Int. J. Sport Health Sci. Paper : History A Study on the Formation Process of Sports Recommendation Admissions to Universities in *

Yuta Ono1, Hidenori Tomozoe1 and So Nemoto2

1Faculty of Sport Sciences, 2-579-15 Mikajima, Tokorozawa, Saitama 359-1192, Japan y-ono.sps＠aoni.waseda.jp 2Ikuei Junior College 1656-1 Kyomemachi, Takasaki, Gunma 370-0011, Japan

*Original article published in Japan J. Phys. Educ. Hlth. Sport Sci. 62: 599-620, 2017 (in Japanese) [Received February 21, 2018; Accepted July 1, 2018; Published online July 13, 2018]

The objective of this study will be to clarify the historical characteristics of the formation proc- ess of admissions based on sports recommendation in Japanese universities. First, in Japan, even before the recommendation admission system was o‹cially approved, athletes had been given preferential treatment in entrance examinations. Next, Since the recommendation admis- sion system was o‹cially approved in 1967, private universities' faculties of physical education, among others, started actively admitting athletes based on a recommendation. These physical education faculties selected students based on physical skills tests to secure competent athletes. And in the 1980's, private universities played a leading role in conducting entrance examina- tions with a special admission quota for athletes. Waseda University launched the Special Selec- tion System for the Physical Education Major, which introduced a special admission quota for athletes, speciˆed the athletic events and performances, and made the selection process widely known to the public. Last of all, 1987 the Ad Hoc Council on Education recommended that as- sessment on sports activities be taken into consideration in entrance examinations. The 1989 University Admissions Selection Implementation Guidelines listed ``adequate assessment of ac- tivities in sports, culture, etc.'' as a selection method for university admission for the ˆrst time.

Keywords: collegiate athletic club, university entrance examination, amateur sports, student athletes, NCAA

1. Introduction sports, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) established and 1.1. New trends in college sports in Japan held a Review Meeting on Promoting College Sports and has set up a Task Force as its working While a wide range of roles is expected from group, in operation from April 2016 to March 2017. university education―including development of a Through this review, MEXT released ``Review wholesome character, a high level of education, and Meetings of College Sports Promotion (Final the development of special skills (University Educa- Draft)'' in March 2017. At the same time, MEXT tion Subcommittee, University Education Commit- set out plans for the establishment of the National tee, Central Council for Education, 2012)―the Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Japan, roles expected from collegiate athletic club activi- modeled after the NCAA US, as a signiˆcant pillar ties, also known as ``college sports'', are also wide for drawing forth the latent strength of college ranging. In recent years, the national government sports resources. has led a lively debate on how college sports should In the Second Semester Basic Plan for Sports, be conducted. formulated by MEXT in March of the same year, In order to examine measures to promote college MEXT indicated its plan ``to support the founda-

146146 International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.16, 146-172, 2018 http://taiiku-gakkai.or.jp/ The Formation Process of Sports Recommendation Admissions to Universities

tion of an umbrella organization that extends across 2012). universities and competitions (NCAA Japan), in Given these circumstances, the focal discussion order to enhance human resources and sites, factors point during the review meeting on the promotion that serve as the foundations for the sports environ- of college sports became ``how student athletes can ment. Through this, we aim to construct a domestic manage their academic work and sporting activi- structure for promoting college sports'' (Ministry of ties''. Even in the Final Draft, it requests ``ap- Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Tech- propriate support to balance academic work and nology, 2017a). As can be seen here, MEXT clearly sports'' (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, indicated its intention to advance Japan's college Science and Technology, 2017b). In actuality, ap- sports reformation, modeled after other established proximately 70z of universities in Japan feel that it structures, including the NCAA US. is necessary to provide specialized study assistance What is particularly emphasized in the conception for student athletes (Ito et al., 2014). Furthermore, of NCAA Japan is the construction of a business cases of student athletes who do not possess model that generates a large volume of revenue like su‹cient academic ability nevertheless being admit- the NCAA US, in order to aim at ``improving the ted to universities (Miyata, 2016; Yomiuri Shimbun, ability to procure capital for the promotion of 2014) and of student athletes who only focus on college sports'' (Ministry of Education, Culture, sports while neglecting academic work have been Sports, Science and Technology, 2017b). This discussed (Kubo, 2006; Tomozoe, 2016). means that it is necessary to advance initiatives to As seen here, even in Japan, issues pertaining to increase the revenue of college sports through such balancing academic work with sporting activities avenues as the broadcasting rights of sporting have already risen. Given that the university is an events. It also implies the need to construct a system educational institution and that university is a at the same time in which each university manages signiˆcant place for student athletes to acquire the and operates college sports resources, both tangible knowledge and skills necessary to succeed when and intangible, with its revenues channeling back to they head out into the real world, issues of student education activities and making a social contribu- athletes' relationships with academic work and tion. sports activities inherent in college sports form a While this concept of NCAA Japan stirs excite- signiˆcant issue that cannot be overlooked when ment about the commercial possibilities that exist- examining the prospects of college sports in Japan. ing college sports could develop, some concerns have also been raised. Such concerns involve the 1.2. The signiˆcance of admissions based on sports issue of student athletes*1 balancing academic work recommendation in college sports research and competitive sporting activities. In the , which serves as the leading This research will focus on admissions systems example, the NCAA US strives toward reinforcing based on sports recommendation (admissions based various regulations that prioritize the student at- on sports recommendation). Admissions based on hlete's role as a student. This includes academic sports recommendation are part of a system of ad- qualiˆcations that indicate certain academic stan- missions through recommendation and a method in dards for entrance and progress of the student at- which the student's sports performance record dur- hletes. However, despite such measures being set in ing high school is evaluated and used for selection, place, the low graduation rate of student athletes mainly during the university admissions process. and academic dishonesty issues in which student at- According to the Japanese Association of Univer- hletes or the university authorities are involved seem sity Physical Education and Sports (2014) Research, to continue unabated. In other words, because the 30.5z of universities used admissions based on market value of college sports has increased sig- sports recommendation as of 2014. niˆcantly in the United States, college sports have Thus, admissions based on sports recommenda- come to receive societal interest. However, for this tion could be regarded as an admissions system that reason, cases in which student athletes ˆnd it gives opportunities to many athletes to progress in di‹cult to balance both academic work and sports their studies. However, because there are many activities are not uncommon (Glenn and Kawai, cases in which students are exempted from the aca-

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demic achievement test, the lack of basic academic universities, according to the di‹culty level of being ability in students admitted through sports recom- admitted, it was empirically shown that a greater mendation is frequently raised as an issue (Yomiuri number of private universities with low admission Shimbun, 2014). Furthermore, among those who di‹culty levels adopted admissions based on sports have been admitted to university through sports recommendation than did national and public recommendation, it is not uncommon for them to universities, which are bound by fair criteria, and ˆnd it di‹cult to balance academic work with sports private universities with high admission di‹culty activities. Consequently, it is not rare for such stu- levels. In addition, Nakamura (2011) has suggested dents to have to repeat a year or drop out of univer- that since the Deregulation of the University sity. Establishment Standards in 1991, many private Given the realities surrounding admissions based universities have conducted various types of admis- on sports recommendation, where should this type sion as part of an inter-university competition of admission be placed within the university, whose strategy. Nakamura reported that admissions based objective, according to Article 83 of the School on sports recommendation expanded continuously Education Act, is to bestow ``a wide range of during this development. knowledge centered on academic pursuits, as well as Research other than on university admissions providing in-depth teaching and leading in speciˆc system includes a study by Kamiya (2015) that rev- arts and science ˆelds''? In other words, a situation iewed the systemic transition of athletic club activi- in which student athletes who entered university ties but also examined university admissions based through sports are subsequently unable to cope well on sports recommendation as part of his research. in terms of academic work, the ˆrst aim of a univer- Kamiya (2015) argued that once taking account of sity education, must highlight some sort of structur- club activities came to be encouraged in the high al contradiction. That said, the importance of ad- school teaching guidelines that were reviewed in missions based on sports recommendation in Japan 1970, engaging in ``athletic club activities to ad- has also been pointed out, because its existence pro- vance in one's studies'' came to be established. This motes the college sports athlete system. In consider- process was closely tied in the teaching guidelines ing this situation, the topic of admissions based on and transcripts to the evaluation of a student's in- sports recommendation is a signiˆcant research sub- volvement in athletic club. In this context, Kamiya ject when examining student athletes' relationships discussed the requests made around the same time with their academic work and sporting activities by the Japan Sports Association to strengthen col- within Japanese college sports. For these reasons, legiate athletic club as a factor behind the spread of this study will focus on admissions based on sports admissions based on sports recommendation. recommendation. The above studies imply that following o‹cial approval by the Ministry of Education of admis- 1.3. Reviews of preceding studies sions based on sports recommendation, they grad- ually came to be introduced. Furthermore, admis- In studies that examine university admission sys- sions based on sports recommendation were not tems, admissions based on sports recommendation something conˆned to a simple university admis- are treated as a unique admission format sions system framework; rather, they went through (Nakamura, 1997; Sasaki, 1984). transformations in their implementation format and When conducting an overview of the historical institutional positioning due to various social condi- transitions of admission systems based on recom- tions around universities and requests made to col- mendations in Japan, Sasaki (1984) stated that since legiate athletic club. the 1966 addition of the admissions system based on However, from a meticulous examination of the recommendations was o‹cially approved by the preceding studies, a question arises: How did Ministry of Education, ``frankly speaking, athletes admissions based on sports recommendation in from various types of sports have been let in regard- Japanese universities take shape? With regard to less of their scholastic ability test scores'' (Sasaki, admissions based on sports recommendation, vari- 1984). When Nakamura (1997) analyzed the 1996 ous points have been made, based on research into entrance exam implementation status of various university entrance admissions systems and athletic

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club activities, as mentioned above. However, these missions system based on recommendations was studies did not focus on admissions based on sports o‹cially approved by the Ministry of Education in recommendation. Consequently, they only go as far the 1966 University Admissions Selection Im- as making broad comments on the formation proc- plementation Guidelines and, around 1988, the ess of admissions based on sports recommendation, ``appropriate evaluation of sports activities'' was and the details have not been su‹ciently clariˆed. clearly mentioned by the Ministry of Education in The current research does not provide an ade- the 1989 University Admissions Selection Im- quate answer to the question ``What kind of a sys- plementation Guidelines. The University Admis- tem is admissions based on sports recommenda- sions Selection Implementation Guidelines ensure tion''? When and how were admissions based on that all Japanese universities are notiˆed every year sports recommendation in Japanese universities of the appropriate implementation procedures for created and what kinds of change did they go admissions and entrance exams. Each university is through? What is the social context that promoted required to make further upgrades and improve- the formation of admissions based on sports recom- ments to its student selection method (Ministry of mendation? When examining student athletes' Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technolo- relationships with academic work and sporting ac- gy, 2017c). Since the University Admissions Selec- tivities in Japanese college sports, we need ˆrst to tion Implementation Guidelines indicate the univer- clarify the historical characteristics of the formation sity admissions entrance exam policies in Japan, in process of admissions based on sports recommenda- this study they will be viewed as an index that tion. represents the institutional positioning of admis- sions based on sports recommendation. The reason 1.4. Objective of this study why this study will examine the period up to the es- tablishment of admissions based on sports recom- The objective of this study will be to clarify the mendation*2 is as follows: historical characteristics of the formation process of According to Nakamura (2011), competition be- admissions based on sports recommendation in tween universities became ˆercer as a result of the Japanese universities. The study is structured in the Deregulation of University Establishment Stan- following manner: Before engaging in a central dards*3 in 1991. That year, each university started discussion, the circumstances surrounding o‹cial to introduce an admissions system based on recom- approval of an admissions system based on recom- mendations as a means to secure new students in a mendations by the Ministry of Education will be more advantageous manner. The number of people summarized. Thereafter, the following three points aged 18 has been in rapid decline since the 1990s. It will be examined as speciˆc tasks for this study. is said that the era of free university competition First, the situation of the admission process of at- arrived due to various policies being set in order to hletes that was conducted prior to o‹cial approval respond to this development (Asahi Shimbun, of the admissions system based on recommenda- 1991). For this reason, universities from the 1990s tions will be clariˆed. Next, the circumstances in- onward were pressured to shift away from a univer- volved in the introduction of admissions based on sity system that up to that point had been continu- sports recommendation after their o‹cial approval ously expanding. In the midst of such changes, the will be set forth, divided into the 1970s and 1980s in state of the university admissions system also order to reveal their relations to their respective so- diversiˆed; many universities are believed to have cial contexts. Finally, on the basis of this series of introduced admissions based on sports recommen- ˆndings, the positioning of admissions based on dation as part of their advertising strategy, with the sports recommendation by the Ministry of Educa- admission exam being implemented in various for- tion will be discussed. mats. First, the focus is on the period up to the estab- 2. Research target period and methods lishment of admissions based on sports recommen- dation, meticulously picking out the historical char- The period that this study will examine will be acteristics believed to be necessary to develop this from 1965 to around 1988. This is because the ad- research. This is because research into universities

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and university admissions from the 1990s onward, graduating high school (Haruyama, 1954). If a as well as the aforementioned research on the for- school interview was conducted, some universities mation process of university admissions based on conducted it while taking into account the circum- sports recommendation, has barely been conducted. stances of the university or the academic depart- Therefore, this study will examine the period up to ment (Sasaki, 1984). Even then, the selection the establishment of admissions based on sports method during centered mainly on a scholastic abil- recommendation in the 1980s. The paper will then ity test, and transcripts were treated only as a refer- explain in detail the tasks for the future, based on ence (Masuda et al., 1961). the ˆndings obtained in this study. The Ministry of Education o‹cially approved an The main resource materials in this study will be admissions system based on recommendations start- those indicating the state of entrance exams and ad- ing in 1965, when the 1966 University Admissions missions systems of universities (such as documents Selection Implementation Guidelines were released related to entrance exams and admissions systems (the 1966 Implementation Guidelines). The 1966 from each university), those showing the trend of Implementation Guidelines stipulate that of the collegiate athletic club (such as on-campus gazettes high school students who have the academic grade and school sports newspapers from each university), evaluation A listed on their transcript, universities and those related to the Ministry of Education and can give the grade of ◯A to those with particularly articles/papers in educational journals that discuss outstanding grades, while students with an excellent admissions based on sports recommendation. aptitude for the academic faculty/department of the The following research limitations will be ac- corresponding university also can be marked as knowledged in conducting this study. Until admis- such. These students are then eligible to be recom- sions based on sports recommendation became pub- mended (Ministry of Education, 1965). However, to licly conducted, preferential treatment toward at- use this measure, the university had to have discus- hletes will be assumed to have been shown by, for sions with the Ministry of Education in advance. example, ``giving a leg-up on entrance exam scores What spearheaded the expansion of the admis- clandestinely'' (Yomiuri Shimbun, 1983). Such un- sions system based on recommendations was the disclosed entrance exam/admission circumstances 1967 University Admissions Selection Implementa- will be a matter related to the privacy of the ex- tion Guidelines (the 1967 Implementation Guide- aminee of the time and not just an issue of whether lines), which were released the following year. In or not admission requirements can be found. Con- the 1967 Implementation Guidelines, it was stipulat- sequently, there are aspects of the circumstances in ed that ``the selection of the new entrants done by which universities gave preferential treatment to at- rationally compiling and passing judgment on refer- hletes uno‹cially cannot be clariˆed due to the con- ence materials, which include the transcript submit- ˆdential obligations of each university authority. ted by the graduating high school's principal and This fact limits this study; however, where possible, the results of the scholastic achievement test and we will collect primary resources that each univer- health examination conducted by the university'' sity possesses (such as documents relating to en- (Ministry of Education, 1966a). The guidelines also trance exam/admissions system) and will strive to state that, while keeping this in mind, ``a portion of accomplish this study's tasks mainly by using such the new entrant quotient can also be determined on resources. the basis of a recommendation from the graduating school's principal and exempting the scholastic 3. O‹cial approval by the Ministry of Educa- ability test'' (Ministry of Education, 1966a). The tion of admissions systems based on recom- Ministry of Education deˆned the admissions sys- mendations tem based on recommendations as ``a method that makes its judgment on the basis of the graduating Under the new system, for universities that were high school's principal, exempting the scholastic set up one after another, starting in 1948, the gener- ability test'', (Ministry of Education, 1966a) and al rule was to decide on new entrants by three forms added a point of concern that ``the recommenda- of evaluation: an academic aptitude test, a scholas- tion requirements that the university stipulated is to tic ability test, and transcripts submitted by the be presented as speciˆcally as possible to the high

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school principal before asking for a recommenda- already been noted. The introduction of an admis- tion''. As seen here, the positioning of the admis- sions system based on recommendations was expect- sions system based on recommendations was clari- ed to alleviate such an excessive preparatory educa- ˆed in the 1967 Implementation Guidelines. Fur- tion for the entrance exam. thermore, each university was now able to imple- According to University Admissions Selection ment an admissions system based on recommenda- Field Research conducted by the Ministry of Educa- tions based on its own judgment. tion, the percentage of universities that had in- The Ministry of Education gave the following troduced an admissions system based on recommen- three reasons for o‹cially approving an admissions dationsasof1972waslimitedtojust5z (11 aca- system based on recommendations: demic departments) of national and public universi- The ˆrst reason was to eliminate the ``di‹culty of ties; however, among private universities, 55z of being admitted to a university due to a concentra- universities had introduced this system (265 aca- tion of applicants in some universities'' (Ministry of demic department) (University Division, University Education, 1966b). The population of those aged 18 Academic Bureau, the Ministry of Education, years had increased from 1,402,000 in 1964 to 1973a). This shows that the admissions system 2,491,000 in 1966. The number of university based on recommendations was actively introduced entrants also increased greatly, from 217,000 to by private universities. The next section will detail 293,000, in just a span of two years (Statistics how the system of admissions based on sports Bureau, Ministry of Internal AŠairs and Communi- recommendation was established within the expan- cations, 2016). Such an increase in the population sion of the whole admissions system. of those aged 18 made competition in the entrance exam ˆercer*4, with the university entrance exam 4. Preferential entrance exam measures for at- during this period truly becoming a ``serious social hletes before the public approval of an ad- problem'' (Yomiuri Shimbun, 1963). missions system based on recommendations The second reason was the elimination of the ``doubts concerning the rationality behind selection First, this section will review the entrance exams using a scholastic ability test given only once'' and admission systems for athletes that were used (Ministry of Education, 1966b). This entrance exam before the o‹cial approval of an admissions system method, which determined whether a student passed based on recommendations. or failed on the basis of a ``one-shot deal'', had As mentioned previously, admission systems that been accepted ``as something traditional, or even used transcripts and interviews had been conducted given, in Japanese entrance exam and admission in Japan before the o‹cial approval of the admis- systems'' (Yomiuri Shimbun, 1965). However, this sions system based on recommendations. Immedi- approach had been identiˆed as problematic for ately after the establishment of the new university quite some time for its lack of rationality and relia- system, preferential measures for athletes in the ad- bility. Given this situation, making a judgment missions system were put in place in conjunction based on a student's academic scores in the three with this o‹cial approval: ``In most private univer- years of high school was deemed to be a more ra- sities, athletes were preferentially admitted in an tional way of selecting students for admission than exam test that was given only as a formality'' a one-time exam. (Yomiuri Shimbun, 1960). The third reason was concern about the damage At , for example, a special admis- incurred by the excessive preparatory education for sions selection system for athletes had been in place the entrance exam due to the skewed focus on it since 1952, under the instruction of the physical (Ministry of Education, 1966b, p. 35). In relation to education council, which was composed of profes- entrance exam preparation conditions at the time, sors from each department and supervisors of at- Asahi Shimbun (1965) reported that ``the current hletic club (Meiji University, 1952). This was a sys- entrance exam system puts an excessive and un- tem in which any entrance candidate recommended necessary psychological and physical burden on by a athletic club was given a grade by the physical adolescents''. As can be seen here, the heavy burden education council. Thereafter, the acceptance or of preparatory education for the entrance exam had rejection of students was determined by consulting

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the faculty council (Meiji Sports Shimbun, 1966). that it was strictly an undisclosed system. On the Other measures included a system at Waseda other hand, given that reports of such occurrences University in which students from a night school were seen several times in the newspapers, the exis- were accepted via recommendations from teachers. tence of such preferential measures at the time was Although the actual numbers are unknown, it is semi-acknowledged, even if they were not publicly said that many athletes were enrolled in this man- admitted. ner. (Asahi Shimbun, 1981a; Waseda University, University History Editorial O‹ce, 1997). 5. The rise in admissions systems based on On the other hand, Asahi Shimbun reported on recommendations among Faculty of Physi- the case of a university (referred to as University A, cal Education after the o‹cial approval of to retain its anonymity) where the admissions sys- such admissions systems tem worked in the following manner: The circumstances surrounding Japanese univer- When the entrance exam was approaching, a sities are said to have signiˆcantly changed in the conference was held at each athletic club as ten years after the campus unrests took place usual at University A. They determined the (Shimizu, 1982). In around 1970, many issues relat- quota of entrants for each club, determining ed to the state of universities became manifest, trig- the number of athletes needed for the baseball gered by the campus unrest*5, which pressured each club, the rugby club, the track and ˆeld club, university to make reforms independently. This also and so on. However, this was not the number had a signiˆcant impact on the positioning of at- of students who were given a complete pass for hletes within universities. In the following section, the entrance exam. It was a recommended can- the entrance exam/admissions system for athletes in didate registry, with rankings given. Applicants the period immediately following the o‹cial ap- listed on the registry were given a certain num- proval of an admissions system based on recom- ber of bonus points whereby the university. . . . mendations will be clariˆed, in particular by In the past, there were apparently cases in referencing the social context of the ``campus un- which students passed the test with bonus rest'', which was becoming ˆerce during this period. points alone, as long as they had their names on the registry. However, more recently, the 5.1. The campus unrest between the mid-1960s and situation has become more di‹cult. Students early 1970s and the changes in the status of need to score enough points to reach a certain college sports members threshold. In addition, clippings from newspapers showing their accomplishments After Japanese society recovered from the post- during their high school years also serve as an war confusion and entered the stage of rapid eco- important form of corroboration. (Asahi nomic development, the Japanese people's desire to Shimbun, 1968a) advance to university increased*6. Private universi- ties became the main receptacle for such demand, One can surmise from these case examples that advancing the rapid quantitative expansion of preferential measures for athletes were given, even higher education. As a result, the various issues that before the o‹cial approval of the admissions sys- universities faced began to expand. Instigated by an tem based on recommendations in Japan. However, opposition movement to the large increase in tuition such preferential measures were not written down in fees at in 1965, the campus unrest the entrance exam details. The Japan University Ac- started to spread across Japan from the mid-1960s creditation Association at this time warned each (Oguma, 2009; Kusahara, 2008). The main factors university, saying, ``Do not give special help with in the campus unrest included tuition increases, entrance admission due to reasons such as the democratization of campuses, expulsion of stu- applicant being a promising athlete'' (Japan Univer- dents, opposition to integration or transfer of cam- sity Accreditation Association, 1958), indicating puses, and issues with the teaching administration. that, on the face of it, this was not an approved The unrests were complex, with such various factors entrance exam method. This leads to the conclusion intertwining.

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In 1966, campuses at Waseda University, Meiji raised as a target of university reform, with the University, and were seized and university authority putting forward a policy to closed oŠ by the students. In 1968, the unrests at ``strive toward abolishing the special admissions such universities as and University selection system that is conducted to secure at- of became ˆerce, gradually expanding into a hletes'' (Meiji University, University Reformation nationwide campus unrest. For this reason, univer- Preparatory Committee, 1969). Even in the past, sities such as , and Tokyo Uni- surveys given to all Meiji University students versity of Education were forced to halt entrance showed that 78.4z of the students thought that exams in 1969 (Asahi Shimbun, 1968b; Yomiuri ``athletes should be admitted under the same condi- Shimbun, 1968). This intensiˆcation of the campus tions as the general students'', pointing to the ine- unrest started to aŠect the situation of university quality in the preferential treatment of athletes in athletic club members. the admission process (Meidai Sports Shimbun, Although many universities had their campuses 1965). Other cases involved students avoiding entry shut down or occupied by students during the cam- to the athletic club itself at Waseda University due pus unrests, the athletic club members acted as to the clubs acquiring a bad reputation, starting bodyguards for the university authorities by par- with the con‰ict between athletic club members and ticipating in tearing down barricades and breaking student groups during on-campus unrests (Waseda up rallies in exchange for preferential treatment University, University History Editorial O‹ce, from the university authorities in entrance exams 1997). and activity budget grants to their clubs. This de- The above situations led to the average number of velopment made the athletic club synonymous with members in collegiate athletic clubs decreasing sig- right-wing, feudalistic organizations, and they were niˆcantly, from 37.3 in 1965 to 30.1 in 1971 (Japan referred to as ``right-wing athletics clubs'' (Nihon Sports Association, 1980). This was the result of the University college of Low Struggle Committee, unequal preferential treatment shown athletes dur- 1969) by student organizations that were opposing ing the entrance admissions system and the violent the university authorities. Such campus unrests par- and insular state of the athletic club organizations, ticularly intensiˆed among the so-called ``tradition- which received harsh criticism from the general stu- al schools'' that existed during the pre-war Showa dent body. As Miyagawa reported on athletic club era. As a result, the athletic club at these universi- members at the time, ``Hearing the criticism that ties found it di‹cult to maintain their traditional collegiate athletic club played a violent role within activity structures. campus unrests and seeing that cases of hazing at Nihon University College of Humanities and such clubs were unending . . . they started to Sciences, a campus that saw a ˆerce campus unrest, become alienated socially as well'' (Miyagawa, demanded that the university authorities ``dissolve 1969); athletic club members were being viewed the Athletics Association of the university and never harshly. take any intervention measures for athletic clubs'', For this reason, giving preferential treatment in under the pretext of ``abolishing various structures entrance exams to athletes as had been seen in the that had been allocated for oppressing the student past became di‹cult in most universities, and body'' (Nihon University College of Humanities consequently this type of measure was reduced or and Sciences Struggle Committee, 1968). While abolished. It seemed evident that the existence of the athletic club members were prominent as ``an athletic club that is separate from the general bodyguards for the university authorities at Nihon students'', in which the club members were admit- University, they were also involved in various cases ted to the university as a result of preferential treat- of physical assault against the general student body. ment (Yoshida, 1969) would be viewed as unfair by Such conditions caused the con‰ict to escalate be- the general student body given a social situation in tween the athletic club members and general stu- which the ˆerce competition for entry had become dents, causing support for athletic club members to even more intense. wane (Aochi, 1969). Furthermore, at Meiji University, the aforemen- tioned special admissions selection system was

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5.2. The introduction of admissions systems based of physical education compared to such admissions on recommendations for the Faculty of Physi- systems in other faculties is that they include a prac- cal Education at private universities tical sports skill test. Practical skills tests were also given in general admissions tests for the faculties of As a result of the campus unrests and competition physical education of the above universities, while for entry becoming more intense, judgment based the main test for the general entrance exam was the solely on the score of a scholastic ability test became scholastic ability test. In most universities, the ratio common even for the admission of athletes. On the of students admitted through the general entrance other hand, newly emerging universities founded af- exam to students admitted through the practical ter the war (Asahi Shimbun, 1968a) and, in particu- skills test was between 2:1 and 3:1. (Obunsha, lar, physical education universities (Ikei, 1978) were 1972). able to accept many excellent athletes. While no scholastic ability tests were conducted Thus, this study will now focus on the admissions in the admissions system based on recommenda- system based on recommendations in the faculty of tions, it can be inferred that the weight given to the physical education of private universities. In Japan, practical skills test was heavier than that given to a faculty of physical education had been established the general exam. Athletes who had excellent sports in 12 private schools by 1969*7. After the o‹cial ap- performance records were likely to have superior proval of an admissions system based on recom- motor abilities, and it is believed that the implemen- mendations, the faculty of physical education at tation of a practical skills test favored such athletes. each university started to introduce an admissions To paraphrase, the admissions system based on system based on recommendations. recommendations for faculties of physical educa- First, from 1967, Osaka College of Physical Edu- tion actively evaluated the physical resources that cation, Chukyo University, Shigakkan University, the athlete had previously developed through such Tokyo Women's College of Physical Education, practical skills tests. Therefore, by conducting an and Japan Women's College of Physical Education admissions system based on recommendations cen- introduced an admissions system based on recom- tered on a practical skills test, the faculty of physi- mendations in their faculties of physical education cal education during this period aimed to secure (Obunsha, 1967). By 1972, Sendai University, Tokai superior athletes. This can be understood from the University, and Fukuoka University had also in- fact that universities that did not have a faculty of troduced an admissions system based on recommen- physical education (e.g., Chuo University and Meiji dations in their faculties of physical education. Wi- University) wished to establish such a faculty to thin a short span of ˆve years after the o‹cial ap- ``secure athletes'' (Chudai Sports, 1967; Meidai proval of such a system, admissions systems based Sports Shimbun, 1965). on recommendations had been introduced into the On the other hand, there were universities (e.g., faculties of physical education at eight schools. Fur- Osaka College of Physical Education) that stressed thermore, admissions systems based on recommen- the signiˆcance of the admissions system based on dations started to be conducted at Juntendo Univer- recommendations in the faculty of physical educa- sity (Juntendo University Narashino Research Com- tion based on its relationship to educating physical mittee, 1981) in 1976, four years later, and at Nip- education teachers. Kitsuo Kato (Kato), who served pon College of Physical Education from the 1977 as a professor at Osaka College of Physical Educa- entrance exam/admissions system (Nippon College tion, explained the admissions system based on of Physical Education, 1976). The ratio of success- recommendations from the university: ful applicants to total applicants for such admis- sions systems in these faculties went from 1:0 to 2:1 I don't think this method (an admissions sys- (Obunsha, 1967, 1971). The selection method was tem based on recommendations: author note) is centered on interviews and practical skills tests, necessarily a logical one, but we gave this while some universities also conducted a ``simple method a try because we believed that a student scholastic ability test''. who majored in physical education should have The fundamentally diŠerent feature of an admis- a certain degree of knowledge while simultane- sions system based on recommendations in faculties ously being excellent in physical ˆtness and

154154 The Formation Process of Sports Recommendation Admissions to Universities

competitive strength and a person of good na- tions Committee. The athletic club chief then sub- ture. I believed that personal characteristics are mitted the verdict to the University Admissions especially important in a physical education in- Decision Committee, with the ˆnal decision given structor....Whenlookingattheachievements by the judgment of the faculty council. of alumni after their graduation, I often heard As mentioned above, the introduction of an ad- that a student who was a bit behind in academ- missions system based on recommendations in Nip- ic achievements but who was sorted as a person pon College of Physical Education started in 1977, was receiving great praise. (Kato, 1970) with this admissions system being introduced uno‹- cially. Given that there are many unclear aspects of Kato believes that, given that ``most of the the admission selection of excellent athletes based current physical education universities are training on recommendations, and of the admissions system students to become school physical education based on recommendations, this study will avoid teachers'' (Kato, 1970), one mission of a physical further mentioning this matter. However, in the education university is the ``education of physical case of Nippon College of Physical Education, it is education teachers'' (Kato, 1970). For Kato, an known that a specially arranged preferentially con- admissions system based on recommendations ducted admissions system was conducted in certain that selects students by focusing on their physical cases, even after the introduction of the general strength, competitive power, and even personalities admissions system based on recommendations. by using interviews was a very signiˆcant measure in Further examination of the circumstances of this selecting students who were suited to becoming admissions system needs to be conducted in the physical education teachers. The positioning of the future, including interviewing the person in charge admissions system based on recommendations wi- at the time. thin Osaka College of Physical Education indicates that the faculty of physical education expected stu- 5.3. Conducting admissions systems based on dent athletes to perform well in academic respects in recommendations in the School of Physical relation to their training as physical education Education at , a new- teachers. concept university: Admissions system for As seen above, the faculty of physical education those who have excellent skills in a certain ˆeld at this period was able to secure excellent athletes even without having to introduce a special bracket The Ministry of Education proposed a policy for athletes because the students they wanted under which they would review the rigid university matched the criteria on the physical ˆtness test. system that had treated all universities uniformly, However, the content discussed above refers to in- aimingfora‰exiblemanagementsystemthatcor- itiatives conducted within the general admissions responded to the circumstances of the individual system based on a recommendations framework. universities. To be speciˆc, reform of the university Separate to this, we can also make a similar point system was pushed forward under the slogan of about the existence of the specially arranged admis- ``the diversiˆcation of higher education'' (Ministry sions systems. of Education, 1971) in the Central Council for One such admissions system was the ``admission Education report of June 11, 1971, entitled ``Basic selection of excellent athletes based on recommen- Policies for the Development of Comprehensive dations'', which Nippon College of Physical Educa- Expansion of School Education in the Future'' (the tion generally conducted uno‹cially. According to 1971 Report). the Detailed Admissions Selection of Excellent What was conducted by the Ministry of Educa- Athletes Based on Recommendations Guidelines, tion in conjunction with the above policies was the this admissions system had the ``direct objective of establishment of the new-concept universities. discovering and educating excellent athletes and While the Ministry aimed to prepare for the expan- strengthening their athletic club'' (Nippon College sion of the pre-existing universities―mainly those of Physical Education, 1974). Decisions to pass or that were science and technology oriented―it also fail were given by discussing the Admissions Selec- aimed to establish a university built on a new con- tion of Excellent Athletes Based on Recommenda- cept, not restricted by the previous culture. An insti-

155155 Yuta Ono, et al.

tution that is representative of this endeavor is Uni- tive sporting activities. Concerning the introduction versity of Tsukuba, which was founded in October of an admissions system based on recommendations 1973 by developing Tokyo University of Education among such schools of physical education, the as its parent organization. bracket for the admissions system based on recom- University of Tsukuba had three main character- mendations was ``incorporated actively by having it istics: First, the new organizational structure cen- limitedto20z (of the quota)'' by the faculty tered on a university system/division; second, the council of the School of Physical Education, Tokyo establishment of a university body that covered the University of Education, in August 1972, before entire university; and third, ``an open university'' as University of Tsukuba was opened (School of its basic principle (University Division, University Physical Education, Tokyo University of Educa- Academic Bureau, the Ministry of Education, tion, 1972). This indicates that it was an initiative 1973b). What gained attention in the initiatives planned to accompany the o‹cial opening of the taken by University of Tsukuba was the active university. incorporation of an admissions system based on Thereupon, when checking the content of the ad- recommendations. missions systems based on recommendations in the At University of Tsukuba, the admissions system University of Tsukuba Admissions Selection Guide- based on recommendations was introduced to the lines (1973), the qualiˆcations and recommendation First Cluster of Colleges and the School of Physical requirements of applicants were those who were Education, starting with the 1974 admissions, which expected to graduate from high school and were was the ˆrst year that the colleges were o‹cially ``within the top 10z in academic scores among the opened. For these, the successful applicants were students enrolled in the corresponding grades pooled from an admissions system based on recom- throughout all their years in high school (for the mendations at a rate of 20z or under of the admis- ˆnal year, at the point of giving a recommenda- sions quota for the Colleges of Humanities and tion)'' (University of Tsukuba, 1973), in addition to Social Sciences in the First Cluster of Colleges and requiring the recommendation from the high school School of Physical Education, and 10z or under principal. What should be noted is the other recom- for the College of Natural Sciences of the First mendation requirement: ``a person who has a par- Cluster of Colleges. An approach to admissions ticularly excellent skill in a certain ˆeld'' (University basedonrecommendationswithsuchahighpercen- of Tsukuba, 1973). tage (20z) was not seen in other national universi- With regard to this particularly exceptional skill ties. in a particular ˆeld, University of Tsukuba gave The School of Physical Education was concep- speciˆc examples in its Implementation Guidelines, tualized as a place to ``develop a physical education such as, ``Someone who has shown an exceptional leader with both excellent athletic skills and a wide unprecedented skill in a subject in their high range of physical science education, researchers in school'' or ``had an excellent skill in track and ˆeld physical science who possessed athletic skills, or while also being an athlete competing in inter- leaders in health education who had acquired a wide school athletic competitions'' (University of Tsuku- range of knowledge in physical science and a high ba, 1973). Although these examples are given for level of athletic skills'' (Tokyo University of Educa- both the First Cluster of Colleges and the School of tion, School of Physical Education Conceptualizing Physical Education, the latter example is probably Committee, 1971). As such, it was ``expected to one that was given for the School of Physical Edu- show itself to be the only place dedicated to physical cation. education in a nationally run university'' (Uni- In addition, the School of Physical Education versity Division, University Academic Bureau, the asks for the submission of ``a transcript related to Ministry of Education, 1973b). From its opening, athletic skills'' (sports transcript). Given that the University of Tsukuba was equipped with various sports transcript required the speciˆcation of physi- sporting facilities and training camps, including a cal information and sports performance records, it 400-meter track, rugby and soccer ˆelds, and is believed that judgment concerning sports perfor- expensive facilities that were suitable not just for mance records was made on the basis of this tran- research/education activities but also for competi- script. The selection method included document

156156 The Formation Process of Sports Recommendation Admissions to Universities

screening for the primary selection, with a physical ties sought ways to revitalize collegiate athletic clubs skill exam, a short essay, an interview, and a under the slogan of diversiˆcation. thorough medical examination for secondary Direct requests made by the Japan Sports Associ- selection. No restriction was given for the sports ation to collegiate athletic clubs started to become category. prominent in the early 1980s. One such request was What is signiˆcant here is that University of a government subsidy for clubs, which universities Tsukuba's clear reference to ``those with exception- speciˆcally wanted to be strengthened in 1980. This al skills in a certain ˆeld'' as a recommendation re- involved partially subsidizing the activity budget re- quirement puts forward a policy that evaluates skills quired for camp training fees and instruction based other than academic ability. In previous admissions on recommendations from each sporting organiza- systems based on recommendations conducted in tion for collegiate athletic clubs with achievements, schools of physical education at private universities, such as producing athletes selected to represent such ``exceptional skills'' were not mentioned, and Japan in the Olympics and world championship the position of physical ˆtness measured through a meets (Japan Sports Association,1980). To justify practical skills test was not clear either. By contrast, its requests, the Japan Sports Association stated in addition to holding a practical skills exam, Uni- that the competition level of Japanese student at- versity of Tsukuba positioned athletes' sports per- hletes was ``clearly on a declining trend'' (Japan formance records as a skill, given that the university Sports Association, 1980), and it asked for athletic clearly mentions the submission of a sports tran- club in each university to be strengthened using this script and recommendation requirements. These are initiative as an opportunity. measures that are entirely in line with the Admis- The Japan Sports Association also highlighted sions System Improvement Report*8 compiled by the commercial potential of college sports. The the University Admissions System Improvement Japan Sports Association (1980) proposed ``stren- Council of the Ministry of Education, and can be gthening ticket revenue, TV revenue, and sales of traced back to the foundation of University of publications and other items'' as a new promotional Tsukuba under the leadership of the Ministry of measure for college sports from the 1980s onward Education. (Japan Sports Association, 1980). The Japan Sports Association said that this was an issue that should 6. Establishment of admissions based on sports not be relegated solely to the Japan Sports Associa- recommendation at private universities in tion or sports organizations but was something that the 1980s all four bodies, including the university authorities and athletic clubs, should tackle as one party. In 6.1. University reformation in the 1980s and the re- reality, there had been a push by the mass media, as quest made to collegiate athletic clubs in the TV broadcasting of the Tokyo-Hakone col- legiate ekiden relay race that started in 1979. As In the 1980s, the Ministry of Education continued such, the strengthening of collegiate athletic clubs to promote the autonomous reformation of univer- was emphasized as a strategy to improve the campus sities and aimed to ``reform the university system, image of the university (Japan Sports Association, whichhadbeenrigidandˆxed,toamore‰exible 1980). and spontaneous one'', following on from the As shown above, the circumstances surrounding Ministry's 1971 Report in order for universities to collegiate athletic clubs entered a new phase in the be able to address various demands from citizens 1980s due to the further advancement in the diver- (University Division, University Bureau, the Minis- siˆcation of the university and the demand to try of Education, 1982). In addition, planned strengthen collegiate athletic clubs. The number of development of higher education was also being athletic club members, which had been steeply pushed forward. Within this development, the pro- declining during the campus unrest era, had in- motion of private universities, which accounted for creased to 39.0 persons per club by 1977 (Japan 71.5z*9 of all universities, was viewed as a priority Sports Association, 1980), showing a sign of recov- task (Ministry of Education, 1981a). Using this situ- ery. ation as a general framework, most private universi- With the above developments as the backdrop,

157157 Yuta Ono, et al.

private universities in the 1980s started to use en- comers, newly established universities would trance exams and admissions systems that were implement special measures to have athletic generally open to society but in which a special club members join, putting us in an increasing- bracket for athletes was in place*10. This transition ly bad situation. (Waseda Sports, 1969) took place with the special selection system for a physical education major (physical education major As the above statement indicates, the reason why special selection system) conducted by the School of the number of club members decreased included the Physical Education, Department of Education, increase in the number of applicants to Waseda Faculty of Education*11 at Waseda University. The University, as well as newly established universities implementation of a physical education major spe- actively enacting preferential measures in admis- cial selection system was described by newspapers sions systems for athletes. As mentioned previously, thus: ``by establishing a special bracket, it was the although there was a system for accepting athletes ˆrst attempt in Japan to admit students who are ex- on the basis of recommendations from teachers at ceptional in written exams, sports, and scholastic night schools at Waseda University, after 1965, ability'' (Asahi Shimbun, 1982; Yomiuri Shimbun, night schools gradually stopped recruiting new stu- 1982). As can be seen here, it was focused on as a dents. In addition to the di‹culty level of the en- turning point for the later expansion of admissions trance exam increasing as a result of intensiˆcation based on sports recommendation. In the next sec- of competition, the institutional restriction, in the tion, the initiatives taken by Waseda University in form of halting recruiting for night school enroll- conducting this physical education major special ments, made it di‹cult to secure sports members. selection system will be discussed. This impact lowered the competitive level of all sports at Waseda University (Waseda Sports, 1980). 6.2. The introduction of the special selection sys- Later, this situation resulted in the entrance exam tem for a Physical Education Major in Waseda cheating*12 incident, which was uncovered at the University: An admissions system targeting faculty of commerce in 1980. This was an incident those who have exceptional skills in sports in which professors intentionally leaked the en- trance exam questions of the faculty of commerce. 6.2.1. Background to the introduction of a Special It was discovered that individuals connected to the Selection System for the Physical Education athletic clubs were involved in the back-door entry Major of athletes (Asahi Shimbun, 1981c). Because of this, One of the issues that Waseda University athletic Waseda University was asked to make reforms to club had since 1970 was a decrease in the number of implement an open entrance exam that was trans- athletic club members. Despite having approximate- parent and fair. As a result of this development, the ly 2,000 athletic club members at Waseda University special physical education entrance exam was in- in 1961, the number rapidly decreased to approxi- troduced in 1983*13. mately 1,300 by 1970. Although the number in- 6.2.2. Details of physical education―specialized creased slightly to approximately 1,450 in 1982, the special selection Waseda University athletic clubs faced a serious Firstly, this article will recap the content of the situation in which there were clubs that could not 1983 Special Selection System for Physical Educa- compete in group competitions (Waseda University, tion Major Guidelines (1982) (Table 1). University History Editorial O‹ce, 1997). A stu- First, the eligibility requirements for the examina- dent described this situation in the following man- tion include the ``high academic ability demanded ner: by the department'', as well as ``excellent skills'' that match the sports performance records stan- Within the span of three to four years, the lack dards of the sports category that the faculty of edu- of members became serious, with all clubs cation stipulates. 10 team sports were considered, racking their brains for ways to acquire new including volleyball, basketball, baseball, and members. The number of those applying to rugby. The sports performance records standards Waseda University was high. In addition to it were set as ``ˆrst-string players whose team ended being di‹cult to welcome in promising new- within the top 4 places in a national competition (in-

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Table 1 Faculty of Education, Waseda University, 1983 Special Selection System for Physical Education Major (1982) (Partial Extract).

Application Eligibility 1. A male student who is expected to graduate from high school or to have completed three years of technical college in March 1983. 2. Those who strongly desire to enroll in the major of physical education in this faculty and who possess the high academic abil- ity that this faculty seeks, as well as skills that meet the standard stipulated by this faculty in a sports event (listed on the separate chart). 3. A person who has clear aspirations and a passion for learning after enrolling in the university, and who has the aptitude suit- ed for this endeavor. 4. Transcript standards (1) The average grade score for each class/subject in all subjects until the second year of high school/technical college must be 3.5 or higher. (2) There must be no ``C'' mark on the behavior and character records. (3) The number of days absent from school up to the ˆrst semester of the third year of high school/technical college must be 40 days or less. 5. You must be healthy and must not suŠer from any ear infection that prohibits you from swimming. Number of specially selected candidates 16 or less. Documents required for application 1. Application chart (the form will be provided by the faculty) 2. The following forms of identiˆcation (1) Those who are expected to graduate from a high school must bring the transcript prepared by the school principal. (2) Those who are expected to graduate from technical college must bring the certiˆcate of expected completion and the aca- demic transcript prepared by the school principal. (3) Sports activity transcript (the form is provided by the faculty). 3. Test fee Same amount as the 1983 general test applicants (reference: 1982 test: 20,000 yen) Test Short essay, interview Test date December 5, 1982 Test time table Short Essay: 10 AM–11:30 AM; Interviews: 1 PM

(Summarized from the Special Selection System for Physical Education Major Guidelines (Faculty of Education, Waseda Univer- sity, 1982, pp. 2-4))

termural or national meets for soccer and rugby; ``sell'' their various achievements (e.g., awards substitute players are also eligible)'' (School of Edu- history and high school ranking) that could not be cation, Waseda University, 1982). Twenty-two measured by performance records in competition individual sports were considered, including judo, alone. The selection methods were short essays and wrestling, track and ˆeld, swimming, and skiing. interviews, with no practical skills exams being Although the sports performance records standards given. In conducting this physical education special were diŠerent for each sport, the standard overall entrance exam, the following three points were par- was ``to be placed eighth or higher in a national ticularly important: competition'' (School of Education, Waseda Uni- First, the special physical education entrance versity, 1982). However, only males were eligible exam made it clear that it was an entrance exam for for all sports. Females became eligible from the athletes. In the past, entrance exams that gave 1987 entrance exam (School of Human Sciences, preferential treatment to athletes had not explicitly Waseda University, 1987). referred to ``those who possess exceptional skills in Next, as a form of identiˆcation, the students sports'' as an eligibility requirement for examina- were required to submit an academic transcript and tion. Second, in conjunction with this, sports for an athletic activity transcript. As at University of which applications could be made were limited and Tsukuba, these transcripts required the inclusion of sports performance records standards were more physical information (e.g., height and weight), detailed. Given that the practical skills tests seen in specialist sports, and detailed accounts of sporting the admissions systems based on recommendations skills (designated position/event). In addition, the used by faculties of physical education at other athletic activity transcript had a section for the in- universities were not conducted in the special clusion of ``special notes'', allowing students to physical education entrance exam, it is evident that

159 Yuta Ono, et al.

weight was placed accordingly on sports perfor- ress, will we be able to secure athletes who excel mance records as an evaluation criterion. Third, the both academically and athletically with just 16 entrance exam requirements were widely released to slots? . . . It can't be helped that the allocations go the public in an attempt to ensure a sense of fairness to the strong clubs because this is a world in which in the entrance exam. power says everything'' (Waseda Sports, 1982). Stu- The ˆrst special physical education entrance exam dent A, who was the captain of the handball club, that was conducted in line with the above passed 16 voiced doubts about how the sports performance students. The breakdown of the sports performance records standards were set, saying, ``This system is records of the passing students were as follows: of advantageous for individual sports. With team the 16, 9 students were high school athletes sports like handball, it is common for an athlete representing Japan in international matches or from an unknown school to be stronger and to de- winners of national competitions, showing that the velop further in university than an athlete from a majority of those who passed had extremely high high school that ranked within the top four places. sports achievements (Waseda Sports, 1983). At any rate, those criteria have many issues'' 6.2.3. The status of the special selection system for (Waseda Sports, 1982). Furthermore, baseball club the Physical Education Major at Waseda coach Yasuyuki Miyazaki said, ``I would like at University least two or three athletes for the baseball club. I The special physical education entrance exam was wish they would think of where they put their said to have been planned and conducted under the weight and the balance of the clubs a bit more'' guidance of the faculty of education and that the (Waseda Sports, 1982). Such opinions from those Sports Bureau was not involved. Minoru Kubota, involved in the athletic clubs show that each club the director of the Sports Bureau, which supervises viewed the special physical education entrance exam the athletic clubs on the campus, said, ``No one as a means of strengthening itself. came to consult the Sports Bureau and it was some- As seen here, the evaluation of the special sports thing that the faculty of education determined by entrance exam was di‹cult in the sense that it was itself'' (Waseda Sports, 1982). Even the pass-fail unclear whether it was a system for strengthening judgments were made by the special selection coun- the athletic clubs. Yomiuri Shimbun (1982) ex- cil established by the faculty of education council, pressed doubts about the objectives of the special neither of which included members from the Sports physical education entrance exam, saying, ``Regard- Bureau. less of the motivation or the objective that they put Yoji Tanabe (Tanabe), the educational aŠairs outo‹cially,itisclearthat,asaresult,Waseda curriculum coordinator and a member of the facul- Sports will become stronger. Thus, regardless of ty of education, explained that because the special how the departmental authorities explain it, the physical education entrance exam was based on the objective of this system could be said to be the idea that ``students with exceptional physical and strengthening of the athletic clubs'' (Yomiuri Shim- academic abilities should have excellent abilities in bun, 1982). In light of the opinions for and against leadership and guiding others . . . having such stu- the special physical education entrance exam, then- dents enter the university pull up the entire body of President Haruo Nishihara made the following students who are majoring in physical education'' statement: (Waseda Sports, 1982). Thus, Tanabe said, ``If the clubs become stronger by installing this system, that Of course, as a university, we cannot let stu- will be the result and no longer just the objective'' dents in without considering their academic (Waseda Sports, 1982). In reality, the admitted stu- abilities at all. However, the true value of phys- dents were not obliged to join an athletic club. ical education lies in its objective of training a On the other hand, the athletic clubs perceived physical education teacher and the strengthen- the entrance exam in a diŠerent light to the univer- ing of clubs. There has been criticism made sity authorities. For example, Director Kiyoshi that by focusing on academic ability, both Nakamura of the track club expressed concerns sports and academic activities become unsatis- about how the 16 members would be distributed, factory as a result. Consequently, it feels like saying, ``Although I think it is revolutionary prog- we are vacillating between our true reasoning

160160 The Formation Process of Sports Recommendation Admissions to Universities

and the reasoning we put out o‹cially. (Wase- tion of higher education''. da Sports, 1983) The Ad Hoc Council made the following state- ment on A future admissions system based on As seen here, although the intention of ``stren- recommendations in its deliberation process on the gthening athletic clubs'' can be glimpsed here, the issue of connecting university education with higher university authorities were in a situation in which and middle school education: they had to avoid clearly stating how they posi- tioned the special physical education entrance exam. In our society, we focus on the score of However, even if the university authorities did not scholastic ability tests even when selecting new have the intention of strengthening athletic clubs, it admissions, showing a strong tendency to rely was incontrovertible that the special physical educa- on the objectivity and fairness of the tests. This tion entrance exam would result in strengthening in itself is reasonable, but in order to aim for them. As such, it was a system that contradicted its the qualitative improvement of the new admis- own objective. sions selection method, we need to make it so Nonetheless, as predicted by the Yomiuri Shim- that a fair and ‰exible attitude becomes ap- bun on the introduction of the special physical proved and widely supported by society. This education entrance exam that ``it might aŠect other includes evaluating people from various angles private universities'' (Yomiuri Shimbun, 1983), the or respecting the responsibility and trusting in implementation of admissions based on sports the fairness with which the admissions system recommendation gradually expanded among private based on recommendations is conducted. (Ad universities from 1983, including Chuo University, Hoc Council1 on Education, 1985a) Ritsumeikan University, and Doshisha University. Although a further detailed examination needs to be As seen here, the Ad Hoc Council felt that the conducted on this point, these universities also set multi-faced evaluation of abilities was being standards for the target sports and sports perfor- neglected because the traditional university entrance mance records, like Waseda University, and placed exam and admissions system had relied too much on importance on the evaluation of sports performance scholastic ability tests. The Council also highlighted records. Thus, it can be said that an implementation the attitude of each university toward the im- format similar to admissions based on sports plementation of an admissions system based on recommendation that is still conducted today had recommendations, requesting that the system to be taken shape by the 1980s. conducted with a sense of fairness toward society. In the ``Third Reports on Educational Reform'', 7. Re‰ection on the 1989 University Admis- released by the Ad Hoc Council in 1987, Chapter 4, sions Selection Implementation Guidelines ``Sports and Education'', said that ``In order to aim to promote sports activity among adolescents, So, how should the Ministry of Education evalu- consider ensuring that such activities are evaluated ate admissions based on sports recommendation during an admissions selection, promotion, or job when considering the university admissions system? recruitment'' (Ad Hoc Council on Education, In 1984, an Ad Hoc Council on Education (the 1987). The Ad Hoc Council gave the following Ad Hoc Council)*14 was established as an advisory explanation for its reasoning: body to the prime minister. The Ad Hoc Council listed eight council tasks, the main ones being to In particular, the way in which the ˆerce com- determine ``the basic state of education looking petition in entrance exams makes adolescents toward the 21st century'' and the ``correction of distance themselves from sports activities, as damages from organizing and systemizing lifelong well as the way in which doing physical training learning and a society focused on academic history'' is being neglected in this time of abundance, (Ad Hoc Council on Education, 1985a). A speciˆc raises concern about the decrease in the physi- reform proposition for the university admissions cal ˆtness of Japanese citizens in the future, system was put forward as part of the council's task leading to the stagnation of Japanese society's of increasing the ``sophistication and individualiza- vitality. In light of this development, we re-

161161 Yuta Ono, et al.

quest that consideration be paid to ensuring from the late 1960s to the early 1970s. that sports activities are appropriately evaluat- 3) The faculty of physical education of private ed during school admissions selection processes universities used an admissions system based on and actively evaluated during recruitment for recommendations immediately after the o‹cial companies and government o‹ces. (Ad Hoc approval of such systems. Their use in the facul- Council for Education, 1987) ty of physical education aimed to secure athletes by making selections centered on practical skills As seen here, the report by the Ad Hoc Council tests. The students that the faculty desired made requests for ``the appropriate evaluation of matched the physical ˆtness the athletes pos- sports activities'' in the university admissions sys- sessed, enabling the faculty to secure athletes tem. A characteristic of this report is that it also even if a special bracket for athletes had not asks that such activities be evaluated when recruit- been installed. ing for companies and governmental o‹ces, not 4) In the 1980s, entrance exams that installed a spe- just during university admissions. cial bracket for athletes were introduced, mainly In the 1989 University Admissions Selection Im- at private universities. The special selection sys- plementation Guidelines, which were revised in ac- tem for physical education majors at Waseda cordance with the report by the Ad Hoc Council, University established a special bracket targeting the introductory section speciˆes that ``university athletes, even designating sports category/per- entrant selections shall judge knowledge and apti- formance records, that was conducted publicly. tude suitable for receiving a university education in However, this entrance exam's institutional a multifaceted manner, and the selection method is positioning con‰icted with its objectives in terms to be conducted in a fair and valid manner'' (Minis- of whether or not it was a system for strengthen- try of Education, 1989). In addition, one of the ex- ing athletic clubs. plicitly stated selection criteria was ``to evaluate 5) In the Ad Hoc Reports of 1987, the Ad Hoc various activities in the various ˆelds of sports and Council made requests for sports activities to be culture appropriately'' (Ministry of Education, evaluated during university admissions. In the 1989). Through this, sports performance records 1989 University Admissions Selection Implemen- became explicitly cited as an evaluation criterion in tation Guidelines, which were revised in accor- the policies on the university admissions system of dance with this report, ``appropriate evaluation the Ministry of Education. of various activities in various ˆelds of sports and culture'' was identiˆed as a selection 8. Conclusion criterion in the university admissions system.

The results of this study can be summarized as As described above, this study clariˆed the for- follows: mation process of university admissions based on 1) Preferential treatment for athletes in the admis- sports recommendation in Japan. Table 2 and 3 sions system had been in place in Japan even be- present information on the recommendation re- fore the o‹cial approval of an admissions sys- quirements of admissions systems based on recom- tem based on recommendations. However, this mendations and of admissions based on sports was not indicated clearly in entrance guidelines recommendations of the diŠerent universities in this and was solely an ``uno‹cial'' system. study, as well as statements on the admissions sys- 2) In the period immediately after the o‹cial ap- tem based on recommendations mentioned by the proval of an admissions system based on recom- executive agencies and deliberation councils (e.g., mendations, preferential treatment toward at- the Ministry of Education). hletes in the admissions system was criticized Next, the historical characteristics of admissions during the campus unrest, which made it di‹cult basedonsportsrecommendationinJapanese to exercise such preferential treatment as it had universities will be summarized on the basis of the been exercised in the past. Consequently, each ˆndings of this study. university decreased or abolished preferential First, the special physical education entrance treatment for athletes in the admissions system exam of Waseda University restricted the sports

162162 The Formation Process of Sports Recommendation Admissions to Universities

Table 2 Summary of Each University's Implementation Status of Admissions System Based on (Sports) Recommendations.

Year University Name of the Recommendation Implementation University Faculty introduced classiˆcation admissions system requirement format

Those who are expected to graduate from high school Document screening, Osaka Admissions and, as a general rule, who physical skill exam, College of Physical Private system based on have received an academic scholastic ability test Physical Education recommendations grade rating of B or higher (English/Japanese), Education throughout high school. interview Limited to current students

Those who are expected to 1967 graduate from high school and, as a general rule, who Tokyo have received an academic Women's Admissions grade rating of C or higher Physical College of Private system based on throughout high school. Document screening Education Physical recommendations Those who have won a Education national sports tourna- ment, block sports tourna- ment, or prefectural sports tournament.

Those who are expected to graduate from high school Document screening, Admissions and, as a general rule, who Physical physical skill exam, Tokai Private system based on have received an academic Educaiton Short essay, inter- recommendations grade rating of B or higher view throughout high school. Limited to current students 1970 Those who are expected to graduate from high school Admissions and, as a general rule, who Document screening, Physical Fukuoka Private system based on have received an academic physical skill exam, Education recommendations grade rating of B or higher interview throughout high school. Limited to current students

Those who had an academ- ic score in the top 10z of Primary selection: their corresponding grade Document screening throughout the entirety of Admissions Secondary selection: Physical their high school years (for 1974 Tsukuba National system based on Physical skills exam, Education the ˆnal grade, up to the recommendations Short essay, inter- point of receiving recom- view, Health exami- mendation). nation Those who have exception- al skills in a certain ˆeld.

category to the special bracket entrance exam ad- treatment for athletes in entrance exams was shown missions system for athletes. After establishing a under various formats even before the o‹cial ap- standard for sports performance records, such ex- proval of such systems, albeit covertly. In other ams were conducted publicly. These special physical words, Waseda University was able to conduct a education entrance exams were regarded as a turn- special physical education entrance exam because ing point in the expansion of admissions based on the institutional foundations of preferential meas- sports recommendations that took place later on. ures for athletes had already been constructed over However, the special physical education entrance alongperiodinJapan. exam was not itself a novel system. Preferential Moreover, preferential treatment for athletes was

163 Yuta Ono, et al.

Table 2 Continue.

Year University Name of the Recommendation Implementation University Faculty introduced classiˆcation admissions system requirement format

◯Individual sports Those who have come in eighth place or better in inter-high or national sports meets, or an equiva- lent tournament and/or high school ranking. Those who have entered a regional tournament and have come 15th or better in the high school rankings, or,inparticular,whohave a natural talent and have been deemed to have poten- Admissions selec- tial. tion of excellent 1974 ◯Team sports Unknown athletes based on Those on a team that has recommendation come in 8th place or better in inter-high, national sports meets, or an equiva- lent tournament, and have particularly outstanding Nippon individual skills. College of Physical Private Those who have entered a Physical Education regional tournament and Education have come in 15th or better in the high school ranking, and, in particular, have a natural talent and have been deemed to have future potential.

Those with excellent aca- demic ability and personal character. Those corresponding to one of the following concerning physical ability/sports Primary selection: a) Those who have achieved Admissions Document screening an exceptionally high grade 1977 system based on Secondary selection: in the regular subject of recommendations Physical skills exam, health and physical educa- interview tion during their studies. b) Those who have achieved an outstanding record in a sport or have been acknowledged as having potential.

Health and Physi- Those who are expected to cal Education graduate from high school, Council Admis- have an outstanding sports Economics Document screening, sions System on performance record in a 1982 Nihon Private (day, night interview, composi- Recommendation speciˆc sporting event, and school) tion Admissions sys- have received an academic tem based on grade rating of C or higher recommendations throughout high school.

164 The Formation Process of Sports Recommendation Admissions to Universities

Table 2 Continue.

Year University Name of the Recommendation Implementation University Faculty introduced classiˆcation admissions system requirement format

Those who are expected to graduate from high school, have an outstanding sports performance record in a speciˆc sporting event, and have received an academic grade rating of C or higher throughout high school. Those who are expected to graduate from high school or complete three years of technical college. Special selection Those who strongly desire system for a to enroll in the major of Short essay, inter- 1983 Waseda Private Education physical education physical education in this view major faculty and who possess the high academic ability that this faculty seeks and skills that meet the standard stipulated by the faculty in a sports event (listed on the separate chart). A person who has clear aspirations and a passion for learning after enrolling at the university, and who has the aptitude suited to this endeavor.

Those whose academic record during high school shows that their average grade from the ˆrst year to the ˆrst semester of third year was 3.0 or higher in general courses, or 3.5 or higher in vocational Law, courses. Economics, Admissions Limited to current students Commerce, systems based Short essay, inter- 1985 Chuo Private Those who have participat- Humanities, on sports view ed in national high school Science and recommendation tournaments, national Technology athletics events, national championships, or other equivalent events, and who have achieved an exception- al record and have the desire to continue perform- ing in the same sport after enrollment.

shown by traditional schools, with schools that Maruyama, 1981; Takenoshita and Kishino, 1959). existed in the pre-war Showa era taking the helm. In Japan, physical education and sports had been This is believed to be related to the fact that the col- developed through schools since the establishment legiate athletic clubs played a central role in sup- of the Meiji state. In particular, modern sports, porting Japanese amateur sports (Kinohista 1970; such as track and ˆeld and baseball, were developed

165 Yuta Ono, et al.

Table 2 Continue.

Year University Name of the Recommendation Implementation University Faculty introduced classiˆcation admissions system requirement format

Those expected to graduate from high school. Current students are eligible. Those whose academic record during high school shows that their average grade from the ˆrst year to the ˆrst semester of third Primary selection: Law, Admissions year was 3.0 or higher for Document screening Economics, systems based each subject, and who have Secondary selection: 1987 Ritsumeikan Private Management, on sports the pro-active intention of Scholastic ability test Humanities recommendation managing both academic (English/Modern work and sports activities, Japanese) at clubs certiˆed by the uni- versity association of sports, after enrollment. Those who have a perfor- mance record higher than the speciˆed standards in a speciˆc sporting event.

(Summarized from using ``Admission Guidelines of Each University'' and Keisetsu Jidai (Obunsha, 1967, 1971, 1972, 1973)). Only those universities whose recommendation requirements at the time of introduction could be identiˆed are included.

mainly within the athletic club activities of higher Thistrendisbelievedtohaveledtotheestablish- education institutions. This lineage was succeeded ment of admissions based on sports recommenda- by the post-war athletics-strengthening structure, tion in the 1980s, whose turning point was Waseda centeredontheTokyoOlympicsof1964inpar- University's special physical education entrance ticular. During this time, traditional schools where exam. athletic club activities had been vigorous since the Therefore, admissions based on sports recom- pre-war Showa era served as the template. The top mendation in Japanese universities comprise an 3 schools for then-current students participating in admissions system whose formation can be traced Olympic Games between 1964 and 1976 were Nihon back to the preferential treatments that were shown University (47 students), Waseda University (44 to athletes in some traditional schools, conducted as students), and Meiji University (32 students), all of part of an athletics system that had supported which were covered in this study (Japan Sports Japanese amateur sports. After this preferential Association, 1978). It could therefore be said that treatment received an institutional guarantee from the preferential treatment for athletes in the en- the Ministry of Education in the form of o‹cial trance exams of traditional schools has been an im- approval of an admissions system based on recom- portant way of supporting Japan's athletics system mendations, it tied in with the intentions of each for a very long time. university to strengthen its athletic clubs, resulting On the other hand, those universities that actively in the practice of admissions based on sports recom- engaged in securing athletes using the admissions mendation. These admissions gradually became system based on recommendations immediately af- streamlined in content and foundation in response ter its o‹cial approval were universities that had a to the various social contexts around the universi- faculty of physical education. In the admissions ties, including the intensiˆcation of the campus un- system based on recommendations at these universi- rests and the emergence of newly established univer- ties, the intention of strengthening athletic clubs sities and faculty of physical education. appeared more prominently, as represented by the initiatives of Nippon College of Physical Education.

166 The Formation Process of Sports Recommendation Admissions to Universities

Table 3 Statements by administrative organs (e.g., Ministry of Education) and deliberation councils on the admissions system based on recommendations.

Year Administrative organ/deliberation council Details of the content

[Universities, as needed, can request that a student who belongs to the academic grade evaluation A, has done exceptionally well aca- The Ministry of Education o‹cially approved an demically, and whom the high school principal can recommend admissions system based on recommendations in the 1965 with responsibility, be given a grade of ◯.] 1966 University Admissions Selection Implementa- [The university can request that aptitude for the corresponding tion Guidelines. faculty/school of the university and other information be written down for the student by the high school.]

[The selection of new entrants is done by rationally compiling and The Ministry of Education clariˆes the positioning passing judgment on reference materials, including the transcript of the admissions system based on recommenda- 1966 submitted by the graduating high school's principal and the results tions in the 1967 University Admissions Selection of the scholastic achievement test and health examination conduct- Implementation Guidelines. ed by the university.]

[In order to select human resources suitable for the objectives, char- acteristics, and specialist ˆelds of the university/faculty, a scholas- tic ability test, a practical skills test, an interview, short essays, and other special exams need to be conducted in order to judge thor- The University Admissions System Improvement oughly the degree of knowledge/aptitude speciˆcally emphasized in 1972 Council proposes an improvement to university the corresponding university/department....Such tests need to be admissions system selection methods. conducted by adding a su‹cient amount of ingenuity to the ques- tion format and content, such as placing the focus of tests and prac- tical skills tests on creative thinking and expression skills, and by conducting such tests in a rational manner.]

In the ``Third Reports on Educational Reform'', the [In order to aim to promote sports activity among adolescents, con- 1987 Ad Hoc Council on Education requests ``the sider ensuring that such activities are evaluated during an admis- appropriate evaluation of sports activities''. sions selection, promotion, or job recruitment.]

[University entrant selections shall judge knowledge and aptitude suitable for receiving a university education in a multifaceted man- ner, and the selection method is to be conducted in a fair and valid manner.] The Ministry of Education includes sports perfor- [The selection of new entrants is done by rationally compiling and mance records as an evaluation criterion for admis- passing judgment on reference materials, which include the details 1989 sions systems in the 1989 University Admission in the transcript, the scholastic achievement test, interview, short Selection Implementation Guidelines. essays, scores on other tests related to the student's skills/aptitudes, health examination conducted by the university as needed, and other resources that the university deems to be necessary. In this process, it is desirable for activities in the various ˆelds of sports and culture to be appropriately evaluated.]

(Summarized from ``Final Report by the University Admissions System Improvement Council'' (University Admissions System Im- provement Council, 1972), ``University Admissions Selection Implementation Guidelines'' (Ministry of Education, 1965, 1966a, 1989), ``Third Report About the Education Reform'' (Ad Hoc Council on Education, 1987)).

9. Future tasks: Clariˆcation of the expansion rapid decline the following year. Consequently, in of admissions based on sports recommenda- its report ``Planned Preparation of Higher Educa- tion since the 1990s tion from 1993 Onward'', the University Council, an advisory organ to the Ministry of Education, In order to clarify how admissions based on predicted a harsher management environment for sports recommendation have expanded since the universities. The report asked each university to aim 1990s, several tasks remain. for qualitative enhancement rather than quantita- After the end of the Paciˆc War, the population tive expansion, to address changes in social needs, of those aged 18 grew uniformly, reaching a peak of and to strive for university management with a 2.049 million in 1992 before entering a period of long-term perspective (University Council, 1991).

167 Yuta Ono, et al.

The report was viewed as a Ministry of Education continued to expand while interacting in a complex Policy announcing the arrival of the free competi- manner with university governance and the state of tion era of the university (Asahi Shimbun, 1991). In college sports. The authors would like to examine conjunction with the relaxing of the University Es- the implications for the future of admissions based tablishment Standards that occurred at around the on sports recommendation by focusing on the set of same time, each university's survival strategies issues that emerged after such admissions gained became a signiˆcant topic for its university manage- o‹cial approval. ment. Finally, the authors would like to develop further From the 1990s, policies to diversify the selection the various studies of admissions based on sports method were emphasized more than anything else in recommendation by using ˆndings from this study the university entrance exam and reform of the ad- and with the above tasks as factors. missions system. This paved the way for the in- troduction of selection criteria other than the stu- Notes dents' scholastic abilities due to the diversiˆcation * 1: The term ``student athletes'' in this study refers to athletes of scholastic ability evaluation (Amano, 2006). As belonging the to athletic clubs of university athletics as- sociations. university entrance exams underwent a major * 2: In this study, 1988 is regarded as the year in which admis- period of transition, it can be presumed that many sions based on sports recommendation were established, universities started to introduce admissions based since this was when the Ministry of Education included on sports recommendation. Furthermore, the birth ``appropriate evaluation of sports'' in the University Ad- missions Selection Implementation Guidelines. of new admission systems (e.g., the AO system), as * 3: Deregulation of University Standards refers to the revi- well as an increase in the number of universities sion of the University Establishment Standards that oc- conducting this test, led to greater diversiˆcation in curredinJuly1991.Duetothis revision, each university admissions based on sports recommendation. was able to revise its organization and education curricu- lum in a distinctive manner. For this reason, it is also Besides such institutional factors, since the Ad referred to as the ``relaxation of university establishment Hoc Council report, the debate about diversiˆcation standard''. The University Establishment Standard, the of abilities was a major theme during reform of the University Division, Higher Education Bureau, Ministry of Education (1991) explained the gist of this revision university admissions system. This was a major fac- thus: 1) for each university to aim to make its system ‰exi- tor in expanding admissions based on sports recom- ble so that it might develop a distinctive education and mendation. With regard to the university entrance research approach based on its educational principles and exam, which in the past was skewed toward scholas- objectives; 2) to aim for the diversiˆcation of learning op- portunities in the university from the perspective of tic ability, the Ad Hoc Council requested that en- promoting lifelong learning; 3) for each university to con- trants be selected on the basis of the principle of duct self-assessment/evaluation to improve and maintain emphasizing individuality (Ad Hoc Council on Edu- its standards. This allowed the institutions to reorganize cation, 1985b). This led to exceptional sporting ta- various types of faculty and school, as well as to abolish course categories, such as general arts subjects (Ministry lent being recognized as a relevant skill as universi- of Education, 1992). ties searched for selection criteria related to the * 4: In 1966, 293,000 students were admitted out of 1,517,000 evaluation of comprehensive and multifaceted applicants (Minister's Secretariat Statistics Bureau, Minis- try of Education, 1967). Thus, 5.2 students competed for skills. Future studies will need to explore how sport each place. was positioned using the rise of the skills-based ar- * 5: In the Ad Hoc Measures for the Management of Univer- gument as a factor, alongside the institutional tran- sity established on August 7, 1969 (Bill Act 70), the cam- sition of admissions based on sports recommenda- pus unrest was deˆned as a ``state in which education, research, and management of universities is being ob- tion. structed by the occupation and shutdown of facilities One cannot overlook a new set of problems creat- managed by the university, classes being abandoned, and ed by the institutional establishment and expansion other irregular actions by the students'' (House of of admissions based on sports recommendation. Representatives, 1969, p. 2). * 6: The rate of advancement to university and junior college Cheating in the exams occurred frequently in the was only about 10.1z in 1955, but it was 17.0z in 1965 1990s. It has been pointed out that private universi- and 38.4z in 1975, showing a rapid increase within 20 ties went to extreme lengths to strengthen their years (Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal AŠairs and Communications, 2016). athletic clubs in order to survive (Asahi Shimbun, * 7: Twelve private universities had a faculty of physical edu- 1992). Admissions based on sports recommendation

168168 The Formation Process of Sports Recommendation Admissions to Universities

cation in 1969: Nippon College of Physical Education (es- authors can see. The only relevant account that was found tablished in 1949), Juntendo University (1951), Tenri Uni- was an interview in 1986 on the initial objective of the versity (1955), (1958), Chukyo implementation conducted with Sadao Tsutsumi, then- University (1959), Tokyo Women's College of Physical director of the faculty of education: ``To put it bluntly, Education (1962), Shigakkan University (1963), Osaka the entrance exam became di‹cult, making it di‹cult for College of Physical Education (1965), Japan Women's athletes to be admitted, causing the physical health major College of Physical Education (1965), to stagnate'' (Waseda Sports, 1986). However, it can be (1967), Sendai University (1967), and Fukuoka University deduced that the special selection system for physical edu- (1969). Another faculty of physical education at a private cation majors was introduced as a result of the entrance university was not established until 1984, at International exam cheating incident, which led to the entrance exam Budo University. system at Waseda University being reviewed and initia- * 8: The University Admissions System Improvement Council tives to improve the exam being introduced. (1972) made the following proposal as an improvement *14: The Ad Hoc Council was a council under the control of measure for university admissions selection methods: the cabinet set up by then-Prime Minister Yasuhiro Naka- In order to select human resources suitable for the objec- sone in 1984. After the submission of four reports, it dis- tives, characteristics, and specialist ˆelds of the univer- solved in 1987. This Council was established by law, with sity/faculty, a scholastic ability test, practical skills test, committee members appointed by the Diet. interview, short essays, and other, special exams need to be conducted in order to judge thoroughly the degree of References knowledge/aptitude particularly emphasized in the corre- Ad Hoc Council on Education. (1985a). Rinji kyoiku shingikai sponding university/department. . . . Such tests need to be shingi keika no gaiyo [National council on educational conducted by adding a su‹cient amount of ingenuity to reform: summary of the deliberation progress]. The Monthly the question format and content, such as placing the focus Journal of Mombusho., 1299: 223-284. (in Japanese) of tests and practical skills tests on creative thinking and Ad Hoc Council on Education. (1985b). Kyoiku kaikaku ni expression skills, and by conducting such tests in a ration- kansuru daiichiji toshin [The ˆrst report about the education al manner. (University Admissions System Improvement reform]. Ad Hoc Council on Education. (in Japanese) Council, 1972, p. 72) Ad Hoc Council on Education. (1987). Kyoiku kaikaku ni kan- * 9: According to the Ministry of Education (1981b), as of suru daisanji toshin [The third report about the education 1980, there were 92 national universities, 34 public univer- reform]. Ad Hoc Council on Education. (in Japanese) sities, and 319 private universities, making a total of 445 Amano, I. (2006). Daigaku kaikaku no shakaigaku [Sociology higher-level institutions. of university reform]. Tokyo: Press. *10: From 1982, a Health and Physical Education Council Ad- (in Japanese) missions System on Recommendation was introduced at Aochi, S. (1969). Tokyo daigaku to nihon daigaku [University the faculty of economics (a day and night school) at Ni- of Tokyo and Nihon University]. Chuo Koron., 84(1): hon University (Nihon University College of Economics, 168-179. (in Japanese) 1981). Although it is believed that this was an uno‹cial Asahi Shimbun. (1965). October 10. (in Japanese) system, it was novel in that it was used in a faculty other Asahi Shimbun. (1968a). April 4. (in Japanese) than a faculty of physical education. Asahi Shimbun. (1968b). December 12. (in Japanese) *11: The faculty of education comprised ˆve subjects (educa- Asahi Shimbun. (1981a). April 4. (in Japanese) tion, Japanese literature, English literature, social studies, Asahi Shimbun. (1981b). February 2. (in Japanese) and science). Physical education majors were positioned Asahi Shimbun. (1981c). April 4. (in Japanese) within the faculty of education, with the objective being Asahi Shimbun. (1982). April 4. (in Japanese) ``the training of school teachers (health and physical edu- Asahi Shimbun. (1991). May 5. (in Japanese) cation for middle and high schools), the training of in- Asahi Shimbun. (1992). April 4. 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Supotsu to bijinesu no ho the bracket for the total number of applicants admitted to bunka: Amerika to nihon [Sports business law and culture through the recommendation system to roughly 1,000 in the US and Japan]. Tokyo: Seibundo. (in Japanese) 1981, approximately 500 students passed through the at- Haruyama, J. (1954). Daigaku no nyugakusha sembatsu ni hlete bracket (Asahi Shimbun, 1981b). Other similar ex- tsuite [About the selection of entrants at university]. Mon. J. amples where entrance exam cheating relating to the ad- Mombusho., 923: 26-29. (in Japanese) mission of athletes was discovered include Meiji Gakuin House of Representatives. (1969). Daigaku no unei ni kansuru University, , and Kyushu San- rinji sochi ho showa 44 nen 8 gatsu 7 nichi horitsu dai 70 go gyo University in 1982. [Act on temporary measures concerning university manage- *13: The reason why the special selection system for physical ment (the August 7, 1969 law 70th)]. 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