressing will supporttheachievementoftargets oceans, seasandmarineresources.This conservation andsustainableuseofthe ocean andseaserviceswillpositivelyaffect training andawareness programmeson Knowledge andcapacitybuilding, new opportunitiesforincome andemploy- marine andmaritimesectors cancreate underpaid. Sustainabledevelopment of women) theirroleisoften overlookedand of employeesintheseafoodindustryare in somesectors(forexample,roughly50% a significantcontributionmadebywomen tunities andresourcesforwomen.Despite, male-dominated, limitingaccesstooppor- in fisheriesorshippingaretraditionally Activities ‘atsea’andleadershippositions marine andmaritimeeconomy sectors. Equal opportunitiesareanissueinmany overexploitation. causes disturbanceorpollution,triggers on oceansustainabilityincaseswherethis 14 14

+ +

4 5 to relatedgenderissues. erment ofwomenwhereattentionispaid ogy transfercancontributetotheempow- knowledge, capacitybuildingandtechnol- economic resources.Likewise,promoting ute toensureequalrightsnaturaland markets ormaritimesectorscancontrib- on accesstomarineresources,seafood mainstreaming ofpoliciesandmeasures ment opportunitiesforwomen.Gender and availability. be theresultingimpactonwaterquality aquaculture aspartofbluegrowthmight effect ofstrengtheningcoastaltourismor environment. Apotentialnegativeside- also limitwastewaterflowtothe systems toreducewaterdemandwould replacing openbyclosedrecirculation and sustainableuse.Forexample, ecosystems andsupporttheirconservation positive feedbacksonmarineandcoastal increasing water-useefficiencymay have and sanitationmanagement.Inreturn, to water-useefficiencyandlocalwater Sustainable aquaculturecancontribute and restoringwater-relatedecosystems. management andcontributetoprotecting can supportintegratedwaterresource Conservation ofmarineandcoastalareas to improvingwaterqualityandviceversa. Preventing marinepollutioncontributes links tosustainablewatermanagement. water actors.Oceansustainabilitydirectly addresses themultiplicityanddiversityof integrated watermanagementthat require sustainablemanagementthrough in thehydrological cycleandtherefore Oceans andseasaremajorsourcesofwater contribute totheglobalrenewable energy Different typesofoceanenergyalready through reducedcarbondioxide emissions. and helpreduceoceanacidification affordability willenhancesustainability improving energyefficiency, reliabilityand energy intheglobalmixand Increasing theshareofrenewable 14 14

+ +

6 7 180 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER health. growth, whichcaninturnimpactocean restoration measureslimiteconomic offs arepossible whereconservationand are mutuallysupportive.However, trade- growth fromenvironmental degradation, and productiondecouplingeconomic global resourceefficiencyinconsumption marine resourcesandtheimprovementof Striving forhealthy oceans,coastsand sustained long-termeconomicgrowth. job creationandinnovation,enable employment, educationandtraining, sdg competences necessaryforachievingthe strengthened professionalskillsand marine technologywillhelpcreatethe Capacity buildingandtransferof employment andeconomicgrowth. aquaculture andtourismsupports and maritimesectorssuchasfisheries, regions. Sustainablegrowthofmarine particularly inislandstatesandcoastal opportunities fordecentwork, sustainable economicgrowthand can directlycontributetopromoting oceans, seasandmarineresources Conservation andsustainableuseof and windfarming. for examplebyintegratingaquaculture synergies withotherusesarealsopossible, areas, fisheries,aquaculture,tourism).But other uses(coastalandmarineprotected by increasingspatialcompetitionwith may have negativeimpacts;forexample infrastructure incoastalandmarineareas mix. Ontheotherhand,moreenergy renewable energyintheglobal expansion andhelpincreasetheshareof technology inthisfieldcouldsupport marine researchandtransferof states andcoastalregions.Strengthening further inthefuture,particularlyisland supply andhave thepotentialtoexpand 14

+ 14 targets,andwillalsosupportyouth

8 development incoastalregions. industrialisation andinfrastructure establishment ofmpa For example,reducingpollutionorthe conservation andrestorationmeasures. a balancemustbefoundbetweenocean the oceans.Trade-offs may occurwhere of conservationandsustainableuse technologies may supporttheachievement industrialisation, andresearch fostering sustainableinfrastructure, states andcoastalregions.Likewise, promote innovation,especiallyinisland support industrialisationefforts and marine resourcesandtradeoptionscan (i.e. blue-growth)andequalaccessto of marineandmaritimeactivities ecosystem servicesforthedevelopment Sustainable useofmarineandcoastal Directing officialdevelopment assistance, elimination ofcertainfisheries subsidies. negotiations, whichmay supportthe Trade Organizationfisheriessubsidies engagement ofldcsandsidsintheWorld institutions canhelpstrengthenthe within globaleconomicandfinancial developing countriesindecision-making growth. Promotingtherepresentationof to limitoptionsforeconomicandincome marine resourcesalsohasthepotential ocean healthandconservingcoastal reduce inequalities.However, improving extreme povertywhichallhelpto livelihoods andwell-being,eliminating of othersdgsaimedatimproving ocean healthalsofosterstheachievement inclusion. Restoringandmaintaining markets helpsachievesocio-andeconomic with accesstomarineresourcesand providing small-scaleartisanalfishers and socialprotectionpolicies.Moreover, term whensupportedbyfiscal,wage, greater in-countryequalityoverthelong- example, bluegrowthwillhelpachieve growth inlow-incomepopulations.For sustainable resourcebaseforincome Healthy oceansandcoastsprovidea 14 14

+ +

10 9 s canconstrain 181 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER their conservationandrestoration. building materialsareremoved,andon on coastalecosystemsfromwhichthe materials may have negative impacts construction ofnewbuildingsusinglocal or transportupgrading.Promotingthe for urbanisation,housing,infrastructure conservation andrestorationlimitoptions may occurwhereoceanandcoastal and sustainablesettlements.Conflicts and thedevelopmentofsafe,resilient the coastalandmarineenvironment practices andconservationefforts in occur betweensustainablemanagement seas atlarge.Similarbi-directionalbenefits minimising thedegradationofoceansand improving sewermanagementand aim atreducingenergyconsumption, and environmentally friendlycitiesthat and thedevelopmentofsafehousing between thereductioninmarinepollution on coastalecosystems.Synergiesarelikely construction, hasmany negativeimpacts coastal protectioninfrastructureorport related tonewusessuchasaquaculture, and changeincoastalareas,whichisalso This expansiveandintensifiedutilisation and sustainablecitiescommunities. relation betweenoceansustainability than inlandareas,whichimpliesadirect densities, growthandurbanisationtrends areas generallyshowhigherpopulation in coastalareas,andasaresult of allmegacitiesworldwidearelocated by coastsandcoastalzones.About 65% activities andnaturalresourcesprovided driven bytheopportunitiesforeconomic settlement andurbandevelopment,often Coasts areanattractivezoneforhuman resources fortheireconomicgrowth. especially forsidsthatrelyonthese also providegreatereconomicbenefits sustainable useofmarineresourcescan and foreigndirectinvestment towardsthe 14

11 maritime transportation,amongothers). ocean-based industries(fisheries,tourism, consumption andproductionpatternsin has thepotentialtosupportsustainable the oceans,seasandmarineresources directly, conserving andsustainablyusing consumption andproduction.More transformations towardssustainable drivers ofoceandeclinecouldsupport ocean literacyandunderstandingofthe for reducingmarinelitter. Improving land-based sourcesisaprerequisite Recycling andpreventionofwastefrom from land-basedandoffshore industries. will alsohelpminimisemarinepollution; of chemicalsthroughouttheirlifecycle agriculture. Achievingsoundmanagement through reducednutrientinputsfrom sustainable fisheries,andmarinepollution positive impactsonecosystemprotection, and consumerlevel,forexample,willhave per capitaglobalfoodwasteattheretail and reducingmarinepollution.Halving managing marineandcoastalecosystems critical forendingoverfishing,sustainably resources orthereductionofwastes,are such assustainablemanagementofnatural Sustainable consumptionandproduction, food security, sustainablelivelihoods, (such asbypromotingpoverty eradication, communities toclimate-related hazards and strengtheningtheresilienceofcoastal from reducingrisksandvulnerabilities sequestration). Furtherco-benefitsarise and climatemitigation(throughcarbon (e.g. protectionfromcoastalhazards) contribute bothtoclimateadaptation saltmarshes andseagrassmeadows Coastal ecosystemssuchasmangroves, and humansystemstoclimatechange. adaptive capacityofboththenatural to strengtheningtheresilienceand coasts andmarineresourcescontributes and protectingthehealthofoceans, affected byclimatechange.Restoring climate regulators,butarealsodirectly Ocean andcoastalecosystemsareessential 14 14

+ +

12 13 182 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER towards climatechange. reduce resilienceandadaptivecapacity restoration ofcoastalecosystemsand may furtherconstraintheprotectionand sea-level riseandrelatedeffects. This and oceanacidification,butalsothrough ecosystems, suchasthroughwarming increase climaterelatedimpactsoncoastal change andreduceglobalwarmingwill other hand,failingtomitigateclimate particularly onmarinemammals.Onthe impacts onthemarineenvironment, energy productionmay have negative Offshore installationsforrenewable for trade-offs islimitedbutpossible. and conservationefforts. Thepotential will positivelyaffect oceanmanagement levels ofcarbondioxideinseawater, and already wellunderway owingtoincreased change willhelplimitoceanacidification, In turn,achievingactiononclimate climate changeplanningandmanagement. and mitigationensuremoreeffective capacity onclimatechangeadaptation change, itwillcontributetoraising technology transferinrelationtoclimate as atopicineducation,trainingand sustainable oceanmanagementisincluded capacity buildingorbiodiversity).Where tion, erosionandsedimentation. sources, suchasnon-point sourcepollu- through reducedimpacts from land-based health ofoceansandseas:benefitsderived freshwater ecosystemswillalso benefitthe ration andprotectionofterrestrial species protection.Conservation,resto- habitat degradation,biodiversitylossand resources contributestothereductionof conservation andsustainableuseofmarine coastal habitatsandspecies,whileocean invasive speciesalsoconcernmarine and ing, benefitsharingofgeneticresourcesor tive oceans.Issuessuchaswildlifetraffick- systems andsupportshealthy andproduc- biodiversity improvestheresilienceofeco- yond nationaljurisdiction.Haltinglossof biodiversity, both inareaswithinandbe- Ocean andcoastalsystemsarehotspotsfor 14

15 the oceans. important toachievesdg16withregard governance forsustainabilitywillbe In thereversedirection,improvingocean practices ortoprotectmarineecosystems. organisations toendunsustainablefishing capacities ofmarinemanagement consistent withaimingtoimprove representative decision-makingisfully as wellinclusive,participatoryand accountable andtransparentinstitutions, oceans andtheirresources.Aimingfor conservation andsustainableuseof Stocks Agreement,wouldenhancethe related agreements,suchastheunFish on theLaw oftheSea(unclos)and law asreflectedbytheunConvention bribery. Implementinginternational and thereductionofcorruption unregulated andunreported(iuu)fisheries synergies existbetweentacklingillegal, justice andstronginstitutions.Specific it willcontributetodeliveringpeace, be essentialtoachievesdg14.Likewise, and representativedecision-making,will and responsive,inclusive,participatory accountable andtransparentinstitutions Ocean governance,buildingoneffective, partnerships. policy coherenceandmulti-stakeholder exchange, capacitybuilding,better of financialaid,strengthenedtechnology benefit particularlyfromthemobilisation resource use.Achievementofsdg14will and often far-reachingeffects ofmarine of marineecosystemsandthecross-cutting resources, owingtotheglobalconnectivity the contextofoceans,seasandmarine development areespeciallyimportantin sdgs. Globalpartnershipsforsustainable the meansofimplementationforall the 2030Agenda,aimingatstrengthening sdg17 isanimportantbuildingblockfor 14 14

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16 17 183 KEY INTERACTIONS AT TARGET-LEVEL

sdg 14 is an integral part of the 2030 Six goals were selected for detailed Agenda, linking to all 16 other sdgs. This analysis, each accompanied by an section analyses some of these interactions illustrative example: with a selected set of sdgs in detail at the target-level. sdgs were selected based on SDG 1 the strength of their interlinkages with Western Indian Ocean sdg 14 and the magnitude and scale of SDG 2 impact in relation to the overall objective Kenya and Tanzania of the 2030 Agenda, while ensuring a SDG 8 balanced consideration of the economic, Baltic Sea social and environmental dimensions. SDG 11 Target-level interactions are judged to Australia fall within one of seven categories and SDG 12 are scored accordingly: indivisible (+3), G7 Action Plan to combat Marine Litter reinforcing (+2), enabling (+1), consistent SDG 13 (0), constraining (-1), counteracting (-2), Paris Agreement and cancelling (-3). Following a generic analysis of the selected interactions, specific examples are provided to illustrate how interactions unfold in different geographical and policy contexts. As oceans are highly interconnected ecosystems not confined by national boundaries, national, regional and global examples are provided. SDG 14 + SDG 1

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

14.2 1.1, 1.2 Healthy and productive oceans benefit Raise awareness of local communities on the small-scale fishers, improve tourism + importance of healthy oceans, and sustainable use of revenue and increase potential for blue 2 coastal and marine resources for their livelihoods and carbon markets sustained income

14.2 1.5 Healthy oceans and coasts help reduce Strengthen the role of marine and coastal ecosystems vulnerability to climate hazards + in climate change adaptation in national and regional 2 adaptation strategies and policies

14.3 1.1, 1.2 Minimising and addressing the impacts of ocean acidification will improve fish + stocks, livelihoods and incomes 2

14.4 1.1, 1.2 Sustainable fisheries stabilise income Invest proceeds from fishing in produced capital (e.g. and create opportunities for value- + fishing and transport vessels, ports, roads) and human addition 2 and institutional capacities

Develop recording and reporting methods whereby artisanal and recreational fishers are engaged in data collection and assessment of catch trends

14.4 1.1, 1.2 Higher value-added economic activities may displace livelihoods and increase - poverty 1

14.4 1.4 Sustainable fisheries stabilise income and create opportunities for value- + addition 2

14.5 1.1, 1.2 MPAs restrict access and can create competition for scarce resources and - so constrain poverty reduction efforts 1

14.7 1.1, 1.2 Sustainable tourism, fisheries, coastal Establish the social, economic and environmental agriculture, mining, and mariculture can + baselines for blue growth and develop roadmaps for create jobs and reduce income poverty 3 key sectors with trackable milestones backed with environmental protection goals 14.7 1.1, 1.2 Increased economic activity creates more pressure on coastal and marine - Designate marine spaces for different social, resources and more environmental 1 economic and environmental uses and objectives and harm identify the trade-offs between competing uses

Create sovereign wealth funds to ensure flow of benefits after non-renewable resources are exhausted, avoid crowding out other economic sectors, and develop measures to avoid the impacts of inflation on the poor and vulnerable

14.7 1.3 Creating jobs in sustainable tourism, Develop social protection policies and invest fisheries, coastal agriculture, mining, + proceeds from blue growth in social protection and mariculture can enable social 2 programmes for the poor and most vulnerable. For protection programmes example, old-age pensions, health insurance, and unemployment insurance 185 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER the localeconomy and canleadtolong-termcosts resources andenvironmental harms pressure oncoastalandmarine poverty alleviation cancreatemore Higher economicactivitiesaimedat and mostvulnerableisnecessary protection programmesforthepoor expansion anddevelopment ofsocial and development, simultaneous more inclusivepatternofgrowth income poverty. To promotea can createdecentjobsthatreduce coastal agricultureinsidsandldcs Sustainable tourism,fisheriesand to extremeclimateevents reducing theirvulnerabilityrelated improving theirlivelihoodsand direct linkstopoverty eradication, and marinehabitatshave themost and managementofcriticalcoastal livelihoods. Protection,restoration directly andindirectlysupporttheir and marineenvironments that the mostfromchangesincoastal income countriesarelikelytosuffer Poor coastalcommunitiesinlow KEY POINTS (14.2) maintainbiodiversityand rebuild of criticalcoastalandmarine habitats Protection, restorationand management and health)(Liuetal., services, education,training,sanitation non-monetary factorsincludingecosystem multidimensional poverty(deprivationof the contextofendingincomepovertyand sdg KEY INTERACTIONS 14 targetsinteractwithsdg 2015; ilo,2016). 1 targetsin of populationswhomay loseaccesstothe with thesocialandeconomic objectives 2007) (1.1,1.2).However, mpas canconflict long-term poverty(FisherandChristopher, an importantfactorinthealleviationof ecosystems, habitatsandbiodiversityis conserve degradedandthreatenedspecies, threaten livelihoodsandincreasepoverty. value-added economicactivitiesmay newer advancedtechnologiesfromhigher imported technologies,anddeploying replacing indigenoustechnologiesby facilities, andtraining(1.4).However, to credit,processingtechnology, storage business opportunitiesinexpandingaccess Value-addition alsohaspotentialtocreate economic resources(uneca,2016)(1.4). have littleornoaccesstonaturaland and marketing)forwomeninAfrica who jobs inthepost-harvestsectors(processing effort (Kelleher, 2015)(14.4)andcancreate also hasadirectlinktoreducingfishing reduction efforts. Increasingvalue-addition recover slowlyandthismay delay poverty countries. However, certainfishstocksmay billion peryearforSub-SaharanAfrican iuu fishingwillprovideuptous$1.5–2 poverty (1.1,1.2).Forexample,addressing (World Bank,2009),andtoreducing and neteconomicbenefitsfromfisheries or increasingproductivity, profitability, (14.4) hasadirectlinktostabilisingand/ levels anderadicatingiuufisheries economic impacts(1.1,1.2). with noinsurance)(1.5)andtheassociated the vulnerabilityofpoorpeople(often and stormsurges,canhelpreduce related eventssuchascoastalflooding and businessesfromextremeclimate- habitats protecthomes,communities, markets. At thesametime,coastal potential forincomefrombluecarbon biodiversity andfishstocks,increased revenue fromtourism,enhanced benefits oftarget14.2includeimproved eradicating poverty(1.1,1.2).Thenet linked toimprovedlivelihoodsand fish stocksandarethereforeinextricably The creationofmpas (14.5)inorderto Adapting fisheriestosustainable 186 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER new povertytraps(Olssonetal., prolonging existingpovertyandcreating make povertyreductionmoredifficult; weather patternsandsea-levelrisemay other hand,significantchangesinlocal livelihoods andincomes(1.1,1.2).Onthe stability offishstocksandassociated reefs, andonthesize,productivity species likeshellfish,lossofcoral the negativeconsequencesoncommercial of oceanacidification(14.3)willreduce minimising andaddressingtheimpacts and speciesarenotfullyunderstood, health ofmarineecosystems,habitats economy (Kelleher, 2015). job lossesandlong-termcoststothelocal can leadtodecreasedeconomicactivity, environmental harmfrompollution,and on coastalandmarineresourcesmore economic activitycancreatemorepressure skills training(1.3).However, increased pensions, unemploymentinsuranceand insurance, old-agepensions,disability design optionscanincludesocial the available resourcesineachcountry, protection programmes.Dependingon development andexpansionofsocial synergies requiresthesimultaneous potential toincreaseincome,maximising (1.1, 1.2).Whilethesesectorshave the create jobsformany coastalpopulations agriculture, mining,andmariculturecan development oftourism,fisheries,coastal economic development.Sustainable on coastalandmarineresourcesfor and ldcs,whicharehighlydependent target 14.7andpovertyeradicationinsids are shared,forexample. and benefitsoflostfishingopportunities developed andmanagedhowthecosts therefore dependsonhowtheyare poverty reductiongoals.Theirsuccess resources thereinandcanthusconstrain While climatechangeimpactsonthe There aremany linkagesbetween 2014). technologies byimported technologies, sectors andthereplacement ofindigenous lead tojoblossesinsome traditional As thetransitiontoablueeconomy may across scalesandsectorsisessential.(2) marine resources.Integratedgovernance sustainable useofnaturalcoastaland capital forpovertyalleviationandpromote acknowledge theimportanceofnatural directed atreducingpovertyshould competition. Policiesandstrategies needs ofthepoorandtotacklespatial made withafocusonaddressingthe needed toensurethatinvestments are Governance: (1)Policiesandstrategiesare products. of fishorothercoastalandmarine hinterland communitiesthroughtrading may bespill-overeffects toadjacent cities inlessdevelopedregions.(2)There areas andinformalsettlementsofcoastal coastal communities,butalsoforurban mainly aconcernforruralislandand Geography: (1)Geographicalcontextis stocks. restoration ofdegradedhabitatsorfish programmes takestime,asdoes infrastructure andestablishingsupport their statusanddynamics.Building resources andecosystemsdependson Time: Thetimeneededtorestorenatural KEY DIMENSIONS area toanother. to extrapolatefromonespecies,habitator ly speciesspecificwhichmakesitdifficult The impactofoceanacidificationitishigh- could inturnbenefitcoastallivelihoods.(3) of degradedhabitatsandstocks,which protected areassupporttheregeneration tablish: whilelimitingaccesstoresources, overall effects ofmpa profitability tosupportlivelihoods.(2)The able yieldandatthesametimeensure levels thatcanproducemaximumsustain- taining fishbiomassandfishing effort to (1) Themainuncertaintyrelatesto- KEY UNCERTAINTIES s aredifficulttoes- 187 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER sustainably useoceanandcoasts. capacities andpossibilitiestoconserve poverty alleviationwillstrengthen to povertyalleviation.At thesametime, for oceanecosystemservicestocontribute use ofmarineresourcesareaprerequisite directional. Healthy oceansandsustainable Directionality: Interlinkagesarebi- control andfacilitytechnology. specific innovationsingear, monitoring, aquaculture andtourismmay needcontext Technology: Buildingsustainablefisheries, provide alternativelivelihoods. other non-marinesectorsmay beneededto policy measuresaimedatjobcreationin 4.8% oftheglobalfishcatch; equivalent the countriesthattogether generateabout for sustainableeconomic development of (Burke etal., people thatlivewithin10kmofthecoast and increasingincomeforthe65million 14.2, 14.5)iscrucialtoreducingpoverty are protected,restoredandmanaged(14.1, mangroves, seagrassbedsandcoralreefs) critical habitats(coastallowlandforests, undp, 2006).Ensuringthattheregions’ below thepovertyline(Gössling,2006; Development Index(hdi)valuesandlive coastal populationshave lowHuman Mauritius andSouthAfrica, over50%of 2009). ExceptfortheSeychelles, km² (unep continental shelfareaofabout450,000 km (includingislandstates)andatotal a combinedcoastlineexceeding15,000 Madagascar andRéunion(France).Ithas of Mauritius,Comoros,Seychelles, South Africa andtheislandstates Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, The Western IndianOceanregionincludes OCEAN REGION THE WESTERNINDIAN ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE Sustainable fisheries(14.4)arecrucial / Nairobi Convention Secretariat, 2011). long-term poverty(1.2). and institutionalcapacities willreduce wealth funds,andbuilding human poor populations,creatingsovereign sustainable economicopportunitiesfor renewable resourcesintolong-term Investing theproceedsfromthese non- directed topovertyreductionprogrammes. saving onfuelimportsthatcould be economic benefitsfromincomeand offshore oil andgaswhichcouldprovide Mozambique beginningtoexplorefor expanding, withKenya, Tanzania and populations (1.1,1.2). for theeconomy andsobenefitpoor tourism canalsoprovidehighrevenue and beachzones,portsforcruise airport facilities,amenitiesinthecoastal in infrastructuresuchasroadnetworks, to alleviatepoverty(1.1,1.2).Investment fisheries andsoprovidequickrevenue residential activities,agricultureand jobs inhotels,restaurants,housingand Secretariat andwiomsa , 2015)–cancreate resources (unep 40% ofthetotalfrommarineandcoastal over us$11billionperyear, equivalentto tourism –thelargestcontributortogdpat billion (Oburaetal., Indian Oceanassetsestimatedatus$333.8 sectors (14.7),withthevalueofWestern including withinassociatednon-marine to growthesesectorsandcreatejobs, transport. Thereisenormouspotential mining, mariculture,andportscoastal tourism, fisheries,coastalagriculture, Convention Secretariat,2009),mainlyfrom resources inthisregion(unep is derivedfromthecoastalandmarine year (HarrisandGove,2005). Ocean regionaroundus$400millionper is expectedtocosttheSouth-West Indian Convention Secretariatandwiomsa, 2015) (further offshore) fisheries(unep in artisanal(nearshore)andindustrial fishing forexample,whichiscommon year (fao to about4.5milliontonnesoffishper Marine extractiveindustriesare An estimatedus$25billionperyear , 2009).Failuretoaddressiuu arb Convention / Nairobi 2017). Forexample, / Nairobi / Nairobi 188 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER management ofmangroves. coastal communitiesfromthesustainable to generaterevenuefromcarboncredits blue carbonprojectshave beendeveloped disasters (1.5).InKenya andMadagascar, also reducingtheirvulnerabilitytonatural poverty incoastalpopulations(1.1,1.2)while tion (14.3)hasgreatpotentialtoreduce ecosystems asmpa establish 15%ofitscoastalandmarine (eez) by2020andZanzibaraimsto million km²ofitsexclusiveeconomiczone to establishmpa tious targetsinthisregard:Seychellesaims Some countrieshave alreadysetambi- Convention Secretariatandwiomsa, 2015). existing Enhanced conservationmeasuresin coastal communities(1.1,1.2)( revenue fromthetourismindustryto licences (wheretheyexist)andcanincrease in marineparksandreservesfor mpa There arecurrently83mpa Investment inclimatechangeadapta- s (14.5)canencouragefeeincreases mpa s, andthecreationofnew s covering30%ofits1.4 s. s intheregion. unep Nairobi / Nairobi

189 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER SDG 14.5 14.4 14.4 14.5 14.5 14.2 TARGETS 2.5 2.2 2.1, 2.2 2.1, 2.2 2.1 2.1 14

+ SDG KEY INTERACTIONS species genetic diversitywithin MPAs canmaintain Depending ontheirsize, for aquaculture food resourcesandareas MPAs maylimitaccessto adjacent tothem recruitment inareas MPAs enhancefish provision ofmicronutrients directly enablethe Fish andfisheryproducts security fish availabilityandfood are inextricablylinkedto Sustainable fisheries enhance fisheriesyields Healthy oceanswill 2

+ + + + + SCORE - 2 3 1 1 1 1 POLICY OPTIONS long-term sustainability to encouragesafetyoffishand mechanisms suchasecolabels Encourage theuseofvoluntary local communities management approacheswith where possibledevelopco- sustainable fisheriesand to ensureresponsibleand existing lawsandpolicies Strengthen andimplement local communities management approacheswith where possibledevelopco- sustainable fisheriesand to ensureresponsibleand existing lawsandpolicies Strengthen andimplement their foodsecurityandnutrition habitats andecosystemsfor to theimportanceofcritical fishers andlocalcommunities Raise awarenessofartisanal 190 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER nutrients from agriculturalrun-off and efforts toreducemarinepollution to provide foodmightconstrain Increased agriculturalproductivity developed countries tional needsinmany developing and food securityandmeetingnutri- and habitatsarekey toproviding and healthy oceanecosystems Sustainable fishingandaquaculture KEY POINTS sdg KEY INTERACTIONS phosphorus, iodine,zinc, iron,selenium) D andBarangeofminerals (calcium, and essentialmicronutrients –vitamins long-chain polyunsaturatedfattyacids (14.4) alsoreinforcetarget2.2byproviding fishery products. to meettheglobaldemandforfishand (2.1) by16.5milliontonnes(fao levels (14.4)couldincreasefisheriesyields rebuilding themtobiologicallysustainable are fullyfishedand/oroverfishedand stocks ofthemostimportantspecies animal foods(Bénéetal., and exceedsthatofmostterrestrial vulnerable people(2.1)comesfromfish of thefoodsecuritynutritionally 15% (fao protein and4.3billionpeoplewithabout their average percapitaintakeofanimal than 2.9billionpeoplewithalmost20%of mpa (14.1, 14.2,14.3),andthecreationof the healthofoceanecosystemsandhabitats aquaculture (14.4,14.6),safeguarding with sdg2throughsustainablefishingand (Thilsted etal., (2.2) indevelopedanddevelopingcountries food security(2.1)andnutritionalneeds Responsible andsustainablefisheries 14 isinextricablylinkedwithenhancing s (14.5).In2010,fishprovidedmore , 2014).Asignificantproportion 2016), and mainly interacts 2016), andmainlyinteracts 2016). However, , 2014)

to post-harvestlosses. distribution ofharvested fish islimiteddue total foodsecuritywhereaccessand (2) Akeyuncertaintyrelatestoachieving and thehealthofassociatedecosystem. nutrition dependsonthestatusofstocks, established, long-termfoodsecurityand aquaculture andfoodsecurityiswell (1) Whilethelinkbetweenfisheriesand KEY UNCERTAINTIES (Munguía-Vega etal., preserve geneticdiversitywithinspecies their size(largeorisolated),mpa for aquaculture(1.1,1.2).Dependingon communities andmay limitareasavailable limit accesstofoodresourcesforcoastal in adjacentareas(2.1,2.2),theymay nutrition, andcanincreasefishproduction productivity forbetterfoodsecurityand (14.5) canenhancefishrecruitmentand availability (2.1,2.2).Whilecreatingmpa phosphorus) canadverselyaffect fish agricultural run-off ofnutrients(nitrogen, measures, marinepollution(14.1)from without adequatepollutionprevention small-scale foodproducers.However, (2.3, 2.4)andcanincreaseincomefor feeds toenhanceagriculturalproductivity from aquaticsourcesareaddedtoanimal 2016). Proteinandtraceelementsderived that arevitamin-A deficient(2.2)(Golden, iron-deficiency anaemiaandtheone-third of pregnantwomenworldwidethathave and thenutritionofnearlyone-fifth development andgrowthinchildren(2.2) play acriticalenablingroleforbrain system (Thilstedetal., function andmaintainingthenervous Fish isalsoessentialforgrowth,brain micronutrient deficient(Golden,2016). current globalpopulation)may become (14.4, 14.6)845millionpeople(11%ofthe decline infishcatchesarenotaddressed ocean ecosystems(14.1,14.2,14.3)and (2.2) (Golden,2016).Ifthedegradationof developing nationsintheequatorialregion of theglobalpopulation,especiallyin (Thilsted etal., 2016) formorethan10% 2015) (2.5). 2016). Thiscan s can s 191 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER marine ecosystemsbeyondsustainability. risks increasingpressureonfishstocksand the sametime,establishingfoodsecurity especially incoastalareasandislands.At seafood isessentialtoensurefoodsecurity, Directionality: Bi-directional.Sustainable activities, amongothers. innovations formonitoringandcontrolof and aquaculturemay needcontextspecific Technology: Ensuringsustainablefisheries synergies. overcome trade-offs andmaximise conservation andagriculturecanhelp fisheries management,marineecosystem Governance: Adoptinganexusapproachto products. trading offishorothercoastalandmarine adjacent hinterlandcommunitiesthrough (2) Theremay bespill-overeffects to coastal citiesinlessdevelopedregions. urban areasandinformalsettlementsof coastal communitiesthatareaffected, and Geography: (1)Itismainlyruralislandand programmes takestime. infrastructure andestablishingsupport stock statusafter collapse.(2)Building stocks torecoverdependsonthe Time: (1)Theperiodrequiredforwild KEY DIMENSIONS stocks (14.4)andtoenhancefoodsecurity. aquatic habitats(14.2)anddecliningfish role toaddressthreatsfromdeteriorating bmu approachcanplay acriticalenabling between andamongstakeholders.The et al., and continuedbudgetcuts(Kanyange government staff tomanage fisheries proved usefulforaddressingthelackof fisheries governanceapproachhasalso The shift fromatop-downcentralised and Kenya (73bmus)(Kanyange etal., management inTanzania (over170bmus) a centralelementofartisanalfisheriesco- wiomsa, 2015).bmusarenowconsidered Nairobi Convention Secretariatand and areempoweredtolevyfees(unep/ stations onbehalfoffisheriesdepartments geographical areastomanagefishlanding repairers) withjurisdictionoverdistinct processors, boatbuildersandrepairers,net (fishers, boatowners,crew, traders, membership fromawiderangeofsources Fisheries Regulations2009,anddraw their and theTanzania FisheriesAct2003and Management andDevelopmentAct2016 currently governedbytheKenya Fisheries (2.1) andsustainablelivelihoods.bmusare stocks (14.4)forenhancedfoodsecurity management andtheconservationoffish to shareresponsibilitiesforresource government andlocalcommunities as aco-managementapproachbetween been establishedinKenya andTanzania beach managementunits(bmus)have and wiomsa, 2015).Forthelasttenyears, (unep/Nairobi Convention Secretariat fish (freshwater andmarine)forprotein Tanzania, 70%ofthepopulationrelieson food security(2.1)andnutrition(2.2).In Tanzania relyheavily onfisheriesfor Coastal communitiesinKenya and TANZANIA UNITS INKENYA AND BEACH MANAGEMENT ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2014), aswelltoreduceconflict 2014). 192 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER SDG 14.4, 14.7 14.4, 14.5 14.2, 14.7 14.1, 14.3,14.4 TARGETS

8.9. 14 8.1, 8.5 8.1, 8.3 8.1,

8.4 + SDG KEY INTERACTIONS as such promoting sustainabletourism marine tourismformspartof through sustainablecoastaland Increasing economicbenefits resources consumption andproductionof efficient andsustainable fisheries allreinforcethe acidification andunsustainable Tackling marinepollution,ocean ment andviceversa and toachievingfullemploy- contribute toeconomicgrowth culture andtourismwill Sustainable fisheries,aqua- creation andviceversa for economicgrowthandjob therefore limitopportunities for economicactivitiesand MPAs) mightentailrestrictions ecosystems (e.g.establishing and restoremarinecoastal Taking measurestoprotect 8

+ + -1 + SCORE - 1 2 2 2 / POLICY OPTIONS tourism development Create incentivesforsustainable practices stakeholders onsustainable awareness amongactorsand Build capacitiesandraise habitats andspecies conservation needsofsensitive waste managementandrespect provisions onpollutionand and developtourisminclude Ensure policiestomanage development criteria in linewithsustainable economic usesandimpacts to coordinateconservation, basin basedmarinespatialplans Develop andadoptregional/sea- management accordingly production policiesandwaste for marinepollutionandimprove Identify sourcesandpathways respective innovation incentives andsupportfor resource efficiencyandprovide opportunities toimprove monitoring schemestoidentify Establish productlifecycle growth sectorsincoastalareas and developmentingreen/blue Promote jobdiversification reviewed implemented, followed-upand limits andthattheseare include sustainableexploitation resource useslikefisheries Ensure policiesformarine 193 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER cultures andproducts as adriverforlocalemployment, to promotingsustainabletourism Coastal tourismisakey contributor coastal areas policies formaritimesectorsand basis forsustainablejobandgrowth resources provide thenecessary Healthy oceansandfisheries might constraineachother job creationpoliciesandmeasures economic growth, productivityand resources andoptionsforshort-term marine ecosystemsandfisheries Protection andrestorationof KEY POINTS sdg KEY INTERACTIONS create ‘green’jobs,andimprove tourism. can enableashift tocircular economies, management andincreasing recycling marine pollutionthroughimprovingwaste growth opportunitiesinothers.Tackling cases, theymay helpgeneratejobsand options forgrowthandjobsinsome areas forprotectionmightconstrain designating partsofmarineandcoastal 3–5 trillionperyear(fao generate globalrevenueintherangeus$ Ocean-based activitiesareestimatedto lanes forglobaltrade(Maribus,2015). routes arethemostimportanttransport extracted fromtheocean,andshipping regulation. About 30%ofmineraloilis development andareessentialforclimate natural resourcesandspaceforbusiness employment; amongothers,theyprovide important fortheglobaleconomy and specific. Ingeneralterms,oceansare nature oftheinteractionhighlycontext- sustainable resourceusewiththe their targetsforconservationand 14 andsdg 8 mostlyinteractthrough , 2014).While tourism (14.7)formspartofpromoting through sustainablemarine andcoastal adopted. Increasingeconomic benefits their sustainableextractionmustfirstbe However, guidelinesandpoliciesfor the domesticprivatesector(unep,2012). ldcs, andgeneratejobsgrowthin provide newincomesourcestosidsand emerging economicactivitythatcould 2016). Deep-seaminingformineralsisan valued atus$3.2billionin2014(Gillett, aquaculture productioninthisregionwere as much10%ofgdp.Fisheriesand in thePacificwheretheycancontribute national economiesofsids,particularly and aquacultureoften play amajorrolein ldcs (14.7).Forexample,capturefisheries can beespeciallyimportantinsidsand and employmentdevelopment(8.1,8.5) resources toreinforceeconomicgrowth benefits throughsustainableuseofmarine alone (nef,2012).Increasingeconomic processing jobseveryyearintheeu fishing jobsand69,000(full-part-time) support theequivalentof32,000full-time eur 3188billionannually, whichcould sustainable fisheries(14.4)wouldgenerate that endingoverfishingandachieving employment. Forexample,itisestimated sustainable economicdevelopmentand health willleadtoanoverallbenefitfor marine resourcesandrestoringocean coastal communities. helping climatechangeadaptationin livelihood andincomeopportunities blue-green economy inEurope,providing coastal ecosystemsisvitalforasustainable demonstrated thatprotectingmarineand health andresources,Russietal.(2016) aimed atmaintainingmarineecosystem by conservationpoliciesandmeasures environmental impactsmightberestricted developments orentailingnegative job creationfocusedonshort-term sectors, suchascoastalagriculture. with otherimportantpoverty-reduction on plasticbagsandfertilisers,may conflict However, measuressuchastaxesandlevies Ensuring sustainableexploitationof Although economicgrowthand 194 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER will bealong-terminvestment andinmost growth andemployment opportunities of sdg14and8.Generatingsustainable and thusunderminingtheachievement opportunities riskbeingunsustainable Time: Short-termgrowthandemployment KEY DIMENSIONS cultures andpolicies. depend onnationalandlocalconditions, Interactions arecontext-specificand KEY UNCERTAINTIES (United Nations,2016). waters toincreasetheirattractiveness modifications ofbeachesandcoastal wildlife watching(wwf,nodate);and activities suchasdiving,snorkellingor coral reefs;malpracticeinrecreational often inornearsensitivehabitatslike infrastructure suchashotelsorairports pollution andwaste;developmentof include: seasonalincreaseinconsumption, other sdgtargets(14.1,14.2,14.4).These development andtoavoid conflictwith need tobeaddressedensuresustainable health andsustainableresourceusethat can alsohave negativeeffects onocean (ecorys, 2013).However, coastaltourism 183 billioningrossvalueadded2011 3.2 millionpeopleandgeneratingeur maritime activity, employingalmost coastal andmarinetourismisthelargest fishing villages(fao been combinedwithtraditionalcoastal Fiji wheretouristresortdevelopmenthas tourism development,asdemonstratedin of sidsprovidelargepotentialformarine 2012). Theoceanicislandcharacteristics for upto25%ofgdp(Ramsarandunwto, coastal areas,insomesidsaccounting half ofallinternationaltouriststravel to 7% toemployment(unep,2012).Almost 5% ofworldgdpandcontributesupto (United Nations,2016).Tourism represents some areas,especiallysmallislandstates now oneofthemaincomponentsin the past40yearswithcoastaltourism and islands.Tourism hasincreasedover sustainable tourism(8.9)incoastalareas , 2014).InEurope, affect growthandjobopportunities. resources whiletheirhealthstatuswill sustainable useofoceans,seas,andmarine be directlyrelevantforconservationand economic growthandemploymentwill of policiesandmeasurestopromote Directionality: Bi-directional.Sustainability employment. to sustainableeconomicgrowthand based sourcesinordertocontribute marine pollutionfromlandandsea- selectivity offishinggearorminimise sustainability. For exampletoimprove are centraltovariousaspectsofocean Technology: Technology anditstransfer effects areshared. of lostfishingopportunitiesandmpa can dependonhowthecostsandbenefits utilised. Forexample,thesuccessofmpa essential, especiallytoensuresynergiesare governance acrossscalesandsectorsis and programmesisneeded.Integrated in regulatoryandenablingpolicies Governance: Cross-sectoralcoordination over effects intothecoastalhinterland. coastal communities.Theremay bespill- Geography: Concernsmainlyislandand ecosystem services. productivity andmaintenanceof economic development,naturalresource strategic approachtosustainabilityof cases willdependonacomprehensive

s 195 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER additional 550,000jobsand eur32billion will impairitsabilityby2030 toaddan the BalticSeatogoodecological health tourism (helcom,2010).Failingtorestore economic activitiessuchasfisheriesand and ecosystemservicesassociated practices, whichthreatenecosystems pollution andunsustainablefishing Sea isseverelyaffected byeutrophication, oceans andmarineresources.TheBaltic marine aquaculture,dependsonhealthy especially sectorssuchastourismor the potentialofblueeconomy, (Brodzicki andZaucha,2013).However, of 360,000jobsintheeumaritimesectors sectors foremployment,providing244,000 and fisheriesarethetwomostimportant Sea (BrodzickiandZaucha,2013).Tourism to have highgrowthpotentialintheBaltic environmental monitoringareconsidered coastal tourism,yachtingandmarinas, aquaculture by13%.Short-seashipping, 20%, cruisetourismby11%andmarine wind farmingintheregionincreasedby 2008–2010, energygenerationbyoffshore youth unemployment(8.6).Intheperiod and fullemployment(8.5),toreduce help developeconomicproductivity(8.2) the maritimesectorhave potentialto of allBalticStates.Severalsegments and employmentinthecoastalregions maritime sectoriscentraltotheeconomy value addedin2010(eunetmar,2013).The 360,000 jobsandeur16.6billiongross shipping andship-building–provided – fisheriesforhumanconsumption, three largestmaritimeeconomicactivities tourism (Ahtiainen andÖhman,2014). The extraction, shipping,recreationand sectors includingseafood,sandandgravel and diversifyingemploymentinmany to economicgrowth,andincreasing ecosystem servicesthatcancontribute al., within itscatchmentarea(Ahtiainen et sea witharound85millionpeople The BalticSeaisasemi-enclosedinland THE BALTIC SEA ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2013). Itsresourcesprovidemultiple

Commission, 2014). blue growthintheregion(European instruments forthesupportofsustainable Baltic Seaagendaidentifyingoptionsand on thesefindings,theeuhaslauncheda and fisheriesalone(bcg,2013).Building in annualvaluetourism,agriculture 196 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER SDG 14.1 TARGETS 14.2 11.4, 11.5,11.6 11.6 11.1, 11.3, 11.1, 11.3, 11.1, 14

+ SDG KEY INTERACTIONS and viceversa heritage (e.g.coastalwetlands), safeguarding ofcoastalnatural SDG11 targets,includingthe the achievementofvarious coastal ecosystemsreinforces management andprotectionof Sustainable coastalzone and viceversa context ofwastemanagement, impact ofcitiessuchasinthe reducing theenvironmental planning andmanagement, and integratedsettlement services, sustainableurbanisation safe housingandqualityofbasic reinforces theprovisioningof Tackling marinepollution 11

+ + SCORE 2 2 interactions management (appliestoalltarget on integratedplanningand building forpractitioners Provide trainingandcapacity prevention sensitise stakeholdersonpollution to alltargetinteractions)and and marineecosystems(applies role andimportanceofcoastal Increase publicawarenessofthe target interactions) where relevant(appliestoall coastal andmarinemanagers, decision-making togetherwith different groupsinplanningand actors andstakeholdersfrom Ensure participationofsocietal upstream catchmentareas in coastalareasaswell and litterpreventionmeasures standards andoflittercontrol discharge andwastemanagement implementation ofeffluent Develop andmonitor interactions) areas (appliestoalltarget including upstreamcatchment administrative boundaries coherent policymakingacross development policies;ensure urban planningandregional planning andharmonisewith management, marinespatial include integratedcoastal management incoastalareas; Ensure integratedplanningand POLICY OPTIONS well asaroundcoastalsettlements protected orrestored,withinas are sustainablymanaged, Ensure thatcoastalecosystems 197 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER 14.2 14.5 14.3 14.5 14.2, 11.3 11.3 11.1, 11.2, 11.1, 11.4 11.2, 11.1, 11.c vice versa measures takenunderthese,and depending onthestrategiesand management andconservation from sustainableecosystem counteracting orevencancelling possibly receivesconstraints, buildings usinglocalmaterials The constructionofnew heritage suchascoralreefs safeguarding ofcoastalnatural reinforces theprotectionand Tackling oceanacidification intended status appliedorofmeasures depending ontheconservation efforts inthecoastalzone, arise fromincreasedconservation systems inthecoastalzonecould settlements andtransport of SDG11targetsconcerning Constraints orcounteracting work intheoppositedirection policies. Interactionsmayalso of integrationapproachesand targets, dependingonthestrength the achievementofseveralSDG11 constraints fororevencounteract ecosystems mayresultin protection effortsforcoastal zone managementandincreased Fostering sustainablecoastal + ------1/ 1/ 1/ 3 2/ 2 2 2 resilience coastal managementtobuild coastal ecosystemsandintegrated Ensure conservationofcritical adaptation measures Enforce climatemitigationand ecosystems restore andconservecoastal to sustainablymanage,protect, do notcounteractpoliciessetup recommendations andpolicies Ensure thatconstruction conservation urban developmentandcoastal to integratecoastalprotection, Promote nature-basedsolutions their protection urban ecosystemsandensure coastal ecosystemsand between offshoreecosystems, Ensure ecologicalconnectivity conservation benefits fromsustainableuseand ecosystems andthemultiple importance ofcoastalandmarine awareness oftheroleand Improve educationandincrease human influence are conservedandprotectedfrom representative coastalecosystems Ensure thatsufficient 198 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER support bothsdgs approaches have potential to Coordinated actionsandintegrated in coastalzones transboundary natureofinteractions approaches cognisantofthe negative effects requiresintegrated synergies andtrade-offs. Avoiding bi-directional effects andinclude Most linkageshave potentialfor marine waters and downstream coastalareasand between upstreamcatchments due toapotentiallylongreach development andinfrastructure, relevant forsettlementplanning, of interactionsisespecially The strongland-seanexus in bothsdgs Conservation isexplicitlyaddressed coastal ecosystems and restorationconservationof development (onshoreandoffshore), planning andinfrastructure management includingsettlement pollution, coastalandmarine The key linkagesarethrough KEY POINTS (Agardy etal., into marinewaters,especiallyforpollution span fromupstreamcatchmentareasout of land-basedactivities,interactionsmay due totheland-seanexusandlongreach 2013; BarragánanddeAndrés,2015)but Dickinson, 2007;StojanovicandFarmer, areas (Agardyetal., between sdg14and11occurincoastal Geographically, mostinteractions KEY INTERACTIONS and management(11.3),includingthe enable betterhumansettlement planning management ofcoastalareas (14.2)can or jurisdictionalboundaries.Sustainable across sectorsaswelladministrative approached inanintegrativemannerand whether policiesandmanagementare severely affected byoceanacidification. from livelihoodstobiodiversitybutcanbe coral reefsprovideawiderangeofbenefits areas (11.4);coastalecosystemssuchas safeguarding ofnaturalheritagecoastal acidification (14.3)willalsobenefitthe planning. Furthermore,actiononocean management systemsandimprovedurban include upgradingsewageandwastewater that originatingfromurbancentres) coastal andmarinepollution(especially management measuresrequiredtoreduce (Nunes etal., environmental impactofcities(11.6) urbanisation (11.3)andreducingthe slums (11.1),enhancingsustainable safe housing,basicservicesandupgrading contributes synergisticallytoensuring pollution undertarget14.1reinforcesand urbanisation (11.3).Buttacklingmarine access totransport(11.2)andinclusive ensuring housingandservicesforall(11.1), al., impose urbanisationconstraints(Xuet 14.5) aroundurbanareaswillnecessarily conserving thecoastalenvironment (14.2, as trade-offs. Forinstance,protectingand and coastalmarineecosystemsaswell potential forbenefitstolocalcommunities settlements andurbanareascreates A strongland-seanexusaroundhuman 2008), potentiallylimitingoptionsfor Trade-offs arepossible,dependingon 2016). Thepolicyand 2005; Crosslandetal., 2005; Duxburyand 2005). 199 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER et al., (Albert etal., island states,suchastheSolomonIslands is anissueinmany coastalcountriesand mining ofcoralsforconstructionmaterial 2013) have establishedstrictregulations, some countriesliketheMaldives(Jaleel, and coastalareas(14.2,14.5).Although the restorationandprotectionofmarine impacts oncoastalecosystemsandhinder local materials(11.c)may have negative construction ofnewbuildingsutilising integrate thesetargets.Promotingthe how thepoliciesandmeasuresadopted trade-offs arepossibledependingon impacts ofcities(11.6).Herealso, erosion, andcanreducetheenvironmental (11.5) suchasthereductionoffloodingor can contributetodisastermanagement catchment, andwetlandprotectedareas, by ensuringtheinclusionofcoastal, can safeguardnaturalheritage(11.4) of slumslocatedinthecoastalzone(1.1), provisioning ofsafehousingorupgrading growth andurbanisation rates thantheir and experiencestrongerpopulation on average higherpopulationdensities important tonotethatcoastalzonesshow possible trade-offs. Inthiscontext, itis targets frombothsdgsandminimise nexus isthereforeessentialtoreach and sectors,cognisantoftheland-sea Planning andmanagementacrossscales conservation ofcoastalandmarineareas. of sdg14targetsaimingatprotectionand under sdg11willsupporttheachievement planning anddevelopmentaspromoted sustainable andintegrativesettlement natural heritageincoastalareas;and and fortheprotectionofcultural coastal developmentandurbanisation, provide opportunitiesforsustainable targets 14.2and14.5. and conservationmeasurestakenunder encounter constraintsduetoprotection In theotherdirection,target11.cmay Agardy etal., mining fromcoastalsystems(Masalu,2002; extraction frommangrovesandsand Overall, implementingsdg14will 2014). Thisisalsothecasefortimber 2015) andKiribati(Babinard 2005; Babinardetal., 2014). boundaries areessentialfor formulating across administrativeand jurisdictional coherent policymakingand governance and urbaninstitutionsaswell Governance: Stronglocalgovernments the catchment(land-seanexus). as tourbanareasfurtherupstreamwithin neighbouring coastalsettlements,aswell coastal settlementstructuresandregions areas, butmay alsoapplytosmaller especially pronouncedinlow-lyingcoastal in coastalzones,withsomeeffects sdg11 mainlyconcernurbansettlements Geography: Interactionsbetweensdg14and lifecycles. technologies andinfrastructurewithlong term naturebecausetheytendtolock-in Time: Decisionsaregenerallyofalong- KEY DIMENSIONS coastal social-ecologicalsystem. complexity ofinteractionswithinthe habitats andecosystems,totheoverall impacts duetodegradationofcoastal uncertainties concernthesocio-economic on urbandevelopment.(2)Further cities, andpolicygovernancedecisions lock-in effects thatinfrastructurebringsto (1) Themainuncertaintiesconcernthe KEY UNCERTAINTIES Barragán anddeAndrés,2015). a sustainableway (Sekovskietal., on thecapacitytoprovideresourcesin zones andtheirecosystems,inturn energy areincreasingpressureoncoastal competition forresources,transportand trends andincreasingdemand al., from 20in2010to25by2025(Brownet the numberofmegacitieswillincrease areas, andpopulationprojectionssuggest 65% ofallmegacitiesarelocatedincoastal et al., (Barragán anddeAndrés,2015;Neumann which isgenerallyexpectedtocontinue modified intermsofextentanddriversbut hinterland, atrendthatisregionally 2013). Populationgrowth,urbanisation 2015; Merkensetal., 2016). About 2012; 200 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER bi-directional effects. synergies andtrade-offs have potentialfor Directionality: Mostoftheidentified integrative planning. squeeze, andsorequirecautious accelerate coastalerosionorcause influence coastalandmarineecosystems, as breakwaterconstructioncannegatively reduction. Destructivetechnologiessuch management andrelevantfordisaster settlements. Itisessentialforpollution ocean/coast impactsfromcitiesandhuman Technology: Technology iscentraltosome implementation (i.e.coordination). integrated solutionsandeffective the east,south-eastandsouth-west coast within 50kmofthecoast; mostlyalong sections, about85%ofthe populationlives Australian coastlinehasmany remote (Stocker etal., human andenvironmental pressures (11.5), resultfromacombinationofboth systems (11.2)anddisasterriskreduction (11.3), safeandsustainabletransport need forsustainableurbandevelopment urban footprint(11.6),togetherwiththe management (14.1),andareductionin coastal management(14.2),pollution contain awiderangeofecosystems. Australia’s coastsandmarinewaters 2016). Owingtotheirlengthandextent, Government -GeoscienceAustralia, (Short andWoodroffe, 2009;Australian basins andseas,over8200islands offshore areaconnectedtolargeocean without islands),anextensivemaritime exceptionally longcoastline(35,900km Being acontinentnation,Australia hasan COASTS INAUSTRALIA AND THEOCEANS BETWEEN URBANISATION EXPLORING LINKAGES ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE Challenges inensuringsustainable 2012). Although the

Commercial and recreational fishing, and Commercial andrecreational fishing,and shipping routes(Harveyand Caton,2010). coastal watersalsocontain important Australian Government,2011).Australian coastal areas(HarveyandWoodroffe, 2008; ropolitan populationsaswellforremote and vulnerabilitytocoastalhazardsformet- through sea-levelriseincreasingexposure coastal erosion(11.5),withclimatechange are frequentlyexposedtofloodhazardsand and Foerster, 2016).Low-lyingcoastalareas (Australian Government,2011;McDonald some Australian coastalecosystems(14.2) changed enormouslyandevendestroyed around catchmentareasandcoastlineshas and theuseoflandwaterin development, floodmitigationmeasures, combination ofpressuresfromurban areas (HarveyandStocker, 2015). developments occurinlow-lyingcoastal (11.5), especiallysincemostofthese 14.2) andclimatechangeadaptation coastal planningandmanagement(11.3, developments (11.2)andchallengesfor They alsocreatedemandforinfrastructure Harvey andCaton,2010;Stocker, 2012). community structures(Green,2010; in hydrology) aswellonsocialand (habitat degradation,pollution,changes place many pressuresoncoastalsystems to furthercoastalsprawl, thesechanges Blakely, 2007;Danaher, 2008).Leading to Stategovernmentpolicies(Gurranand to financialinterestsofdevelopersand lifestyle decisionsbyresidentsaswell and Stocker, 2015),hasbeenattributedto estates’ andwaterfronthousing(Harvey specific developmentssuchas‘canal of theAustralian coastlinewithcoast- manifesting inincreasingurbanisation to asthe‘seachange’phenomenonand This coastalmigrationtrend,often referred areas (Australian BureauofStatistics,2016). the coast,andinnon-metropolitancoastal capital cities,mostofwhichoccuralong decline, populationgrowthishighin areas whichexperiencestrongpopulation 2012, 2016).Incontrasttoregionalinland (Australian BureauofStatistics,2004, As inmany othercountries,the

201 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER challenges (Álvarez-Romeroetal., planning andmanagementtotacklethese for integratedland-seaconservation and transboundaryeffects, calling from multipleland-seainteractions interests andjurisdictionalissuesarising is furtherchallengedbyconflicting Conservation ofcoastalecosystems range ofecosystemsandtheirdiversity. is lackingrepresentationofthefull found marineconservationinAustralia planning, BarrandPossingham(2013) towards moresystematicconservation these achievementsandrecentefforts and marineprotectedareas(14.5).Despite and severalsmalllarge-scalecoastal coastal World Heritagesitesunderunesco, 1971 RamsarConvention, sixmarineand marine andcoastalwetlandsunderthe services. Australia hasalsodesignated36 habitats forbiodiversityandecosystem coastal hotspotareas,andtoprotect to wetlands,cleanupestuariesand included efforts toaddresskeythreats such astheGreatBarrierReef.This wetlands andhighlyvaluedecosystems quality, andtheprotectionofRamsar participation, theimprovementofwater ecosystems throughincreasedcommunity rehabilitation ofcoastalandaquatic were takenontheprotectionand Government, 2013).Importantsteps our Country’programme(Australian national prioritiesunderits‘Caringfor been designatedoneofAustralia’s six and criticalaquatichabitats(14.2)has Cowx, 2006). regions (McPheeetal., significant thancommercialfishinginsome with recreationalfishingratedasmore Caton, 2010;Australian Government,2011), create environmental concern(Harveyand aquaculture areothercoastalactivitiesthat Kenchington, 2016). Protecting coastalenvironments 2002; Cooke and 2002; Cookeand 2011; 202 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER SDG 14.1 TARGETS 14.4 14.4 14.7 12.a 12.3, 12.4,12.5 12.2, 12.3, 12.2, 12.6 12.3 12.2, 12.2, 12.1, 14

+ SDG fisheries will helpsupportsustainable companies bythefishingindustry voluntary codesofconductby Adoption oflabellingschemesand the productionchain methods reducefoodlossesalong discard bansorselectivefishing management measures,suchas of naturalresources.Specific to sustainablemanagement Sustainable fisheriescontribute KEY INTERACTIONS capacity scientific andtechnological food wastes,andstrengthened natural resources,areductionin management andefficientuseof resources canenablesustainable from sustainableuseofmarine Increase inbenefitsforSIDS prevent marinepollution of chemicalsandwasteswillhelp recycling, andsoundmanagement management ofnaturalresources, consumption, sustainable Sustainable productionand 12

+ + + + SCORE 3 3 3 1 efficiency technical innovationforresource stocks andsupportcontext-specific elimination targetsforallfish of sustainabilityanddiscard yield, promotetheadoption based onmaximumsustainable Develop fisheriespolicies production policies relatedtoconsumptionand the preventionofmarinelitterinto value chain,includingstreamlining improve recyclingalongtheentire Promote circulareconomiesand action plansonmarinelitter Develop integratedpoliciesand POLICY OPTIONS areas marine resourcesandcoastal and resource-efficientuseof Establish incentivesforsustainable aquaculture management offisheriesand assessment andsustainable Strengthen capacitiesforimpact seafood eco-labelling Promote andestablishsound 203 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER marine andcoastalecosystems ocean acidification,andprotect pollution, minimisetheeffects of help prevent andreduce marine industry, privatehouseholds)can production patterns(inagriculture, Sustainable consumptionand food wasteandloss use ofnaturalresourcesandless practices canleadtomoreefficient ecosystems, andsustainablefishing protection ofmarineandcoastal Sustainable managementand directions targets inextricablylinkedinboth sdg Many closesynergiesbetween KEY POINTS to protectmarineecosystems, habitats (14.1) (especiallyfromland-based sources) environment. Tackling marine pollution among thekeyimpactsonmarine from agricultureandinputofwastes,is Land-based pollution,suchasnutrients of consumptionandproductionchains. is atthereceivingandaccumulatingend 12.2 and12.3.Themarineenvironment reinforces theachievementoftargets from sustainablenaturalresources(14.7) increasing economicbenefitstosids reducing foodwaste(12.3).Likewise, indivisible forreachingtarget12.2and use ofnaturalresourcesandistherefore to sustainablemanagementandefficient ending iuufisheries(14.4)willcontribute sustainable fisheries,restoringstocksand interactions atthetarget-level).Achieving over ‘reinforcing’towards‘indivisible’ with sdg12(rangingfrom‘enabling’ sdg14 hasclosesynergisticpositivelinks KEY INTERACTIONS

14 andsdg

12 withsome use by2030.Also, pollutantssuchas achieving sustainablenatural resource fisheries by2020willcontribute to resources by2030).Achievingsustainable (sustainable managementofnatural light ofthetimeframefortarget12.3 ecosystems by2020seemsunrealisticin and protectionofmarinecoastal time. Achievingsustainablemanagement changes willrequiresubstantialefforts and Time: Thenecessarytransformational KEY DIMENSIONS sectors toaddressland-oceaninteractions. management andgovernanceacross with ecosystemdynamicsaswell are alsouncertaintiesconcerninglinks are lackingformany regions.(2)There for specifictypes,amountsandsources world. Nevertheless,monitoringdata been wellstudiedinmany partsofthe and thesourcesofpollutantshave (1) Theeffects ofland-basedpollution KEY UNCERTAINTIES factor. fisheries (14.4)isanadditionalenabling ecolabels asatooltodrivesustainable policies (12.6).Increasingtheroleof develop andimprovetheirsustainability chains whichwillencouragecompaniesto requires atransformationofproduction acidification. Tackling marinepollution transportation), andsohelpreduceocean fuel use(e.g.fromsmeltingormaritime resources andrecyclingwilldecreasefossil Sustainable andefficientuseofnatural pollution, suchasfromnutrients. holder farming)andsoreduceland-based forms ofagriculture(e.g.organicorsmall more sustainable,lessoutput-orientated retail andconsumerlevelwillsupport towards acirculareconomy (12.5). of chemicalsandwastes(12.4)amove of environmentally soundmanagement policies, andwillenabletheachievement management andsustainablechemical and discharges,involves betterwaste and speciesfromharmfuleffluents A reductioninfoodwasteatthe 204 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER and consumptionpatternsonland. pollutants fromunsustainableproduction marine environment istheendpointfor resources. Formany pressures,the management andefficientuseofnatural fisheries willdirectlysupportsustainable asymmetric forsometargets.Sustainable Directionality: Bi-directional,but efficiency andacirculareconomy. sustainable aquaculture,resource Technology: Technology iscentralto achievement. policy approachescanfosterbettergoal and sdg ocean willcreatesynergiesforsdg regimes forland,air/climateandthe integration betweenlegalgovernance management organisations.Greater on land,outsidethemandatesofmarine and driversofoceandeclinearelocated established underunclos.Many pressures on thelegalandinstitutionalframework Governance: Oceangovernanceisbased space. given theirlargeproportionofocean time, developmentinsidswillbecrucial affect oceansustainability. At thesame communities andmegacitieswillgreatly and productionpatternsincoastal zones (Brownetal., people arewithinthelow-elevationcoastal 31 megacitieswithmorethan8million surface iscoveredbyoceans,and20of Geography: Over70%oftheplanet’s patterns. sustainable consumptionandproduction responses tomeasureswithregard considerable timelagsforenvironmental environment ifnotremoved,leadingto plastic debris,remainlong-terminthe 12. Voluntary ormarket-based 2013). Consumption 14 Government oftheseven strongest organisms (Cressey, 2016). leading toreducedfertilityofmarine the toxicityofmicroplastics,forexample (14.1.1). Recentstudieshave alsoshown pollution (14.1)andfloatingplasticdebris including marinedebrisandnutrient pollution fromland-basedactivities, recognised bythe2030Agenda.Namely, marine litteronoceansustainabilitywere Regional SeasConventions. Theimpactsof by internationalorganisationssuchasthe measures bygovernmentsoractionplans programmes, nationalstrategiesand society organisations,scientificresearch ‘fishing forlitter’initiativesbycivil scales andbydifferent actors,including led towidespreadactionatdifferent growth (Hoornweg etal., consumption associatedwitheconomic population andincreasedpercapita will continuetogrowwithincreased sdg12 theamountofwastegenerated drastic transformativeactioninlinewith expected topeakbefore2100,andwithout etal., (Jambeck increase byanorderofmagnitude2025 ocean fromland-basedsourcescould amount ofplasticwasteenteringthe business-as-usual scenario,thecumulative the qualityofwastemanagement.Undera from countrieswerepopulationsizeand for thelargestamountsofmarinelitter etal., ocean (Jambeck 4.8–12.7 milliontonnesofthisenteringthe generated by192coastalcountries,with plastic wastewereestimatedtohave been proteins. In2010,275milliontonnesof potentially, humansconsumingmarine and totheirimpactsonwildlife persistence inthemarineenvironment are ofgrowingconcernowingtotheir contributors tomarinepollution.Plastics Marine litterisoneofthemain COMBAT MARINELITTER G7 ACTIONPLANTO ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE In 2015,theHeadsofState and Growing publicawareness has 2015). Theinputisnot 2015). Keyfactors 2013, 2015).

205 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER potential policyoptions,and othermeans to supportandtargetoutreach efforts, 12.6); assessingandanalysing removal data such asaimingforzeropelletloss(12.1, value chainfromproductiontotransport, the wholeplasticsmanufacturingand 12.5, 12.6);promotingbestpracticealong voluntary phase-outofmicrobeads(12.1, gain environmental benefits, such asby and removeingredientsfromproductsto industry todevelopsustainablepackaging environment (12.1,12.4,12.5);encouraging and otheritems,whichimpactthemarine reduce theuseofdisposablesingle-use relevant regulationsandincentivesto environment (12.1,12.4);promoting microplastics enteringthemarine stormwater-related waste,including to reduceandpreventsewage sustainable andcost-effective solutions appropriate (12.1,12.a);investigating implementation ofpilotprojectswhere and investments andsupportingthe international developmentassistance waste managementactivitiesinto recycling (12.1,12.4.12.5);incorporating generation, andencouragingreuse for wastemanagement,reducing include: improvingcountries’systems same timedirectlycontributetosdg Actions thatsupporttarget14.1andatthe targets 12.1,12.4,12.5,12.6,12.8and12.a. implemented coherently, particular for reinforcing feedbackscanbeexpectedif interdependencies withsdg12and reducing marinelittertherearestrong pollution. Although primarilyaimed at sectoral approachtoreducingmarine bodies andsupportsanintegrated,cross- conventions orotheroceangovernance regulatory scopeofregionalseas to takeactionoutsidethetraditional production patterns.Itreflectstheneed addressing sustainableconsumptionand achievement oftarget14.1through includes severalactionsthatenablethe Combat MarineLitter. TheActionPlan and adoptedtheG7ActionPlanto effects ofmarinepollutionfromlitter economic countriesaddressedthe 12 address marinelitter(12.a). calling foradditionalresearchinitiativesto litter (12.1,12.8);andsupporting sources, pathways andimpactsofmarine organisations tohelpunderstandthe Environment Programmeandother supporting efforts bytheUnitedNations of methods,dataandevaluation(12.b); monitoring effort andthestandardisation of aharmonisedglobalmarinelitter seas (12.1,12.8);supportingtheinitiation environment, internalwatersandthe reduce theamountoflitterentering to individualbehaviour changethatcan outreach andeducationactivitiesleading of preventinglitter(12.1,12.8);promoting SDG 14 + SDG 13

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

14.1, 14.2, 14.3, 14.4, Action taken to strengthen the health Enforce climate mitigation measures 14.5, 14.6 13.1 of coastal and marine ecosystems + including fish stocks will reinforce 2 Take action to protect, restore and the strengthening of environmental strengthen the mitigation and adaptation and societal resilience and adaptive potential and resilience of coastal and capacities to climate change, and vice marine ecosystems to climate change versa Ensure the adequate sharing of information, data and technologies

Improve education and build awareness of the benefits arising from sustainable management and conservation of marine and coastal ecosystems for climate change mitigation and adaptation

14.2, 14.3, 14.5 Action taken for promoting healthy Promote coastal ecosystems as blue 13.2, 13.a, 13.b oceans and coastal systems will + carbon systems for climate change also enable or even reinforce the 1/ mitigation where appropriate development and integration of climate change measures into policies, planning + Provide and sustain capacity building and and management, such as by promoting 2 support to LDCs and SIDS in developing coastal ecosystems serving as blue and implementing sustainable projects carbon systems, and vice versa for mitigation, adaptation and resilience building

Ensure the adequate sharing of information, data and technologies

14.2, 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, Policies and measure taken to adapt Ensure coherent and integrated coastal 14.6 13.1, 13.2, to climate change may counteract or - zone management and coastal protection 13.3 even cancel SDG14 targets aiming at 2/ management the protection and conservation of coastal ecosystems, such as if technical - Develop nature-based solutions that protection measures fail to provide 3 promote both coastal and marine enough space for saltmarshes to keep up conservation and sustainable urban with sea-level rise (coastal squeeze) development in an integrated way

14.a 13.3, 13.b Increasing marine scientific knowledge, Build human and institutional capacity research capacities and technologies + and ensure participation of relevant will enable or even reinforce awareness 1/ stakeholders and societal actors in raising and capacity building for climate policymaking and management change mitigation measures, planning + and management, and vice versa 2 Build transdisciplinary partnerships for climate change action and programmes

Develop, maintain and support early warning systems on coastal and marine hazards 207 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER sdg Strong synergiesexistbetween various targets adaptation to climatechangemitigationand and theirresourcescancontribute conservation ofoceansandcoasts coasts; however, sustainableuseand major consequencesforoceansand between sdg synergistic andbi-directionallinks related hazards,resultinginstrong action onclimatechangeand with mitigationandadaptation Oceans andcoastsarecloselylinked KEY POINTS storminess (Agardyetal., impacts suchassea-level rise andincreased from coastalhazardsand climate change and foradaptationbyprovidingprotection (Luisetti etal., mitigation throughcarbonsequestration mangroves have greatpotentialforclimate et al., regulation (Heckbertetal., and have animportantrolein climate essential elementsoftheEarthsystem, Oceans andcoastalecosystemsare KEY INTERACTIONS Failing totacklesdg adaptive capacity relevant tobuildingresilienceand as welltheachievement oftargets achievement oftargetsunderboth, either goalwillsupportthe Investment intheseareasunder and technologicalinnovation. building, knowledge exchange

14 andsdg 2014). Coastalecosystemssuchas 2013; Warner etal.,

14 andsdg

13 intermsofcapacity

13 willhave 2005; Spalding 2011; Visbeck

13 over 2016) 4 and of sdg 14 require concertedactioninbothdirections ecosystems arepotentiallylargeand human pressuresonmarineandcoastal and indirect(viaclimatechange) coastal ecosystems(Wong etal., protection andmitigationpotentialof ecosystem lossandpossiblyreducingthe are occurring,riskingdegradationoreven availability, salinityorcirculationpatterns sea-level isrisingandchangesinlight be unabletocopewiththerateatwhich coastal aquifers.Coastalecosystemsmay and erosionorsaltwaterintrusioninto events, especiallythroughcoastalflooding the effects ofsea-levelriseandextreme communities areincreasinglyexposedto Coastal ecosystemsandhumancoastal Visbeck etal., stocks andfisheries(Pörtneretal., with potentiallycriticaleffects forfish species compositionanddistribution, degradation ofcoralreefstochangesin and coastalecosystems.Theserangefrom have potentiallylargeimpactsonmarine changes inoceancirculationpatternswill Ocean warmingandoceanacidificationor et al., climate change(Rheinetal., coastal regionsarealsodirectlyaffected by coupled system. environmental componentsofthistightly to climatechangebothforthehumanand services contributetobuildingresilience (Brander etal., as byprovidingnurserygroundsforfish maintenance servicesforfisheries,such et al., facilitate theintegrationof climatechange to climatechange(13.1).Itwillalsoco- and adaptivecapacityofcoastal systems helps strengthentheoverallresilience marine areasandbiodiversity(14.5) (14.4, 14.6)andprotectingcoastal (14.3), managingfishstockssustainably health (14.2),tacklingoceanacidification by reducingpollution(14.1),restoringtheir resilience ofoceanandcoastalecosystems But marineandcoastalecosystems Cumulative impactsfromdirect 2014; Wong etal., 2014). Theyalsodeliverimportant sdg 2014; Wong etal., 2012). Theseprocessesand 13. Strengtheningthe 2014; Stocker, 2015). 2013; Pörtner 2014). 2014). 2014; 208 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER aligned betweensdg possible dependingonhowmeasuresare for sidsandldcs(14.7).Trade-off are fisheries (14.4,14.6)andeconomicbenefits (14.3), andhave positiveimpactson may alsohelpreduceoceanacidification vation (14.2,14.5).Targets undersdg13 sustainable oceanmanagementandconser- toadaptationmeasures,may support the unfccc(13.a),forexamplewithregard the needsofdevelopingcountriesunder institutional capacity(13.3)andaddressing (13.2), improvingeducation,awareness and climate changemeasuresintopolicies climate-related hazards(13.1),integrating sdg13 thataimatbuildingresilienceto ldcs andsids.Inturn,targetsunder management (13.b),especiallyincoastal effective climatechangeplanningand adaptation andmitigation(13.3)to to developingcapacityonclimatechange marine technology(14.a)cancontribute research capacity, scientificknowledgeand Climate Change(unfccc)(13.a).Increasing United NationsFrameworkConvention on on climatemitigationtakenunderthe the implementationofcommitments planning andmanagement(13.b), raising capacitytoclimatechange-related (13.2), thepromotionofmechanismsfor measures intopoliciesandplanning complement eachother. tation andeffect andshouldthusalways have different timescalesofimplemen- and adaptationmitigationmeasures, change-related planningandmanagement, but hasalong-termeffect. (2) Climate degradation. Buildingcapacitytakestime on naturaldynamicsandthelevelof restoration andconservationdepends Time: (1)Thetimingofoceanandcoastal KEY DIMENSIONS management andgoodgovernance. the naturalandhumansystems,to within thenaturalsystemandbetween dynamics, thecomplexityofinterlinkages There areuncertaintieslinkedtonatural KEY UNCERTAINTIES 14 andsdg 13. ment integrationbetweenbothgoals. pends onthedegreeofpolicyandmanage- impacts, synergiesandtrade-offs often defor negativeinteractions.Thestrengthof sdg14 and13,thereisalsopotential bi-directional interactionsoccurbetween Directionality: Whilepositivesynergisticand complexity ofthesystem. and measuresinconsiderationofthe on thedevelopmentoftechnologies transfer forcapacitybuilding,butalso Technology: Outcomesdependontechnology consumption andproductionpatterns. also includesenergyandtechnologyor in thecontextofclimatechange,this resilience ofcoastalandmarinesystems overall strengtheningofthehealthand change adaptationandmitigationthe across different scales.Besidesclimate incentives amongdifferent sectorsand coordination ofregulatorymeasuresand needs integratedgovernancesuchas Governance: Oceansustainability climate regulation. of marineandcoastalsystemsforglobal global importanceowingtotherelevance island andcoastalzones,butarealsoof Geography: Interactionsprimarilyconcern 209 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER targets 13.2and13.3. the requiredindcsrelatedirectlyto minimising oceanacidification(14.3),and in theatmosphereisfundamentalfor house gasemissionsandconcentrations established underArt.4.Reducinggreen- Determined Contributions(indcs)as maintenance ofIntendedNationally ful preparation,communicationand half ofthe21stcentury, includingsuccess- gas emissionsandsinksinthelatter achieving of a balance between greenhouse system towardsclimatechange(13.1). of thenaturalsystemandhuman ening ofresilienceandadaptivecapacity warming willsupporttheoverallstrength- (Knutti etal., have criticaleffects ontheEarthsystem that theagreedtemperaturelimitscould Although sciencehas issuedwarnings economic benefitsforsidsandldcs(14.7). fisheries management(14.4,14.6)and 14.5) andthosethatpromotesustainable marine andcoastalecosystems(14.2, targets thataimathealthy andresilient goal willsupporttheachievementof levels (Art.2).Thislong-termtemperature maximum of1.5°cabovepre-industrial ture tobelow2°candaimingfora Holding theincreaseinglobaltempera- of contributions tosdg13andtheachievement of relevancetooceansandcoasts,their 2015). KeyelementsoftheParisAgreement efforts toeradicatepoverty”(unfccc, context ofsustainabledevelopmentand to thethreatofclimatechange,in “aims tostrengthentheglobalresponse on 4November2016.Thisagreement the ParisAgreement,enteredintoforce recent agreementundertheunfccc, Climate Change(unfccc,1992).Themost Nations FrameworkConvention on combating climatechangeistheUnited The fundamentalglobalagendafor ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE THE PARIS AGREEMENT sdg Targeted reductionofemissionsand 14 include the following. 14 includethefollowing. 2016), slowingglobal

14.4, 14.6). and coastalecosystems(14.1,14.2,14.5, towards healthy andresilientmarine synergistic linktosdg14targetsworking 13.1, butalsocontainsanindirectand (Art. 7).Thisisadirectlinktotarget contributing tosustainabledevelopment” to climatechange,withaview ening resilienceandreducingvulnerability “enhancing adaptivecapacity, strength- be establishedundertarget13.b. this potential.Suchmechanismscouldalso need toprotect,conserveorrestore potential ofcoastalecosystemsandthe 14.5 whenconsideringthecarbonsink have synergisticlinkstotargets14.2and development (Art.6).Theseelements sions andtosupportsustainable to themitigationofgreenhousegasemis- establishing mechanismstocontribute reservoirs ofgreenhousegases(Art.5)and Conserving andenhancingsinks ing potentialtrade-offs. the bestpossibleoutcomes andforminimis- approaches willbeessential forensuring aligning policiesanddevelopingintegrated and the2030Agendaassuch.However, thus supportachievingsdg play intheclimatesystem. to thecentralrolethatoceansandcoasts also benefittheachievementofsdg under sdg13butmeasurestakenherewill 10, 11).Thesegoalsdirectlylinktoalltargets transfer andcapacitybuilding(Arts.9, finance andvoluntarysupport,technology adaptation toclimatechangethrough Parties intheirefforts onmitigationand oped countriesforsupportingdeveloping tential ofcoastalecosystems(13.1, 14.2,14.5). the protectivepotentialandmitigationpo- directly linkstobothsdgsbyaddressing risk oflossanddamage”(Art. sustainable developmentinreducingthe and slowonsetevents,theroleof change, includingextremeweatherevents ated withtheadverseeffects ofclimate Addressing lossanddamage“associ- Strengthening adaptationoptionsand Implementing theParisAgreementwill Reaffirming theobligationsofdevel- 13 andsdg 8). This 14 due 14

210 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER SCORE +3 -3 0 + SDG E ITERATIO

+ SDG 2 + 2 + 2

14 + 1 2 -1

WITHOTHERGOALS + 2 -1 + 3 -1 + 2 +

SDG + 1 +

3 + 2 + 2 1 -1 + 1 +

+ SDG 2 -2 + 2 + -1 8 / 1 +

SDG + 2 + 2 -2 -1 / 11 -3 -1 / + 2 -2 -1 / +

SDG + 3 + 3 + 1 + 12 3 +

+ SDG 2 + + / 2 1 -3 -2 / + + / 13 2 1 -3 0 +3 SCORE SCORE +3 -3 0 + SDG E ITERATIO

+ SDG 2 + 2 + 2

14 + 1 2 -1

WITHOTHERGOALS + 2 -1 + 3 -1 + 2 +

SDG + 1 +

3 + 2 + 2 1 -1 + 1 +

+ SDG 2 -2 + 2 + -1 8 / 1 + 211

GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER SDG + 2 + 2 -2 -1 / 11 -3 -1 / + 2 -2 -1 / +

SDG + 3 + 3 + 1 + 12 3 +

+ SDG 2 + + / 2 1 -3 -2 / + + / 13 2 1 +3 0 -3 SCORE 212 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER use, withthespecifictarget ofdeveloping interoperable andfreeof restrictions on regional organisations.They shouldbe initiatives bymemberstatesandexisting based onexistingplatformsorasjoint They couldforexamplebedeveloped to marinedatashouldbecreated. Sea-basin basedopen-accessplatforms assessment approachesandmodels. development andapplicabilityofdata-poor consideration shouldalsobegiventothe resources especiallyinsidsandldcs, knowledge gaps.Having regardtolimited capacity developmenttofillexisting needed incombinationwithtargeted monitoring anddataanalyseswillbe advice. other typesofinformationintopolicy the analysisandtranslationofdata boundaries, orbycapacitylimitationsfor of coordinationacrosspoliticalorsectoral standardised datacollectionprotocols,lack but alsoaccessrestrictions,lackof caused bylackofdataorinformation knowledge gapsthatexistarenotalways often notupdatedonaregularbasis.The fragmented orexistsonlyingenericterms and climatechange,knowledgeislimited, alleviation orbetweenmarineecosystems marine conservationandpoverty for exampleintherelationbetween marine regionsandcountries.Incontrast, and areregularlymonitoredinmany interactions have alreadybeenanalysed or maritimeindustriesandjobcreation), food securityandsustainablefisheries, dimensions vary. Insomecases(suchas The reasonsforthesegapsandtheir with othertargetsinthe2030Agenda. sdg Knowledge gapsexistinrelationtoall KNOWLEDGE GAPS In generalterms,integratedresearch, 14 targetsandtheirinteractions low-income countries Human andinstitutionalcapacitygapsin fishing effort whileensuringprofitability biologically sustainablelevelsbylimiting Options tomaintainfishstocksat jobs intraditionalsectors value addition,andnewtechnologieson The impactofanexpansioninbluejobs, waters andeezs income countrieswithintheircoastal relation toextractiveindustries)inlow- ecosystem services,andriskanalysis(in The socialandeconomicvalueofoceans, collection ofthenecessary data valuation techniques,theirapplicationand countries, thislinkstolimitedexpertiseon over time.Especiallyindeveloping concrete termsandhowthischanges economic andsocialdevelopmentin How marineecosystemserviceslinkto low-income countries Stock assessmentsinartisanalfisheries artisanal catchesinlowincomecountries Under- ormisreportingoflandings provided inthischapter. to thetarget-levelinteractionanalysis gaps thathave beenidentifiedinrelation provides anon-exclusivelistofknowledge to habitatsandecosystems.Thetable seabed resources,marinelife,andrisks an integratedinformationbaseonoceans, 14 14 14

+ + +

1 8 2 213 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER all kinds,includingmarine debris recycling andreducemarine pollutionof How toachievebetterwaste management, fisheries especially throughsmall-scaleartisanal seafood productionandsupplychains, How tominimisepost-harvestlossin fish stocksandhowthesecanbereduced marine environment andtoeffects onwild to inputsofchemicalsandnutrientsthe specific contexts,particularlywithregard How aquacultureaffects marinesystemsin sustainable yield be managedtoprovideformaximum the levelofdiscardsandhowtheyshould The statusofstocksandfisheriesincluding development human settlementplanningandregional countries, forensuringsustainable Gaps incapacity, especially indeveloping jurisdictions and acrossadministrativeboundaries governance (i.e.acrosstheland-seanexus) to developintegratedcross-boundary environment andviceversa,how fiscal policiesinfluencethecoastal How urbanandregionalplanning interact andinfluenceeachother urbanisation andcoastalenvironments How increasedcoastaldevelopment, policy analysisandreporting monetised andnon-monetisablevaluesfor non-marketed ones)andhowtointegrate The valueofecosystemservices(especially and countries in individualmarineregions,seabasins The potentialforsustainablebluegrowth marine ecosystems economic andsocialdevelopmenton How tominimisenegativeeffects of 14 14

+ +

12 11 ecosystems release ofmicroplasticstothemarine How humanhealthisaffected bythe stocks The influenceofclimatechangeonfish coral bleaching the reversionofnegativeeffects suchas mitigation, nature-basedadaptationand management measurestoprovideclimate are suitableandeffective conservationand ecosystems toclimatechange,andwhat How resilientaremarineandcoastal how canthesebemitigatedorreduced and speciesinlow-incomecountries, the healthofmarineecosystems,habitats What aretheimpactsofclimatechangeon seas, coastsandtheirecosystems under theParisAgreement,onoceans, long-term temperaturetargetsestablished What aretheeffects andimpactsofthe 14

13 214 CONCLUDING COMMENTS

sdg 14 plays a cross-cutting role in the 2030 Agenda, interacting with many other sdgs. Transformation towards more integrated and aligned policies and measures in response to these interactions, backed by tailor-made capacity building and strengthened institutions, is a prerequisite for achieving the 2030 Agenda. Progress has been made towards more integrated governance of the ocean. However, silo-based decision-making often irrespective of ecosystem-dynamics and meaningful ecological boundaries still pre- vails in many cases. Decision-mak ing needs to take due account of the environmental dimension as an indispensable enabler for sustainable development and ensure that this dimension is not lost when negotiating between conflicting goals and targets, especially in relation to potential trade-offs and conflicts. To date, degradation of the marine environment has outpaced development of the international ocean governance landscape. Achieving sdg14 and its associated targets, and other sdgs where the ocean plays a crucial role will thus depend on a robust implementation framework, including mechanisms for tracking commitments, regional cooperation and integrated thematic assessments (Unger et al., 2017). Building on these general considerations, the six summary tables in the target-level interactions section provide options for how policy could address the specific target interactions in practice. Although addressed to specific target interactions, many of these policy options are also relevant for other interactions. 215 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER Australian Government,2011.AustraliaStateofthe Australian BureauofStatistics,2016.Australia- Australian BureauofStatistics,2012.Geographic Australian BureauofStatistics,2004.Howmany Álvarez -Romero,J.G.,R.L.Pressey, N.C.Ban,K.Vance- Albert, J.A.,A.D.Olds,S.Albetr, A.Cruz-Trinidad and Ahtiainen, H.,J.Artell,M.Czajkowski,B.hasler, L. 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UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme LOOKING AHEAD NEXT STEPS 220 LOOKING AHEAD: NEXT STEPS collaboration acrossscientific,policyandpractitionercommunities. manysupport policydimensionsprovidesaconvergence pointto nationally-agreed singleagendawitha2030timehorizonintegrating inter- levelmonitoring,evaluationandreview. an as Thesdgs driving meaningfulmulti-stakeholderpartnerships,andforcountry achieving efficiencyandeffectiveness insdgimplementation,for learning processes,andhasveryconcretetangiblevaluefor across goalsstimulatesimportantknowledgegatheringand explicit andunderstandingthefullimpactsofpoliciesactions in ordertomaximisedevelopmentoutcomes.Makinginteractions deliberations onhowtoimplementthe2030Agendacoherently, framework guidesamoredetailedanalysisandenablesstructured the sustainabledevelopmentgoals(sdgs)fittogether. Theproposed for furtherworktowardsamorecompleteunderstandingofhow the fourgoalspresentedinthisreportareintendedasastartingpoint The conceptualframeworkandassessmentofkeyinteractions could bearguedthatthe process ofdecidingonthescorewas chapters overthecourseof thework.Infact,inmany respectsit of thescaleandseveralrevisions weremadetoscoresindifferent interactions. Eachteamhadvaluabledebatesabout theterms a highlyiterativeprocessfordeepeningtheunderstanding oftarget terms ofreplicatingthestudy. the frameworkandscoreinteractions.Thisposesa challengein teams landedinsomewhatvaryinginterpretations ofhowtoapply main conceptualunderpinningsoftheframework, thedifferent starting fromsimilarunderstandingsaboutinteractions andthe specific interactions.Apotentialcaveat emergedinthatevenwhen and extensivedeliberationsaboutthecharacterofdifferent judgment withseekingofnewevidenceinthescientificliterature whereby researchteamscombinetheirknowledgeandexpert zontal coherenceacrosssectors. relationships betweengoalsandtargets,thisreportsupportshori- (‘cancelling’). Bysystematicallyassessingtheinteractionsand are scoredwith-1(‘constraining’),-2(‘counteracting’),or-3 or +3(‘indivisible’),whileinteractionscharacterisedbytrade-offs actions areassignedscoresof+1(‘enabling’),+2(‘reinforcing’) of thesustainabledevelopmentgoalsandtargets:positiveinter- and functionalrelationsunderlyingprogressorachievement evidence availability. global, regional,nationalorsub-national,withvaryingdataand goal, andimportantly, atdifferent geographicalscales,whether interactions thatcanbereplicatedandrefinedforeachevery The reportpresentsatypologyandanapproachtoscoringsdg SCALE ANDMETHODOLOGY REFLECTIONS ONTHESEVEN-POINT Nevertheless, astrengthoftheapproachwasthatit generated The approachtakenreliedonaninterpretiveanalyticalprocess The frameworkonwhichthisworkisbasedidentifiescausal

221 LOOKING AHEAD: NEXT STEPS a widerangeofexpertisespanninggoals,disciplinesandsectors. ing level areidentifiedandscoredusingtheseven-pointscale.Identify- at eachintersectionthemostsignificantinteractionstarget- This couldtaketheformofamatrixincluding17goalswhere SETTING INAGIVENCONTEXT BETWEEN ANDAMONGTHE17GOALSTOINFORMPRIORITY- 1. implementation standout: and manageinteractionsacrosssdgstoinformplanning Based ontheanalysis,fourrecommendationstobetteridentify RECOMMENDATIONS TOPOLICYMAKERS interpretation andlearningprocess. extent, theassessmentbecomesavehiclefortriggeringdialogue gaps incurrentknowledge,anddiscussionwithothers.To this potential contextdependencies,areviewoflimitationsand a detailedstudyoftheliterature,considerationissuesand possibly morevaluablethanthefinalresult,sinceitrequired where therearelimiteddataandevidence. implementation, aswellinthecountryorregionalcontexts governments andothersocietalstakeholdersconcernedwith carrying outsimilarinteractionassessmentexercisesamong narrative ofwhatitwilltaketoachievethesdgsasawhole. a particularcontext–thushelpingtodevelopmorejoined-up even iftheymay notbesingledoutinitiallyaskeyprioritiesin that operateasconnectorsorenablerscanalsobeidentified– early identificationofpotentialconflicts.Keyinterlinkingtargets actions acrossgovernmentdepartments,forexample,through interfaces betweengoals,andsupportthemanagementofinter- mentation ofthesdgswouldprovideausefuloverviewkey traditional, siloedapproach. cross-sectoral andcross-disciplinary conversations thatgobeyonda ding acommonterminology andmethodology, itencourages scoring thedegreeofinterdependencyisvaluablein itself.Byprovi- exercise, theprocessofcollectivelymappinginteractionsand industrial sectors. achieving energyefficiencytargetsinthetransport, housingand determined actiontomoveaway fromfossil fuelsaswell or jurisdictions.Forinstance,tacklingurbanairpollution requires impact, andhighlightingneedsforintegrationbetween policyareas thus informinghowtoplansequencingofactions for optimal possible withoutsimultaneousorevenpreliminaryactiononothers, sising wheretheachievementofoneobjectivewillnotbe SYSTEMATICALLY IDENTIFYTHEINTERACTIONS Building suchanexerciseintotheplanningfornationalimple- Based onthisassessment,thereshouldbeamplepotentialfor It wouldhelpgovernmentsintheirpriority-settingbyempha- Beyond the particular scores determined in such an assessment Beyond theparticularscoresdeterminedinsuchan assessment a priorithemostrelevantinteractionsrequiresbringingtogether

sdg

222 LOOKING AHEAD: NEXT STEPS be country-specific. individual capacitydevelopment. Howtheseprocessesdevelopwill sharing, supportforresearch andinnovation,orinstitutional whether forresourceallocation, dataandinformationcollection aligned withdecision-makingandimplementation processes, such asinGermany, ColombiaorFinland.Butthis alsoneedstobe already developedcross-ministerialandconsultative mechanisms nisms willbekeytoachievingthisinpractice.Some countrieshave ship andthedevelopmentofcross-cuttingcoordination mecha- mechanisms fordrivingpolicyintegrationandcoherence. Leader- institutional andgovernancearrangementsrequire new The sdgs’ambitionandemphasisonintegration,challenge current 3. ed andsubsidiarylevelsofgovernancepolicy. based oncriticalglobaloutcomesandprovideaframeworkfornest- this globallevelofgovernancecanbeusedforsettingpriorities other internationalagenciessuchastheWorld Trade Organization, Framework Convention onClimateChangeworkstogetherwith change andconflict.Forexample,whentheUnitedNations example thosedesignedtoaddressglobalproblemssuchasclimate profit sector. This isevenmoretrueofinternationalgoals,for or servicesarenotadequatelyprovidedbytheprivatesectornon- for whichtherearemultiplebeneficiariesandwherethegoods around asetofcommonpriorityissues. identified andprovideaframeworkforcross-sectoralcollaboration through theassessmentofinteractions,clustersissuescanbe delivering onthesdgs.Basedkeyinterventionpointsidentified stakeholders canplay andharnessmeaningfulpartnershipsfor with oneanothercanenableabetterunderstandingoftheroles have akeyroletoplay. Understandinghowthesdgsinteract of achievingthe2030Agendalieswithcountries,non-stateactors in placetonegotiatehowthesetsoftargetsshouldbemovedforward. conservation zonesundersdg15,thenmechanismsmustbeput ofEnvironment’s targetistoreducebiodiversitylossandexpand agricultural waterpollutionundersdg6and14,theMinistry target, whiletheMinistryofWater’s targetistodramaticallyreduce food securitythroughagriculturalintensificationasitskey and conflicts.Forexample,iftheMinistryofAgricultureputs place tomanagetheseinteractionsandaddresspotentialtensions underothergoals,thengovernancemechanismsmustbeputin interactions. Ifcertaintargetsareinconflictwithprogress set-up isfitforpurposetodeliveronthesdgsandaddresstheir is neededtoassesstheextentwhichexistinginstitutional context andidentifyingkeyactorsforimplementingthe Mapping theexistinginstitutionallandscapeinaparticularcountry DELIVERING THESDGS STRENGTHS ANDWEAKNESSESOFSTATUS QUOFOR 2. ENACT CHANGETOENABLEHORIZONTAL MANAGEMENTOFSDGS MAP EXISTINGINSTITUTIONSANDACTORSTOASSESS Governments focusonmultipleconcurrent‘publicgood’goals, Moreover, itiswidelyrecognisedthatwhiletheresponsibility

sdgs sdg2

223 LOOKING AHEAD: NEXT STEPS cross-cutting gapsindataandknowledge. and impactassessment,makesitpossibletoidentifyimportant to minimisetrade-offs andmaximisesynergies. tation processesandtoestablishtheextentwhichitwaspossible inordertoidentifysynergiesandtrade-offs withintheimplemen- trix ofinteractionsasabaseline,comparisonsshouldbemade as wellintheevaluationofpolicyoutcomes.Usinginitialma- various stagesintheplanningandimplementationofpolicies, sdg domains. ofheadlineindicatorstomonitorprogressacrossvarious definition to monitorinteractionsbetweentargets.Ideally, thereshouldbea Data and informationsystemsshouldbeintegratedinorder to draw upaninitialmatrixofinteractionstoserveasabaseline. achievement ofthesdgs.At theoutset,itisrecommended needed isanintegratedperspectivetomonitorprogresstowards is Beyond themonitoringofindividualtargetsandgoals,what EVALUATION ANDREVIEW 4. aims todeveloptheknowledge forrespondingeffectively tothe Future Earth,aten-yearinternational researchinitiativethat development. sensitive analysis,theorydevelopment,modelling, andscenario data sharingandintegration,empiricalresearch context- knowledge onindividualorclustersofsdgsthroughobservations, community istocontinuegrowingandcriticallyassessing new An importantcontributionthatcouldbemadeby the scientific explored indetail,andidentifiesanumberofknowledge gaps. the scientific literatureoninteractionsrelatedtothefoursdgs towards transdisciplinaryresearch.Thisreportdraws on economics andengineering.Theyalsorequireastrongerdrive tainable developmentacrossnatural,social,healthsciences, The 1. addressing thesdgsinanintegratedway. initiatives thatseektodeveloptheknowledgeandsolutionsfor outline possiblenextstepsandafewexamplesofongoing towards thisbroadarray ofscholarlywork.Thefollowingsections and theirinterlinkages.Thisreportrepresentsacontribution deepening itsunderstandingofsocialandecologicalsystems, The scientificcommunityhasbeenfocusingforalongtimeon SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY NEXT STEPSFORTHE APPLY ANINTEGRATED PERSPECTIVETOMONITORING, CONTINUE TOGROWTHESCIENTIFICEVIDENCEBASE The seven-pointscalecanthereforeprovideabasisforreview Assessment andscoringofinteractionsshouldbeconductedat One way thatscientistsareorganisingthemselvesisthrough sdgs highlighttheneedformoreintegratedresearchsus-

224 LOOKING AHEAD: NEXT STEPS and sharedatasetsfromdiversesources. bridge disciplines,knowledgesystems,andfindefficient ways tolink It willalsomeanthatscientistsneedtoworkharder to across disciplinesandincludenon-scientistsinresearch processes. implementation pathways willrequirecapacitybuildingtowork combining quantitativeandqualitativeanalysis. transformational andequitablepathways tosustainabledevelopment and policymakersaroundtheworldtoexplorescience-based brings togetheralargeconsortiumofresearchers,modellingteams, is TheWorld in2050(twi2050).Thisglobalresearchinitiative grated mannersoastominimisetrade-offs andmaximisebenefits, mational challengesrelatedtoachievingthe17sdgsinaninte- to considerappropriatepolicyinstruments. or E. coli intensification canhave unintendedconsequences,suchasnitrate goals andtargets.Forexample,wherepoliciessuchasagricultural dependingonthegoalsandtargetsspillovertoother systems-approach. consequences. Furtherworkoninteractionscouldusefullyapplya multidimensional anddynamicwithfeedbacksunforeseen target B,recognisingthatinteractionscanbefarmorecomplex, actions. Inotherwords,interactionsbetweentargetAand This reporthasmostlyfocusedonanexaminationofbinaryinter- 2. years withthecontributionsofscientificcommunity. Development Report,aUnitedNationsreportpublishedeveryfour comprehensive synthesiscouldbuildontheGlobalSustainable of scientificknowledgeonthesdgsandtheirinteractions.Such this reportpointsalsotoaneedforbroad-basedassessment and makethescientificliteratureoninteractionsmoreaccessible. thematic assessments,tosupporttheimplementationofall evidence insupportofthesdgs.Thiscouldalsotakeform management frameworktomobiliseandstructurekeyscientific and policy-relevantinsights.Thesdgscouldbeusedasaknowledge challenge initselfbringingsynthetic,authoritative,timely knowledge andsolutions. makers andothersocietalactorstoco-designco-producenew community whilestrengtheningpartnershipswithpolicy- the comingdecades.FutureEarthmobilisesglobalscientific supporting transformationtowardsglobalsustainabilityin risks andopportunitiesofglobalenvironmental changeandfor APPLY ASYSTEMSAPPROACH Strengthening integratedscience todelivertheknowledgeand One projectthatseekstoaddressthefullspectrumoftransfor- A systemsapproachcanbetakenatvariousorganisationallevels The scoringapproachandsynthesisworkundertakenwithin The growingbodyofsustainabilityscienceliteratureposesa pollution offreshwaters, nationalgovernmentsthenneed

sdgs

225 LOOKING AHEAD: NEXT STEPS navigate thecomplexityandurgencyofsdgs. scientific evidencetobeeffectively usedwillbeacriticalenablerto scientists toengageinatimelyandadequatemannerallow scientists todecision-makersaswellstrengtheningcapacitiesof ening sciencesystemsatthenationallevelandconnecting evidence-based decision-makingandsolution-building.Strength- makers atboththeglobalandnational-leveltosupport is theneedtostrengthenscienceadvisorymechanismsdecision- dimension ofthismuch-neededscience-policy-societyinterface siasm fromtheglobaltonationalandlocallevels.Oneimportant mobilisation ofexpertise,resources,competences,andenthu- The scopeoftheambitionsetby2030Agendacallsforawide 4. addressed inanintegratedfashion. interactions betweensdggoalsandtargetstoensurethattheyare headline indicatorsinwhichthethemselvesfocuson aim oftheseesvswouldbetoprovideaminimumsetintegrated, to developasetofEssentialSustainabilityVariables (esvs).The conduct itsworkbetween2016and2018. mental developmentsrelatedtothesdgs.Theworkinggroupwill a moreintegratedanalysisoftheeconomic,socialandenviron- within thestatisticsunderlyingindicatorswithaviewtobuild lished tolookatinterlinkagesbetweengoalsandtargets, tance ofinterlinkages.Subsequentlyaworkinggrouphasbeenestab- and their230indicatorsagreedinMarch2016aswelltheimpor- highlighted thenewdatarequirementsformonitoringofsdgs cator frameworkforthefollow-upandreviewof2030Agenda Goals Indicatorstaskedwithprovidingaproposalforglobalindi- The Inter-Agency andExpertGrouponSustainableDevelopment ering thesdgsasawholeratherthaninisolationwasemphasised. Goals intheun’sOpenWorking Group,theimportanceofconsid- Throughout thedevelopmentprocessofSustainableDevelopment 3. STRENGTHEN THESCIENCE-POLICYINTERFACE EMBED INTERACTIONSINMONITORINGANDREVIEW One approach towards more integrated reporting is the proposal One approachtowardsmoreintegratedreportingistheproposal

ANNEX THREE ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SDG 2 AND THE OTHER SDGS Literature referred to in the texts may be found within the References section to the chapter on SDG 2 227 ANNEX purposes (2.3)may constrainsdg Land useconversion for agricultural in greenhousegasemissions dams whichalsoleadtoanincrease Such atrendmay beexacerbated by instability andextremeevents (13.1). climate adaptionby increasingclimate change (sdg counteract efforts tocombatclimate can expansion, culture /pasture Deforestation duetointenseagri- floodplains (sdg productivity inthelowland Amazon and adecreaseinagricultural areas (especiallyconstraining15.2) can leadtothefloodingofforested Hydroelectric power generation (7.2), 15.2, 15.5,2.4) forest conservation/protection(15.1, the maintainingofecosystemsand production (7.2)may counteract or soybean production(2.3)orbiofuel purposes suchascattleranching Land useconversion foragriculture SUMMARY OFKEYTRADE-OFFS THE AMAZONREGION PROTECTION ANDHEALTH IN ECOSYSTEM MITIGATION, PRODUC FOOD ANDENERGY LENG THE COMPOUNDCHAL- contamination ofsoil (3.4, 3.9) to malariarisk(3.3)and/ormercury due toanincreaseinexposure ES OFDEFORESTATION, TION FORCLIMATE 13) andconstrain 2)

reduced byinvesting in secondgeneration Land usechangepressures canbefurther without enddate(Greenpeace, 2016). every year, anditiscurrentlyrenewed agreed, themoratoriumhasbeenrenewed land forsoybeanproduction.Sincefirst which effectively reducedthedeforested the SoybeanMoratoriumwassigned, years (Gaoetal., annual deforestationoverthepastfew responsible forupto5.9%ofthedirect soybean inMatoGrossomay have been assessed globally, butbiodieselfrom production ondeforestationhasnotbeen (Arvor, 2009).Theeffect ofbiofuel in agriculturalmanagementpractices production wasachievedthroughchanges 2009, 46%oftheincreaseinagricultural in formerlydeforestedareas.Since newly cultivatedsoybeanfieldsplanted 12% ofthedeforestation,with71% between 2000and2007accountedfor State, increasedsoybeanproduction (Almeida etal., 1995 (Margulis,2004)and62%in2008 ranching, approximately70–88%in has beenconverted topastureforcattle the BrazilianAmazon(legalAmazonia) Much ofthetotaldeforestedareain DEFORESTATION THE NEXUSFOOD-WATER-ENERGY- 2012, butincreasedsharplyin2016. Deforestation declinedbetween2004and deforestation between2006and2011. were responsibleforupto69%ofAmazon agro-chemicals (Kawa etal., agrobiodiversity, andgenerallyusefew critical roleinthemaintenanceofglobal In Amazonia,smallholderfarmersplay a over thelast50years(Nobreetal., prevailing modelforruraldevelopment scale hydropower generationhasbeenthe agriculture, cattleranchingandlarge- 2005). Deforestationtoprovidelandfor is sometimesseenasinfinite(Becker, perpetual conquestoflandandresources, where economicgrowth,basedonthe ‘frontier economy’ (Boulding,1966) The Amazonisatypicalexampleof 2016). ForMatoGrosso 2011). On24July2006, 2015), but 2016).

228 ANNEX dams (Barhametal., the annualfloodcycle,also affected bythe with majorseasonalvariations drivenby hunting andforestproductgathering, (fish disappearafter damconstruction), agriculture, coupledwithfishinglivelihoods floodplains containmostofthetraditional This endangersfoodproduction,because the retentionofnutrientsbyreservoirs. in thelowlandAmazonfloodplainsdueto consequences will be decreased productivity countries (Kemenesetal., in 2000). Apartfromasignificantincrease of 12,000km mme, 2011).Thiswouldcausetheflooding new largedamsinthenext30years(Brazil is another. TheBrazilianplancallsfor30 al., deforestation andgreenenergy(Kahnet strongest linksbetweenagriculture, renewable energyinthemix(7.2). as ameansofincreasingtheshare are exacerbatedbybiofuelproduction (2.4). Negativeinteractionsofthistype constrain themaintenanceofecosystems agriculture productivity(2.3)may various sdg2targets,whereunsustainable the potentialconflictsbetween This negativeinteractionalsoillustrates related toforestconservation/protection. sustainability may counteractsdgtargets on short-termproductivitywithout halt deforestation(15.1,15.2,15.5). improvement, suchas2.3)andtheneedto emphasising agricultureproductivity offs betweensdg2(mainlythetargets the competitionoverlanduseandtrade- workers ontheplantations.Thisillustrates including socialsustainabilityofrural worsen productionstandardsinBrazil, criteria inkeyconsumermarketsmay al., production andprofitable(Englundet of theAmazonaresuitableforpalmoil (Obermaier M.,pers.comm.).Largeparts positive impactsfortheBrazilianeconomy biofuels andpublictransport,with emissions, well known in tropical ghg emissions,wellknownintropical 2014). Hydroelectric power generation 2014). Hydroelectricpowergeneration 2015). Lackofinterestinsustainability Biofuel production is one of the Biofuel productionisoneofthe Intense agriculturebasedsolely 2 of forested area (Fearnside, offorestedarea(Fearnside, 1999). 1999). 2007), one of the 2007), oneofthe than formediumtolargefarms. implementation costsforsmallholdings conservation doexistbutinvolve higher as landretirementandprimaryforest solutions tomitigateghgemissionssuch complexity. Lessdemandingtechnology sectors implyahighleveloftechnological However, mitigationsolutionsinthese mitigation (BörnerandWunder, 2012). agriculture andforestryforclimatechange emissions. Thesecountriesrelyheavily on account forover83%oftotalghg agriculture, forestandlandusechange (Brazil, Columbia,Peru,Bolivia,Ecuador), territory belongingtotheAmazon In allcountrieswithalargepartof in albedobetweenforestsandpasture. south-eastern Amazoncouldbethechange last twodecadesoverthesouthernand precipitation reductionsobservedinthe study. Apossibleexplanationforthe precipitation isnotclearandneedsfurther climate instabilityanddisasters(13.1). can constrain climate adaption by increasing counteract combattingclimatechangeand expansion highlightshowtarget2.3can Deforestation duetointenseagricultural surface energybudget(Gashetal., during thedryseasonduetochangein crease of1.0–1.5°Cindeforestedarea to resultinanaverage temperaturein Converting foresttopastureisestimated CONSEQUENCES FORCLIMATE CHANGE food productionandrevenues(2.3). small-scale foodproducerstoincreasetheir security (2.1,2.2)aswellthecapacityfor capacity toreachfoodandnutrition (15.1, 15.2,15.5)andalsoconstrainthe pursuit offorestconservation maintaining ofecosystems(2.4)andthe hydroelectricity, may alsocounteractthe share ofrenewableenergy(7.2)via In thiscase,waterusetoincreasethe The impactoflandusechangeon / protection 1996). 229 ANNEX thus constraintheachievementofsdg frontiers (RichardsonandPeres,2016). rare orevendisappearinoldlogging commercial terms)timberspeciesbecome cut, suggestingthatthemostvaluable(in stands donotrecoverbeyondthefirst- composition andthetotalvalueofforest indicates thatpost-loggingtimberspecies A studyinthesouthwestern Amazon, STOCK DEPLETION CONSEQUENCES ONBIODIVERSITY the linksbetweenlanduse changeand Brazil andFrenchGuiana summarised A recentstudyontheborder between against non-communicablediseases(3.4). hazardous chemicals(3.9)andthefight reduction ofdeathsandillnesscausedby 2.3 may constrainhealth,particularly the agriculture purposesalignedwithtarget example showshowlandconversion for communities (Fillionetal., with mercuryexposureamongthese nervous systemdysfunctionassociated and variousstudieshave reported per week.Methylmercury isaneurotoxin, riverside dwellerseatfishseveraltimes ends offoodchains.Themajority occurring inthetoppredatorsat with thehighestmercuryconcentrations activity andenterstheaquaticfoodweb, into methylmercury throughbacterial present inthesoil,isthentransformed Inorganic mercury, whichisnaturally waterways, causingmercurypollution. and thetransferofsoilsedimentsinto of foresttopastureresultsinsoilerosion In theTapajos Amazonregion,conversion IMPACTS ONHEALTH habitats (Leesetal., degradation ofriparianandterrestrial due totheloss,fragmentationand direct resultofAmazoniandamprojects threatened species. of biodiversityandtheextinction of habitatdegradation,haltingtheloss counteract target15.5onthereduction on biodiversity, andmay inparticular Intense agricultureexpansionmay Aquatic biodiversitywilldeclineasa 2016). 2009). This

15 communicable diseasessuchasmalaria(3.3). agriculture cancounteracttheendingof version toanothertypeoflandusesuchas deforestation forthepurposesofcon- (Li etal., vectors andvector-humanencounters the morelandscapeisfavourable to patches interactwithdeforestedpatches, the moreforestandsecondary mosquitoes after feeding.Consequently, forest canproviderestingsitesforadult and feeding,whileforestsecondary ditions formalariavectorbreeding deforested areasprovidefavourable con- an increaseinexposuretomalariarisk: 2016). Thistrendillustrateshow

230 ANNEX action onclimatechange(sdg ing plant productionmay counteract Depending onsoilquality, improv- Summary ofkey trade-offs peri-urban areas(1.1,1.2) and poverty alleviation inurbanand Play amajorroleinfoodsecurity nutrients forplants carbon, whenmineralised,releases food securitytargetsassequestered ecosystems (sdg have adverseimpactsonterrestrial Some agriculturepracticescan benefit impactcontributetosdg climate change(sdg Sequester carbonandmitigate quality (6.6) capacity aswellregulatingsoil and thustheirwater-holding the physical structureofthesoils Reduce soilerosionandmaintain and biodiversityprotection(15.3) desertification andincreasefertility Reduce landdegradation/ improving landandsoilquality(sdg 2)can: Sustainable landmanagementand SUMMARY OFKEYSYNERGIES STRATEGY NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT THE HEARTOFSENEGAL’S LAND MANAGEMENTAT PUTTING SUSTAINABLE

15). Strong

13). Suchco-

13)

associated diseases(3.9) water quality(6.1,6.3)andincreases farming revenue (2.3)constrains increase productivityandtherefore using fertilisersandpesticidesto Intensive peri-urbanagriculture 50% ofthewateravailable intheSenegal resources areunsatisfactory. Lessthan distribution andmanagement ofthese watercourses andunderground.However, resources arenowadequateinrivers, and PlanningofWater Resources,water Senegalese DirectorateofManagement for theperiod1940–2012.Accordingto 2006 isgreaterthantheaverage recorded and average rainfallfortheperiod since However, thesituationhasnowreversed, intrusion inthemaincoastalbasins. groundwater, resulting insaltwater of surfacewaterandtherecharge This significantlyreducedthe availability annual rainfallbetween1968and1998. West Africa suffered alongperiodoflow sector areincreasingrapidly. agriculture. Exportsfromtheprimary by growthinextractives,fishing,and sector istheprimarysector, boosted achieved since2003.Thefastestgrowing gdp grewby6.5%,whichhadnotbeen Côte d’Ivoire(World Bank,2017).In2015, growing economy inWest Africa, behind on naturalresourcesandtheenvironment. goods andservices,increasingpressure transition thatisincreasingdemandfor is indicativeofamarkeddemographic between 2013and2050.Thisrapidgrowth rapidly. Populationisexpectedtotriple the populationofSenegalisgrowing As isthecaseinmany African countries, BACKGROUND mitigating suchtrade-offs (sdg capacity-building arekey to international partnershipsand Senegal iscurrentlythesecondfastest

17) 231 ANNEX the erable investment efforts toimplement scarcity andwatererosion.Despiteconsid- to degradation,mainlyrelatedwater almost 60%ofarablelandwassubject degradation inSenegal,andshowedthat protection delanature,2004)assessedland (Ministère del’environnement etdela for theEnvironment andNatureProtection Plan (nap undertook toimplementaNationalAction to CombatDesertificationin1994,Senegal By ratifyingtheUnitedNationsConvention LAND DEGRADATION small proportionofgdp(8%). However, agricultureaccountsforonlya population isemployedinagriculture. country asawhole,60%oftheworking activity inruralareasofSenegal.Inthe national economy. Itisthemaineconomic Agriculture plays animportantroleinthe AGRICULTURE (Sultan andGaetani,2014). 20%, withtherainy seasonendingearlier cropping seasonisprojectedtodropby in semi-aridregions.Rainfallduringthe changes inrainfallareprojectedtooccur have increasedby3–4°C.Thegreatest average temperatureinSenegalwill agriculture. River isestimatedtobeusedforirrigated land reformdependsonseveral factors. management, improving soil qualityand of priorityactions,suchas water sector, thesuccessfulimplementation Executive Summary).Intheagricultural of Economy, FinanceandPlanning,2014: economic andsocialpolicy[…]”(Ministry [which] constitutesthereferencefor progress towardemergingmarketstatus development modeltoaccelerateits In 2014,Senegaladopted“anew CHALLENGES SECURITY, CLIMATE ANDWATER NEXUS OFLANDDEGRADATION, FOOD had continued,increasingpoverty. Climate modelsprojectthatby2050 nap , the report revealed that degradation , thereportrevealedthatdegradation ). Initsthirdreport,theMinistry offs betweenthegoals. even overcomesomeconstraints andtrade- synergies withinthenexus andmitigateor Such knowledgecanhelptoreinforce determine soilorganiccarbondynamics. detailed knowledgeoftheprocessesthat associated withthesetwogoalsrequiresa the impactofactionplansontargets Anticipating plant production(sdg 2). (sdg13) andactionsrequiredtoimprove required tomitigateclimatechange is, therefore,atrade-off betweenactions change mitigationorcropyield.There the samemagnitudeofeffects onclimate forms ofsoilorganicmatterdonothave Wood etal., productivity (sdg as nitrogen,forplants,thusimproving to ensurethereleaseofnutrients,such stored insoilsshouldbemineralised important thatsomeoftheorganicmatter climate change(sdg matter stocks,therefore,helpstomitigate and theatmosphere.Increasingorganic dioxide andotherghgsbetweenthesoil soils alsoregulatetheexchangesofcarbon main carbonsinkofterrestrialecosystems, as regulatingsoilquality(sdg thus theirwater-holdingcapacityaswell the physical structureofthesoilsand assures primaryproductionandmaintains Banwart etal., clearly established(Felleretal., matter insoilfunctioninghasnowbeen environment. Theroleplayed byorganic are essentialtocommunitiesandtheir Soils providemany ecosystemservicesthat ORGANIC MATTER THE MANYBENEFITSPROVIDEDBYSOIL SUSTAINABLE LANDMANAGEMENT: and accesstodrinkingwater. technologies tocombatlanddegradation implement adaptationmeasuressuchas generated bytheagriculturesector, andto global ghgemissions,someofwhichwere Change, Senegalundertooktoreduceits Framework Convention onClimate Agreement withintheUnitedNations At thesametime,byratifyingParis 2016) showedthatdifferent 2014): itmaintainsfertility, 2). Recentresearch(e.g. 13). However, itisalso 6). Asthe 2012; 232 ANNEX others gainaccesstoland, fisheriesand measure onhowpeople,communities and use oftheenvironment, dependinlarge hunger andpoverty, andthesustainable According tothefao IMPACTS A SAFEGUARDTOAVOID HARMFUL GOVERNANCE OFLANDTENURE: change. mitigation of,andadaptationto,climate food security, watermanagementand of combatinglanddegradation,ensuring funds tofullymeetthemultiplechallenges development) andtheuseofdedicated the globalpartnershipforsustainable means ofimplementationandrevitalise commitment (sdg them requiresastronginternational and Reij(2009)stressedthatupscaling Although thesebest practices exist,Botoni other aspectssuchasbiodiversity(sdg15). harmful effects ofsomepracticeson practices, highlightingthepotentially This showedthediversityofexisting land managementinSenegal(cse,2010). a setofbestpracticesforsustainable together withitspartners,published Senegal EcologicalMonitoringCentre, of agriculturalactionplans.In2010,the productivity shouldbetheprioritytarget have alowstoragecapacity, increasing al., for soilorganicmatterstocks(Manlay et the recyclingoforganicresiduesarekey the village.Thisspatialorganisationand the savanna areatowardsthecentreof gradual increaseinintensificationfrom the villages(Manlay etal., systems areorganisedasaringaround etc). Insavanna regions,production organic residues(cropresidues,manure, to agreatextentonthemanagementof viability ofproductionsystemsdepends (Liniger etal., (sdg These plansfocusonwatermanagement action planstocombatlanddegradation. land managementisthecoreissueof In West Africa andSenegal,sustainable 2004). Becauseregionswithsandysoils 6), fertilityandbiodiversity(sdg 15) 2011). Intheseregions,the 17: Strengthenthe , “Theeradicationof 2004) witha

production isforecastwith anincrease (1.2). InSenegal,a250%increase in plays amajorroleinactiontoendpoverty urban areas(Golhore,1995).Ittherefore of revenueforthepooresthouseholdsin cities. Peri-urbanagricultureisasource meeting theincreasedfooddemandin to developperi-urbanagriculture,thus proportion ofthesenewarrivals,helped time. Farmers,accountingforaveryhigh these newinhabitantsinashortspaceof cities whichwereforcedtoaccommodate the migrationofruralpopulationsto millet, rice,cowpea,manioc,etc),with is largelybasedonagriculture(peanuts, effect ontheeconomy ofSenegal,which 1983–1984) hadanalmostimmediate Successive droughts(1970–1973,1976–1977, a majorimpactonmigrationtocities. al. (2015)showedthatdroughthashad in citiesSenegal.However, Gueyeet the increasednumberofpeopleliving There aremany complexfactorsexplaining thus acceleratedduringrecentdecades. concentrated inDakar. Urbanisationhas with around50%ofthisurbanpopulation 2014). By2013,thishadincreasedto49%, lived incities(RépubliqueduSénégal, In 1976,34%ofthepopulationinSenegal AND RURALAREAS BETWEEN URBAN,PERI-URBAN SOCIAL ANDENVIRON au-senegal.html). phase-pilote-dans-la-zone-du-lac-de-guiers- participatif-de-veille-sur-le-foncier-opvf- ppr-srec.org/fiches-actions/observatoire- for theLacduGuiersregion(seehttp:// Occupation andUsePlans,forexample governance, Senegalhasdrawn upLand in developingcountries. companies willingtoinvest inagriculture for landbetweenlocalcommunitiesand property rightstoresolvecompetition not transposingtheWestern modelof security, andstressedtheimportanceof of landtenuretoensurenationalfood (2011) pointedtotheneedforsecurity forests” (fao To meetthischallengeofrationalland , 2012:Preface).DeSchutter MEN TAL LINKS 233 ANNEX et al., in theareaundercultivation(Gueye a humanpathogen(Ndiaye etal., (lettuce) wascontaminatedbySalmonella, Dakar) showedthatnearly7%ofproduce gardening systemsinPikine(asuburbof of interaction constrainstheachievement to degradewaterquality. Thisharmful to increaseproductioncurrentlytend In theseperi-urbanfarmingsystems,efforts to ensuresustainableproduction(sgd12). environmentally-friendly farmingpractices called fortherapidimplementationof was severelypollutedbynitratesandso Sall andVanclooster (2009)foundthewater of morethan100wellsintheNiayes area, (6.3) anddrinkingwater(6.1).Inastudy had adetrimentaleffect onwaterquality and, thusrevenuefromfarming(2.3), and pesticidestoincreaseproductivity peri-urban agricultureusingfertilisers Niayes) showedthatdevelopingintensive large metropolisofDakar(inPikineand al., on populationandhumanhealth(Baet agriculture modelhasadetrimentaleffect target 2016). Researchundertakeninthe 2015). However, thisperi-urban 3.9. Asurveyofthemarket- 2011).

withdrawal andsupply(6.4) water, challengingsustainablewater Agriculture isamajoruseroffresh- may pollutesurfacewater(6.3) Fertilisers andanimalwasterun-off nates drinkingwater(6.1) use andanimalproductioncontami- Nitrate leachingfromfertiliser air quality(3.9) Agricultural productioncanreduce SUMMARY OFKEYTRADE-OFFS butes toendingmalnutrition(2.2) Access tonutritiousfood(2.1)contri- SUMMARY OFKEYSYNERGIES Sciences) Josue MedellinAzuara(CenterforWatershed (Department ofLand,Air, Water Resources) JosetteLewis(World FoodCenter),JanHopmans WATER CHALLENGES ADDRESS CALIFORNIA’S SMART AGRICULTURE TO IMPLEMENTING CLIMATE export revenue. export revenue. evident throughits23%share intotal globally onqualityandsafety, whichis the Mediterraneanclimateandcancompete high valueproductsthattakeadvantageof orientated, withcontinuedshifts toward California agricultureishighlymarket- to play asignificantroleinrural incomes. of theoverallstateeconomy, it continues age processing,accountsforlessthan5% agriculture, togetherwithfoodandbever- infarm-gaterevenue. While year per the economies globallyandthelargestin California isamongthetoptenagricultural usa , withanestimatedus$50billion

234 ANNEX NUTRITION ANDHEALTH: SDG mental objectivesmay beinstructive. offs betweenagricultureandenviron- its policyapproachestominimisingtrade- on environmental regulationintheusa California hasoneofthestrongestrecords (constraints) tomeetingothersdgs.As both synergies(reinforcing)andtrade-offs systems (2.4).Achievingthese,presents ensuring sustainableandresilientfood malnutrition inallforms(2.1,2.2)and access tosafeandnutritiousfoodend plays animportantroleinproviding agricultural commodities,California operations, producingover400different small, organictolargecommercial With over76,000farmsrangingfrom addressed throughregulatorymeasures. drinking water, ahealthconcernbeing agriculture constrainsaccesstoclean permits toaddressthistrade-off. Finally, operations beganrequiringstatepollution fermentation, andlargecattledairy a seriesofnewregulationsonfarms,wine permitting requirementsuntil2004,when pollution laws hadexemptedfarmsfrom contamination (3.9).Californianair and air, water, and soilpollutionand and illnessfromhazardouschemicals constrains reducingthenumberofdeaths Valley (Cowan,2005;arb,2008).This fertilisers anddust)intheSanJoaquin than halfofparticulateemissions(from for 21%ofozone-forminggasesandmore health targets.Farmactivitiesaccount agriculture alsoposesconstraintsonother malnutrition (2.2).However, Californian safe andnutritiousfood(2.1)ending of theu.s.diet,reinforcingaccessto significant roleinthenutritionalquality Thus, California’sagricultureplays avery and nuts,20%ofdairyproducts. the u.s.productionofvegetables,fruits, California isresponsibleforalmosthalf 2 &SDG 3 , AGRICULTURE: SDG SUSTAINABLE &RESILIENT priorities andtheneedsof growing intensified withincreased environmental mental, andagriculturalsectors has regulations. facilitate compliancewithwaterquality by growerstosustainproductivityand in recommendationsandtoolsused fertiliser use.Thisresearchhasresulted in reducingtheenvironmental impactof since 1990forresearchtoassistfarmers taxes onfertilisersaleshave beenused of Californianagriculture,fundingfrom measures ontheeconomicsustainability plans. To offset theimpactofthese form ofgrowernutrientmanagement and increasedregulatorymeasuresinthe increasing taxesonnitrogenfertilisers policy responsesbeingconsideredinclude reduce nitrateleachingfromfertiliseruse, through reducingpollution(6.3).To water (6.1)andimprovingquality constrain accesstosafeandcleandrinking drinking water, agricultural practices large urbancentresdependonwellsfor et al., drinking waterqualitystandards(Harter leads togroundwatersthatexceed agricultural cropandlivestockproduction groundwater inregionswithintensive (in 2001).However, nitrateleachinginto 2003) andimprovegroundwaterquality to reducerun-off fromirrigatedlands(in regulations werefurtherstrengthened Clean Water Act.Statewaterquality prior tothepassageofnational California beganregulatingwaterquality al., 2016). (Howitt etal., amounting tous$2.2billionin2014 economic impactontheagriculturesector water allocations,leadingtoanegative has receivednoorgreatlyreducedsurface the currentfive-yeardrought,agriculture climate resilienceinCalifornia.During resource foragriculturalproductivityand With adryclimate,waterisanessential Competition acrossurban,environ- With thePoter-CologneActof1969, 2012). Asmany peopleoutside 2014; Medellin-Azuara et 6 -WATER

235 ANNEX more efficientdripand micro sprinkler of thatwater. However, theshift toward significantly increasedthe productiveuse the shift towardhighervaluecropshas use hasdeclinedwhileatthesametime, has increased:totalagriculturalwater use efficiencyofCaliforniaagriculture scale. Duringthepast50years,water requires actionatboththefarmandbasin and waterresourcesiscomplex state-wide cropacreage. Thus, apotentialimpactisreductionin entirely ongroundwaterforirrigation. agriculture inregionsofthestatethatrely not yetclear, but will clearlyconstrain pumping. Theimpactofthisnewlaw is Act in2014toregulategroundwater the SustainableGroundwaterManagement drinking waterneeds,Californiapassed of groundwaterforbothagriculturaland address concernsoverthesustainability due tooverdraft ofgroundwaterwells.To of people,largelyinagriculturalregions, emergency drinkingwatertothousands to allocateus$19millionprovide water (6.1).In2016,theStatewasforced It alsoconstrainsaccesstocleandrinking freshwater toaddresswaterscarcity(6.4). sustainable withdrawals andsupplyof on groundwaterconstrainsensuring in thelastfewyears.Increasedreliance or moreinperiodsofdroughtsuchas groundwater; thelevelincreasesto50% third oftotaldevelopedwaterisfrom 50% orless.Innormalyears,aboutone the shareofirrigationwaterdeclinesto is allocatedtoirrigationdistrictsand However, inperiodsofdrought,lesswater + groundwater)isforirrigatedagriculture. about 70%ofdevelopedwateruse(surface Resources, 2013).Innormalwateryears, balance (CaliforniaDepartmentofWater urban sectoraccountingfortheremaining environment accountsfor50%,withthe agriculture withdraws 40%,whilethe in reservoirsandfromstreamflow, water available, fromrunoff stored droughts. Ofthetotalestimatedsurface urban populations,alongwithperiodic The relationshipbetweenagriculture CLIMATE CHANGE-SDG SUSTAINABLE &RESILIENTAGRICULTURE: critical resource. reinforce sustainablemanagementofthis recharge, advancingnewsolutionsto winter monthstoincreasegroundwater flooding agriculturallandsintherainy examining thepossibilityofdeliberately of California,alongwithpublicsources,is organisations suchastheAlmond Board Research, fundedbyagriculturalproducer infrastructure providingsurfacewater. drip andthusindependencefromcanal farmers shifted togroundwatersupported the numberofirrigatedacresexpandedas reduces groundwaterrechargerates,and management. Dripirrigationsignificantly constrained sustainablegroundwater this efficiencygain,hassimultaneously irrigation systemswhichcontributesto 3 with connecting sdg 13 beverage processinginthestate,thus it doesregulateemissionsfromfoodand not setghgemissioncapsonagriculture, of agriculture.Whiletheoriginalpolicydid low carboneconomy, includinginthearea additional regulations and investments in a This policyhassincebeenstrengthenedby through theuseofacapandtradesystem. that calledforreducingghgemissions comprehensive climatechangelaw in2006 for different varieties.Thestatepasseda and winegrapeshave climaticspecificity and stonefruitsrequirewinterchilling, significantly impactmajorcrops:almonds Furthermore, risingtemperatureswill drought areamajordriverforadaptation. precipitation andmorefrequentperiodsof change. Theprojectedreductionsin turn, besignificantlyimpactedbyclimate only 8%ofstateghgemissions,itwill,in framework. Whileagricultureaccountsfor into California’sagriculturalpolicy productivity –isincreasinglyintegrated – balancingmitigation,adaptation,and The conceptofClimateSmartAgriculture meet moreambitiousclimate mitigation on short-livedclimatepollutants to 2016, thestateenactednew regulations sdg 13 2. InSeptember 236 ANNEX producer organisationsare providing national governmentsand agricultural same time,investments bythestateand and typesofagricultureproduced.At the continue todrivechangesintheamount constrain Californiaagricultureandwill and internationaltradecompetition limited allocationofwaterforagriculture, health andenvironmental concerns,more environment. Increasedregulation for diverse foodsystemandasustainable goals foraneconomicallyviable,highly of theapproachestoreconcilingacross sustainability, and resilienceofthesector. investments intheproductivity, agriculture, italsoprovidesreinforcing may have someconstrainingimpactson mitigation policyframeworkinthestate of agriculture.Thus,whiletheclimate economic and environmental sustainability (Byrnes etal., productivity orclimateresiliencebenefits both ghgemissionreductionsandeither management practicesoffer co-benefitsfor demonstrates thatthesetechnologiesand A recentreviewofresearchinCalifornia systems, andinstallationofdairydigesters. more waterandenergyefficientirrigation for growersintheareasofhealthy soils, auctions supportincentives(subsidies) practices. Fundsfromcarboncredit for growerstoadoptclimatemitigating through publicinvestments inincentives agricultural productivityandadaptation provided aframeworkforsynergieswith to climatechangeinstatepolicyhas 2016). At thesametime,prioritygiven manure managementpractices(Lee, increases incostsassociatedwithchanging dairy industrythroughverysignificant constrain theeconomicviabilityof emissions regulationscouldsignificantly It isexpectedthatthenewmethane production inlarge,confinedoperations. emissions, withthemajorityofdairy for abouthalfofCalifornia’sagricultural sector. Livestockproductionaccounts reductions inthedairyproduction goals. Thisregulationcallsformethane The caseofCaliforniaillustratessome 2016), reinforcingthe measures. of improvementsagainstenvironmental of thesectorandincreasingevidence in thecontinuedgrowtheconomicvalue constraints betweengoals.Thisisevident in theagriculturesectortoreconcilethese that aredrivingcontinuousimprovement incentives andnewtoolstechnologies LEAD COORDINATOR Claudia Ringler Deputy Division Director, Division Anne-Sophie Stevance (ICSU) of Environment and Production Technology (International Food Policy Research Institute) OVERALL EDITORS Stefanie Schmidt DG MARE (European Commission) Dave Griggs, Måns Nilsson, Frédérique Seyler Deputy Director of the department Anne-Sophie Stevance, David McCollum on Internal Dynamics and Continent surface (Institute of Research for Development AUTHORS José Siri Research fellow, (United Nations University Anthony Capon Professor Planetary Health (University International Institute for Global Health) of Sydney) Sebastian Unger Scientific Coordinator (Institute for Ralph Chapman Director, Graduate Programme in Advanced Sustainability Studies) Environmental Studies (School of Geography, Martin Visbeck Professor in physical oceanography Environment and Earth Sciences, University of (GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Wellington) and Kiel University) Elinor Chisholm Department of Public Health (New Yvonne Waweru Project Scientist (Institute for Zealand Centre for Sustainable Cities, University of Advanced Sustainability Studies) Otago) Jean-Luc Chotte Ecologie Fonctionnelle & Biogéochimie EDITORIAL TEAM des sols & des Agro-écosystèmes (Institute of Carolyn Symon (science editor) Research for Development) Denise Young, Johannes Mengel, Christopher N.H. Doll (United Nations University - Howard Moore (independent editor) Institute of Advanced Studies) Carole Durussel Project Scientist, Ocean Governance, DESIGN TEAM (Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies) Johannes Mengel (coordination) Luis Gomez Echeverri Senior Research Scholar Nora Coenenberg and Pia Bublies (International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis) (illustrations and graphics) David Griggs Professor in sustainable development www.nocoii.com, www.piabublies.de, (Monash Sustainability Institute, Monash University) PBLC Design – Daniel Behrens and Philippa Howden-Chapman Director, He Kainga Thomas Ackermann (layout) Oranga/Housing and Health Research Programme www.pblcdsgn.de (New Zealand Centre for Sustainable Cities, University of Otago) ADVISOR David McCollum Research scholar, Energy Program Gisbert Glaser (International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis) SUGGESTED CITATION Ludovic Mollier Project officer, Sustainable International Council for Science (ICSU), 2017. Development Goals and Finance for Development A Guide to SDG Interactions: from Science to (Institute of Research for Development) Implementation [D.J. Griggs, M. Nilsson, A. Stevance, Måns Nilsson Research director (Stockholm D. McCollum (eds)]. International Council for Science, Environment Institute), Professor of the practice of Paris policy analysis (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) Barbara Neumann Research Associate, Coastal Risks DOI: 10.24948/2017.01 and Sea-Level Rise Research Group, (Institute of Geography, Kiel University) ICSU would like to thank the US National Simon Parkinson Research Scholar, Energy program Science Foundation (NSF) for its support (International Institute for Applied Systems of this work. Analysis) Keywan Riahi Programme Director, Energy Program (International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis) PEER-REVIEWERS Martin Obermaier (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Anik Bhaduri (Griffith University, Australia) Brazil) Kathryn Bowen (Australian National University) Marlon Pareja (De La Salle University Dasmarinas, Clainos Chidoko (Great Zimbabwe University) Philippines) Amy Choong (National University of Singapore) Farhan Rauf (Our Own Public Health Institute, Pakistan) Marius Christen (University of Basel, Switzerland) Thomas Reuter (University of Melbourne, Australia) Guéladio Cissé (Swiss Tropical and Public Health Adam Samms (Royal Roads University, Canada) Institute, Switzerland) Lidion Sibanda (South Africa) Charles Ebikeme (ICSU) R.B. Singh (University of Delhi, India) Uwe Fritsche (International Institute for Sustainability Patricia Solis (Texas Tech University, United States) Analysis and Strategy, Germany) Bill Sonntag (Environmental Protection Agency, Franz Gatzweiler (Urban Health and Well-being United States) programme, China) Kalum Udagepola (Scientific Research Development Thomas Skou Grindsted (Roskilde University, Denmark) Institute of Technology, Australia) Yabi Ibouraïma (Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Benin) Ashish Upadhyay (Center for Environmental Planning Nafiseh Jafarzadeh (Massachusetts Institute and Technology, India) of Technology, United States) Ed Urban (Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research, Johnson Jament (University of Northampton, United States) United Kingdom) Claude Villeneuve (Université du Québec, Canada) Saroj Jayasinghe (University of Colombo, Sri Lanka) Gabriela Wülser (Swiss Academies of Arts and Kristina Jönsson (Lund University, Sweden) Sciences, Switzerland) Daniel Kachelriess (CITES, Switzerland) Nima Yazdan Panah (Massachusetts Institute of Shelton Kagande (University of Zimbabwe) Technology, United States) Richard Kenchington (University of Wollongong, Australia) Ushehwedu Kufakurinani (University of Zimbabwe) Sigrid Kusch (Independent, Germany) David Leblanc (UNDESA) Martin Le Tissier (University College Cork/Future Earth Coasts, Ireland) Yong Liu (Tianjin University, China) Stewart Lockie (James Cook University, Australia) Dand Ly Quoc (Chiang Mai University, Vietnam) Julius Madzore (Zimbabwe) Kudzai Makoni (Africa Community Development and Research Center, Zimbabwe) Itai Offat Manyanhaire (Zimbabwe Open University) Michelle Merrill (National Ecology and Environment Foundation, United States) Peter Messerli (Centre for Development and Environment, Switzerland) Tawanda Mushiri (University of Zimbabwe) Godfrey Ndlovu (National University of science and Technology, Zimbabwe) Gilchriste Ndongwe (Zimbabwe Evidence Informed Policy Network) Aidin Niamir (Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Institute, Germany) Ana Raquel Nunes (Warwick Medical School, United Kingdom) The United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted in September 2015. It is underpinned by 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets. National policymakers now face the challenge of implementing this indivisible agenda and achieving progress across the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development worldwide.

For this report, a team of scientists evaluated the key target-level interactions between an ‘entry goal’ and all other goals, and attributed a score to these interactions based on their expert judgment and as justified through the scientific literature. For their work, they used the 7-point scale pictured below.

The report is based on the premise that understanding the range of positive and negative interactions among SDGs is key to unlocking their full potential at any scale, as well as to ensuring that progress made in some areas is not made at the expense of progress in others. The nature, strengths and potential impact of these interactions are largely context-specific and depend on the policy options and strategies chosen to pursue them.

INTERNATIONAL FOOD POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE IFPRI