Handbook for Postgraduate Students in Physics and Astronomy

1998-99

The Schuster Laboratory Brunswick Street, Manchester M13 9PL DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

POSTGRADUATE HANDBOOK

1998-99

CONTENTS

I Introduction to the Department ...... 1 II University and Departmental Facilities ...... 3 III Postgraduate Degrees and Sources of Funds ...... 5 IV M.Sc. and M.Phil. Courses ...... 8 V PhD Courses ...... 21 VI Lecture Courses ...... 23 VII Code of Conduct for Students and Supervisors ...... 71 VIII Reports, Theses, Posters and Talks ...... 72 IX Key Dates in the University Year ...... 80 X University Policy on Quality and Standards ...... 81 I. INTRODUCTION TO THE DEPARTMENT

The Manchester Physics Department is one of the largest and most active in Britain. Its research interests range widely through modern physics and encompass topics such as particle and nuclear physics, theoretical physics and astrophysics, atomic, molecular and polymer physics, lasers and photomedicine, liquid crystals, condensed matter physics, high temperature superconductivity and optical and radio astronomy. The department includes the Nufﬁeld Radio Astronomy Laboratory, situated 35 km south of Manchester at Jodrell Bank. In addition to the departmental facilities, the research groups make extensive use of national and international research facilities including Daresbury Synchrotron Radiation Source, ISIS at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, CERN in Switzerland, DESY in Germany, ILL in France, Argonne in the USA, the William Herschel telescope on La Palma and the James Clerk Maxwell telescope in Hawaii. The department is home to some 550 undergraduate and 150 postgraduate students, together with 60 research fellows and 55 members of staff.

Postgraduate matters are monitored by the Postgraduate Committee, which includes a repre- sentative from each of the research groups in the department, together with two elected student representatives (listed below). You are free to approach any member of the committee with matters you wish to be discussed in this forum, or for advice generally.

GROUP MEMBER ROOM NO. Phone Joint Chairman (Physics) Prof Robin Marshall 5.12 4170 Joint Chairman (Astronomy) Prof John Meaburn 7.4 4224 Joint Chairman (Radioastronomy) Dr Patrick Leahy – 802-207 Student Representatives One per Research Activity § Laser Physics Dr Mark Dickinson 2-11 4215 Atomic and Molecular Dr Peter Hammond 3.12 4133 Condensed Matter Physics Dr Peter Lucas G9 4067 Particle Physics Dr Fred Loebinger 5.5 4180 Nuclear Structure Dr Jon Billowes 4.8 4104 Theory Dr Pat Buttle 6.25 4191 Admissions Ofﬁcer Dr Graham Shaw 6.12 4203

Administrative matters are dealt with by the Postgraduate Secretary: Mrs J M Merrill (Room G-4, Phone 4070).

1 PASTORAL CARE OF POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS

Theperson you with work most closely as apostgraduate student during yourtime atManchester is your supervisor, who is responsible for your research project. This relationship is described by guidelines on the code of conduct, laid out in Section VII.

You will also be assigned an adviser. This is usually someone with particular expertise and experience in postgraduate matters, administration, and the like. They also have an active responsibility for your progress.

In addition, there is a Postgraduate pastoral panel comprising Robin Marshall, John Meaburn, Patrick Leahy, Graham Shaw and Helen Gleeson. You are invited to approach any of these if there is a problem which cannot be resolved by discussion with your supervisor, your adviser, or the head of your research group. For the most profound difﬁculties, you have the right to go to the Head of Department, who will deal with your problem sympathetically and with expedition.

RESEARCH TRAINING

A TransferrableSkills course is operated by the Graduate School. Subjects covered in thecourse include making visual presentations, writing reports, giving talks, library searches, writing papers, and other topics relevant to postgraduate students from all groups.

Attendance at this course is a Faculty and Department requirement in order to gain the requisite number of credits for the postgraduate course.

POSTGRADUATE ACTIVITIES

The interaction between the postgraduates within the department is very strong. Various social activities are organised, both within research groups and by the postgraduate representatives.

In particular, there is a very successful series of seminars, the Ellis Seminars, initiated by a past postgraduate student. These seminars are given by postgrads, for postgrads only,and are usually preceded by refreshments. They provide an ideal opportunity to develop your communication skills in a friendly atmosphere of like-minded people. There are about 6 seminars per year and you are strongly encouraged to participate.

In addition, if you feel that there are other activities for postgraduates which you would like to see take place, then do not hesitate to say so! You will ﬁnd the postgraduate chairmen and the Head of Department strongly supportive of activities that bring together all members of the department.

2 II. UNIVERSITY AND DEPARTMENTALFACILITIES

Both the University and the Physics Department are large institutions, and provide many facilities. Some of these are listed below.

UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

The AccommodationOfﬁce isinthePrecinctCentre. Itprovideslistsofaccommodation available (both privately and university owned). Further information and advice is also available from the students’ union.

The John Rylands Library is the main library for the whole university. Library cards are issued at registration, at the start of the course. The John Rylands holds many text books and journals and theses, will carry out literature searches, inter-library loans, has a photocopying facility, and is a pleasant, quiet place to work.

The Students’ Union includes housing and welfare ofﬁces, an optician, a hairdresser, travel ofﬁce, shop, bars, coffee bar, night-club, showers, various clubs and societies, and more.

The Postgrad Society is in the Burlington Rooms near the John Rylands Library. It contains a coffee bar, bar etc.

The Student Health Centre in the Precinct Centre will give free, conﬁdential, prompt treatment. They do not provide home visits, though, so it is advisable to register with a local NHS doctor. For treatment or advice related to health at work, Occupational Health is situated in William Kay House opposite the Students’ Union.

There are two sports centres: the McDougall Centre is behind the JR Library. Squash, swim- ming, badminton and other facilities are available for a small entry fee. It also runs clubs and lessons in various sports. The Armitage Centre is at the Firs sports ground near Owens Park hall of residence.

The International Society is a society speciﬁcally for overseas students and staff. The society organises a wide variety of social activities and can give much useful advice.

3 DEPARTMENTALFACILITIES

The Departmental Library is on the ﬁrst ﬂoor and holds some text books and journals, and copies of theses and reports.

The Stores are on the ground ﬂoor near the goods lift. They provide small items of consumables and stationery. You will need a signed yellow requisition slip (usually from your supervisor) to obtain items from stores. Any items which you have ordered externally will eventually arrive in stores.

The Main Workshop is on the ground floor, next to the Stores. This is where large or complex pieces of apparatus can be fabricated. Toget a device built by it you submit a design through the Drawing Office, who will be able to give much useful advice regarding your ideas and the design of your apparatus. They can also produce high quality drawings for publications. There is also a Student Workshop situated on the 5th floor, and manned by a technician. You are entitled to use these facilities under supervision, and can take a workshop course if you have no previous experience.

The Electronics Workshop is on the 2nd floor. This provides design advice and will construct electronic and computer control systems for a great variety of research applications. You will find it useful to discuss your requirements with the Head of this workshop first, rather than asking them to work to a design copied from other workers or from your general reading, and you are actively encouraged to do so.

The Departmental Office is also on the ground floor. This administers much of the teaching related work of the department, including postgraduate demonstrating or tutoring. Next to the departmental office is the Finance Office which deals with the external orders placed by the department. Youcan obtain a card that opens the front door from the Laboratory Superintendent in this office for a deposit of £5 and a signature from your supervisor.

Photocopying can be done on the ground ﬂoor; you will need a key from your group secretary, though many groups have their own facilities for photocopying.

Most research groups have a Fax Machine and there is a Transparency Making Machine on the 5th ﬂoor which can be used with the permission of the particle physics group.

The Niels Bohr Common Room is on the 6th ﬂoor of the teaching wing and is for your use. Tea is served for a minimal cost at 3.45 pm every day.

4 III. POSTGRADUATE DEGREES AND SOURCES OF FUNDS

This section explains the nature of the M.Sc. and PhD degrees, together with a brief note on possible sources of funds.

MASTERS DEGREES These degrees are taken by two different methods: either by taught coursework, followed by the submission of a dissertation on a research project (M.Sc.), or by the presentation of a longer dissertation based on a research project alone (M.Phil.).

M.Sc. courses start at the beginning of the academic year in September. The M.Phil. course can also be started in January, April or July.

The normal admission requirement for a Masters degree is that candidates hold an Honours degree from a British University, or equivalent.

The normal period of both courses is one year, though they can be spread over two years if taken part time. Where appropriate (e.g. for a student with a third class honours degree) the M.Sc. may be taken over two years, with the student using the ﬁrst year to bring their knowledge up to the required level, and then starting the M.Sc. course itself in their second year.

THE DEGREE OF PhD This degree is taken by carrying out an approved research programme leading to the submission of a thesis. Normally this is a three year course, called, for historical reasons, the ‘Direct Entry PhD’. In the first year there are lectures and a small project, followed by the full thesis project in the final two years. Candidates are required to hold a first or upper second class Honours degree from a British University, or equivalent. However, if you already hold an M.Sc. degree with substantial research content you may bypass the first year of the course and take the degree in two years.

The course can start in September, January, April or July, but September is strongly recommended for the 3 year PhD course.

FEES The annual course fees charged by the university in 1998/99 to the student or the sponsoring authority are:

U.K.and E.U. nationals £2,610 Others £8,750 These are increased annually to take account of inﬂation.

It is possible – if you are paying your own fees – to do so in 3 instalments. If you do so, be careful to ensure that the later instalments are paid promptly, as no reminders are sent, and the university imposes a substantial levy for late payments.

5 SOURCES OF SUPPORT FOR POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS

RESEARCH COUNCILAWARDS:UK nationals residentinGreatBritainand Northern Ireland are eligible for Government funded Research Council (PPARC and EPSRC) awards, either for a one-year M.Sc. course in Radio astronomy or for a three-year PhD course in any subject. The minimum academic requirement for the former is a second class Honours degree and for the latter an upper second class Honours degree. The awards cover payment of university fees and maintenance. EU nationals are also eligible for these awards, but payments are made only in respect of university fees.

UNIVERSITY STUDENTSHIPS: These are open to students of all nationalities, but are few in number and highly competitive. They are awarded for one year in the ﬁrst instance, but can normally be renewed for a further two years subject to satisfactory progress. They pay a contribution towards the fees which is equal to the whole fee payable by a U.K. or E.U. resident, plus a maintenance grant to cover living expenses. Application forms can be obtained from the Postgraduate Secretary or from the AwardsOfﬁce in the Registrar’s department, and the closing date for all applications (including renewals) is April 30th.

SAMUEL GRATRIX AWARDS: are University Studentships which are available for former pupils of Manchester Grammar School.

OVERSEAS RESEARCH STUDENTSHIPS (ORS): These pay the difference between the ‘home student’ fees payable by U.K. and E.U. residents, and the full fees. They are again few in number and highly competitive. They are awarded for one year initially, but they can be renewed for a further two years subject to satisfactory progress. Application forms are available from the Postgraduate Secretary or from the Awards Ofﬁce in the Registrar’s department, and the closing date for applications is April 30th. In this case, there is no need for a holder of an award to apply for a renewal, since it will be considered automatically.

TEC AWARDS: Funding is available from the Greater Manchester Training and Enterprise Council for places on some M.Sc. courses. At present these are the courses in Laser Photon- ics and Modern Optics, Computer Control and Scientific Instruments, Experimental Particle Physics, and Nuclear and Radiation Physics. To qualify, students must have been unemployed and claiming benefit for 6 months, or unemployed without claiming benefit for 2 years.

HULME HALL FELLOWSHIPS: These normally cover part of the costs of a course, including the cost of residence in Hulme Hall. Enquiries should be made to the Secretary, Hulme Hall, Oxford Place, Manchester M14 5RR.

EU FUNDING: The Training and Mobility of Researchers programme of the European Com- mission provides a number of 3-year grants. Applications are made by individual potential students, who, in conjunction with the Department as host institute, apply to the European Commission describing a research programme leading to a Ph.D. Applicants must be nationals of an E.U. member state (plus Iceland and Norway) other than the UK. The deadlines for submission are 15th June and 15th December. Applicants under this scheme should contact the relevant research group directly to discuss a possible research programme. Further details of

6 the scheme can be obtained from the Research Support Unit, Manchester University (Telephone (44)-161-275-4740).

OTHER AWARDS:In addition the department offers a number of research council and industrially sponsored awards for research related to applied physics. As the number and nature of these awards varies from year to year, you are advised to make speciﬁc enquiries about them to the individual research groups. The ‘Directory of Grant Making Trusts’, published by the Charities Aid Foundation and available in most libraries gives a comprehensive listing of grants available from other bodies.

DEMONSTRATING AND TUTORING: It is often possible for postgraduate students to supplement their income by doing a limited amount of laboratory demonstrating or tutorial work in the department. In addition, some postgraduate students act as tutors in student halls of residence. Students interested in the latter possibility should enquire at the student Accommodation Ofﬁce.

In addition, the following sources of funds exist to provide small bursaries to help students who are already here to complete their course of study. They are intended for “deserving cases” who have run into ﬁnancial difﬁculties for unexpected reasons beyond their control.

ACCESS AWARDS: These are available to full-time UK students and some E.U. students. There are two closing dates for applications each year, which are normally in November and March. Application forms and further information are available from the Awards Ofﬁce in the Registrar’s Department.

THE J.E. SMITH and A.H. LAYLAND AWARDS: further details can be obtained from the Awards Ofﬁce in the Registrar’s Department. Applications should normally be made to the Registrar by May 1, but can be considered at other times when the circumstances justify special consideration.

7 IV. M.Sc. AND M.Phil. COURSES

M.Sc. Courses

1. Students can register for the the degree of M.Sc. in any of the following subjects Experimental Condensed Matter Physics Experimental Particle Physics Laser Photonics and Modern Optics Nuclear and Radiation Physics Radio Astronomy Theoretical Physics Atomic and Molecular Processes Computer Modelling and Control of Scientiﬁc Instruments

Details are given later in this section. In addition there is also a general purpose degree title of M.Sc. in Experimental and Theoretical Physics which is used to cover cases where the research does not ﬁt into any of the above categories.

2. Students must gaina total of 180 creditsthroughout their year. Ofthese, 65 credits, depending onthesubject, arenormallyobtainedbyattendingappropriatetaughtcoursesbetweenSeptember and May. Theseareselected fromthe listofpostgraduate lectures ( 5 lecturesaweek), together with the transferrable skills course. The relevant lecture coursesare listed in Section VI and are chosen by agreement between the student and course director. Course assessment will be a combination of question sheets, examination, essay and/or course project depending on the style of the course. A further 15 credits are obtained by attending the transferrable skills course which is operated bythe Graduate School of Science, Engineering and Medicine. Theremaining credits are obtained through the research project and thesis.

Arrangements for assessment in the courses in Radio Astronomy are slightly different – details are given under the appropriate course description later in this section.

3. If the lecture coursework assessment is satisfactory (this requirement is normally met by the attainment of an average mark exceeding 50%) the student proceeds with their project and writes a dissertation.

4. A research project and supervisor will be assigned shortly after the start of the course. The student generally works on the project throughout the course, though for the ﬁrst part of the course time is divided between project work and lectures: from May onwards the student works full time on the project.

5. You are also expected to attend departmental and group seminars and workshops which are relevant to your research interests. You are encouraged to attend other seminars as part of your general scientiﬁc education.

6. The research project must be completed within a year, and the dissertation should normally be completed on the same timescale: the normal submission date is October 15 of the year following that of registration, which means that notice of intent to submit must be given by

8 1st September (on a form available from the Exams Ofﬁce). It is important that you and your supervisor come to agreement on the style and content of the dissertation no later than the start of summer so that a well deﬁned work programme can be established with this deadline in mind.

7. The dissertation will be read by an external examiner appointed by the Head of Department and by an internal examiner who must be a member of the academic staff. They will normally makearecommendation aboutaward of thedegreeon thebasis of this reading, butinexceptional circumstances may call the candidate for an oral examination before making this recommendation. The examiners may recommend acceptance of the dissertation (with or without minor corrections), re-submission in amended form, or outright rejection. If all goes well, graduation can take place at the December degree day.

M.Phil. Courses 1. A project and supervisor are speciﬁed at the start of the course.

2. You are also expected to attend departmental and group seminars and workshops which are relevant to your research interests. You are encouraged to attend other seminars as part of your general scientiﬁc education.

3. The research project must be completed within a year, and the dissertation should normally be completed on the same timescale: the normal submission date for a student registering in September is October 15 of the following year, which means that notice of intent to submit must be given by 1st September (on a form available from the Exams Ofﬁce). It is important that you and your supervisor come to agreement on the style and content of the dissertation no later than the start of summer so that a well deﬁned work programme can be established with this deadline in mind.

4. The dissertation will be read by an external examiner appointed by the Head of Department and by an internal examiner who must be a member of the academic staff. They will normally makearecommendation aboutaward of thedegreeon thebasis of this reading, butinexceptional circumstances may call the candidate for an oral examination before making this recommendation. The examiners may recommend acceptance of the dissertation (with or without minor corrections), re-submission in amended form, or outright rejection.

5. The standard required of an M.Phil. dissertation is somewhat higher than that of M.Sc., on the grounds that it shoud represent the results of a full year’s work, whereas the M.Sc. comprises a mixture of coursework and the research project.

9 M.Sc. IN EXPERIMENTAL CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS Course Director: Dr J R Hook This is a postgraduate course consisting of both lecture courses and a substantial element of project work. The level is suitable for British students who have completed their first degree. It will also be attractive to students at a similar level from European Countries, who wish to visit this country for a year as part of their programme of study. For non-European students the course provides an opportunity to study experimental condensed matter physics at an advanced level in a European environment. Students will have the opportunity to contribute to research in the Condensed Matter Group through the research project. The topics available reflect the interests of the group which currently include non-linear physics, quantum fluids (liquid 3He and 4He), magnetism and neutron scattering. The coursework consists of a minimum of 60 credits of which 50 are for the North West Universities postgraduate course in Condensed Matter Physics (PC4451, PC5551, PC5651 & PC5652)) and a further 10 chosen by agreement with the course director from the wide range of courses available within and outside the department. A typical selection might be made from: Credits PC5411 The Physics of Liquid Crystals & Devices 10 PC5401 Advanced Quantum Mechanics III 10 PC5501 Field Theory & Phase Transitions 10 PC5471 Non-equilibrium Statistical Physics 10 PC3471 Introduction to Non-linear Physics 10 PC3762 Programming in C++ 10 Examples of possible M.Sc. project titles are given below. These are not necessarily on offer at this time but show the style of what might be available, depending on the interests of staff and the student. 1. Flow Pattern Visualisation. The fluid flow pattern of a thermally convecting liquid can be made visible using alight projection technique knownas optical shadowgraphy. Ashadowgraph system has been constructed and has been used to observe convection in solutions of 3He and 4He. The physics of pattern formation will be studied experimentally using the system. 2. Use of the VibratingSample Magnetometer. This is a group facility which would be available forthemeasurementofmagneticpropertiesofmaterials, includingsuperconductors. Theproject might include the fabrication of samples. 3. Superfluid 3He Research. An M.Sc. project could involve participation in an experiment on one of our two cryostats capable of cooling liquid 3He to temperatures below 0.001 K. Our current experiments include the study of superfluidity of 3He in aerogel and a search for Josephson effects in the helium liquids.

10 M.Sc. IN EXPERIMENTAL PARTICLE PHYSICS Course Director: Dr F K Loebinger

This is a postgraduate course in High Energy Particle Physics consisting of both lecture courses and a substantial element of project work. The level is suitable for British students who have completed their ﬁrst degree. It will also be attractive to students at a similar level from European Countries, who wish to visit this country for a year as part of their programme of study. For non-European students thecourse provides an opportunity tostudy High Energy ParticlePhysics at an advanced level in a European environment.

The particle physics group is currently involved in large international collaborations working at CERN (Geneva), DESY (Hamburg) and SLAC (California) as well as carrying our research in supernovae neutrino detection and medical imaging. The course will provide the student with the opportunity to become acquainted with the advanced techniques of particle detection and computing which are used to obtain and analyse the data from these experiments.

The coursework consists of 65 credits of which 15 are attained via the transferrable skills course. The remaining 50 normally include: Credits PC5401 Advanced Quantum Mechanics III 10 PC5602 Relativistic Quantum Physics 10 PC4521 Frontiers of Particle Physics I 10 PC5722 Frontiers of Particle Physics II 10 plus an advanced course: Credits PC5732 Frontiers of Particle Physics III 10 which may be taken by students who have taken the appropriate prerequisite courses.

The remaining credits can be chosen by agreement with the course director from the wide range of post-graduate courses available in the Department. Although the following courses may be considered particularly relevant, other courses may be selected to suit the student’s background and interests. Credits PC5702 Gauge Theories in Particle Physics 10 PC4772 Introduction to General Relativity & Cosmology 10 PC3762 Programming in C++ 10

Outline syllabuses for these courses are given in Section VI

A research project is undertaken within the Particle Physics Group under the individual supervision of a staff member. In cases where the student does a project based on the application of particle physics methodology to medical image processing, some of the above physics lecture courses can be replaced by lecture courses in the medical biophysics school.

11 Projects are normally available from the whole spectrum of activities of the Group. These include: Detector development Analysis and evaluation of performances of installed detectors Detector and Physics simulations for proposed experiments Analysis of data from current experiments

This spread of activities usually enables the students to choose the type of project which best suits their interests and abilities. The projects range from the more practical aspects of accu- rately detecting the tracks of high energy particles, to the more theoretical concepts involved in analysing the data from one of the front-line experiments in which the Group is involved. The student will become familiar with the relevant experimental and computer techniques used in Particle Physics research.

Typical projects during recent years have been: Development of a resistive plate chamber for muon detection Development of a silicon detector for particle tracking in an LHC experiment The operating characteristics and performance of the H1 muon chambers at HERA A Monte Carlo simulation of the triggering requirements of the ATLAS experiment Particle identiﬁcation in high energy jets Development of CsI detectors for calorimetric measurements in the BaBar experiment at SLAC Muon production in the OPAL experiment at LEP Development of supernovae detectors. Application of particle physics analysis techniques to medical image processing.

12 M.Sc. IN LASER PHOTONICS AND MODERN OPTICS Course Director: Dr David West

This postgraduate course in Lasers and Optics is designed to cover a spectrum of practical and theoretical aspects of the subject. The emphasis is on modern applications. The level of the course is suitable for British students who have completed their first degree and it will also be attractive to students from elsewhere in Europe and worldwide who are at a similar level. The course is also suitable for people with appropriate qualifications who may be seconded from industry and who wish to update their knowledge and experience in this rapidly changing field.

In addition to the 15 credits for transferable skills, the coursework consists of at least 50 credits, likely to be: Credits Semester 1 PC5411 The Physics of Liquid Crystals & Devices 10 PC4431 Laser Photomedicine 10 PC5511 Advanced Laser Physics I 10

Semester 2 PC5712 Advanced Laser Physics II 10 PC5792 Data Analysis & Image Processing 10

Alternative courses may be chosen from the wide range of postgraduate courses available within thedepartmentbyprioragreementwiththecoursedirector, subjecttotheconditionthatatleast40 credits are obtained from postgraduate level, PC5—, courses. Thefollowing maybe particularly relevant:

PC4612 Electron and Photon Interactions with Atoms and Molecules PC4652 The Physics of ﬂuids PC3141 Electromagnetic radiation

Outline syllabuses are given in section VI of the handbook.

The course includes a technical project tailored to suit the student from a range of theoretical and experimental work within the Department. Students perform their project independently with guidance and supervision from a member of staff of the Department. Examples of previous MSc project titles are given below;

1. Shock wave and ultrasound measurements during laser ablation of hard tissue. 2. Near infrared wavemeter for laser diode spectrometer 3. Setting up a near-infrared titanium-sapphire laser source for spectrometry 4. Fibre lasers for medical applications 5. Tests of new photorefractive materials 6. Quantum dots in sol-gel glasses - a new nonlinear medium

13 M.Sc. IN NUCLEAR AND RADIATION PHYSICS Course Director: Dr Jon Billowes

This is apostgraduate course inNuclear and Radiation Physics consisting of both lecture courses and a substantial element of experimental project work. The level is suitable for British students who have completed a ﬁrst degree. It will also be attractive to students at a similar level from European countries who wish to visit this country for a year as part of their programme of study. For non-European students the course provides an opportunity to study experimental Nuclear and Radiation Physics at an advanced level in a European environment.

The course will provide the student with the opportunity to become familiar with state-of-the- art techniques for the detection of nuclear radiation and with the sophisticated electronic and computing systems used to process and analyse the data from nuclear detection equipment. The lecture courses allow the student to understand how characteristics of the nucleus can be deduced from the properties of the nuclear radiation and how these features can be described by current models of the nucleus.

The 180 credits for the course comprise 65 credits from coursework and transferrable skills and 115 credits for a dissertation on a technical project. The lecture credits are chosen by agreement with the course director from the following list, normally to include all PC5— courses.. Credits PC5220 Electromagnetic Decay and Hyperﬁne Interactions in Nuclei 10 PC5421 Nuclear Structure 10 PC5622 Nuclear Reactions 10 PC5401 Advanced Quantum Mechanics III 10 PC3401 Advanced Quantum Mechanics I 10 PC3722 Nuclear Physics 10 PC3822 Applied Nuclear Physics 10

The PC5220 course starts in the second half of Semester 1 and continues into Semester 2. See your supervisor for the syllabus.

The course also contains a technical project whose nature may depend on the interests of the student, i.e. more basic or applied. Each project will involve a literature search and will familiarise the student with computer techniques for data acquisition and analysis. Students work independently under the supervision of a staff member.

Typical projects for students more interested in basic nuclear physics might involve the de- termination of radio-active decay schemes via charged particle and gamma-ray coincidence measurements, or astudyofoptical isotope shifts andhyperﬁnestructures vialaserspectroscopy.

For students more interested in detection techniques or applied nuclear physics, the project might involve development and testing of gas detectors for heavy-ion detection, or development and testing of solid-state detectors for gamma rays and designing devices for suppressing the Compton scattered background in gamma-ray detection.

14 M.Sc. IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS Course Director: Dr P J A Buttle

This is a postgraduate course in theoretical physics consisting of both lecture courses and a substantialelementofprojectwork. ThelevelissuitableforBritishstudentswhohavecompleted their ﬁrst degree. It will also be attractive to students at a similar level from European Countries, who wish to visit this country for a year as part of their programme of study. For non-European students the course provides an opportunity to study theoretical physics at an advanced level in a European environment.

There are two main areas of study, Theoretical Condensed Matter Physics and Theoretical Particle Physics.

Condensed Matter Theory

Students take 60 lecture credits chosen by agreement with the course director. 40 of these are normally made up as follows: Credits PC5401 Advanced Quantum Mechanics III 10 PC5501 Field Theory and Phase Transitions 10 PC5652 2nd half of North West Universities Solid State Course 20 and a typical choice for the remainder could be: Credits PC4451 Superconductors and superﬂuids 10 PC5471 Non Equilibrium Statistical Physics 10

Outline syllabuses of these courses are given in section VI.

An example of a possible M.Sc. project title is given below. This is not necessarily on offer at this time but shows the style of what might be available, depending on the interests of staff and the student.

Numerical Studies of Ordering Kinetics. The project involves computer simulations of systems quenched into the ordered phase from high temperatures, in order to elucidate the nature of the scaling regime which develops at late times after the quench.

15 Particle Physics Theory

Students take 60 lecture credits, chosen by agreement with the course director. At least 40 of these must be from the following list: the remainder from the general list of postgraduate lectures. Credits PC5401 Advanced Quantum Mechanics III 10 PC4521 Frontiers of Particle Physics I 10 PC5602 Relativistic Quantum Physics 10 PC5702 Gauge Theories in Particle Physics 10 PC5722 Frontiers of Particle Physics II 10 PC5732 Frontiers of Particle Physics III 10 PC4772 Introduction to General Relativity& Cosmology 10

Outline Syllabuses for these courses are given in section VI.

Examples of possible M.Sc. project titles are given below. These are not necessarily on offer at this time but show the style of what might be available, depending on the interests of staff and the student.

1. Exclusive Channels in photon-photon scattering Calculations of the production of different output channels ( + , K+K etc) are compared with the latest data, providing a check on the validity of QCD.

2. Radioactive Z decay The decay rate for Z e+e is calculated using various models related to the Weinberg-Salam → model of weak interactions, and compared with experimental data.

3. High Energy pp scattering High energy proton-proton scattering is analysed in the triple gluon exchange and pomeron models.

16 M.Sc. IN ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PROCESSES Course Director: Prof. F H Read

This course is organised jointly by the Departments of Physics and of Chemistry. It provides studentswiththeopportunitytobecomefamiliarwithstate-of-the-arttechniquesforthedetection and characterisation of atomic and molecular species. There is a growing need in Chemical and other Industries for graduates who are familiar with a wide range of instrumentation, and this course will provide such training.

The coursework consists of 65 credits (including 15 for transferable skills) chosen by agreement with the course director from those listed below. The course normally includes thethree PC5 topics listed here. Credits PC5401 Advanced Quantum Mechanics III 10 PC5511 Advanced Laser Physics I 10 PC5712 Advanced Laser Physics II 10 PC4431 Laser Photomedicine 10 PC4411 Charged Particle Dynamics 10 PC4612 Electron and Photon Interactions with Atoms and Molecules 10 PC3411 Laser Physics 10 PC3712 Photonics 10 CM4100 Techniques: Vacuum, noise, and electronics 10 CM4200 Advanced NMR spectroscopy 10 CM4221 Methods of Computational Chemistry 10 CM4232 Molecular Quantum Chemistry 10

Outline syllabuses for these courses are given in section VI.

A research project is undertaken under the individual supervision of a member of staff. The project takes place throughout the year, runs in parallel with the lecture courses, and is not speciﬁc to the choice of lecture units.

17 M.Sc. IN RADIO ASTRONOMY Course Director: Dr J P Leahy

Lectures: Lecture courses on astronomy and astrophysics, the techniques of radio astronomy and computing methods are given between September and May. Tutorial groups, discussion groups and practical demonstrations will be arraged at appropriate times to complement the lectures. There is a core course on Radio Astronomy (PC5591) and the remaining 40 credits can be obtained from a range of options which include a Technical Project (PC5871/2) as well as other appropriate lecture courses in the Department. All lectures will be held in the Schuster Laboratory unless otherwise stated.

Allocation of Research Topics: Presentations on research projects will be made by members of staff in the ﬁrst week, and projects will be assigned in the following week after discussion with students about their interests and preferences. It will be possible to change project at any time during the ﬁrst month.

Literature Review: Approximately six weeks of the ﬁrst term are spent on a literature review basedon thestudent’sresearchtopic. Theresults arewrittenupas areport, andarealso presented orally to fellow students.

Colloquia: All students and research staff attend the scientiﬁc seminars and colloquia which arearrangedat Jodrell Bank throughoutthe year. TheJournal Club provides informaltalksbased on highlights from recent literature and conferences. The talks are given by Jodrell Bank staff and students on Wednesdays at 11:00. The main colloquia are given on Wednesday afternoons at 16:00 in the Lecture Room, mainly by outside speakers.

Students may also be encouraged to attend seminars and workshop meetings given by the Astronomy group in Manchester.

Royal Astronomical Society: Students are encouraged to attend selected discussion meetings of the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).

TransferrableSkills These are skills such as communication, leadership, health and safety etc, not tied to a speciﬁc academic area. All students are expected to attend the course on Personal Transferable skills organised by the Graduate School in Science, Engineering & Medicine (GSSEM), which counts for 15 credits; there are also one-off lectures at Jodrell Bank on Health & Safety and on searching the astronomical literature.

Dissertation Research: On completion of their literature review students begin work on their research projects, and this becomes full time after the June Exams. Ph.D. students should submit a short Continuation Report in May, while M.Sc. students should aim to submit their thesis before the end of September.

ThespecialistRadioAstronomy coursesaregivenbelow. Adetailedtimetablewillbeannounced at the beginning of each term.

18 Credits PC5591 Radio Astronomy 10 PC5801 Plasmas and Radiation Mechanisms 5 PC5841 Digital Electronics 5 PC5871/2 Technical Project 15 PC5692 Frontiers of Astrophysics 10 PC5792 Data Analysis & Image Processing in Astronomy 10 PC5862 Computer Techniques in Radio Astronomy 5

Other courses of potential interest All the following courses are worth 10 credits, and are assessed by 1h30m examinations at the end of the appropriate semester. At most, two of these courses may be taken.

Semester 1: PC3491 Galaxies PC4491 Physics of the Interstellar Medium UM7011 Plasma Physics and Industrial Use of Plasmas

Semester 2: PC3692 Stars and Stellar Evolution PC4772 Introduction to General Relativity and Cosmology Literature Review It is essential that research workers are able to ﬁnd out from scientiﬁc journals what is known about a particular topic, and expound such knowledge to colleagues. To develop thses skills each student will, under the guidance of his or her supervisor, review the literature relevant to their research topic.

A written report of around 3000 words is required which reviews the literature and sets the planned research programme in context. The report will be assessed ﬁrstly on its scientiﬁc merits and secondly on the quality of the presentation. We will be looking for a thorough literature search, a sound grasp of the material, the ability to organize and intercompare material from different sources, and independent critical judgement. Presentation is also important, and will count for one third of the marks for the report. Here we will be looking for the ability to present an argument logically and concisely, and in reasonable English.

At the beginning of February, students will give a fifteen minute talk on their literature reviews to the MSc class and other interested research and teaching staff. An additional five minutes will be allowed for questions. The talk will be assessed separately from the written report; the report and talk are weighted 2:1 in the final mark.

19 V. PhD COURSES Direct Entry PhD: The First Year Most students register for the direct entry (3 year) PhD course. Physics and Radio Astronomy students attend lecture courses with appropriate assessment, and write a ﬁrst year report. As- tronomy students attend a series of workshops and colloquia and also write a report. The report is supplemented by an interview for all students. Progression to subsequent years of the course is dependent on the satisfactory completion of these requirements. Further details on the ﬁrst year report can be found in section VIII.

In this year you receive most of the formal training necessary and learn the pattern of work appropriate for your area of research. Youwill become familiar with essential research practices such as the organised and efﬁcient use of the research literature and the vital importance of systematic recording of data or the results of calculations. Most importantly, during this period, you will form a working relationship with your supervisor and your research group.

1. A project title and supervisor must be speciﬁed at the time of registration, (though this can be changed later).

2. StudentswithB.Sc. orequivalentmust attendandbeassessedinatleast60lecture credits(144 hours of lecturing or their equivalent) within a year of registration. Students in experimental physics may take fewer lectures (down to a limit of 40 credits) with an extension of their experimental project. Students registered for a PhD in astronomy attend a structured course of workshops and colloquia. Students with M.Phys. will need to attend and be assessed in fewer than 60 lecture credits. This will be arranged with their supervisor and course director.

3. Suitablecoursesarechosen fromthelistof postgraduate lecturesinSectionVIbyconsultation between student and supervisor. Assessment will be by question sheets, examination, essay or a course project.

4. At the end of May, students who registered for a PhD in Physics inthe previous September are expected to submit a ﬁrst year research report. This report is assessed by the supervisor, taking account of the student’s personal contribution, and by an interview with two other members of staff, at which the student summarises progress achieved and is questioned on the contents of the report and the physics brought out by it. If coursework and report together are deemed to display a satisfactory training in research by a departmental examiners’ meeting, students are permitted to continue their PhD course by registering for a further two years from the following September or may be required to submit a dissertation for the M.Sc. at that time. The threshold denoting a satisfactory grading is normally set at 60%. The examiners also award a John Birks book prize to the best student. An unsatisfactory performance at this stage entitles the department to recommend termination of the PhD registration to the university authorities. 5. Students who are registered for a PhD in Astronomy, or who have registered at a date other than September, submit a report of similar nature to that described above at the end of their ﬁrst year. This is evaluated by the supervisor and another academic staff member, who read the report and conduct an interview of the form described above. They will recommend whether

20 re-registration for PhD should take place or whether a dissertation for the M.Sc. should be submitted. Once more, the department is entitled at this stage to recommend termination of the course to the university authorities if performance has been unsatisfactory.

PhD By Research: The Remaining Two Years

In the second year and theearly part of thethird year, you will obtain thebulk of theresultswhich go into the final thesis. It is extremely useful if, at this stage, you interact with more experienced researchers in your (and other) groups. Informal seminars and discussionsin which you describe your work are effective ways in which you can judge your progress and the contributions you are making to research projects. 1. These regulations apply equally to direct entry PhD students who have been re-registered after a successful first year and to students who are admitted to a PhD course on the basis of their research qualifications.

2. A project title and supervisor must be speciﬁed at the time of registration or re-registration. 3. One year after this registration, students are required to submit a second year report, outlining the progress of their research project to their supervisor, without whose approval re-registration for the ﬁnal year of the course cannot take place. This requirement will be waived if they, with their supervisor’s consent, present a poster describing their research project at a poster session attended by staff and existing and newly arrived postgraduates.

4. Submission of a doctoral thesis should take place at the end of the prescribed period of the course – by October 1st, if you started in September. Younotify the exams office, using a special form, that you intend to present a thesis. At the same time they give you precise instructions as to the required format. If you intend to present for the October 1st deadline, this notification has to be done by September 1st. If these deadlines are missed the next submission date is not till January, and you can’t graduate till July. More details and dates can be found in the Faculty Ordinances and Regulations, obtainable from the Postgraduate Secretary. It is not normally permissible to submit earlier than five terms after registration (i.e. 1 term before theend of the course). Exceptions requirespecial permission from theFaculty of Science.

If it is impossible to meet the October deadline, extensions of registration are required (and a fee, currently £25 per 6 months is payable for this). If there is a delay of more than 1 year after the end of the course before the thesis is submitted, then the University will not award a PhD degree without special permission from the Graduate School.

5. The submitted thesis will be read by an external examiner appointed by the Head of Depart- ment and an internal examiner who must be an academic staff member of appropriate seniority. They will conduct a detailed oral examination, which must take place at the university, before making their recommendation about award of the degree. This recommendation may be for acceptance of the thesis (with or without minor corrections), for the re-writing of sections without further oral examination, for re-submission in a modiﬁed form with a second oral examination, for re-submission for the M.Sc. degree or for outright rejection.

21 VI. LECTURE COURSES

This is a list of courses provisionally available in 1998-99. Courses with numbers PC3xxx are also available to 3rd and 4th year undergraduate students. Courses with numbers PC4xxx are also available to 4th year undergraduate students. The ﬁnal digit denotes the semester. At least two thirds of the lectures in a postgraduate course should be PC5xxx topics.

Many courses require pre-requisite knowledge. In some cases this is obvious: PC3401 (Ad- vancedQuantumI)providesthelevelnecessaryforPC3602(AdvancedQuantumII).Conversely, a student can take PC3602 only if they have done PC3401, or a similar course at their previous University. It may be inappropriate to take more than one or two of the PC3xxx lower level courses, though this depends on the particular courses concerned. You will discuss with your supervisor and/or adviser which courses to take, bearing in mind what you have done previously and the needs of your research project.

Course Title Credits Lecturer

Theoretical Physics Courses (some of which are also taken by non-theorists) PC3401 Advanced Quantum Mechanics I 10 Patrick Leahy PC3471 Introduction to Non-linear Physics 10 Richard James PC5401 Advanced Quantum Mechanics III 10 Graham Shaw PC5471 Non-equilibrium Statistical Physics 10 Alan McKane PC5501 Field Theory & Phase Transitions 10 Alan Bray

PC3602 Advanced Quantum Mechanics II 10 Mike Moore PC3642 Electrodynamics 10 John Billowes PC3672 Mathematical Methods for Physics 10 Pat Buttle PC3872 The Quark Model: A Project & Seminar Series 10 Graham Shaw PC4772 Introduction to General Relativity & Cosmology 10 Stuart Dowker PC5602 Relativistic Quantum Physics 10 Tony Phillips PC5702 Gauge Theories in Particle Physics 10 Martin McDermott

Condensed Matter Physics PC4451 Superconductors & Superﬂuids 10 John Hook/Peter Lucas PC5551 Electrons in Solids I 10 Peter Mitchell PC5651 Electrons in Solids II 10 Colin Lambert

PC3652 Solid State Physics 10 Peter Lucas PC5652 North West Universities Course 10

22 Nuclear Physics PC5220 Electromagnetic Decay & 10 Sean/Freeman Hyperﬁne Interactions in Nuclei /John Billowes PC5421 Nuclear Structure 10 John Billowes/John Lisle

PC3722 Nuclear Physics 10 John Durell PC3822 Applied Nuclear Physics 10 John Lilley PC5622 Nuclear Reactions 10 John Durell/Bill Phillips

Particle Physics PC5521 Frontiers of Particle Physics I 10 Roger Barlow/Terry Wyatt

PC3622 Particle Physics 10 Fred Loebinger PC5722 Frontiers of Particle Physics II 10 M Ibbotson/S Snow PC5732 Frontiers of Particle Physics III 10 R Marshall

Laser Physics and Modern Optics PC3411 Laser Physics 10 F Papoff PC4431 Laser Photomedicine 10 Terry King PC5411 The Physics of Liquid Crystals & Devices 10 Helen Gleeson PC5511 Advanced Laser Physics I 10 Mark Dickinson

PC3712 Photonics 10 George King PC5712 Advanced Laser Physics II 10 Dave West PC5792 Data Analysis & Image Processing 10 Ralph Spencer

Atomic Physics Courses PC4411 Charged Particle Dynamics 10 P Hammond/ G King/F Read

PC4612 Electron & Photon interactions with Atoms & Molecules 10 F Read/D Cubric

Computing and Data Processing PC3461 Electronics III Practical Signal Processing & Detection 10 Brian Anderson

PC3762 Programming in C++ 10 Roger Barlow

Biophysics Courses PC3431 Physics Applied to Medicine & Biology I 10 P Beatty/H Sharma PC3632 Physics Applied to Medicine & Biology II 10 Sue Astley/P Beatty

23 Astronomy and Astrophysics PC3491 Galaxies 10 Rod Davies PC5591 Radio Astronomy 10 J Cohen PC5801 Plasmas and Radiation Mechanisms 5 Patrick Leahy PC5841 Digital Electronics 5 B Anderson

PC3692 Stars and Stellar Evolution 10 PC3792 High Energy Astrophysics 10 I Browne PC5692 Frontiers of Astrophysics 10 B Anderson PC5792 Data Analysis & Image Processing in Astronomy 10 R Spencer PC5862 Computer Techniques in Radio Astronomy 5 D Shone/R Riggs

General Interest Courses, (some of which are at a non-specialist level) PC3121 Particles, Nuclei and Cosmology 10 Mike Ibbotson PC3141 Electromagnetic Radiation 10 Ian Duerdoth PC3151 Solid State Physics 10 John Hook

PC3302 Atoms and Molecules 10 John Lisle

Courses offered by the department of Chemistry CM4100 Techniques: Vacuum, noise, and electronics 10 Roger Grice et al (It is possible to take parts of this course) CM4201 Advanced NMR Spectroscopy 5 F Heatley/G Morris CM4221 Methods of Computational Chemistry 5 Andrew Masters

CM4232 Molecular Quantum Chemistry 5 Joe McDougall

Notes

A 10 Credit course comprises 2 lectures a week for 1 semester, or equivalent. As a very rough ﬁgure, for each hour in lectures students are expected to spend three hours on assimilation and assessment.

All courses are held in the Department of Physics and Astronomy except:

CM–– courses are held in the Chemistry Department

PC59–– courses are held at the University of Salford

PC5652 involves visits to other Universities/Laboratories in the North West

24 Provisional Postgraduate Timetable - S1

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 9–10 PC3491 BR PC3471 M PC3401 M PC3121 R CM4100 CM CM4100 CM PC4491 2S PC4431 2S 10–11 PC3121 R PC3491 BL PC3151 R PC4421 2S PC4431 2S PC4421 2S PC5591 BL PC5401 M PC5501 3S CM4221 CM CM4200 CM 11–12 PC3141 R PC3141 R PC3401 BR PC4451 2S PC4411 2S PC4491 2S PC5511 M PC4521 BL PC5471 3S 12–1 PC3411 BR PC4411 2S PC3401 BR PC4451 2S PC5471 3S PC5401 M PC5511 M 1–2 2–3 PC3461 2S PC3471 BL PC5591 BL PC4521 4S PC5501 3S PC5411 3S 3–4 PC3431 BL PC3431 BL PC4881 NB PC5411 3S

4–5 PC3151 R PC4881 NB 5–6 PC4881 NB 2S = 2nd Floor Seminar Room 3S = 3rd Floor Seminar Room 4S = 4th Floor Seminar Room M = Moseley Lecture Theatre R = Rutherford Lecture Theatre BL = Blackett Lecture Theatre BR = Bragg Lecture Theatre CM = Chemistry Department

Lecture times may be rearranged by mutual agreement between lecturer and students.

25 Provisional Postgraduate Timetable - S2

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 9-10 PC3302 2S PC3712 M PC3622 BR PC3762 BR PC3652 M PC3602 BL CM4100 CM PC4612 BL PC4622 2S CM4100 CM PC5722 2S 10-11 PC3302 2S PC3622 BR PC3762 PC3652 M PC3602 BL CM4232 CM Lab PC4652 2S PC4612 BL CM4200 M PC5722 2S 11-12 PC3642 2S PC3762 PC3722 BR PC3872 3S Lab PC5712 2S PC5692 BR PC5602 2S 12-1 PC3712 M PC3762 PC3632 BL PC3692 BR PC4652 2S Lab PC3642 M PC5602 2S PC5692 BR PC5792 BL PC5712 2S 1-2 PC5792 BL 2-3 PC3722 BL PC3872 3S PC3672 BL PC3822 BR PC4772 M 3-4 PC3632 BL PC3672 BL PC4772 M PC3822 BR

4-5 PC4622 2S 2S = 2nd Floor Seminar Room 3S = 3rd Floor Seminar Room M = Moseley Lecture Theatre R = Rutherford Lecture Theatre BL = Blackett Lecture Theatre BR = Bragg Lecture Theatre CM = Chemistry Department PC4652 - the North West Universities Solid State Package - takes place on Mondays, at various places. Lecture times may be rearranged by mutual agreement between lecturer and students.

26 PC3121 PARTICLES, NUCLEI AND COSMOLOGY Dr M Ibbotson Credit rating 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Aims: To introduce the basic concepts involved in these three modern branches of fundamental physics, and to demonstrate their interrelationships. Objectives: 1. To know the four forces of matter and their explanation in terms of constituent particles and exchange quanta. 2. To use relativistic kinematics in particle production. 3. To account for nuclear properties using nuclear models. 4. Tounderstand nuclear ﬁssion & fusion and the application to power and element production. 5. Toknow the basic properties of the Universe & their explanation using cosmological models. 6. To appreciate the future possibilities for new research. Syllabus 1. Particle Physics: The four forces; exchange particles; quarks, gluons, leptons, baryons and mesons; nucleon-nucleon force. Energy and mass-particle production; accelerators; links to cosmology. 2. Nuclear Physics: Liquid drop model; shells, deformation, pairing; nuclear models. Nuclear reactions; Coulomb barrier; fusion and ﬁssion; power production and element production; ra- dioactivity; -decay; links to astrophysics. 3. CosmologyandAstrophysics : PropertiesoftheUniverse–expansion, homogeneity/clustering microwave background, element abundances, dark matter. Explanations – Einstein’s approach to gravity (non-mathematical); model universes; big bang; nucleosynthesis. 4. Look to the Future: Quark-gluon plasma; beyond the standard model; dark matter. Recommended texts: Martin, B.R. and Shaw, G. Particle Physics (Wiley, MPS) Blin-Stoyle, R.J. Nuclear and Particle Physics (Longman) Berry, M.V. Principles of Cosmology and Gravitation (Adam Hilger)

PC 3141 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION Dr I Duerdoth Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Aims: To develop an undestanding of the transmission and production of electromagnetic waves and of the basic principles of lasers and holography. Objectives 1. To use Maxwell’s equation to describe the propagation of electromagnetic waves in vacuum, in plasmas and in conductors. 2. To understand and use the boundary conditions of electromagnetic ﬁelds at the surface of conductors. 3. To understand the properties of electromagnetic ﬁelds in waveguides and cavities.

27 4. To understand the scattering of electromagnetic waves by free and bound electrons. Syllabus 1. Introduction, recap of Maxwell’s equations. Poynting vector, energy and momentum. Waves in vacuum, plasmas and conductors, skin depth. Boundary conditions at conductors. Reﬂection and transmission. 2. Transmission lines (coaxial, lumped circuit), impedance. Bounded waves, parallel plate guide. Waveguides, modes, phase velocity, losses. Cavities, quality factor, coupling. 3. Sources of radiation. Retarded potential, Hertzian dipole. Antennas, radiation resistance, gain, polar diagram, polarisation. Radiation from an oscillating charge, Larmor power formula. Cyclotron radiation, synchrotron radiation. 4. Scattering by free and bound electrons. Thomson scattering. Rayleigh scattering and resonances. Dielectric constant and refractive index. Recommended texts: Grant, I. and Phillips, W.R. Electromagnetism (MPS, Wiley, 2nd edition) Bekefﬁ, G. and Barrett, A.H. Electromagnetic vibration, waves and radiation (MIT) Smith, G. S. An introduction to Classical Electromagnetic Radiation (CUP, 1997)

PC 3302 ATOMS AND MOLECULES Dr J Lisle Credit rating: 10 Aims: Todevelop knowledge and understanding of the structure and spectroscopy of multielectron atoms and molecules. Objectives: 1. To use quantum mechanics to account for the structure and energy of atomic states. 2. To understand how the properties of atoms can be deduced from atomic spectroscopy and from the interactions of atoms with photons and charged particles. 3. To develop an understanding of the properties of simple molecules by using quantum mechanics. 4. To understand how spectroscopy is used to investigate molecular properties. Syllabus: The hydrogen atom: Review of the quantum mechanics of the hydrogen like electron atom. Spin-orbit interaction. Relativistic effects. Level Structures: Pauli principle – The He atom. Many electron atoms – concepts of the self consistent field approach leading to shells and sub-shells, the periodic table. Discussion of atoms with one or two active electrons. Atomic spectroscopy: Selection rules. Optical spectra for one and two electron atoms, the in- fluence of external fields. Line broadening. Photo-electron spectroscopy. X-ray spectra and the Auger effect. Trace element analysis using X-ray fluorescence. Interactions of atoms with photons and charged particles: Interaction of photons with atoms by means of the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and pair production. Electron energy loss processes. Heavy charged particle scattering and stopping phenomena. Basic properties of molecules: Shapes of molecules (qualitative). Modes of excitation. Born- Oppenheimer approximations.

28 Rotations and vibrations of molecules: Rotational and vibrational spectra discussed with reference to simple diatomic molecules. Microwave and infra red spectroscopy. Raman spectra. Electronic Structure of molecules: Frank Condon principle – electronic excitations. Molecular orbital theory applied to the bonding of homonuclear molecules. Recommended texts: Eisberg, R. & Resnick, R. Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules etc (Wiley). Banwell, C.N. Fundamentals of Atomic Spectroscopy (McGraw-Hill) Additional reading: Woodgate, G.K. Elementary Atomic Structure (OUP) Hollas, J.M. Modern Spectroscopy (Wiley)

PC 3401 ADVANCEDQUANTUM MECHANICS I Dr J P Leahy Credit rating: 10 Aims: To develop a good understanding of the formal structure of non-relativistic quantum theory, and its physical signiﬁcance. Objectives: 1. Tounderstand the formulations of quantummechanics by Dirac, Heisenberg and Schr¨odinger, and to demonstrate their equivalence. 2. To understand the connection between symmetries and conservation laws. 3. To understand the nature of angular momentum and magnetic moments in quantum mechanics, and to use this to qualitatively understand magnetic effects in atoms. 4. To understand the connection between the quantum and classical levels, and to be aware of the controversies on this issue. Syllabus Basic of Quantum Mechanics in the Dirac notation. (6 lectures) [Townsend Cha 1-2]. Angular Momentum and spin. 93 lectures) [Townsend Ch 3]. Changes with time. (2 lectures) [Townsend Ch 4]. Two particle systems (3 lectures) [Townsend Ch 5]. 1-D Wave mechanics revisited. (4 lectures) [Townsend Ch 6-7]. 3-D Wave mechanics revisisted. (4 lectures) [Townsend Ch 9]. Indistinguishable particles. (1 lecture) [Townsend Ch 2.1]. The measurement problem. (1 lecture) Recommended texts: Townsend, J. A Modern Approach to Quantum Mechanics (McGraw-Hill) Supplementary reading: Gasiorowicz, S. Quantum Mechanics, 2nd ed (Wiley). Mandl, F. Quantum Mechanics (Wiley) Brown, J.C. & Davies, P.W.The Ghost in the Atom (Canto).

29 PC 3411 LASER PHYSICS Dr F Papoff Credit rating: 10 Aims: To introduce the physical ideas and knowledge needed to understand the modes of operation of different types of laser. Objectives 1. To understand the origins and nature of line broadening in emission and absorption spectra. 2. To use classical Einstein A and B coefficients to describe spontaneous and stimulated emission and absorption. 3. To derive the rate equations for generation of photons in the fundamental laser mode. 4. To describe qualitatively the modes of operation of common lasers and to outline the properties of the laser light. 5. To discuss some uses of different laser beams. Syllabus: 1. Semi-classical treatment of absorption and refraction. 2. Line broadening and lineshapes. 3. Radiation in thermal equilibrium. Einstein A and B coefficients. Stimulated emission. Life- times and transition rates. 4. Lasing action and laser gain. Laser cavities. Threshold condition. 5. Laser rate equations. Power levels. 6. Practical lasers. Doped insulator lasers, Neodymium lasers, Gas lasers, Dye lasers, Semicon- ductor lasers. 7. Properties of laser light. Directionality, monochromaticity, coherence. 8. Applications of lasers. Pulsed lasers, Frequency doubling, Holography, Laser resonance fluorescence. Recommended texts: Wilson, J. and Hawkes, J. Lasers, Principles & Applications (Prentice Hall)

PC 3431 PHYSICS APPLIED TO MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY I Credit rating: 10 Classes: 20 lectures in S1 This course uses selected examples to illustrate how physics is applied to problems in clinical measurement, treatment and biomedical research. PC3632 is a follow-on course. Aims: To illustrate how physics is applied to the problems of clinical measurement treatment and biomedical research. Objectives: Two major areas of the application of physical sciences to medicine have been selected for this course. They are: Physiological Measurement and Nuclear Medicine (including the application of radiopharmaceuticals).By the end of the course it is hoped that the students will have received a comprehensive introduction to these key topics which will not only serve to give their general physicsbackgroundausefulappliedcontextbutwillalsoserveasanintroductiontopostgraduate study in the areas that are covered.

30 Syllabus: Introduction (1 lecture) - Dr P Beatty. The general principles of the application of physics to medicine and biological applications. Physiological Measurement (13 lectures) - Dr. P. Beatty. Physical principles of physiological measurement. Measurements of cardio-vascular performance. The source and use of electro- cardiographic measurements. Measurements of the nervous system. Nuclear Medicine (6 lectures) - Dr. H. Sharma Radionuclides and radiopharmaceuticals. Radioisotope imaging and applications. Radiation dosimetry. Radiotherapy. Recommended texts: Because of the breadth of the material the students will be provided with a reading list and/or detailed notes as appropriate.

PC 3461 ELECTRONICS III (Practical Signal Processing and Detection) Dr B Anderson Credit rating: 10 Classes: 12 lectures and 12 lab sessions in S1 Aims: To introduce the techniques used in the laboratory to manipulate and detect signals. Objectives: 1. To understand the nature of signals and noise. 2. To know and be able to practice the techniques used to manipulate electrical signals. 3. To know how to recover or estimate the parameters of the signals. Syllabus: 1. Characteristics of signals. 2. Modulation/Demodulation. The Phase-Sensitive Detector. 3. Matching. 4. Low-noise Ampliﬁers. 5. Frequency Conversion. Mixers, Oscillators. 6. Frequency Synthesis, Phase-Locked Loops. 7. The Sampling Theorem, Digitisation. 8. The Discrete Fourier Transform. 10. Correlation Techniques. Recommended texts: Roddy and Coolen. Electronic Communications (Prentice Hall)

PC 3471 INTRODUCTION TO NON-LINEAR PHYSICS Dr R James Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Aims: To introduce a range of physical phenomena which cannot be described by linear theory and to explore them using both analytical techniques and numerical simulations. Objectives: 1. To explore the behaviour of simple non-linear systems with point, periodic and chaotic attractors.

31 2. To demonstrate the utility of algebraic mapping as an end in understanding the fundamental characteristics of non-linear systems. 3. To introduce intrinsically non-linear phenomena, such as solitary waves. 4. To survey applications in several areas of physics. Syllabus: 1. The non-linear pendulum in one dimension. Sensitivity of motion to initial conditions. Phase portraits. Point attractors. Example of a system with repellors and competing multiple point attractors. Domains of attraction. 2. Other non-linear systems. 3. Cyclic attractors: limit cycles in unforced oscillators, stability. Example of a system with both stable and unstable limit cycles. Competition in multiple attractor systems. Limit cycles in forced oscillators. Poincare sections and Poincare mapping – application to the Dufﬁng and Van der Pol oscillators. Chaotic attractors. Fractal nature of Poincare sections for such oscillators. 4. Use of algebraic mappings. The logistic map – bifurcations and the transition to chaos. The Henon map and its chaotic attractor. 5. Solitons. The Korteweg-de Vries equation, derived from a plausibility argument. Solitary wave solutions. The sine-Gordon equation, again from a plausibility argument. Solutions, interactions between solitons. 6. Survey of major application areas. 7. Applications to physical systems will usually be incorporated as appropriate in the material above. Complex mathematics will be replaced by plausibility arguments and numerical simulations, as far as possible. Recommended texts: Baker, G.L. & Gollub, J. P. Chaotic Dynamics, an introduction. (CUP, 1990). Strogatz, S. H. Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos. (Addison Wesley).

PC 3491 GALAXIES Professor R D Davies Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Aims: To enable the student to understand the wide range of physical principles underlying the formation of galaxies and their radiation processes. Objectives: 1. To recognize that the morphology of galaxies is related to their dynamical history. 2. To account for the stellar age distribution in galaxies. 3. To understand the range of emission mechanisms in astrophysics. 4. To be able to account for the widespread distribution of dark matter in the Universe. 5. To chart the physical processes which, beginning at the Big Bang, lead to the formation of galaxies. 6. To recognize the arguments for determining the age and size of the Universe. Syllabus: 1. Classiﬁcation and description of the galaxies. Hubble sequence with reference to the relative

32 distribution of stars and gas. Contrasting physical properties of spiral and elliptical galaxies. The regimes sampled from radio to X-rays. 2. Stellar content of galaxies. The distributions of old and young stars. Timescales of relaxation and escape compared with the age an orbital time. Spiral density waves in disk galaxies. 3. Gas content ofgalaxies. Hydrogen and molecular radial distributions. Relation tothe infrared (dust) and radio (cosmic rays and magnetic ﬁelds). 4. Kinematics and dynamics of galaxies. Rotation laws and mass distribution for spirals and ellipticals. Evaluation of the mass-to-luminosity distribution. The requirement for hidden matter. Consideration of hidden matter candidates. 5. The evolution of galaxies. Starting from the Big Bang we will consider the growth of per- turbations to (non-linear) collapse introducing the Jeans mass. The factors in the collapse that separate spirals and ellipticals. The galaxy characteristics which are a function of redshift (timescale). Metallicity gardients in individual galaxies. 6. The galactic environment. The Local Groupand clusters of galaxies. Samplingthe intergalac- tic medium at radio, x-rays; the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect. Further hidden matter in clusters. The interaction between galaxies and its role in rejuvenating galaxies. Recommended texts: Printed notes will be provided. Students are recommended to consult: Shu, F.H. The Physical Universe, (University Science Books) Binney, J. and Tremaine, S. Galactic Dynamics, (Princeton University Press)

PC 3602 ADVANCED QUANTUM MECHANICS II Professor M A Moore Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Aims: To study some of the basic calculational techniques used in quantum mechanics and to apply them to atoms and molecules. Objectives: 1. To understand time independent perturbation theory, and its uses within atomic physics. 2. To appreciate the efﬁciency of variational methods. 3. To learn how to combine time dependent perturbation theory with conservation laws to understand the selection rules for atoms. 4. To extend time dependent perturbation theory to cover scattering problems. Syllabus: 1. Time independent perturbation theory First and second order energy shift. Applications S.H.O. in electric ﬁeld, polarisability. Helium atom. 2. Variational principle The principle for ground states and excited states. Applications: Hy- drogen atom and helium atom. LCAO for H2. 3. Radiation Time dependent perturbation theory. Electromagnetic interaction. Fermi golden rule. Dipole selection rules for atoms and molecules. 4. Scattering Born approximation, Coulomb scattering, form factors. Recommended texts: Gasiorowicz, S. Quantum Physics. (Wiley)

33 PC 3622 PARTICLE PHYSICS Dr F K Loebinger Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Aims: To study our understanding of the basic constituents of matter and the nature of the interactions between them. Objectives: 1. To understand the principles of the quark model. 2. To understand all interactions in terms of a common framework of exchange quanta. 3. To be able to represent interactions and decays in terms of Feynman diagrams. 4. To calculate reaction and decay processes using relativistic kinematics. 5. To appreciate the likely direction of new research over the next 10 years. Syllabus: 1. Introduction: Antiparticles, neutrinos, muon, pion. Kinematics: relativistic equations, in- variant mass, thresholds. Basic quark model: baryons, mesons. 2. Interactions: Exchange quanta: Feynman diagrams. Strong, electromagnetic, weak. Gluon, 0 W, Z . 3. Conservation laws: Angular momentum, lepton number, baryon number. Strangeness: associated production. Isospin: multiplets. 4. Quark model (cont) Supermultiplets. Resonances: formation, production, decay. Charm: J/, charmonium. Bottom: ϒ. Experimental evidence for quarks. Colour: conﬁnement, experimental evidence. Quark-lepton generations: Z0 decay. 5. Future directions Neutrino masses, Higgs, Grand Uniﬁed Theories, Supersymmetry. Recommended texts: Martin, B.R. and Shaw, G.Particle Physics (Wiley) Burcham, W.E. and Jobes, M. Nuclear and Particle Physics (Longman) Williams, W.S.C. Nuclear and Particle Physics (Oxford)

PC 3632 PHYSICS APPLIED TO MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY II Credit rating: 10 Classes: 20 lectures in S2 Aims: To illustrate how physics is applied to the problems of clinical measurement treatment and biomedical research. Objectives: Two major areas of the application of physical sciences to medicine have been selected for this course. These are: Medical Imaging and the Therapeutic Applications of Physical Devices. By theend of thecourse it ishoped that thestudents willhavereceivedacomprehensiveintroduction to these key topics which will not only serve to give their general physics background a useful applied context but will also serve as an introduction to postgraduate study in the areas that are covered. Syllabus: 1. Medical Imaging (13 lectures) - Dr. S. Astley, Dr A Parker and Dr A Brett

34 Image quality and processing. X-rays (including computer tomography). Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Ultrasound Imaging. 2. Therapeutic Applications (7 lectures) - Dr. P. Beatty Electrosurgery. Lithotripsy. Anaesthesia. Recommended texts: Because of the breadth of the material the students will be provided with a reading list and/or detailed notes as appropriate.

PC 3642 ELECTRODYNAMICS Dr J Billowes Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Aims: To cover theoretical aspects of electromagnetic radiation, its production and its interaction with matter. Objectives: 1. To understand the use of scalar and vector potentials and of gauge invariance. 2. To demonstrate the compatibility of electrodynamics and special relativity. 3. To know and use methods of solution of Poisson’s equation and the inhomogeneous wave equation. 4. To know and use principles of multipole expansion and tensor analysis. 5. To distinguish between radiation fields and other electromagnetic fields. 6. To calculate the fields produced by harmonically varying sources and accelerating charges. Syllabus: 1. Electromagnetic Field Equations: Maxwell’s equations and wave solutions. Definition of scalar and vector potential. Poisson’s equation and electro- and magnetostatics; multipole expansions. Electrodynamics in Lorentz Gauge; the inhomogeneous wave equation and the retarded time. 2. Harmonically Varying Sources: Multipole radiation: electric (Hertzian) and magnetic dipole radiation; slow-down of pulsars. Interaction of radiation with matter: Rayleigh and Thomson scattering; dielectric constants; propagation through plasmas with and without external magnetic fields. 3. Accelerating Charges: Lienard-Wiechert potentials; fields round arbitrarily moving single charge. Larmor power formula; synchrotron radiation; brehmstrahlung. 4. Electromagnetism and Relativity: Four vectors and tensors; relativistic dynamics. Consis- tency of Maxwell’s equations and relativity. Electromagnetic field tensor and electrodynamics in covariant form. Recommended texts: Barger, V. and Olsson, M. Classical Electricity and Magnetism (Allyn & Bacon 1987) Heald, M.A. & Marion, J.B. Classical Electromagnetic Radiation (Academic Press, London 1965)

35 PC3652 SOLID STATEPHYSICS Dr P Lucas Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Aims: To provide an introduction to fundamental solid state systems. Objectives 1. To illustrate qualitatively the role of symmetry in classifying common crystal structures. 2. To provide a unified description of the properties of lattice vibrations and mobile charge carriers in crystalline solids. 3. To provide a platform of understanding of several basic solid systems for future building in follow-up courses. Syllabus: 1. Structure of solids. Crystalline and non-crystalline solids, bond types, crystal structure, Bra- vais lattice, basis, Miller indices. 2. Waves in periodic structures. Theory of X-ray scattering, the reciprocal lattice and its properties, Brillouin zones. 3. Lattice vibrations. Vibrational modes of monatomic and diatomic linear chains, phonon dispersion relation, phonon thermal distribution function, density of states, Debye theory of lattice specific heat. 4. Quantal gases. Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac thermal distribution functions. 5. Metals. Free electron model and its physical properties band theory and divalent metals, electron dispersion relation and effective mass, classification of solids into metals, insulators and semiconductors. 6. Semiconductors. Mobile electrons and holes, charge carrier dispersion relation and effective masses, density of charge carriers in a band, impurity doped semiconductors, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, law of mass action, transport properties, p-n junction. Recommended texts: Kittel, C. Introduction to Solid State Physics (J Wiley). Hook, J.R. and Hall, H.E. Solid State Physics (J. Wiley). Myers, H.D. Introductory Solid State Physics (Taylor & Francis).

PC 3672 MATHEMATICALMETHODS FOR PHYSICS Dr P J A Buttle Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Aims: To consolidate and extend the second year course ‘Mathematical Physics’ and to complement other theoretical courses. Objectives: Acourse onmathematical methodscanonly beacollectionof miscellaneous topicsheld together by a common title. The object of this course is to achieve an understanding and appreciation, in as integrated a form as possible, of some mathematical techniques commonly occurring in other theoretically oriented courses such as quantum mechanics, statistical physics and electromagnetism. Some examples will be treated at length in the belief that it is more instructive to

36 see one thing worked through in detail. There will, however, be little effort to teach the physics per se. Because it is beautiful, a formal, abstract exposition will be attempted, when appropriate, often in tandem with an explicit realisation. It will be assumed that the student will have had exposure to the basic ideas of algebra such as simultaneous equations and determinants, to some vector algebra and analysis, to elementary differential equations and to complex variables through Cauchy’s theorem. However, it should be possible for anyone unacquainted with some particular subject to familiarise him- or herself with the necessary material by outside reading. To appreciate the wide-ranging applicability of linear operator theory. To recognise when a Green function solution is appropriate, and what it means. To solve a variational problem by constructing an appropriate functional, and solving the Euler- Lagrange equations. To appreciate the advantages of an integral formulation. Syllabus: 1. Linear vector spaces. Linear operators. Eigenvectors. Eigenvalues. Completeness. (Partial review). Dirac notation. Differential operators. Sturm-Liouville theory. 2. Introduction to Green functions. Physical motivation. The coulomb potential. Deﬁning properties of Green function. Eigenvector/function form. Examples. The driven harmonic oscillator. The particle subject to a force. The wave-equation. Fourier integrals. Advanced and retarded potentials. Quantum mechanical propagator. 3. Variational calculus. Basic notion of functional. The standard variational problem. Euler- Lagrange equations. Examples from mechanics and opics. Extension to many dependent and many independent variables. The Schr¨odinger equation. Variations with constraints. The Rayleigh-Ritz method. Application to quantum mechanics. 4. Introduction to integral equations. Why we need integral equations. Description of basic types. Liouville and Volterra equations. Homogeneous and inhomogeneous. The Eigenprob- lem. Conversion of a differential equation to an integral equation. Techniques for solution. Separable kernels. Neumann series. Hilbert-Schmidt theory (possibly). Application to quantum mechanical scattering. The Born approximation. Recommended texts: Mathews, J. and Walker, R. Mathematical Methods for Physics (Benjamin).

PC 3692 STARS AND STELLAR EVOLUTION Dr D Axon Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Aims: To apply fundamental physics to the internal structure of stars and to study their evolution. Objectives: 1. To know the basic equations of stellar structure. 2. To understand the physics of energy transport in stars.

37 3. Toinvestigatethe evolution of stars produced as their internal structure changes due tonuclear fuel burning. 4. Toacquire aknowledge of the astrophysical signiﬁcance of theend points of stellar evolution. 5. To appreciate the complex problems of star formation. Syllabus: 1. Observational Background: Luminosities, temperatures and masses. The Hertzsprung- Russell and the mass-luminosity diagrams. Cluster HR diagrams and the effects of evolution. Proto-stars and young stellar objects. Post main sequence objects – red giants and supergiants, Wolf-Rayet stars and asymptotic giant branch, planetary nebula cores, white dwarfs, neutron stars, novae and Supernovae, Binary and variable stars eg symbiotics, FU Orionis stars. 2. Physics of the Stellar Interior: Order-of-magnitude estimates of temperature, pressure and density. Physical state of stellar material. Energy sources and energy transport. 3. Stellar Models and Stellar Evolution: Equations of stellar structure. Properties of ZAMS models – factors governing the existence of convective cores and of convective envelopes. Post-main sequence evolution. Mass loss – mechanisms and consequences. End products of stellar evolution. Supernovae and their importance. 4. Star Formation: The initial mass function. Low and high mass star formation. Accretion discs and stellar jets. Problems of star formation. 5. Unusual Stars in Unusual Environments: Hubble Sandage variables, symbiotic stars. Giant extragalactic HII regions, starburst galaxies. The starburst-active galactic nucleus connection. Recommended texts: Printed notes will be given. Additional reading: B¨ohm-Vitense, E. Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics Vol 3: Stellar Structure and Evolution (CUP) Kippenhahn, R. and Weigert, A. Stellar Sructure and Evolution (Springer Verlag) Phillips, A.C. The Physics of Stars (Wiley)

PC 3712 PHOTONICS Dr G C King Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Aims: To give coordinated description of the physics of optoelectronic methods and devices and illustrate their use in modern applications. Ojectives: 1. To introduce the materials and components that form the basis of photonics, making the connections with the physics core courses. 2. To understand the guided waves in planar and cylindrical geometries and the modulation of light. 3. Todescribe the origins, methods and application of nonlinear optical processing using second harmonic generation as an example. 4. To describe the main applications of photonics techniques to modern applications.

38 Syllabus: 1. Materials, Sources and Detectors. Optoelectronics materials. (Structures, energy gaps, crystals). Properties of laser radiation. Light emitting diodes, laser diodes. Detection methods, photodiodes, CCDS. 2. Devices. Techniques and transmission characteristics of optical ﬁbres. Optical modulation, acousto-optic and electro-optic switching. Guided wave structures, waveguide modes in ﬁlms and channels, propagation and dispersion. 3. Nonlinear Optics. Nonlinear susceptibility. Phase matching. Harmonic generation. 4. Applications. Optical communications. Fibre optic sensors. Information storage and optical memories. Video and compact discs and CD ROM. Recommended texts: Wilson, J. and Hawkes, J.F.B. Optoelectronics, an Introduction (Prentice Hill) Saleh, B.A. and Teich, M.C. Fundamentals of Photonics (Wiley)

PC 3722 NUCLEAR PHYSICS Dr J Durell Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Aims: To provide a sound knowledge of Nuclear Physics and the fundamental forces of Nature to enable progression to a postgraduate course or to provide a platform for entering industry. Objectives: 1. To know the scale of Nuclear Physics. 2. To understand the structure of nuclei. 3. To understand the stability of nuclei. 4. To understand the basic characteristics of the strong, electromagnetic and weak forces and their role in the structure and stability of nuclei. 5. To understand cross sections and scattering kinematics. Syllabus: 1. Nuclear scale, measurement of nuclear radii. 2. Scattering kinematics and cross sections, using Rutherford Scattering as an example. 3. Models for the nucleus: Liquid drop, shell model. Successes, failures. 4. Collective behaviour: rotation and vibrations. 5. The Electromagnetic force and associated nuclear decays. Energy and angular momentum dependence of decays. Weisskopf formula. Lifetimes. 6. The weak force and associated nuclear decays. Fermi’s derivation. Energy dependence of decays. Lifetimes. 7. The strong force and associated nuclear decays. decay. Geiger-Nuttall rule. Barrier penetration. Energy dependence of decays. Lifetimes. 8. Compound nucleus and direct reactions. Recommended texts: Krane, K.S. Introductory Nuclear Physics. (Wiley) Hodgson, P.E.Gadioli, E. & Gadioli Erba, E. Introduction to Nuclear Physics. (Oxford Science Foundation).

39 PC 3762 PROGRAMMING IN C++ Dr R J Barlow Credit rating: 10 Course: 12 lectures and 11 half-day practical sessions in S2. Aims: To learn the fundamentals of Object Orientated Analysis To become ﬂuent in the C++ programming language. To develop good programming style. Objectives: To be able to write progams in Borland C++ version 5.02, using the whole range on ANSI standard features. Syllabus 1. From structures to objects. 2. Functions and overloading. 3. Data hiding and friend functions. 4. Stream I/O. 5. Constructors and Destructors. Memory management and initialisation. 6. Inheritance. 7. Virtual functions and Abstract classses. 8. Templates. 9. Class libraries. 10. Gooch methodology. Recommended texts: Any of the many C++ textbooks.

PC 3822 APPLIED NUCLEAR PHYSICS Dr J Lilley Credit rating: 10 Course: 24 lectures in S2 Aims: To achieve an awareness and basic understanding of the way the principles and methods of nuclear physics are put into practice to serve the needs of a modern society. Objectives: 1. To identify and summarize the particular aspects of nuclear physics which are most relevant to current applications. 2. To establish the key relationships describing nuclear behaviour and properties of radiation, which are most commonly exploited in areas of application, and show how they can be derived from fundamental concepts and nuclear properties. 3. To illustrate, by example, how the principles and concepts of physics and nuclear physics are currently being exploited in particular areas of technology, energy, environment and health. 4. To develop the student’s ability to solve basic problems involving the application of the concepts of physics and nuclear physics in those practical situations covered in the course. 5. Toprovide a suitable grounding to prepare students for further, in-depth postgraduate training in any of the speciﬁc areas of applied nuclear physics dealt with in the course.

40 Syllabus: 1. Interaction of Radiation with Matter. Theory and general features for charged particles – the Bethe-Block equation. Photon interactions – photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production. Neutron scattering and absorption. Attenuation and shielding. 2. Radiation detection. Gas-filled counters – ionization chambers, proportional and geiger counters. Scintillators – properties of different phosphors. Semiconductor detectors: silicon, germanium. Neutron detectors. Other types: track detectors, composites, arrays. Particle identification. 3. Biological effects of radiation. Stages of damage in tissue – response to different radiation types. Radiation dosimetry – activity, dose, quality factor. Radiobiological effects – molecular damage and repair, cell survival. Human exposure and risk. 4. Nuclear fission. Fission and nuclear structure, energy in fission. Fission products, prompt and delayed neutrons – chain reaction and critical mass. Role of thermal neutrons – neutron moderation. The thermal fission reactor: the neutron economy, criticality. Homogeneous reactor examples – infinite and finite reactor. Operation and control. Accidents. Fast breeders, hybrid reactors. 5. Nuclear fusion. Basic reactions and energetics. Stellar fusion, nucleogenesis. Controlled fusion – plasma confinement, laser implosion. 6. Applications of nuclear techniques. Accelerators and microprobes – isotope production. Analysis: neutronactivation,Rutherfordbackscattering, reactionsforelementalanalysis, particle- induced X-ray emission (PIXE), accelerator mass spectrometry. Nuclear medicine – imaging, diagnosis and therapy. Recommended texts: The course material is covered by sections from: Krane, K.J. Introductory Nuclear Physics (Wiley) Burcham, W.E. Elements of Nuclear Physics (Longman) Additional reading: Coggle, J.E. Biological Effects of Radiation (Wykham) Bennet, D.J. and Thompson, J.R. Elements of Nuclear Power (Longman).

PC 3872 THE QUARK MODEL: A PROJECT & SEMINAR SERIES: Dr G Shaw Credit rating: 10 Aims: Toexplore the quark model of the hadron spectrum and to develop communication skills. Objectives: The student should: 1. Understand the theoretical ideas underlying the quark model and its general features. 2. Understand in detail a particular topic within the quark model. 3. Give a clear 35 minute talk on this topic. 4. Participate actively in discussion following other student’s talks, and know how to chair such a discussion. 5. Write a word-procesed report on his/her topic, giving a more thorough treatment than is possible in a 35 minute talk.

41 Format: Preparatory reading. The ﬁrst task is to study Chapter 2, Leptons, Quarks and Hadrons or Martin and Shaw, Particle Physics, to ensure that everyone has the necessary background. There will be a simple test on this material after two weeks, which will count towards the assessment. Lectures After guidance on lecturing technique, each student will give a 35 minute talk on one of the topics listed. Each session will be chaired by a student who will introduce the speaker and lead the discussion. All students must attend all the lectures and participate in the question time at the end of the lecture. The Report Each student will write a report giving a more thorough treatment of the topic than is possoible in a 35 minuite talk. The report should be word processed and of not less than 2000 words. It should be submitted one week after the start of the summer term, at the latest, to enable feedback to be given. Topics: A. The simple quark model. 1. Angular momentum, parity and C-parity; their role in spectroscopy. 2. Isotopic spin: its physical origin and applications. 3. Resonances: the study of unstable states. 4. The baryon spectrum. 5. The meson spectrum. 6. Heavy quarkonia: charmonium and bottomonium. B. Beyond the simple quark model. 1. The Dirac equation and antiparticles. 2. Feynmann diagrams and particle exchange forces. 3. QCD: colour, conﬁnement and gluons. 4. The quark-parton model. 5. The search for glueballs. 6. Properties and detection of the top quark. Assessment: 10% of the marks are allocated to the test, 10% for participation and discussion leading. 30% to the lecture and 50% to the report. Marks will be deducted for unsatisfactory attendance during the lecture series. Students are expected to seek out relevant books and articles. The following list of references form a useful starting point: Martin, B.R. & Shaw, G Particle Physics. (Wiley) Rolnick, W.B. The Fundamental Particles and their Interactions. (Addison Wesley 1994). Hughes, I.S. Elementary Particles. 3rd ed. (Cambridge 1991). Perkins, D.H. Introduction to High Energy Physics, 3rd Ed. (Addison Wesley) Kane, G.L. Modern Particle Physics. (Addison Wesley 1987). Gottfried, K. and Weisskopf, V.F.Concepts of Particle Physics. Vols 1 and 2. (Oxford 1986).

42 PC 4411 CHARGED PARTICLE DYNAMICS Professor F Read, Dr G King & Dr P Hammond Credit rating: 10 Classes: 16 lectures and 12 hours laboratory work in S1. Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To introduce the techniques used to produce, accelerate, control and detect charged particles, and to describe the physics underlying these techniques. Objectives: 1. To understand the behaviour of charged particles in static electric and magnetic field. 2. To have an outline knowledge of the methods of accelerating charged particles. 3. To be familiar with the principles that underlie a selection of: (i) the lenses used to control beams, (ii) the analysers used to measure the energies of charged particles, and (iii) the detectors of these particles. 4. Tohavean outlineknowledge of theprinciplesof themain methods of computingelectrostatic fields. 5. To be able to use a computer package for finding fields and investigating lens and analyser properties. Syllabus: 1. Charged particle optics. Electrostatis lenses (rotationally symmetric, planar, quadrupole). 2. Energy analysers. Electrostatic deflection and mirror analysers. 3. Particle sources and detectors.. 4. Motion of charged particles in static electromagnetic fields. Motion in uniform and crossed fields. Conservation laws. Fields of rotational symmetry, adiabatic invariants, magnetic bottles. 5. Numerical solution of Laplace’s equation. Finite difference, finite element and boundary element methods. 6. Use of computer packages for charged particle dynamics. Recommended texts: Farago, P.S. Free-Election Physics. Szilagyi, M. Electron and Ion Optics. Moore, Davis and Coplan. Building Scientific Apparatus.

PC 4431 LASER PHOTOMEDICINE Professor T A King Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To describe the background science to the use of lasers in medicine and the medical laboratory and to review selected applications. Objectives: 1. Tounderstand the mechanisms describing the interaction of laser radiation with bodilytissue. 2. To review the properties of lasers and delivery systems relevant to applications in medicine. 3. To describe spectroscopic and diagnostic optical applications in medicine. 4. To discuss selected applications which are presently important in medicine.

43 Syllabus: 1. Basic Laser Radiation -Tissue Interactions. Photochemical. Photothermal. Photomechani- cal. Photoablative. 2. Medical Lasers and Delivery Systems. Technology. Radiation characteristics. Delivery systems (fibre optics, endoscopy and imaging). 3. Diagnostic Techniques and Applications. Absorption, scattering and fluorescence. Confocal microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. Tissue identification. 4. Selected Medical Applications. Laser surgery and microsurgery. Photomechanical applications in ophthalmology, lithotripsy. Photodynamic therapy. Selected applications in dermatol- ogy, ophthalmology, urology and dentistry. Recommended texts: Katzir, A. Lasers and Optical,Tibers in Medicine, (Academic 1993). To be supplemented by further recommended texts.

PC4451 SUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERFLUIDS Professor J Hook & Dr P Lucas Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To pdescribe and explain the unique properties of superconductors and superfluids and to show how both systems exhibit quantum mechanical phenomena on a macroscopic scale. Objectives: (Superconductivity) 1. To describe the important experimental properties of superconductors including high temperature superconductors. 2. To provide an explanation of the electromagnetic properties of superconductors including the Meissner effect and the distinction between type I and type II behaviour. 3. To describe the behaviour and applications of type II superconductors. 4. To discuss the Josephson effects and their use in devices. 5. To give an introduction of the BCS theory of superconductivity. Objectives: (Superfluids) 1. To give an overview of the similarities between different quantum fluids in their superfluid phases through a discussion of their order parameter. 2. To provide a survey of the experimental properties of the quantum fluids. 3. To provide a mathematical framework for discussing the flow properties of superfluids. Syllabus: Superconductors. Introduction: Type I and type II behaviour; high temperature superconductors; thermodynamics; evidence for energy gap. Electrodynamics: London theory, Pippard non-local theory. Ginsburg-Landau theory: surface energy of N-S interfaces, flux quantization. TypeII superconductors: Hcland Hc2; fluxpinning, Beanmodel; applications. Weakly-coupled superconductors: Josephson effects, rf mixers, dc SQUID, applications.

44 Theory of superconductivity: Cooper problem, BCS theory, thermodynamic properties, perfect conductivity. Superfluids. Introduction: Phase diagrams of 3He, 4He and 3He-4He mixtures; superfluid order parameter. 4He: lambda-transition in heat capacity, fountain effect, flow properties and viscosity, heat flow; two-fluid model, superfluid hydrodynamics, first and second sound, quantised circulation and vortices. 3He 4He mixtures: thermodynamics and transport properties of normal mixtures; hydrodynamics of superfluid mixtures. 3He: Fermi liquid behaviour of normal state; simple experimental properties of the superfluid states; nature of the Cooper pairing in superfluid 3He. Recommended texts: Tilley, D.R. and Tilley, J. Superfluidity and Superconductivity. (Adam Hilger).

PC 4491 PHYSICS OF THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM Dr R James Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC 2491 (The Galaxy) or PC 3491 (Galaxies) PC 3691 (Stars and Stellar Evolution) Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To enable the student to understand the fundamental physical processes underlying the most interesting phenomena in the interstellar medium (ISM). Objectives: 1. To provide the basis for identifying the range of physical conditions in the ISM. 2. To understand the processes of gas dynamics which drive the shock structure in the ISM. 3. To describe the high-velocity conditions in supernova remnants. 4. To understand the physical conditions in radiation-driven nebulae (HII) regions. 5. To appreciate the interaction between stellar winds and the ISM. 6. To understand the processes that lead to the collapse of interstellar clouds and the formation of stars. Syllabus: 1. Introduction. Survey of various regions; physics parameters and methods of observation 2. Gas Dynamics. Conservation equations, sound waves. Shock waves and rarefaction waves. Rankine-Hugoniotconditions. Coolingtimesand coolingcurves. Radiativepropertiesof shock- excited interstellar gas. 3. Supernova Remnant Dynamics. Phases I, II and III. Adiabatic and snowplough evolution. Energisation of the interstellar medium. 4. Photo-ionised regions. Stromgren spheres; ionisation and energy balance. Forbidden line emission. Ionization front dynamics. Expansion of nebulae. Ionization stratiﬁcation. Energisation of the interstellar medium.

45 5. Stellar Winds and interstellar matter. Two shock flow patters. Energy and momentum driven flows. Dynamics of interstellar gas. 6. Internal structure and kinematics of interstellar clouds. Gravitational collapse. Dust and molecules. Small scale motions. Molecular flows; bipolar flows and accretion disks. Herbig Haro objects. Recommended texts: Shu, F.H. Gas Dynamics. (University Science Books). Scheffler, H. and Elsasser, H. Physics of the Galazy and the Interstellar Medium. (Springer).

PC 4521 FRONTIERS OF PARTICLE PHYSICS I Dr T Wyatt. Dr R Barlow Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC3622, PC3401 Follow-up courses: PC5722, PC5732 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To provide a thorough knowledge of experimental particle physics, suitable for students who are undertaking research in the field. Objectives: 1. To understand the physics of the Standard Model of elementary particles at a level which will allow the student to appreciate current experimental literature. 2. To know, and appreciate the significance of, the results from recent and current experiments on high energy e+e collisions. 3. To understand our knowledge of CP violation, and the purpose of current research. Syllabus: 1. Part 1: The Standard Model and e+e collider experiments (Dr Wyatt: 16 lectures). 2 Quarks and Leptons. Semi-quantitative treatment of electroweak mixing: sin w and its measurement. QCD phenomenology and the gluon. Production of particle-antiparticle pairs in e+e annihilation. Colliders: luminosity and backgrounds. Quantitative treatment of particle spin, angular distributions and asymmetries in e+e annihilation. Electroweak physics: the W and Z bosons. Precision tests of the Standard Model and the effect of the top quark mass. Fragmentation of quarks and gluons into jets of hadrons. The physics of hadrons containing b and c quarks. Current searches for new particles at LEP II. 2. Part 2: CP violation (Dr Barlow: 8 lectures). CP symmetry and its violation. Experiments with K0 beams. Sakharov conditions and CP violation in the history of the universe. The CKM matrix. CP violation in the B sector. The Unitarity triangle. Aim of future measurements. Recommended texts: Martin, B and Shaw, G. Particle Physics. (Wiley). Griffiths, D. Introduction to Elementary Particles.

46 PC4612 ELECTRON AND PHOTON INTERACTIONS WITH ATOMS AND MOLECULES Professor F H Read, Dr D Cubric Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To develop knowledge and understanding of the processes through which electrons and photons interact with free atoms and simple molecules. Objectives: 1. To understand the structure of multielectron atoms and simple molecules, in quantum mechanical terms. 2. To understand the physics of a selection of electron scattering and photo-absorption processes. 3. To understand how spectroscopic information on atoms, molecules and ions can be obtained from scattering and absorption experiments. Syllabus: 1. Revision of atomic and molecular structure 2. Scattering experiments and cross-sections 3. Potential scattering, partial wave method, Born approximation 4. Electron-atom and electron-molecule scattering resonances 5. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy by electron impact 6. Threshold electron impact phenomena 7. Photoionization and photo-double-ionization. Recommended texts: Bransden, B.H. and Joachain, C.J. (1) Physics of Atoms and Molecules. (2) Introduction to Quantum Mechanics. Massey, H. Atomic and Molecular Collisions. Eland, J.H.D. Photoelectron Spectroscopy. Atkins, P.W.and Friedman, R.S. Molecular Quantum Mechanics, 3rd edition.

PC4652 THE PHYSICS OF FLUIDS Professor T Mullin Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To enable the student to understand this important area of classical physics with an emphasis on applications. Objectives: 1. To provide an introduction to ﬂuid dynamics. 2. To highlight relevant theoretical backround. 3. To introduce some modern ideas of hydrodynamic stability and the transition to turbulence. 4. To discuss physical applications.

47 Syllabus: Examples of fluid flows; fluids as continua; Navier-Stokes equations; conservation of mass. Some exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations: Poiseuille flow in a pipe; Couette flow between rotating cylinders. The Reynolds number; very viscous flows; the drag on a sphere; lubrication theory, cavitation. Vorticity; inviscid, irrotational flows in various geometries. Bernouille’s equation, flow around aerofoils, lift force. Instability; breakdown of Poiseuille flow and Couette flows; pathways to turbulence. Convec- tion, bifircations and chaos. Liquid crystals and non-Newtonian flows. Recommended texts: Acheson, D.J. Elementary Fluid Dynamics. (OUP). Trilton, D.J. Physical Fluid Dynamics. (OUP)

PC4772 INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL RELATIVITY AND COSMOLOGY Dr M G James Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To appreciate the physical basis for Einstein’s theory of gravity, how this is translated into mathematical form and what consequences arise. Objectives: 1. The essential facts of gravity leading to the Equivalence Principle. 2. The physical relevance and mathematical description of curved space-time. 3. Basic manipulative skill with tensors and the idea of Riemannian curvature. 4. To understand the essential content of Einstein’s field equations and some experimental consequence. 5. To appreciate the basic idea of the expanding universe. Syllabus: Basic Notions of General Relativity. Introduction to Tensors (Lawden Chaps. 2.5) Einstein Field and Equations (Lawden Chap 6) Newtonian aproximation. Geodesic Deviation. Schwarzschild Solution. Red Shift. Deflection of Light. Black Holes. Cosmology (Lawden Chap 7) As time permits: Gravitational Radiation. Recommended texts: The best available book at the right level is: An Introduction to Tensor Calculus, Relativity and Cosmology. (Wiley) 3rd Edition by D.F.Lawson. Another sensible book, if you can find it, is: Introduction to General Relativity. (Pergamon) by H.A. Atwater.

48 A First Course in General Relativity by Bernard F Schutz (CUP) covers nearly all the course. Essential Relativity by W Rindler (Springer) 2nd Edn is a roughly equivalent book using a more traditional notation. Gravitation and Cosmology by S Weinberg (Wiley) covers virtually the whole course (and a lot more besides). Useful general references include: Principles of Cosmology and Gravitation by Berry (CUP) and Cosmology by Rowan-Robinson (OUP). Notes will be available.

PC4881 PROJECT SKILLS Drs H Gleeson, J McGovern, P Mitchell & A C Phillips Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: Participation in this course by any postgraduate student will normally depend on the establishment of a small team within her or his specific research discipline, e.g. lasers, particle physics, nuclear etc. Classes: Course sessions will take place from 3.00 to 6.00pm on Mondays throughout the semester, normally in the Niels Bohr Common Room. In the early part of the semester these will be training sessions run by the staff, in the later part they will comprise presentations by the students. Students will also work in their own time outside the sessions. The first session is on Monday 30 September. Failure to attend this first session will result in exclusion from the module as teams will be formed in this session. Assessment: 50% of the marks will be allocated for satisfactory and punctual completion of the various stages of the enquiry. The other 50% will be awarded for particular merit. Marks will be assigned to the group. The group will have the responsibility of allocating marks to individuals, subject to the approval of the Course Team. Aims: To develop skills of teamwork, project management, time management, information gathering, oral and written communication. Objectives: To produce, working in a team on a project with a deadline, a readable and authoritative report on a topic: to present this orally and to defend it in an interview. Course Structure: Students will group themselves into teams of six or seven, and decide on their topic for enquiry. This topic may involve ethical, political, commercial, organisational and scientific issues. It should be suitable for an extensive, rational and impartial investigation. Each team should explore their topic by gathering information, identifying facts, considering conjectures, and reaching conclusions. These will be communicated in a 8,000 to 10,000 word report which is comprehensive, informative and definitive. The production of this report will be managed as a project, and teams will give reports on their progress. The deadline for the report will be the start of week ten. Teams will also give a 30 minute presentation on their findings, and in week eleven they will defend their conclusions under interrogation by another team and by members of the Course Team.

49 PC5220 ELECTROMAGNETIC DECAY AND HYPERFINE INTERACTIONS IN NUCLEI Dr S J Freeman and Dr J Billowes Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: Students must be registered for M.Sc. or Ph.D. in nuclear physics Classes: 24 lectures in S1 and S2 Assessment: Continuous assessment. Aims: To provide a sound understanding of angular momentum algebra and its application in nuclear physics problemsinvolvingelectromagnetic decayproperties and hyperfineinteractions. Objectives: 1. To understand simple angular momentum algebra (including coupling of angular momenta, properties of rotation matrices, spherical tensors and Wigner-Eckart theorem) and to be able to apply it to physical problems. 2. To understand properties of electromagnetic decays including transition rates and ungular correlations and apply the knowledge to nuclear physics problems. 3. To know and understand the interaction of the nucleus with external electric and magnetic fields. 4. Toknow experimental techniques for measuring nuclear spins, lifetimes and electromagnetic moments. Syllabus: 1. Angular momentum algebra including coupling of angular momenta, rotation matrices, spherical tensors and Wigner-Eckart theorem. 2. Interaction of the nucleus with time-dependent fields. Electromagnetic transition rates, gamma ray angular distributions and correlations, mixing ratios. (Dr S J Freeman). 3. Nuclear static moments and their interaction with static electric and magnetic fields. Inter- action energies and precessions. Experimental techniques. 4. Hyperfine interactions in free atoms. Measurement by laser spectroscopy. (Dr J Billowes). Recommended texts: Some printed notes will be provided. No one textbook covers the subject matter.

PC 5401 ADVANCEDQUANTUM MECHANICS III Dr G Shaw Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC3401 (Advanced Quantum Mechanics I). PC3602 (Advanced Quantum Mechanics II). Follow-up courses: PC5602 (Relativistic quantum physics). PC5702 (Gauge theories in particle physics). Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To achieve an understanding of the quantum mechanics of photons interacting with electrons at a fundamental level. To reach a level of understanding that is relevant to postgraduate research. Objectives: 1. To describe the formation and decay of unstable states.

50 2. To quantise classical electrodynamics using the canonical method. 3. To calculate the behaviour of electrons in a magnetic field. 4. To understand how photons arise from the quantisation of the radiation field. 5. To calculate electromagnetic transition rates in atoms using the number representation for photons. 6. To introduce number representations for massive bosons & fermions, and many body theory. Syllabus: 1. Scattering theory: partial waves and unstable states. Asymptotic form of the wave function; scattering amplitude and cross section. Scattering of identical particles. Partial waves: S-wave scattering; higher partial waves; resonances and the Breit-Wigner formula. Wigner-Weisskopf description of unstable states. 2. Canonical quantisation (Largely revision). Introduction. Schrodinger and Heisenberg pictures. Canonical quantisation. Simple harmonic operator: raising and lowering operators; energy levels; “coherent” states and the classical limit. 3. Charged particles in an external electromagnetic field. The classical electromagnetic field: units; the electromagnetic potentials; gauge invariance. Quantised motion in an external field; Hamiltonian and conjugate momentum; canonical quantisation. Gauge transformations of the wave function: the gauge principle. Motion in zero local magnetic field: The Aharonov-Bohm effect. Motion in constant magnetic field: Zeeman effect (brief); Landau levels. 4. Quantum electrodynamics: photons. Maxwell’s equations in the Coulomb gauge. Quantiza- tion of the radiation field as a sum of oscillators; the number representation for photons. 5. Quantum electrodynamics: interaction with non-relativistic electrons. The full Hamiltonian; radiative transitions; electric dipole approximation; induced and spontaneous emission; magnetic dipole transitions and the inclusion of electron spin; the multipole expansion in brief. 6. Particles as field quanta. Number representations for massive bosons and fermions. The Schrodinger equation as a field equation. Recommended texts: There is no obvious single text. The following books are useful, among others, and especially the chapters cited: Mandl, F. Quantum Mechanics. (Wiley 1992). Chapter 11. Martin, B.R. and Shaw, G. Particle Physics. 2nd edition (J Wiley) 19897, App. B.5. Gasiorowicz, S. Quantum Physics (Wiley) 1974, Chapters 7, 13. Mandl, F. and Shaw G. Quantum Field Theory, rev edn. (Wiley) 1992, Chapter 1. Davydoiv, A.S. Quantum Mechanics. 2nd edition (Oxford) 1976, Sections 81, 85.

PC5411 THE PHYSICS OF LIQUID CRYSTALS AND DEVICES Dr H Gleeson Credit rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To enable a student at postgraduate level to understand liquid crystals, aspects of their physics, primary experimental techniques used in their study and their use in devices.

51 Objectives: 1. To provide an introduction to the subject of liquid crystal physics. 2. To give theoretical accounts of order parameters and deformations in liquid crystals. 3. To discuss various types of materials that exhibit liquid crystal phases. 4. To describe experimental techniques employed in the study and characterisation of liquid crystals. 5. To describe and understand use of liquid crystals in devices. Syllabus: Terminology and general structures for temperature dependent systems [1]. The role of molecular structure, the director and order parameters [1]. Mean field theory of the nematic phase. Extensions to chiral nematic and smectic systems [1]. Landau theory and phase transitions in liquid crystals [1]; Elastic theory of nematic and smectic phases [1]. Electric and magnetic field induced Freederickz transitions [1]. Lyotropic liquid crystals. Amphiphilic and chromonic systems [1]. Biological and naturally occurring liquid crystals [1]. Polymer liquid crystals. Polymer terminology. Main chain and side chain liquid crystal systems. Comparison between polymer and low molar mass liquid crystals [1]. Optical properties and anisotropic systems. The interaction of polarised light with birefringent films. Conoscopy and optical Kossel diagrams [2]. Defect textures of liquid crystals [2]. Electro-optic devices incorporating liquid crystals. The electrically controlled birefringence and the twisted nematic device. Multiplexing and active matrix displays. Variable retardance devices [2]. Chiral nematic devices [1]. Ferroelectricity, ferrielectricity and antiferrielectricity in liquid crystals [2]. Measurement techniques in liquid crystals. Electric and electro-optic measurements [2], X-ray scattering [2]. Ligh scattering and photon correlation [1]. Order parameter measurements [1]. Recommended texts: Printed notes will be provided. No one text covers the subject matter, but a good introductory text is: Collings, P.J. and Hird, M. Introduction to Liquid Crystals.

PC 5421 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE Dr J Billowes & Dr J Lisle Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC 3722 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To provide knowledge and understanding of the properties of nuclei and current experimental techniques at a level appropriate to postgraduate research. Objectives: 1. To understand the single-particle aspects of the properties of nuclei; how they may be calculated and be measured experimentally. 2. To understand the collective properties of nuclei, how they may be calculated and be measured experimentally.

52 Syllabus: 1. Review of the properties of nuclei. 2. Single-particle aspects. The nuclear potential and single-particle levels. The ﬁlling of shells: ground state spins and parities; pairing. Nuclear magnetic moments: single-particle model and experiment. Nuclear quadrupole moments of single-particle states and experimentally observed deviations. Multi-particle conﬁgurations and residual interactions 3. Collective aspects. Vibrations of spherical nuclei. Residual interactions correlations - deformation. Rotations and vibrations of deformed even-even nuclei. Nilsson model: the coupling of particle motion to rotation. Rapidly rotating nuclei: moments of inertia, pairing, alignment, superdeformation. Electric quadrupole moments and transitions. Coulomb excitation. 4. —ray spectroscopy. Ge detectors; -ray arrays; coincidence techniques. The measurement of excited state lifetimes. Internal conversion. Recommended texts: Krane, K.S. Introductory Nuclear Physics. (Wiley) Jelley, N.A. Fundamentals of Nuclear Physics. (Cambridge) Supplementary texts: Bohr and Mottelson. Nuclear Structure I and II. (Benjamin)

PC 5471 NON EQUILIBRIUM STATISTICALPHYSICS Dr A J McKane Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC2302, PC2352 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To understand at postgraduate level, the nature and scope of the dynamical description of the macroscopic world based on statistical principles. Objectives: 1. To understand the ensemble and associated probabilistic description of macroscopic systems. 2. To understand the origin of the irreversibility seen at the macroscale. 3. Tobeable toperform straightforward calculationsfor systemswhich are described by stochastic dynamics. Syllabus: 1. Microscopic description of physical systems. Classical description, phase space, Liouville’s equation. Quantum description, the density operator, von Neumann’s equation. 2. Macroscopic description of physical systems. Microstates and macrostates, Einstein ﬂuctua- tion theory with applications. Probability distribution functions, stationary processes, Markov processes, the Chapman-Kolmogorov equation. 3. From the microscopic to the macroscopic. The origin of irreversibility: the randomness assumption for classical and quantum systems. Derivation of the master equation, detailed balance. 4. The master equation. General Properties: stationary solutions, the H theorem. One-step (birth-death) processes: exact solution of linear problems and Fock space formulation of nonlinear problems.

53 5. Theory of stochastic dynamics. Brownian motion and the Langevin equation, solution of the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process. Derivation of the Fokker-Planck equation from the master equation, the equivalent Langevin equation, applications. Recommended texts: Reichl, L.E. A Modern Course in Statistical Physics. (Edward Arnold)

PC5501 FIELD THEORY AND PHASE TRANSITIONS Professor A Bray Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC 3401 will be useful for section 3 Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To bring the understanding and knowledge up to a level appropriate for postgraduate research. This is done by introducing the concepts and methods of field theory, with applications primarily to the theory of continuous phase transitions, where the ideas and techniques are exposed in their simplest forms. Connections with quantum field theory and particle physics will be made as appropriate. Objectives: To appreciate the connections between statistical mechanics and quantum field theory, via the functional integral approach. To learn the techniques of diagrammatic perturbation theory, and use it as a calculational tool. Toapply the renormalization group approach to the study of critical phenomena. Syllabus: 1. Introduction to Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena. The Ising ferromagnet. Mean-Field Theory. Critical Exponents. The Correlation Length. Scaling and Homogeneity. Universality. 2. Functional Integrals for Phase Transitions. The Hubbard-Stratonovich transformation. The Ginzburg-Landau Functional. Mean-Field Theory revisited. The Role of Symmetry. 3. Functional Integrals for Quantum Field Theory. Feynman’s path-integral formulation of QM for a single degree of freedom. Functional integrals for the scalar boson field theory. 4. Perturbation Theory and Feynman Diagrams. Representation of perturbation series by diagrams. Wick’s Theorem. The cancellation of vacuum diagrams. Dyson’s equation. The Hartree approximation, the spherical model and the many-component limit. The upper critical dimension. 5. Renormalisation. Ultraviolet divergences. Regularization. Renormalization constants. 6. The Renormalisation Group. Coarse-graining. Scale invariance at a critical point. General structure of the RG. Scaling laws and universality. Calculation of critical exponents near the upper critical dimension. Recommended texts: Stanley, H.E. Introduction to Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena. Ma, S.K. Modern Theory of Critical Phenomena. Amit, D.J. Field Theory, The Renormalization Group and Critical Phenomena.

54 PC 5511 ADVANCEDLASER PHYSICS I Dr M Dickinson Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC 3612 or PC 3411 Laser Physics Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To build on the basic understanding of laser physics (from PC 3612) taking it to an advanced level whereby modern specific laser systems can be discussed at a level appropriate to postgraduate research. Objectives: 1. To revise the ideas of population inversion, gain, Einstein A and B coefficients and line broadening mechanisms. 2. To introduce the complex electric and atomic susceptibility and the electron oscillator model of an atomic transition. 3. To use the real and imaginary parts of the susceptibility to describe absorption (gain) and dispersion in laser media- and introduce the Kramers-Kronig relation. 4. To discuss gain saturation in homogeneous and inhomogeneous media. 5. To describe the Gaussian modes, the stability criteria and the oscillation frequencies within laser cavities, including the effect of dispersion of the gain medium. 6. To introduce multimode laser oscillation and hole burning. 7. To discuss the operation of a selection of commonly available laser systems and give a working knowledge of these. Syllabus: Spontaneous and stimulated emission. Einstein A and B coefficients. Population inversion. Gain. Line broadening, homogeneous and inhomogeneous. Electric susceptibility. Electron oscillator model of atomic transition. Atomic susceptibility, absorption (gain), dispersion. Kramer-Kronig relation. Gain saturation in homogeneousand inhomogeneous systems. Passive cavity modes (Gaussian transverse). Stability criteria. Oscillation frequency and frequency pulling. Power in laser oscillators. Rate equations for 3 and 4 level systems. Multimode laser oscillation and hole burning. Gas lasers. HeNe, argon ion, CO2, copper and gold vapour, excimer. Solid state lasers. Nd:YAG,Nd:glass, ruby. Ti:sapphire, Alexandrite. Semiconductor diode lasers. Dye lasers. Recommended texts: Yariv,A. Introduction to Optical Electronics. Saleh & Teich. Fundamentals of Photonics. Svelto. Principles of Lasers.

PC5551 ELECTRONS IN SOLIDS I Dr P Mitchell Credit rating: 10 Periodic potential and Bloch’s theorem. Weak periodic potential. Energy bands and zone schemes. Fermi surface. Density of states. Tight binding method and Wannier functions. Real band structure calculations. Semiclassical model. Extrinsic and intrinsic superconductors. MBE and semiconductor heterojunctions. Two dimensional electron gas. Quantum Hall effect.

55 PC5591 RADIO ASTRONOMY Dr J Cohen Credit Rating: 10 Classes: 24 hrs in S1 Assessment: Assignments during course, plus exam. Aims: To equip the student with an understanding of the basic experimental and astrophysical tools of radio astronomy, sufficient to undertake research in the field. Objectives: 1. To be aware of the wide range of astrophysical phenomena which can be studied using radio telescopes. 2. To understand the operation of radio receivers, and the various factors which determine the quality of different receivers. 3. To understand the operation of aerials and the convolution relation between the true sky and our images of it. 4. To understand the theory of interferometers and the way these can be applied in practice. 5. To understand the principle mechanisms by which radio emission is generated by cosmic sources. 6. To understand the important ways in which radio waves are affected by their propagation through the ionosphere and the interstellar medium. Syllabus: 1. Introduction: The radio universe: “hidden” objects (pulsars, double radio sources, OH/IR stars etc) and a new light on the familiar (e.g. HII regions, supernova remnants, spiral galaxies). A knotty problem (e.g. the double quasar, a favorite Seyfert galaxy, nature of compact radio sources...lecturer to pick according to taste. Will be used to illustrate the various topics discussed in the course). 2. Radio Telescopes: Random noise, correlations and coherence, concept of power spectrum. Receivers: function and general plan. Bandwidth, gain, noise temperature. Major components. Methods of observation and types of receiver systems. Radiation: brightness, brightness temperature and flux density. Parabolic reflectors. The aerial as an aperture. Aerial smoothing. Convolution relationship between aerial and sky temperature functions. Principles of interferometry (Van Cittert-Zernicke theorem). Tracking interferometers: geometry, fringe rate, delay. Arrays and their properties. Aperture synthesis. VLBI. 3. Radio emission Thermal radiation: Free-free emission and absorption, black-body radiation, Revision of molecular line and 21 cm emission/absorption. Cosmic masers. Synchrotron radiation: mechanism, spectrum, polarization, lifetime, self-absorption. Faraday rotation and depolarization by thermal plasma. (N.B. Exact selection of topics will be determined by which thematic astrophysical problem is chosen.) Recommended texts: Burke, B. F. and Graham-Smith, F. An Introduction to Radio Astronomy. (CUP, £19.95) Further texts: Rohlfs, K. Tools of Radio Astronomy. (Springer-Verlag)Kraus, J. Radio Astronomy. (McGraw- Hill).

56 PC5602 RELATIVISTIC QUANTUM PHYSICS Dr A C Phillips Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC3401, PC3602, PC5401 Follow-up courses: PC 5622 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To provide a knowledge and understanding of fundamental processes in relativistic quantum physics at a level appropriate to postgraduate research. Objectives: 1. To understand the basics of relativistics wave mechanics. 2. To understand how quantum fields describe particles. 3. To evaluate probability amplitudes using Feynman rules. 4. To evaluate cross sections and lifetimes. 5. To understand how electromagnetic interactions can be used to explore the structure of hadrons. Syllabus: 1. Preliminaries 2. Klein-Gordon Equation. Conserved current and interpretation of the wave functions. Positive and negative solutions. Klein paradox. Hydrogen atom. 3. Dirac Equation. Conserved current and interpretation of the wave function. Constants of motion. Positive and negative energy solutions. Manifestly covariant Dirac equation. Dirac equation for charged particle in an EM field. Dirac equation for a particle in a potential well. MIT bag model. 4. Quantum Fields. Particle creation and annihilation. Quantum fields for Schrödinger, Klein Gordon and Dirac particles. 5. Quantum Dynamics. Interaction picture. Covariant perturbation theory. 6. Relativistic scattering and decay processes. Scattering of electron by Coulomb potential. Decay into particle-antiparticle pair. Particle exchange mechanism in scattering. Feynman propagator. Introduction to Feynman diagrams. 7. Scattering processes in QED. Scattering of charged Dirac particles. 8. Deep Inelastic Electron-Nucleon Scattering. Kinematics for deep inelastic scattering. Parton model for deep inelastic scattering. Recommended texts: Gottfried, K. & Weisskopf, V. Concepts of Particle Physics. Vol II (Oxford University Press).

PC5622 NUCLEAR REACTIONS Dr J Durell, Professor W Phillips Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC 3722 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To provide knowledge and understanding of the reactions between nuclei; the macroscopic properties of nuclei; and sub-nucleonic features. To bring the knowledge and understanding to a level appropriate for postgraduate research.

57 Objectives: 1. To discuss how nuclear reactions can be used to probe the structure of nuclei. 2. To demonstrate how nuclear reactions can be used as a means of producing new nuclei. 3. To discuss the dynamics of heavy-nucleus interactions. 4. To understand the macroscopic features of nuclei. 5. To investigate how sub-nucleonic effects manifest themselves in nuclei. Syllabus: 1. Macroscopic features of nuclei. Giant resonances. Fission. Nuclear compressibility. The equation of state. 2. Sub-nucleon features of nuclei. Pion exchange. Results from electron scattering. Mesonic effects in nuclei. Hot, dense nuclei; quark-gluon plasma; relativistic heavy-ion reactions. 3. Nuclear reactions to probe nuclear structure. Basic quantum mechanical and semi-classical pictures of nuclear reactions. Single-particle transfer. Fusion reactions: production of new nuclei and of rapidly-rotating nuclei. 4. Reactions between heavy nuclei. Complete fusion, limitations to fusion. Deep inelastic reactions: dissipation and equilibration. The role of the ﬁssion barrier in reactions. Sub-barrier fusion enhancement. Recommended texts: There is no obvious single text; a reading list will be circulated.

PC5651 ELECTRONS IN SOLIDS II Dr C Lambert Credit rating: 10 Recap of single-body quantum mechanics, tight binding methods and Dirac notation. Intro- duction to symmetrised basis states. Introduction to 2nd quantisation. The Hubbard model and Jellium. The Hartree and Hartree-Foch approximation. The density functional method. Superconductivity and BCS theory.

PC5652 CONDENSED MATTER COURSES This is part of the North West Universities course in Condensed Matter Physics.

It takes place mainly at Manchester University but students also visit Liverpool, Lancaster, Salford and Manchester Metropolitan Universities. In addition, there is a two day visit to the Daresbury Laboratory.

The syllabus for 1998/99 has not yet been ﬁnalised but will include courses on different aspects of condensed matter physics given by lecturers from the participating Universities. Students will also visit research laboratories and have the opportunity to give seminars on their research topic.

58 PC5692 FRONTIERS OF ASTROPHYSICS Dr B Anderson (organiser) Credit Rating: 10 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Assessment: Three assignments in the form of essays. Aims: To bring students up to the research frontier on topics of current astrophysical interest, using a programme of self-directed study. Objectives: 1. To have the experience of choosing topics for a programme of personal study based on attending a series of extended research-level seminars. 2. To gain experience of learning unfamiliar material from professional-level literature. Syllabus: The course takes the form of a series of extended seminars (3 or 4 lectures each) on current research topics, each given by a different lecturer. The seminars will highlight current problems in a research area and give pointers for where to ﬁnd material for an in-depth study. Topics may include the following: Pulsars, the Cosmic Microwave Background, Planetary Nebulae, The Dynamics of Galaxies, Gravitational Lenses, Radio Jets, Cosmic Masers, Radio Stars. Recommended texts: Reading lists drawn from book chapters, articles and scientiﬁc papers to be given out by individual lecturers.

PC5702 GAUGE THEORIES IN PARTICLE PHYSICS Dr M McDermott Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC2401, PC3401, PC3602, PC5401 Corequisite: PC 5602 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: Toprovide aknowledge and understanding of thefundamental interactions of elementary particles. Objectives: 1. To understand the use of Lagrangian field theories in particle physics. 2. To understand how symmetry principles can be used to develop theories for the properties of particles. 3. To understand the central role of gauge invariance in the theory of the strong interaction and the electroweak interaction. Syllabus: 1. Symmetry Principles in Particle Physics (4 lectures). Introduction to symmetries and groups The S(2) and SU(3) groups in particle physics. 2. Lagrangian Field Theory (4 lectures). Lagrangians for the Klein-Gordon field, the electromagnetic field and the Dirac field. Derivation of equations of motion. 3. Gauge Theories (5 lectures). Electromagnetism as a gauge theory: gauge invariance. Non- Abelian gauge theories.

59 4. The Electroweak Interaction: The Standard Model (6 lectures). Electroweak uniﬁcation: the Glashow model. Hidden gauge invariance and Spontaneous symmetry breaking Inclusion of hadrons. The Higgs boson: fermion masses. 5. The Strong Interaction: Quantum Chromodynamics. (4 lectures). Colour as an SU(3) group Global SU(3) and local SU(3). Asymptotic freedom. Conﬁnement. Recommended texts: Halzen, F. and Martin, A. Quarks & Leptons. (Wiley) Aitchison1 I. and Hey, A. Gauge Theories in Particle Physics. (Adam Hilger).

PC 5712 ADVANCEDLASER PHYSICS II Dr D P West Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC 5511 (Advanced Lasers I) Follow-up courses: Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To explain techniques used in contemporary laser systems to customise the output of lasers. The interaction of optical fields with materials is then generalised with the development of nonlinear optical techniques. It is aimed tobring thelevel of understanding up to postgraduate research level. Objectives: 1. To understand how research and commercial laser systems control both the power and the temporal profile of continuous wave and pulsed laser systems. 2. Todescribeways of reaching regionsof thespectrum of light notprovided by availablelasers. 3. To develop principal concepts of nonlinear optics and introduce likely areas of application such as information technology. 4. To appreciate the development of contemporary nonlinear optical media. Syllabus: 1. Temporal control of laser output. Principles of electro-optics. Electro-optics of anisotropic media, example modulators. Some important methods of temporal control. Gain-switching. Q-switching, cavity dumping, modelocking. Kerr lens modelocking, autocorrelation. 2. Methods of spectral variation and tuning. Gratings, prisms, etalons and birefringent filters. Coupled cavities and injection seeding. 2nd order nonlinear effects: - 2nd harmonic generation, - sum/difference frequency mixing in optical parametric oscillators. 3. Nonlinear optical behaviour. 3rd order effects: - 3rd harmonic generation, four wave mixing. Applications of nonlinear optics. Selected nonlinear media. Special topics eg optical solitons. Recommended texts: Yariv,A. Introduction to Optical Electronics. Saleh, B.A. and Teich, M.C. Fundamentals of Photonics. (Wiley). To be supplemented by further recommended texts.

60 PC 5722 FRONTIERS OF PARTICLE PHYSICS II Dr M Ibbotson, & Dr S Snow Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC 4521 Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Assessment: Exam and/or continuous assessment. Aims: To provide a thorough knowledge of experimental particle physics, suitable for students who are undertaking research in the ﬁeld. Objectives: 1. To be familiar with the detection techniques used in modern particle physics experiments. 3. To know, and appreciate the signiﬁcance of, the results from recent and current experiments in high energy pp and pp collisions. Syllabus: 1. Part 1: Detectors for Particle Physics. (Dr Ibbotson: 12 lectures). Tracking Chambers. Scintillation counters. Electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters. Cerenknov and Transition Radiation detectors. Modern collider experiments. 2. Part3: pp and pp physics. (DrSnow: 12lectures). Fixedtargetandstorageringexperiments. Triggering and event selection. Discovery of the W and the Z. Top quark discovery at CDF. Quark substructure? Higgs searches at LHC. SUSY and other searches at LHC. Recommended texts: Brian Martin and Graham Shaw. Particle Physics. (Wiley) Francis Halzen and Alan Martin. Quarks and Leptons. (Wiley 1984).

PC 5732 FRONTIERS OF PARTICLE PHYSICS III Professor R Marshall Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: PC 5521, PC5722 and registration for a postgraduate course. Classes: The course consists of a combination of lectures, seminars, discussions and self learning from CD-rom. It takes place in S2 at a time to be arranged. Assessment: Continuous assessment. Aims: To provide ﬁrst year postgraduate students with a thorough knowledge of lepton-quark interactions in particle physics. The course is suitable for research students who are undertaking research at HERA but will provide appropriate advanced knowledge for anyone who proceeds to other branches of particle physics, such as e+e. Objectives: 1. To know, and appreciate the physics motivation and signiﬁcance of, the results from recent and current experiments in high energy ep collisions. Syllabus: Formalism of Rutherford Scattering. Extension to Mott and Dirac scattering. The Rosenbluth formula and form factors. Inelastic eN scattering. Structure functions and parton density distributions. The spin structure of the proton. Scaling and scaling violations. Low x physics. The gluon distribution in the proton. The structure of the photon. The latest results from HERA. Recommended texts: The subject matter of the course will available to textbook standard in the form of a CD-rom which can be viewed on a workstation or desktop computer or printed out on paper.

61 Background reading can be found in: Brian Martin and Graham Shaw. Particle Physics. (Wiley) Francis Halzen and Alan Martin. Quarks and Leptons. (Wiley 1984).

PC5792 DATAANALYSIS AND IMAGE PROCESSING IN ASTRONOMY Dr R Spencer Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: None specifically. Classes: 24 lectures in S2 Assessment: 1h30m exam in June. Aims: Tointroduce thetechniques used intheanalysis ofone and two dimensional data obtained by astronomical instruments and to bring the level up to that of postgraduate research. (These concepts have broad applicability in many areas of experimental and observational science). Objectives: 1. Tounderstand the concepts of data analysis and how the statistical properties of signals effect the techniques required. 2.TounderstandtheuseoftheFourierTransformforthedescriptionofsignalsandtheimportance of filters. 3 To see how signal to noise may be improved by appropriate signal processing. 4 To understand how 2-dimensional images are formed. 5 To examine the roles of optical and data processing filters on images. 6 To understand the basis of image restoration and enhancement. Syllabus: 1. Data Analysis: a) Concepts of data and image analysis (data collection, analysis and presentation.) b) Statistics, Signals, noise and the effects of averaging. Probability distributions, Gaussians, and the tests of significance. c) Fourier transforms and Convolution. The Central Limit theorem and random errors. d) Power spectra, windows and filters. Correlation. e) Random signals and time series analysis, box car averaging, signal recovery. 2. Image Processing: a) Review of Fraunhofer diffraction; the lens as a Fourier transformer; imaging as double diffraction. b) Imaging systems as spatial filters, resolution; the importance of phase in imaging. Image distortions. Restoring the image by adjusting the transform. Optical filtering methods as illustrations. c) Digital image restoration. Linear methods, Inverse and Wiener filters. Non-linear methods eg MEM and the importance of a priori constraints. d) Enhancing the image; subjective methods eg histogram equalization, contraststretching, edge enhancement, unsharp masking etc as aids to interpretation. Recommended texts: Bracewell, R.N. The Fourier Transform and Its Applications. (McGraw Hill). Further texts: Low, A. Computer Vision and Image Processing. (McGraw-Hill).

62 Further reading: Lynn, P.A.Introductionto theAnalysis and ProcessingofSignals . (Macmillan) Barlow, R. Statistics (Wiley). Hecht, E. Optics (Addison Wesley).

PC5801 PLASMAS AND RADIATION MECHANISMS Dr J P Leahy Credit Rating: 5 Prerequisites: None specifically. Classes: 12 lectures in S1. Assessment: Three assignments. Aims: Toenable the student tounderstand theprinciple physical properties of theplasmas which produce cosmic radio emission, including the mechanisms by which radiation is produced. Objectives: 1. To understand the important rôle played by magnetic fields in cosmic plasmas. 2. To understand propagation effects of EM waves in plasmas, and their use as plasma diagnos- tics. 3. To be able to make radiative transfer calculations. 4. To understand the principle mechanisms of continuum emission in plasmas. Syllabus: 1. The plasma state. Flux freezing and MHD waves in plasmas. 2. Dispersion relations, Faraday rotation, dispersive and refractive scintillation. 3. Radiative transfer and black-body radiation. 4. Review of radiation theory: Lienard-Wiechert potentials; dipole radiation. 5. Inverse-Compton radiation. 6. Radiation by ultra-relativistic particles; Synchrotron emission and self-absorption. Recommended texts: There is no suitable text. The nearest is: Rybicki, Lightman Radiative Processes in Astrophysics, Wiley (£50). This covers all but the first topic. The course is fully covered, along with much else, in: Shu, F. The Physics of Astrophysics, Volume I: Radiation; Volume II: Gas Dynamics. Further texts: Jackson, J.D. Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley.

PC5841 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Dr B Anderson et al. Credit Rating: 5 Prerequisites: None speciﬁcally. Classes: 8 lectures and two lab days in S1. Assessment: Continuous. Aims: To give the student insight into how digital electronics can be used in scientiﬁc instrumentation. Objectives: 1. To understand Boolean logic.

63 2. To see how simple logic devices can be combined to form complex systems capable of per- forming useful functions. 3. To be aware of the problems caused by a digital approach. 4. To understand how signal processing concepts are applied in practical radio astronomy systems. Syllabus: 1. Electronics laboratory. 2. Sampling and correlation. 3. Analogue signal processing for radio astronomy systems, problems of analogue-to-digital conversion. 4. System design. 5. Special topics, e.g. correlation devices, pulsar-processing hardware, telescope control. Recommended texts: None.

PC5862 COMPUTER TECHNIQUES IN RADIO ASTRONOMY Dr D L Shone & R Riggs Credit Rating: 5 Prerequisites: None speciﬁcally. Classes: Mixture of lectures practical sessions in S2; held at Jodrell Bank. Assessment: Continuous. Aims: To give the student the computing skills essential for research in astronomy. Objectives: 1. To be able to use the basic software and network tools available at Jodrell Bank. 2. To be able to write simple numerical programs in C, and to use standard library packages for more complicated tasks. 3. To be able to use the Astronomical Image Processing System for radio astronomy data processing. Syllabus: 1. C: basic features and capabilities by example; 2. Structured programming. 3. Compiling, linking and using libraries. 4. AIPS: basic concepts and simple image processing. 5. AIPS: Calibration and image construction using AIPS. Recommended texts: Kernigan & Richie The C programming language Junor, W. (ed) The AIPS Cookbook, NRAO.

PC5871/2 TECHNICAL PROJECT J. P. Leahy and staff of Jodrell Bank Credit Rating: 15 Classes: Practical sessions held at Jodrell Bank or in Manchester. Assessment: Mixture of continuous assessment, short ( 1200 word) report, and interview.

64 Aims: To give practical experience in technical aspects of radio astronomy. Objectives: Students should become proﬁcient in some of the practical aspects of radio frequency engineering, electronics and digital techniques, interfacing, computer programming, or data analysis. Student initiative is encouraged within the project speciﬁcation. Syllabus: Detailed project descriptions will be circulated at the beginning of the semester. • The design, construction or commissioning of analogue or digital hardware. • Computer interfacing, programming or data collection and analysis. • The development and testing of elements of a radio frequency receiver system. The work is usually done in pairs. Each project is supervised by a member of staff with appropriate expertise.

UM 7011 PLASMA PHYSICS AND INDUSTRIAL USES OF PLASMAS G E Vekstein Credit rating: 10 Prerequisites: None, although some fluid mechanism would be helpful Classes: 24 lectures in S1 Assessment: 1 hour 30 minutes examination in January Aims: To introduce the concept of plasma as the fourth state of matter, and to show why the study of plasma is important in contemporary physics; to give a grounding in the theory of the plasma state which reveals the basic properties and phenomena, and points to applications. Objectives: To gain an understanding of the widespread applications of plasma physics; To understand plasma behaviour by studying the motion of its constituent particles; To meet also the treatment of plasma as a magnetic, conducting fluid; To use the knowledge gained to understand major plasma phenomena in space, technology and in the laboratory. Syllabus Introductory discussion of plasmas of interest: production of plasmas. Charged particle interactions and neutrality, requirements. Particle trajectories in varying elec- tricandmagneticfields. Plasmaasafluid: wavesinplasmaselectrostaticwaves, electromagnetic waves. hydromagnetic waves. Instabilities in plasmas and importance in fusion machines. The Earth plasma environment, and interaction between the solar wind and the Earth’s magnetic field. Industrial plasmas -: Aims To introduce and illustrate with examples the physical principles underlying the behaviour of naturally occurring and industrially useful low temperature plasmas. Objectives To define the parameter range of interest and illustrate the important kinds of collisions in a low temperature plasma. To understand some of the properties of naturally occurring plasmas. To understand the processes leading to and properties of electrical discharges between electrodes and electrodeless discharges. Toappreciate someof the processes occurring at aplasma/material

65 interface. To become familiar with some industrial applications of plasmas and the design of plasma sources. 1. Introduction: Orientation; definition; scope; examples; parameter range; the plasma state. 2. Fundamental processes: Collisions; ionisation; recombination., radiation; electrical and thermal conduction; convection: diffusion. 3. Naturally occurring plasmas: Lightning. aurorae; the ionosphere; flames. 4. Plasma production: Electrical discharge in gases; DC discharge; arcs, sparks and glow discharge. 5. Interaction with surfaces: Plasma sheath: Langmuir probe; deposition, recycling and sput- tering: unipolar arcs. 6. Electrodeless discharges: Radio-frequency breakdown; microwave plasma; laser-produced plasma. 7. Industrial applications: Surface conditioning; deposition; etching; growth of films; plasma- assisted chemistry; sintering; cutting and welding; lighting. 8. Practical plasma sources: Requirements: stability, consistency, uniformity: examples, standard reactor. Recommended text: Chen, F.F.Introduction to Plasma Physics. (2nd ed), Plenum Press Additional reading: Dendy, R.O. Plasma Dynamics. (Oxford UP)

66 PC5912-5972 OPTICS COURSES AT SALFORD

PC5912 Optical Fibres, communication and sensors. Energy loss, mechanisms and power budgets. Simple geometrical treatment of numerical aperture, pulse spreading and insertion loss. EM wave equations in cylindrical co-ordinates and weak guiding approximation. Dispersion relations, group velocity and pulse spreading. Mode filling and pulse spreading in multimode fibres. Phase matching dependent effects including directional coupling, microbending and non-linear optics. Advantages of optical fibre systems. Reasons for digital operation of links. Return-to-zero (RZ) and NRZ codes. Repeater functions. Time and wavelength division multiplexing. Digital potential of solitons. Fibre interfereome- try: Michelson, Mach-Zhender, Sagnac and Fabry-Perot. Homodyne, heterodyne and fibredyne detection schemes. Remote Spectrophotometry and pyrometry. Distributed sensing and optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) as sensing technique.

PC5920 Optical Signal Processing and Electro-optic Devices. Overview of pattern recognition, computer aided vision, image storage and image improvement. Fourier transforms, feature extraction and pattern recognition for computer vision. Fringe analysis.

Electro-optic devices incorporating liquid crystal electro-luminescent and other technologies are described. The use of such technologies is summarised, as exempliﬁed by liquid crystals. Devicesincludingsimpleandcomplex(TVandcomputer)displaydevices,ferroelectricsystems, spatial light modulators, optical data storage and laser written systems, and optically non-linear systems are described

PC5921 Thin Films & Modulation Techniques. EM waves in thin films and finite periodic systems of films. Systematic matrix theory. Optical coatings for lenses and mirrors. Elements of design. Optical constants of thin films. Magneto- optic thin films. Kerr rotation of polarisation.

Electro-optical, acousto-optical and magneto-optical effects. Induced polarisation created by the production of two or more ﬁelds. Overview of Kerr, Pockels, and Cotton-Mouton effects. Electro-optic effect. Relation to symmetry, retardation, amplitude modulation, phase modulation, transverse and high-frequency effects. Beam deﬂection. Electro-optic devices. Magneto- optic devices: Faraday and Zeeman effects. Applications. Isolators. Details of Cotton-Mouton behaviour. Voigt effects in vapour state materials. Acousto-optic effects. Raman-Nath and Bragg diffraction. Guided wave acousto-optic Bragg diffraction. Applications of acousto-optic effect to computers involving matrix multiplication. Acousto-optic modulators and scanners.

PC5932 Industrial Applications of Lasers. Use of low power lasers for alignment, gauging and inspection. Interferometry techniques: laser doppler velocimetry, Michelson interferometer, Fizeau interferometer, holographic and speckle interferometry, carrier fringes, ESPI. Materials processing using high power lasers. High power laser systems and applications

67 PC5972 Nonlinear optics and Integrated Optics. Basic concepts on non-linear polarization. Derivation of non-linear Schroedinger equation. Parametrisation and properties of non-linear pulse propagation. Soliton dynamics and applications in telecommunication systems. Signal-control pulse interactions and nonlinear optical devices. Second Harmonic generation. Phase matching schemes. Phase-conjugation concepts. Applications of optical phase conjugation including aberration compensation, lensless imaging, spatial information processing. Temporal and frequency domain optics (frequency ﬁltering). Phase conjugate resonators. The planar optical guide. TE and TM modes. Coupled mode theory. Applications: directional couplers, reversed directional couplers, Mach-Zhender interferometer. Iogic gates, SAW devices. Periodic waveguides. Distributed feedback laser. Bistable devices. Fabrication of strip waveguides. Optical circuits.

CM4100 Electronics Analogue electronics: Basic review of electronic devices. Networks. Two and Three termi- nal devices. Transistor ampliﬁers. AC and step response theory. Filters and other devices. Operational ampliﬁer- theory and applications. Modulation (AM,FM) demodulation and het- erodyning. Electrical noise - Shot and Johnson noise.

Digital Electronics: TTL Gates (NAND, NOR, etc), bistables (ﬂip-ﬂops) and monostables. Memories, peripherals, analogue to digital converters. Interfacing.

This material is usually covered by standard undergraduate physics degrees. So it cannot to be taken without permission of the chairman of the postgraduate committee, who must be satisﬁed that the student is genuinely ignorant of the material.

Signals Signal retrieval Methods - Random signals, Noise types, Filters, Lock in ampliﬁers, box car averaging, digital sampling, signal averaging, Fourier transform spectroscopy, correlation techniques, pulse counting and data processing.

Vacuum and Optics Vacuum techniques – the four vacuum regions: rough, medium high and ultra-high are dealt with. Propertiesand characterisation. Measurement methods,. choiceof pumps, simplevacuum calculations, matching pumps for different regions, seals and leak detection methods.

Optics: paraxial matrix optics, lens equation, thick and thin lenses. Optical resonators and laser beam propagation. Spectrometer methods and detectors. Diffraction gratings. Laser frequency doubling. optical materials.

CM4200 Advanced NMR Spectroscopy Basic theory of NMR. Modern NMR methods. NMR of the solid state and oriented systems. Relaxation.

68 CM4221 Methods of Computational Chemistry Postulates of Quantum Mechanics. Exact solutions: Harmonic Oscillator, Spherically Symmet- ricProblems, BoundstatesoftheHatom. TimeIndependentApproximationMethods. Matrices. Time and Ensemble Averages. The Canonical and Grand Canonical Ensemble. Identical non- interacting particles. The Classical Limit. Computer simulation of Fluids. Non-Equilibrium Statistical Mechanics.

CM4232 Molecular Quantum Chemistry

Pauli Exclusion Principle and antisymmetry. Hartree-Fock theory. Atomic and Molecular basis sets. Electron correlation. Practical methods of dynamic electron correlation. The signiﬁcance of orbital energies. Semiempirical MO methods. Intermolecular forces.

69 VII. CODE OF CONDUCT FOR STUDENTS AND SUPERVISORS

Introduction The University has set up a Code of Conduct for students and supervisors which is given later in this booklet. This departmental code should be seen as complementary to it and reﬂects the special interests and experience of the Physics Department. The EPSRC guide ‘Research Student and Supervisor - an approach to good supervisory practice’ may also be useful.

The Role of the Department The Department contains many research groups covering a wide range of interests in Physics and Astronomy. It is inevitable and probably desirable that the various groups provide rather different environments in which you will work. However, the general pattern of supervisory practice is the same throughout the Department. Admission to a research group is made on the basis of your interests and, of course, the availability of places and in most cases, students are well satisﬁed with this. In the rare case where you ﬁnd yourself in a group in which you are unable to work up to your full potential, the normal procedure to resolve this problem is through discussion with your supervisor and group head. The ultimate recourse is to a Chairman of the Postgraduate Committee acting in concert with the Head of the Department.

The Role of the Supervisor The University Code can only be a guideline whose detailed application depends on circumstances. The most important general requirements are that the supervisor is approachable and accessible, and that when advice or recommendations are given, you feel that they are constructive and fair. A very important part of the supervisor’s responsibility is in helping you with planning deadlines, for example, in connection with the various reports which you must complete. This implies that frequent and adequate consultation between you and your supervisor takes place. A reasonable guide to this is a minimum of an hour a week. Supervisors are expected to make suitable arrangements for supervision in the event of their absence.

The Role of the Student The University Code requirements for students can be summarised in three words; communication, application and motivation. As far as communication is concerned, even experienced supervisors may not be aware of some particular problem and you should take the initiative to make sure that this is communicated to the supervisor. Application and motivation are largely up to the individual but even here, supervisors can help considerably by providing anappropriate working environment. Approachability and accessibility are, of course, an important ingredient for success in research for both you and your supervisor. You should tell your supervisor if you will be away from the department for any period in excess of a few days. Illness should also be reported to the supervisor, and you should take particular care that you comply with the regulations of your funding body in the event of protracted absence due to illness or any other reason.

70 VIII. REPORTS, THESES, POSTERS AND TALKS

There will be a number of times during the progress of your postgraduate studies when you need to write up the results of your research: first-year and second-year PhD reports, possibly other reports or papers, and of course the final thesis (or dissertation) itself. You may also give a talk or a more structured seminar, or present a poster (for example, at the postgraduate registration). Each of these types of communication requires a different style and approach. Never feel hesitant about approaching other members of your group for help and advice, and make the most of opportunities within your group and the department to give informal talks or poster presentations - practice makes perfect! If English is not your first language, then you may need some help with language skills. Lessons are available through the University, and, of course, other members of the department can be extremely helpful in explaining best modes of presentation.

Books on scientiﬁc writing are available for consultation in the departmental library, but please do not feel bound to follow their recommendations in slavish detail. You will probably ﬁnd it helpful tolook at previousreports; some are heldinthe departmental library,and your supervisor may be able to provide further examples. The biggest hurdle is usually to decide on the structure of your report. Once this is done, the rest follows in a relatively straightforward manner.

There is a poster session at the beginning of every academic year. This is used as a shop- window to show the new postgraduates, and others in the department, what goes on in the different groups. Youare warmly encouraged to take part in this – especially in the second year, though contributions from ﬁrst and third year students are also very welcome.

If you are presenting a poster or a talk, the golden rule is to keep it simple and to the point. In preparing slides or transparencies, do not try to put too much information on each. Like a tee-shirt slogan, the most effective message is the simple one!

The First Year PhD Report

The purpose of this report is to provide written evidence that you have attained competence in research. It should therefore include a summary of the research project you have done, or are about to carry out, and place this in its proper context within the ﬁeld of physics in which you have chosen to work. You should bear in mind that the report will be read by non-specialists as well as by your supervisor, and try to make it a coherent whole without the need for continual reference to more advanced texts. With this proviso, the shorter it is the better; in particular, do not stint yourself on diagrams, graphs and tables if they help to clarify what you have written. A tidy presentation, whether handwritten or typed, is always much appreciated.

Assessment of the report is carried out by your supervisor in the ﬁrst place. They give a grading for your understanding of the background physics and literature of your project, and the personal contribution you have made to it during the academic year. This counts for 20-40% of your mark, depending on how many course units you have taken for credit. Each course unit credit counts for 2%, and the combined mark for courses and supervisor’s grading is calculated out of 80%.

71 The remaining 20% comes from an interview with two members of staff who read the report but have a general rather than a specialist knowledge of the material therein. They assess the clarity and style of the written presentation, and your understanding of the physics brought out by it. You will receive a list, naming your interviewers and the dates between which these interviews should take place, at the beginning of June: final arrangements should be made personally between you. There is no fixed format or duration for the interview, though 30 minutes is typical. Its purpose is to clear up any points in the report that the interviewers may find need explanation, and to assess your understanding of what you have written.

Naturally a report assessed out of 40% will reﬂect more effort than one worth only 20%, but this effort should correspond to work done during the preceding months rather than appear in the length of the report itself. A “40% report” will be expected to show evidence of design and construction work, preferably with measurements from which conclusions may be drawn, whilst in a“20% report” a project description backedup by detailed calculations and appropriate discussion will sufﬁce.

Approval of your ﬁrst year progress takes place at a meeting of supervisors, interviewers and course lecturers in late June. The guidelines followed in recent years have been: 80-100% considered for the John Birks prize for the best postgraduate student. 60-80% permitted to re-register for Ph.D. 50-60% permitted to register for M.Sc, but not to continue a Ph.D course. 40-50% qualiﬁed for the award of a Diploma in Advanced Studies in Science. Students may be required to retake courses in which they have obtained grades below 40%.

The Second Year PhD Report

This report serves the function of assuring your supervisor and the Graduate School that you are making satisfactory progress towards submitting a thesis at the end of your period of Ph.D registration. It is monitored only by your supervisor, and consequently can be both more compact and use more specialist terminology than your ﬁrst year report. Nonetheless, you are required to set down the aims of your current research programme, the progress you have made in achieving them during the past year, and the problems that have yet to be solved. You should also set down a realistic timetable of short-term goals that you need to carry out on your way to submitting your thesis.

The Physics Department Board has agreed that you may, with the agreement of your supervisor, replace this report with a poster displaying your research at the registration session for new postgraduates, where it will be inspected by both postgraduates and staff. You must still satisfy your supervisor that you have set a realistic timetable for completion of your thesis work.

The production of this report/poster is a formal Graduate School requirement; unless you carry out one or other of these tasks, you cannot be re-registered for the ﬁnal year of the Ph.D course.

72 THESES and DISSERTATIONS

The production of a thesis is almost certainly the largest single academic and literary task you will have attempted. Few students realise how much effort goes into the production of a worthy thesis. A typical timescale is about four to six months. There are varying attitudes by both supervisors and students to reading and commenting on drafts of theses. This depends largely on the individuals concerned, but it is important to agree on the procedure early on in the ﬁnal year to avoid misunderstanding. The importance of clear writing in good English cannot be overstressed.

An excellent and detailed guide to writing a thesis is available for loan from the Postgraduate Secretary and you are strongly recommended to read this. It is worthwhile looking at a few examples of recent theses before you start on yours. The most useful recommendation is to make your thesis tell a good story; do not ﬂip haphazardly from subject to subject, and keep your best results and conclusions to the end. Most complaints from external examiners centre on poor spelling, punctuation and illogical presentation of topics; it is well worth while having a colleague read your ﬁnal draft to weed these out. The department has issued a set of approved guidelines to help you in planning your thesis, and these are given later in this section. The University has strict regulations regarding the format of theses, which are also given later in this section. Make sure that you conform to them.

Writing a thesis may be an effort - but with this kind of care, it will be a document in which you can take pride for years to come.

The oral examination of the thesis is extremely important and it is useful to remember that in general, the examiner will not have the same detailed familiarity with the thesis work as the supervisor. Examiners are often as much interested in the general area of research as the thesis details, and can be expected to ask questions relating to the broad physical principles and background relevant to the research area.

73 THESIS GUIDELINES These guidelines have been approved by the Manchester University Physics Department for the use of students and examiners, to supplement the Faculty Regulations by giving an idea of the standards expected in a PhD thesis, in both content and presentation. What is a thesis? According to the University regulations, the degree of PhD is awarded for research showing “originality and independent critical judgement, constituting an addition to knowledge”. The PhD thesis is an account of such research, and should thus demonstrate the originality and judgement of the author, and the significance of the content. The reader may be assumed to be a physicist in the same field of research, although not an expert in the particular work described. Presentation Presentation should be of a high standard with no spelling, typographical, grammatical or punctuation errors. Tenses should be consistent and appropriate. Notation should be consistent, There must be sensible numbering of equations, tables. figures, references and other items. Jargon must be avoided. Graphs must have sensible scales and labelled axes etcetera. Background material The thesis should include a description of relevant background material and literature, including theory and experimental equipment, to enable the reader to understand the research, and also to showtheauthor’sunderstanding. Thisdescriptionshould notbeamerelist, butshowevidenceof critical judgement, e.g. by explaining why certain choices were made. However the main point of the thesis is the author’s actual work and contributions and the amount of background given should not be excessive; 20-30% of the thesis is normally regarded as a reasonable proportion. The Author’s contribution Where research has been done as part of a collaboration, the author’s contribution should be made clear. Academic Standard It is important that this work be described in detail so that another could repeat it, for it is unlikely to appear in such detail elsewhere. Most importantly, the reader must be able to assess the reliability of the conclusions, i.e., the author must convince the reader that the results should be believed. The thesis material should be set in the context of current research; other relevant work must be cited, and if appropriate compared. Ideally, the content of a thesis should be ready for publication and this should be the goal. However it is realised that this may not always be possible in the time available. At the very least it should be straightforward for the supervisor, or some other colleague, to complete the work to publication. Thesis presentation seminar It is suggested that the student give a seminar to their group, showing details of the data, the final analysis and conclusions. This should take place after any scrutiny of a draft of the ’analysis and results’ chapters by the supervisor. The purpose is to increase the value of the thesis research by exposing it to constructive criticism from a knowledgable audience, and to forestall potential problems in the oral exam by ensuring that the candidate can scientifically defend the conclusions.

74 GUIDE TO THE PRESENTATIONOF THESES AND DISSERTATIONS These are the current University regulations on the format of a thesis, Be aware that they do change from time to time! You will obtain a copy of the correct and up-to-date version when you collect your ‘notice of submission’ form from the exams office. Failure to follow them may result in the thesis being rejected either by the Registrar or the Examiners. If any part of what follows is not clear or if a particular problem is not covered, please contact the Examinations Office before the thesis is bound. (Tel. 0161-275-2022/2025) Candidates are advised not to follow blindly the format of theses in departments or libraries; these may have been produced under earlier rules for presentation which are not now acceptable. Candidates are also advised that examiners can and will reject a thesis if the quantity of typographical errors indicates careless proof-reading. 1. All theses must be written in English; quotations, however, may be given in the language in which they were written. Two copies must be submitted in typewritten or printed form on paper of international standard size A4. Normally only one side of the paper should be used and this should appear as the right hand page. Paper of a larger size may be used for maps, plans, diagrams or other illustrations forming part of the thesis if the Supervisor agrees that this is desirable. Where such large sheets are used or non-paper materials are submitted as part of a thesis they should be placed in a pocket inside the back cover of the thesis or, if substantial, in a separate volume or folder bound and lettered as described in paragraph 4 below: supplementary items cannot be accepted in any other form. Both copies must be clearly legible, whether originals or copies. A thesis may embody reprints of material published by the candidate as sole or joint author. Work to be embodied in a thesis should be reported concisely. For Ph.D. a maximum of 100,000 word of main text (approximately 300 pages) must not be exceeded without the prior approval of the supervisor, and this letter must be submitted with the thesis. For length of master’s theses, candidates should consult their supervisor, but a rough guide is a maximum of 60,000 words. 2. Double-spacing must be used for the main text; single-spacing may be used for quotations and footnotes. General guidance on bibliographic citations and references is given in BS1629 and on the presentation of tables and graphs in BS7581. Guidance is also given in International Standard ISO 690. Copies of these documents are available in the University Library. To allow for binding, the margin at the binding edge of any page must not be less than 40 mm; other margins must not be less than 15 mm. Page numbers must fall within these limits. One single sequence of Arabic numerals (i.e. 1,2,3...) must be used throughout the thesis, beginning with the title page (which should be counted but not numbered) and ending with the last page of the thesis. All pages must be numbered, without exception; thus the one sequence will include not only the text but also the preliminary pages, diagrams, tables, figures, illustrations, appendices, references, etc., and will extend to cover all volumes in a multi-volume thesis.

75 3. The thesis must be prefaced by the following in the order given: a)a title page giving the full title of the thesis; a statement as follows: ‘A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of...... in the Faculty of ...... ’; the year of presentation; the candidate’s name; and the name of the candidate’s Department. Where a thesis consists of more than one volume each volume must contain a title-page in the form set out above but including also the appropriate volume number, and the total number of volumes e.g. Volume I of III. A thesis which is resubmitted must bear the year of resubmission on both the spine and the title-page and not the year of original submission. b) a list of contents, giving all relevant subdivisions of the thesis and the page number for each item; in a multi-volume thesis the contents page of the first volume must show the complete contents of the thesis, volume by volume, and each subsequent volume must have a contents page giving the contents of that volume. c) a short abstract of the contents of the thesis (see Abstract form for details). d) a declaration stating: EITHER: that no portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification at this or any other university or other institution of learning. OR: what portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification at this or any other university or other institution of learning. e) the following notes on copyright and the ownership of intellectual property rights: (1) Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the author. Copies (by any process) either in full, or of extracts, may be made only in accordance with instructions given by the author and lodged in the John Rylands University Library of Manchester. Details may be obtained from the Librarian. This page must form part of any such copies made. Further copies (by any process) of copies made in accordance with such instructions may not be made without the permission (in writing) of the Author. (2) The ownership of any intellectual property rights which may be described in this thesis is vested in the University of Manchester, subject to any prior agreement to the cntrary, and may not be made available for use by third parties without the written premission of the University, which will prescribe the terms and conditions of any such agreement. Further information in the conditions under which disclosures and exploitation may take place is available from the Head of Department of Physics and Astronomy. 4. The preliminary pages may also include the following: List of tables, figures, diagrams, photographs etc. If a thesis contains tables etc. It is recommended that a separate list of each item, as appropriate, is provided immediately after the contents page(s). Such lists must give the page number of each item on the list.

76 Dedication, acknowledgements, list of abbreviations, keys and similar; these should normally appear after the compulsory pages listed under a-d above. Short items may be combined on the same page. It is helpful, particularly to external examiners, if a brief statement is included giving the candidates degree(s) and research experience, even if the latter consists only of the work done for this thesis. This may be untitled or it may be headed “Preface” or “The Author” or similar. 5. Both copies of the thesis must be sewn and hard-bound in cloth: both copies must be the same colour; theses in any other form cannot be accepted. On the spine must be inscribed in gold the degree for which the thesis is submitted, the name of the candidate, the year of submission and, if the thesis is in two or more volumes, the volume number. These should run from the top of the spine as follows:

PhD Gilbert K. Chesterton Vol. I or II 1999 (at top) (centred) (as and if appropriate) (at bottom)

The forename(s) and surname/family name on the spine and title-page must be the same as those in which the candidate is currently registered or was last registered at the University (see Library Card if in doubt). Give first forename in full, other forenames (if any) as initials, then surname. 6. Both copies of a successful thesis will be retained by the University for use in the University Library and in the departmental library. Access to theses in the University for reading, lending and photocopying purposes is subject to the user signing a copyright undertaking. Normally, therefore, the author of a thesis is not expected to place any restriction on access to his or her work, and in signing the Declaration on the Notice of Submission Form a candidate authorises access, as above, to the thesis. If, however, it is considered that because of some exceptional circumstances access to the thesis should be restricted in some way, the candidate should: a) sign the Declaration and submit the Notice form to enable arrangements for the examination to be made; b) ask at the Examinations Office, Main Building for a Thesis Restriction Form; c) consult the Supervisor about the need for and nature of a restriction; d) if a restriction is to be applied, complete the Thesis Restriction Form as appropriate and submit it with the thesis; this form will then supersede that part of the Declaration in which the candidate authorised unrestricted access to the thesis. 7. Theses and dissertations should be submitted as follows: M.D., PhD, Ch.M., M.D.S., M.Sc. (Science & Medicine), M.B.Sc. - Examinations Office, Main Building. All other Masters’ theses - the appropriate Faculty Office.

77 Submission of Masters’ theses in temporary (soft covered) bindings

1: The University will now accept for examination, Master’s theses submitted in a temporary binding. This is an additional option available to students alongside submission of the thesis in a normal way (permanent, hard covered binding).

2: Only one kind of temporary binding will be accepted: soft card covers and a glued spine.

3: All other regulations on the presentation of theses (information required on the cover of the thesis, title page, separate abstract etc) are to be observed.

4: Once examination of your thesis has been completed and the examiners’ recommendation approved by the appropriate Faculty Board you will be informed by the Graduate School Ofﬁce of the requirement to submit hard-bound copies of your thesis before your ofﬁcial degree result can be published.

5: Submission of the hard-bound copies must be accompanied by a signed statement from the internal examiner certifying that any necessary corrections have been completed satisfactorily and a signed statement from yourself (the candidate) on the appropriate form that the hard bound copies of your thesis are (apart from any corrections done) identical to the original submission.

6: Youwill only receive your official degree result (and therefore be able to graduate and receive your degree certificate) once the hard-bound copies, together with the two statements mentioned above, have been received by the examinations office.

7: YouareadvisedthattheUniversityacceptsnoresponsibility forany delayyoumayexperience in having your thesis bound in hard covers after examination of the thesis in its temporary (soft- covered) binding.

78 IX. KEY POSTGRADUATE CALENDAR DATES IN THE UNIVERSITY YEAR 1998/9

1998 September 18 Registration for established students September 25 Registration of new students and poster session September 28 Semester 1 lecture courses commence November 1 Last date for notiﬁcation of intent to submit a thesis for the January 15th deadline December 16 University Degree Day December 18 Semester 1 lecture courses ﬁnish

1999 January 15 University deadline for PhD and MSc thesis submission January 15 Supplementary registration date February 1 Last date for notification of intent to submit a thesis for the May 1st deadline February 1 Semester 2 lecture courses commence March 29 - April 16 No lectures April 1 Supplementary registration date May 1 University deadline for PhD and MSc thesis submission May 14 Semester 2 lecture courses finish May 28 Deadline for 1st year PhD report to be handed to supervisor June 1 Last date for notification of intent to submit a thesis for the July 15th deadline July 12-16 Graduation week July 15 University deadline for thesis submission September 1 Last date for notification of intent to submit a thesis for the September 30th (PhD) or October 1st (MSc) deadline September 30 University deadline for PhD thesis submission October 1 University deadline for M.Sc. thesis submission

79 Graduate Standards and Quality at The University of Manchester The deﬁnitive text on University practices, standards and quality in the Graduate Schools is contained within literature produced by the Academic Quality Unit. These documents can be browsed on the world web web where the sections concerning research degrees can be found: http://www.man.ac.uk/services/admin/aqu/ Their front page and index is reproduced below.

Academic Quality Unit

Telephone: 0161-275 2057 Fax: 0161-275 2407 email: [email protected] The Academic Quality Unit promotes quality assurance and enhancement, disseminates information on good practice and stimulates debate in the academic community on academic standards and quality. The Unit assists the University in making an effective and co-ordinated response to both QAA Subject Reviews and Institutional Audit.

The Academic Quality Unit publishes a number of key publications and guides to good practice: Academic Standards Code of Practice Undergraduate Modular Degrees Frameworks for Personal Tutor Systems

Members of staff from the Unit provide secretarial support to the main University com- mittees which focus on quality issues: Academic Standards and Quality Committee (ASQC) Undergraduate Standards and Quality Committee (USQC) Graduate Standards and Quality Committee (GSQC)

The Academic Quality Unitalso hasresponsibility forliaising with the UniversityColleges: University College Warrington College of Further & Higher Education Royal College of Nursing Institute

Additionally, the Unit provides support and advice on distance learning programmes.

The staff of the Unit are: Kay Day: Head of the Academic Quality Unit Alison Gould: Subject Review Advisor Philippa Adshead: Secretary to the Unit Alice Fleming: Distance Learning Project Ofﬁcer

80 The AQU produces the University’s Academic Standards Code of Practice.

This is available online in the following sections where the bold type indicates a link to further web pages: INTRODUCTION AIMS IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND LEARNING

QUALITY ASSURANCE STRUCTURES

SUMMARY OF QUALITY ASSURANCE PROCEDURES TAUGHT PROGRAMMES Section one: Recruitment and admissions Section two: Developing programmes of study Section three: Delivery of programmes Section four: Assessment and the award of qualiﬁcations Section ﬁve: Appeals mechanisms Section six: Monitoring of programmes and feedback to students

RESEARCH DEGREES Section seven: Recruitment and admissions Section eight: Delivery of programmes Section nine: Assessment and the award of qualiﬁcations Section ten: Appeals mechanisms Section eleven: Monitoring and review

NON-AWARD BEARING PROVISION Section twelve: Quality assurance principles and procedures STAFF DEVELOPMENT Section thirteen: Training and development Section fourteen: Peer review of teaching

APPENDICES Appendix I: Accreditation of prior learning (Undergraduate) Appendix II: Accreditation of prior learning (Postgraduate) Appendix III: Annual timetable Appendix IV: Programme handbooks Appendix V: New/revised programme proposal cover sheet Appendix VI: Library and information resource requirement sheet Appendix VII: Sample undergraduate programme hours & credits Appendix VIII: Undergraduate masters programmes Appendix IX: Intake progression statistics Appendix X: Non-completion statistics Appendix XII: Plagiarism Appendix XIII: Student representation Appendix XIV: Questionnaires Appendix XV: Assessment of teaching Appendix XVI: Guidelines on the use of student assistants Appendix XVII: Double marking Appendix XVIII: Split-site PhDs Appendix XIX: Bibliography of guides to methods of study