2019 EDITION THE HistoryJournal

The Glorious Revolution Piracy & Workplace Rights Mao’s Cultural Revolution Contents

1 3 How the Golden Age of Piracy Was the Glorious Revolution Revolutionised Workplace Rights ‘glorious’ or even a revolution? Editors’ Notes Freddie Korn, Year 13 Andre Ediagbonya-Davies, LAET Year 13

evolution is perhaps one of the most crucial themes in history given R its nature and precedent. Revolutions are the overthrow of a previous 5 6 political institution by the masses, propelled by their ideas of social justice, The Industrial Revolution Why was the Haitian Revolution in order to create a new one; their effects on History are unsurprisingly Jake Lawson, Year 13 successful? significant and fascinating to study, hence why it was chosen as this year’s Alexander Truuvert, Year 13 theme. Their longstanding existence throughout history further emphasises their importance. The first recorded revolution was the Set rebellion during the reign of the pharaoh Seth-Peribsen in about 2730 BCE and, yet, even thousands of years later they remain just as prevalent, as shown by the Hong 8 10 Kong Rebellion this year. The diversity of revolutions, as displayed in the Roman von Sternberg: Stories of The Crisis of the Berlin Blockade following articles, further goes to show why they are studied in so much depth by historians. the Russian Revolution and Airlift in almost causing This History Journal explores a total of 7 revolutions, with fascinating Raha Assembek, Year 13 World War 3 contributions from Year 13 students at Highgate and London Academy of Emma Otis, Year 11 Excellence Tottenham, and ranges from discussions on Mao’s methods of control during the Cultural Revolution to the fascinating stories of the “Mad Baron” Roman von Ungern-Sternberg and “Long March” of the 12 14 Czechoslovak Legion during the Russian Revolution. When did the world come closest How and why did Mao’s methods This year’s Journal also includes esteemed competition essay winners from Year 10 on World War 3, winners of the Book Review Competitions for to a Third World War? of control change during the early Medieval and Modern historians, and even a review of the outstanding Paris Gabriel Waters, Year 11 period of the Cultural Revolution? History Trip. The interaction with the theme by this year’s featured writers Georgie Walker, Year 13 has been one of an incredible standard, and one that displays the depth of their research, the passion for the subject, and skill as history academics. Because of them, this journal has truly been an incredible project which we Book Review hope you will love as much as we do. 16 18 The Tulip Revolution John Julius Norwich, Four Princes: Henry VIII, Francis I, Charles V, Suleiman The Tianle Shao, Year 13 Magnificent, and the Obsessions that Forged Modern Europe Tully Hyams, Year 13 With thanks to the Editorial Team

Lead Book Review Lily McKenna 19 20 Ian Kershaw, Hitler History Trip to Paris Contributors Victor Bennet, Year 13 Orla McMenamin & Tully Hyams, Year 13 Lily McKenna, Alex Truuvert, Benny Worthington, Elena Fritzsch, Eve Greenway, Freddie Korn, Georgie Walker, Jake Lawson, Lochie Springett and Ralph Jeffreys

This book is printed on paper sourced from responsibly managed forests. In contrast to the popular modern image of pirates as barbarians, at the heart of the Golden Age of Piracy was a shockingly modern code of conduct, which guaranteed various rights to all members of the crew regardless of race, gender, title or age. To understand why this attitude to workplace rights occurred amongst pirates and why it was so revolutionary, it is important to first understand the social conditions for sailors at the time. The conditions can be effectively summarised by a popular saying at the time: that 'those who would go to sea for pleasure would go to hell for a past time.' The British Navy hired men called 'Crimps' and 'press gangs' who would manipulate drunken sailors - often with the aid of clubs - into joining the navy. The fear of press gangs and being forced to re-join the navy was so severe that often sailors would marry pub owners, since - as home owners - one couldn’t be forced to join the navy. Those who were often caught by the press-gangs were most often those of 'little use' e.g. beggars and children. Conditions were hardly any better on merchant ships, Charles Vane, Defying the Governor, from the Pirates of the Spanish Main series (N19) for Allen & Ginter Cigarettes as the captains would often understock food in order to increase profit margins, leading to inevitable starvation if the journey took longer than expected How the Golden Age of Piracy Revolutionised (which was very common due to the nascent state of the art of meteorology Workplace Rights in the 18th century). The heavily salted beef and pork often caused vomiting, Blackbeard, a 1736 engraving used to illustrate Johnson’s General History Freddie Korn, Year 13 seasickness, fever, dysentery headache, heat, consumption (tuberculosis), boils, One of the most prominent pirate crews scurvy, cancer, mouth rot. On top of this - the 'Flying gang' (of around 200 men) the fresh water supply would ‘turn green - completely subverted the previously he Golden Age of Piracy - a period plundering Spanish ships, to successfully the bay of Nassau or (as in the case of after a few weeks at sea; as a result of mentioned despotism. They would lasting roughly 20 years from become Pirates. Second, the Caribbean Blackbeard) to the unscrupulous governor T this, sailors would often resort to drinking democratically elect captains, and other 1710 until 1730 – was undeniably a was geographically perfect for piracy; the of North Carolina. Third, the political alcohol, emphasized by the fact that officials such as the quartermaster (who revolutionary period; in a time of tyranny archipelago of more than 7,000 islands conditions within the Caribbean made it the navy ration for alcohol at that point would take care of provisions). Decisions and oppression, legendary figures such was perfect for those living outside the ideal for enterprising pirates; the semi- was 'half a pint of rum and a gallon of were made democratically, for example: as Blackbeard, Charles Vane, Calico law to escape and find much needed independent governors were seldom beer a day.' These deplorable conditions which ships to attack; where to go; which Jack and Sam Bellamy, championed provisions such as fresh fruit (which able to stop pirates as they lacked the were often worsened by cruel captains. prisoners they should keep a hold of; and ideals of freedom, democracy, racial was necessary for preventing scurvy). coordination, military strength and often interestingly, on top of this, pirates could equality, and a strangely prescient code of This geographical location was most will to do so. Finally, the conditions were At the heart of the Golden vote to impeach their captain. Pirate conduct which contradicts the Hollywood important due to it being en route for so appalling aboard navy ships, and nearly captains didn’t have special status either; image of cruelty and barbarity, and the triangle trade (the path taken by as bad on merchant ships, that many of Age of Piracy was a they ate the same food as their crew and demonstrates just how revolutionary The those not left unemployed by the Treaty shockingly modern code of only received 50% more plunder. One Golden Age of Piracy was. The political conditions of Utrecht chose to defy their captains pirate captain - Blackbart - even provided The start of the Golden Age of Piracy can within the Caribbean and escape to become pirates. conduct, which guaranteed rudimentary workplace health insurance be traced back to the late 17th century, It was the coalescence of these four various rights to all offering a cash pay-out for those who BlackBart’s flag showed him standing on two however it fully flourished in the 18th made it ideal for factors that led to the Golden Age of lost an eye aboard his ship. We further skulls, representing the heads of a Barbadian and century due to a combination of factors enterprising pirates Piracy, and the development of a pirate members of the crew see the very start of racial equality; Sam a Martiniquian coming together to create a perfect society within the Caribbean. The rapidly Bellamy’s crew had at least two members storm. There were four key aspects that growing popularity of piracy underpinned Notably Captain John Jeanne who exacted of African descent and everyone was In contrast to the abhorrent conditions ships engaging in the incredibly lucrative coalesced to convert sailors into pirates. the need for the pirates to create a home- punishment upon a cabin boy that he took entitled to an equal share of the plunder, and cruelty abound on navy and merchant trans-Atlantic slave trade). This meant First, there was a huge number of able- base where they could sell and buy goods, a dislike to; he was described as having similarly Blackbeard had several ships, pirate ships were incredibly that ships coming to and from Africa, bodied unemployed men, due to the recruit men, and maintain their ships. whipped him 'several times in a very crewmembers of African descent upon prescient in the rights that they afforded America and Great Britain loaded with ending of the War of Spanish Succession, At this point, the pirates were led by cruel manner' then worsening the pain his ship. This equality was astoundingly their crews, marked by equality, fairness either money, goods or slaves regularly in which sailors became privateers Benjamin Hornigold and Henry Jennings by 'pouring pickle brine into the wounds.' modern especially when one considers and democracy. Pirate ships created passed through the pirate infested waters (licensed by the British government to (both previously privateers), and they These conditions and treatments led that the slave trade was in full operation at a revolutionary approach to rights of of the Caribbean. These unprotected attack and plunder Spanish ships). When established their base on Nassau (the now to mortality rates on navy ships being the same time. employees within the workplace. The ships made easy pickings for the pirates, this war ended in 1714 with the treaty of capital of the Bahamas). Nassau became around 50%. The despotism of captains Pirate code of conduct within the Golden they could then sail a short distance to Pirates are often portrayed as drunken, Utrecht there was mass unemployment the navel of the pirate world and it was on Navy and merchant ships can be Age of Piracy was as much revolutionary find an eager buyer for their stolen goods rowdy, uncivilized, barbarians. Whilst the of many able-bodied men with the here that the Golden Age of Piracy was directly contrasted with Pirate captains, as it is shockingly in line with our modern - be it to an underground merchant in first two statements are generally true, the knowledge and skills, developed in born. and how their crews and ships operated. latter two are almost certainly not. values.

1 2 is emphasised with Cox’s analysis of the ‘need to defend the property and events, as he illustrates how the King privileges of the political elite and to only had access to two moves: controlling inculcate an attitude of subordination parliament internally or dissolving in the majority of the nation’. This view Parliament altogether and enforcing a highlights the way in which the Glorious more absolutist regime. Revolution is debatably one of the most mechanised, formulaic ‘revolutions’. The Glorious Revolution It featured Parliament engaging with Protestant society and, as Dr Tom Blaen could have been a potential of the University of Exeter puts it, using example of flawless mass religion to misdirect from the ‘Dutch invasion’ the British Parliament was indoctrination into the organising - all in an effort to make the acceptance of a new regime public comply. One could look at Ted Gurr’s Why Men Rebel, within which How did Parliament react? They he points to the fact that ‘revolution attempted to block each move with their is essentially a function of mass primary weapon being the Bill of Rights psychology.’ Here we see a prime example (1689) which was ‘An Act declaring the of mass psychology being employed by 1688 Equestrian portrait of William III by Jan Wyke Rights and Liberties of the Subject and parliament. Settling the Succession of the Crowne.’ Throughout the Stuart dynasty, there had This could most likely be attributed to It prevented MPs from being ‘bought’ been a strong belief in the doctrine of the fact that the early revision of British by the King, through its reinforcement the ‘divine right of kings’, which asserted History was dominated by England of the freedom to elect representatives that kings derived their authority from during the enlightenment period in the without royal interference as well as God and could not, therefore, be held latter half of the 18th century, allowing this blocking the potential enforcement of an accountable for their actions by any Whiggish view to formulate and remain absolutist regime by forbidding the army mortal authority such as a parliament. wrongly unchallenged. during peacetime without parliamentary assent. Other pieces of legislation such The tool selected to persuade the English as the Mutiny Act (1689) and the Act Protestant majority as to the benefits of Settlement (1701) further limited of William of Orange’s rule was the the power of the King. Ultimately, this multi-functional Bill of Rights (1689), creates the impression, that the supposed legislation which used Puritan rhetoric ‘revolution’ was a premeditated attempt such as: ‘whom it hath pleased Almighty at increasing Parliament’s supremacy God to make the glorious instrument of over the King; a King whose Catholic delivering this Kingdom from popery and William III accepting the Declaration of Rights, from “A History of England for the Young” by Henry Tyrrell, 1872 views just happened to not coincide with Persons of the Commons’. Yet, there is a their own. For parliament’s policies to significant contradiction in the fact that have a lasting effect on a national level, Parliament was attempting to manipulate Was the Glorious Revolution ‘glorious’ or even instead of a purely constitutional level, the divine right of kings doctrine to their they needed to use a tactic that the own will, thereby undermining the idea Frontispiece of Hobbes’ 1651 Leviathan, of the monarchical rule being a ‘power country would indulge in. Arguably, this depicting the Divine Right of King’ a revolution? is where the religious / ‘glorious’ element bestowed by God’ and making it more evident that Parliament was pulling Andre Ediagbonya-Davies, LAET Year 13 of the systematic change occurred. H.T The Glorious Revolution could have been Dickinson claims that the Whig and Tory a potential example of flawless mass the strings all along. Therefore, it is elements within parliament recognised indoctrination into the acceptance of a apparent that the appointment of Dutch William of Orange to the British throne he Glorious Revolution of 1688-9, with the fourth chapter of Pelz’s A People’s Revolution truly a ‘revolution’ or even new regime; nonetheless, acceptance was mostly found in England where demonstrated an abuse of power through Toften dubbed the ‘Bloodless History of Modern Europe, being labelled truly ‘glorious’, and are modern historians the guise of religion, which was the same Revolution’, was a pivotal moment in ‘The Rise of the Third Estate: The French looking at the period between 1688-9 Catholics made up only a small 3% of the population against the Protestant crime Parliament had accused Charles I British history. Further developing the People Revolt’. through the lens of a Whig interpretation and Charles II of committing. growth of parliamentary control over of history? majority and James’s political support was limited. But in Scotland, where the Stuart In conclusion, it would be historically the monarchy - a process dating back to The Glorious Revolution Historian Gary W. Cox coins the term the English Civil War (1642-1651) - this dynasty had its roots, acceptance of the incorrect to claim that the period proves itself to be an ‘constitutional engineering’ when new regime initiated by Parliament was between 1688-9 did not observe a radical time legislation rather than set-piece analysing the Glorious Revolution, and battles drove radical changes forward, disputed as men risked and gave their change in ideas. Yet, all the same, this exception to the supposed one of his main arguments is that it lives for the Jacobite claim as late as the essay has attempted to challenge a culminating in the form of the 1689 Bill essentially ‘aimed to bolster Parliament’s of Rights. rule that revolutions must Battle of Culloden in 1745. In Ireland, whiggish interpretation of history. As constitutional position’. Charles F. Mullet too, at the time 75% Catholic, James’ Herbert Butterfield argues, whiggish When analysing revolution, historians stem from civil disobedience validates this point with the argument claim to kingship, and the freedom of interpretations can be problematic due such as Charles Tilly choose to categorise that ‘[Parliament] married virtue to conscience and religion he offered with to their propensity for oversimplification it as a radical change in ideas initiated Instead, what is evident is that arguably expediency and were convinced that it, was defended fiercely well beyond and their rejection of a holistic view when by ‘the people’ involving some form of the ‘Glorious Revolution’ was a tool used God would bless the union’. Collectively, 1688. In this way, it is increasingly investigating the complex transitions and ‘collective violence’; supporting this, by Parliament to protect their powers and this paints the picture that this change in evident that the naming of the Glorious significant impacts of historical events. Rediker in his analysis of the American gain an additional level of supremacy regime was definitely not a revolt of the Revolution as ‘glorious’ only takes into Mislabelling the Glorious Revolution Revolution suggested that urban mobs over the monarchy; a position of relative people but an instance of the politically account the English perspective of events, as such, even today, suggests that too “provided much of the spark, volatility, supremacy which they had managed to elite members of Stuart society using consequently making the initial 1688-9 many are still willing to wilfully accept momentum, and sustained militancy for lose after the Restoration period which their privilege to move the King off Herbert Butterfield, c. 1955. As the Governing Body of Peterhouse, Cambridge period seem more progressive than it was. mischaracterisations of the past. the attack on British policy after 1765.” saw King Charles II receive the throne of the hypothetical chessboard. The This definition is further reflected in the and the monarchy restored. This begs the idea that the revolution was more of a historiography of the French Revolution, question, to what extent was the Glorious game between Parliament and the King

3 4 A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835 The Industrial Revolution Jake Lawson, Year 13

he Industrial Revolution was one from the rest. The alternative suggests the threat of violence. For instance, in Tof the seminal points in modern that modernity was manifest across India, the East India Company (EIC) history. Indeed, some elect to classify the the globe; that patterns of nationalism, declared the production of opium Battle of Vertières in 1803, the last major battle of the Second War of Haitian Independence period as the very beginning of “modern industrialisation and urbanisation were mandatory in certain regions, and history.” Officially recognised as having indicative of a “global transformation.” subsequently sold it to China. Sugar started mid-way through the 18th century, Taking a more holistic approach, these plantations operated within the same and ending at some point in the mid-19th changes came in the form of “archaic framework in the Caribbean. Indeed, Why was the Haitian Revolution successful? century, it was characterised by advances globalisation” and “industrious this was a hugely profitable enterprise, Alexander Truuvert, Year 13 in mechanisation, mass production and revolutions.” Indeed, the way that insofar as to call it a masterpiece in world rapid urbanisation. The period was chiefly Britain gained the edge was through manipulation. The fruits of this imperial responsible for transforming the British the subjugation of others’ “industrious system can be considered responsible for n August 1791, whilst the world deadly and ultimately futile enterprise for The slaves of the island further played agrarian economy to the world’s very revolutions,” as well as its access to raw fuelling the boom in investment in capital Iheld its breath as France imploded any who tried. Even more significantly, a significant role in the success of the first superpower, but why was this? Why materials and indentured labour. in Britain during the industrial period. in revolution, its small but lucrative the island’s tropical location and climate revolution, notably due to the sheer Britain? Why then? And is it fair to lay all colony of St. Domingue – now known proved lethal and demoralising to number of them. Slaves comprised about The interconnectedness of ideas was, as Haiti - exploded into ferocious thousands of French soldiers, with 30-50 90% of the population, and could, by the credit for this revolution of modern th too, burgeoning in the late 18 century. revolution. The island’s slaves literally dying on average per day from yellow sheer numbers, overrun the plantations ingenuity at the feet of the British? Why, As migration became increasingly for example, did the industrial revolution threw off their chains, massacred their fever and other tropical diseases. in the initial assault and absorb huge popular and fashionable, the import owners and torched their plantations. casualties in the 13-year long struggle, not take place in China? In fact, for and amalgamation of non-European many centuries the Chinese culture was The insurrection would prove uniquely The island’s slaves literally compared to the small numbers of processes was commonplace. Indeed, successful; it was the only successful local whites or expeditionary forces held in very high-esteem by Western earlier Chinese advances were integrated counterparts, and by the 18th century, slave revolt in history, and one that would threw off their chains, who had to import troops in logistically into British manufacture during the embroil free slave armies battling French difficult terrain. Furthermore, while living standards were indistinguishable industrial revolution – notably processes massacred their owners and between the two areas. The equivalence monarchists, Bonapartists, Spanish and leaders such as Toussaint Louverture of manufacturing steel were taken from British for control of the wealthy sugar torched their plantations provided a unified command and strict between China and Britain can be taken India. British methods thus became one step further with social indicators; colony. Its success stemmed from several discipline, morale and incentive to fight more sophisticated as a result of this key factors: geography and demographics; was provided by the sheer brutality of there existed a parity with life expectancy interaction, making industrialisation a Up to 15,000 died in one two-month and calorie intakes. timing; strong slave leadership; and period, including the expedition’s the combat and what would happen if A painting of the EIC showing an official of the far more connected process than we may determination. the uprising was crushed and slavery East India Company, c. 1760 commander, Leclerc. Disease comprised So then: why not China? What is have thought. reinstated. The life of a slave on a sugar responsible for this divergence? Haiti is a guerrilla’s paradise; it has thick up to 90% of the total French casualties, The industrial revolution was certainly a dense jungle, tall and difficult to navigate a colossal amount, leaving one poor plantation was nasty, torturous and short. Historians have pored over this question Whilst this miracle of how a small dynamic stage of history. We recognise The work was indescribably gruelling and for decades; there are two main Atlantic island became world-dominant hills and a lack of infrastructure, which French soldier to lament in 1791 - “This that patterns of industrialism were would leave the army patrols that dared is the graveyard of the French; here one painful, with savage working conditions interpretations being posited. Arguing can somewhat be explained by physical distinct worldwide, and that the principle leading to a survival rate of only a few that modernity was unique to Britain indicators, imperialism played an enter extremely vulnerable to ambushes dies off like flies.” Disease compounded contributor to the advent of the British and raids. The French would only clear the French resupply problem; Haiti is years, meaning most literally had nothing owing to endogenous civilisational undeniable role. Britain operated industrial revolution was imperialism. to lose but their chains. Slaves could qualities, the first offers an account of “circulatory systems” whereby raw rebel bases at the cost of heavy casualties, 7,000km from France, which made So, then, why do we still think of the and the rebels would simply move to a sustaining and reinforcing a large-scale either die fighting for their allies and western exceptionalism not dissimilar to materials were produced at low cost and industrial revolution as a miracle in family, or die working for their hated those we hear today, separating the West subsequently sold to other colonies under new base; destroying the rebels was a expedition difficult, especially in light of British ingenuity? the British and Spanish blockade. oppressor. 5 6 Haitian Declaration of Independence poster

reimpose slavery. The French Revolution provided conditions necessary for the start and most important events of the rebellion. It provoked the initial uprising, and then generated the racial conflict that weakened its response, as well as engaging in the war – a war that gave the rebels support and made French reinforcements impossible, and in turn sparked the need for emancipation, which further resulted in the consolidation of power with the rebel armies and the final Leclerc expedition which defeated the Posthumous painting of Toussaint Louverture French. Without the French Revolution, and the wars, upheaval and revolts it Although similar slave revolts had broken initial response, fracture political unity caused, it is arguable that the rebellion would never have succeeded, if it would out before, what made Haiti different of the island and would eventually break Tsar Nicholas II and his family was the unique geopolitical situation that out into a vicious race war. Indeed, the have even happened at all. the revolution erupted into. The French struggle became so bitter that the “big Haiti was a perfect storm for revolution. Revolution was well underway, and many white” plantation owners planned on It was sparked by slave resentment and slaves believed the new government seceding from the French and allied domestic and international political Roman von Sternberg: Stories of the Russian would free them from their masters. with British who were now fighting the upheaval, spread and sustained by French, while many slaves and mixed- diplomacy and a large slave population, Revolution The war cost Haiti dearly, race joined the Spanish against the defended by geography and disease, and French. The new revolutionary French won by the sheer grit of the slave armies Raha Assembek, Year 13 claiming 500,000 Haitian regime sent a young radical abolitionist, and their commanders, who fought for lives, leaving their cities in Leger-Felicite Sonthonax, who soon 14 years through massacres, two foreign ugust 1914. 80,000 Russians lay The Mad Baron Sternberg was convinced that he had realised the need for a base of support to invading armies, a civil war and a French dead in the mud of Tannenberg. Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, a minor both spiritual and familial ties to Genghis ashes and caused massive defend the island and emancipated the expedition. The war cost Haiti dearly, A The first major battle of the war ended in Estonian-Russian-German noble, Khan which is why he always wanted slaves. From that point on, the former claiming 500,000 Haitian lives, leaving economic and political disaster. Ashamed, General Samsonov, somehow managed to survive the first to prove his worth to the world. When slaves would refuse anything less than their cities in ashes and caused massive ended his life rather than face the wrath two years of the war, maybe due to his the revolution began, he immediately instability freedom from slavery and now defended economic and political instability, due of the Tsar. Some managed to survive “almost suicidal absence of fear” or the gathered thousands of volunteers from the island from invaders seeking their in large part to French insistence on the slaughter, for them this was an ability to do things “so madly heroic that 16 nationalities (according to Sternberg re-enslavement, determined more than paying reparations. However, despite The island’s white and interracial epiphany that they were not ready for his enemies would often pause in sheer himself) into the Asiatic Cavalry Division. ever to jealously guard their freedom, the challenges, the Haitians fought populations degenerated into internal this war. Indeed, there was talk that this astonishment.” This division was a very weird part of the conflict over the question of rights, which most clearly seen after the free blacks and continue to fight on, serving as a war would bring Russia to its knees. This Russian Revolution. Firstly, it functioned would limit the effectiveness of their drove Napoleon’s Leclerc expedition testament to man’s free spirit, and the frustration translated into anger. 4 years “Behold a pale horse: as a nomadic tribe which would run back into the waves after they tried to hardships he will endure for liberty. and 9 million casualties later, they could around and murder both civilians and no longer hold their anger back. In March and his name that sat on soldiers by the thousand on a daily basis, 1918, the Russian crown fell. him was Death, and Hell then get extremely drunk every night, The Russian Revolution is often seen as and yet they had deep-rooted Buddhist a communist uprising with a subsequent followed with him” values and had the official blessing of the 13th Dalai Lama who even sent two civil war between the Reds and the This skill (or blind luck) stuck with Roman dozen Tibetan troops to help. Secondly, Whites. In reality, there was a string of to the very end as he led one of the most Roman was seen as a divine figure at revolts all across Russia under a wide brutal anti-communist factions in the least by his Mongol bodyguards who variety of banners. Here are two stories I revolutionary war. thought deserve to be more well-known. genuinely believed that he was Genghis

7 8 Khan reincarnate. Thirdly, he married course of action was to get out of Russia, arrived in Czechoslovakia and formed a Manchurian princess, then invaded and what better way to organize an the bulk of the Czech army; they were China, freed Mongolia, and reinstated evacuation than to make someone else battle-hardened, they were heroes, and Bogd Khan as it’s sovereign. Sternberg responsible for it. So, the Czechoslovak apparently they were quite rich as they was ruthless and charismatic; once he Legion officially joined the French army. might have stolen 63 million rubles from took control of the region, he tortured With the Allies on their side they found that gold reserve. This story to me is very and murdered hundreds of innocent out the only way to get out of Russia interesting because it shows the impact Jews and Russians who were suspected was to march to Vladivostok. However, the revolution had on those who were of being Bolsheviks and - in the end - he unfortunately for the Czechs they were caught in it, even though they didn’t was abandoned by his allies and executed in Archangelsk, which was about 9,700 choose sides and were often confused by the Bolsheviks. To me, this is a clear kilometres away from Vladivostok, and on the periphery of the major events separated by a large number of enemy Russians and the inhospitable Siberian “6000 miles, enemies all tundra, but with little choice and hearts of steel, the legion began their slow march. around, and it was cold” Fast forward to July 1918 and the Czech Legion was one of the strongest factions of the conflict. These Czechs lost their in the Russian Revolution with thousands homes and livelihoods, but through sheer of miles of railway under their control and power of will they managed to do the even some armoured trains. During their impossible while only loosing 4,000 men march some Czechs got into an argument (a relatively small number compared to with some Hungarian POWs in the city the vast death tolls typical of the conflict). of Chelyabinsk, one thing led to another The Russian revolution and the war and the Czechs were now at war with the following it wasn’t a simple black and entire Red Army. Although it was just white conflict. The revolution completely a minor inconvenience to the Czechs, destroyed the country into multiple tiny the Reds did control Irkutsk which factions that were loosely held together Ungern-Sternberg in a Mongolian deel uniform they needed to get to Vladivostok, but by the terms “Red” and “White.” The with Russian Order of St. George 4th Class fortunately for the Czechs they happened chaos it created lead to some truly to have Admiral Kolchak, the ex-leader of extraordinary events unfolding and the example of how dangerous a revolution the Russian White movement, and 490 two stories above are just examples of Berliners watch a Douglas C-54 Skymaster land at Tempelhof Airport in 1948 can be. The chaos and the power vacuum tons of Russian Imperial Gold which they the many similar stories. Although they it created opened the way to extremists stumbled upon on their way East. The are diverting historical moments, it really like Sternberg who ravaged the region for Reds were given Kolchak and the money puts into perspective the level of mayhem two years. If you think about it, this story and the Czechs were allowed to reach that arose in that period; a whole empire The Crisis of the Berlin Blockade and Airlift in still has relevance today, as the story of Vladivostok. From there their march was was put into standstill and millions of Roman’s rise is very similar to the rise of quite uneventful apart from accidental lives were lost in the process. If you do almost causing World War 3 the Islamic State who also rose from the skirmishes with the Japanese army and choose to further research the Russian chaos that followed the Syrian Revolution. about 7,000 Americans, Italians, British, revolution you might soon realise that the Emma Otis, Year 11 Long March Home and Vietnamese volunteers being sent to concept of a revolution - although almost Siberia to save the Czechs. In September In 1917, there hadn’t been much of a romantic in its depiction as the people 1920 the last ship left Vladivostok, here are three occasions during which spy plane, and then proceeding to inch powers’ capability of immediate response change since the start of the war. Another rising up against a tyrant - might not be overall 67,739 Czechoslovaks managed the world came close to World War closer to the blockade line. Indeed, during should have resulted in a situation that offensive, another defeat, another worth its outcome. T to escape, including 6,714 civilians. They 3, and I argue that, of these, the Berlin the Cold War, actions less aggressive was the closest we came to World War 100,000 dead in the mud. However, Blockade and Airlift was the moment than that often provoked an equally, if 3, and yet, it didn’t. This was primarily there was one group that stood out, one that came the closest. The other key not more aggressive response. The USA because both Khrushchev and Kennedy group that broke the Austrian lines and events, the Cuban Missile Crisis and was so concerned by the threat of war, were desperate to avoid the breakout overran their trenches, one group that the Korean War, did not come as close that Kennedy raised military standby of a war that would cause irreversible fought for a nation that didn’t yet exist. to starting another world war. For these to Defcon 2 on the 25th of October, and unpredictable damage. Kennedy The Czechoslovak Legion was formed in examples I will examine factors including putting the military on high alert. Both chose to use a naval blockade instead of the first weeks of the war, starting off with the likelihood of nuclear weapons being Kennedy and Khrushchev were willing a tactical air strike, because he knew the a 720 men Druzhina, they managed to used and the possible response, what the to take risks like these because they were air strike would result in Soviet deaths, grow into two divisions of 100,000 men goals of the countries involved were, what eager to appear strong, Khrushchev and he wanted to avoid Khrushchev’s by 1918. When the revolution started, military preparations each country made, because he wanted to step out of Stalin’s anger as much as possible. Similarly, the Czech legion was in a very confused and the scale of the conflict. shadow, and Kennedy because he had despite Castro’s begging, Khrushchev position. They no longer had a home Many have argued that the Cuban Missile used the Republicans’ lack of action on refused to let him use missiles even if because a bulk of them were POWs from Crisis was the closest we have ever come communism as a major campaign point, Cuba was invaded, saying they would the German controlled Czechoslovakia to thermonuclear warfare, to the extent so he could not now be seen as soft. only be used with a direct order from and the others were from Ukraine which that the world at the time was convinced Moscow. This, more than anything, was now uncontrolled. They were also we were on the brink of another world The Berlin Blockade and showed that Khrushchev was not going surrounded by at least four armies and war. The case for the Cuban Missile Airlift was the moment that to use his missiles unless the US used no one knew if they were at war with Crisis is clear. For thirteen days, both the theirs first (even if they invaded his main them or not. To make things worse, it was USA and the USSR had nuclear weapons came the closest ally, Cuba). Any military preparations the November, and the temperatures had pointed at each other, and both seemed to countries made were in self-defence, not fallen to almost -20 degrees. be willing to do anything to get the other’s Kennedy took this so far, that he even preparations to attack. Kennedy made They weren’t planning on just freezing to weapons removed, and save face. On top threatened Khrushchev that keeping this obvious when he chose not to launch death in Russia so a collective decision of that, some of the superpowers’ actions Soviet missiles on Cuba would be a a response to the death of a U2 pilot, was reached to begin their long march could easily be perceived to be aggressive, “grave risk to the peace of the world”. proving that he was really only going home to Czech and Slovakia. The first such as America’s naval blockade of The combination of incredibly high to launch an attack if the US itself was tensions, an eagerness to act, and both attacked first. And Khrushchev made it Czechoslovak Legion Cuba, and the USSR shooting down a U2

9 10 clear he was not planning on attacking America’s policy, although aggressive and preparation for conflict. Although Stalin first when he withdrew the missiles from potentially cruel at times was intended may not have been preparing an all-out Cuba without consulting Castro, risking to confine them to only the Korean invasion, it’s clear that the Allies were his relationship with his primary ally in War, and this meant it was unlikely war preparing for some sort of aggression, the West. Khrushchev’s actions, and the would break out from what was really and with men like Lucius Clay who were risks he took to prevent conflict make it just another proxy war. However, one determined to defend West Berlin no clear he was not going to act aggressively, could argue that Daniel Ellsberg’s report matter what, it isn’t out of the question likely because he was scared of the on nuclear weapons in South Korea that a minor incident, such as a U2 plane consequences. As Kennedy was also so makes this conflict much more fraught cautious, and unwilling to risk starting a with tension. According to Ellsberg, the war the Cuban Missile Crisis was not as power to deploy nuclear missiles had close to inciting another world war as it been given to Air Force Majors in South is often portrayed, because both leaders Korea if communications with the US were too afraid to make the first move. were down and there was an attack on the US. Although this sounds alarming to begin with, it glazes over the fact that deploying nuclear missiles just means they are available for immediate use, not being detonated. That power still lies only with the President, or in the case of a nuclear attack on the pentagon, Senior Flag of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Regional Commanders. It’s also worth remembering that because this was a being shot down, or armoured vehicles proxy war, confined to Korea, the chances being assembled, could be seen as reason CIA reference photograph of Soviet medium-range ballistic missile in Moscow of an attack on the US were extremely enough to defend what the Allies viewed President Kennedy meeting with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at the Vienna Summit in June, 1961 slim, meaning there was really no risk of to be rightfully theirs. Unlike the Cuban nuclear weapons being dropped on Korea Missile Crisis, where it all came down Others may argue that the Korean War or China. Given that the risk of nuclear to safety, the Berlin Blockade was much When did the world come closest to a Third was the point at which we came closest weapons being used were extremely slim, more about territory. Stalin wanted West to World War 3. When North Korea and the war seemed to be confined to Berlin for himself and knew the only way World War? attacked South Korea on the 25th of June, Korea, there was very little risk of this war to get it was through force, and, unlike 1950, Truman believed the attack on escalating to a world war, and therefore Khrushchev, Stalin had shown himself Gabriel Waters, Year 11 South Korea to have been encouraged, this was not the closest we came to World to be much less reserved about involving or perhaps even organised by the USSR, War 3. himself in conflicts where several million he world came closest to World War the world ever came to a third world the great possibility of a catastrophic and as a result, felt the need to respond. men were killed. Similarly, the Allies 3 in the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, war. In this way, of all the conflicts war. The Cuban Missile Crisis brought The USSR had, in fact, encouraged were intent on remaining in Berlin, and T as it bore the greatest resemblance to the mentioned, The Cuban Missile Crisis the world closest to World War 3 because this invasion, although only privately. unlike in Cuba, where both parties could events of the Second World War, with one resembled the Second World War most it was the two largest powers who were However, the US never declared war, be convinced to back down through side starting to encroach on the other’s closely. John Swift agrees that “In the directly involved. Furthermore, the crisis meaning they were only ever ‘militarily negotiation, there was no way to negotiate territory. Moreover, the Cuban Missile final analysis, the world was fortunate included Cuba and Turkey, on a global involved’, and even then their troops over territory. Stalin’s recklessness Crisis met all the criteria for a world war; that the greatest crisis of the Cold War scale, and dealt with the most devastating were labelled as UN troops. Similarly, and determination to have something, it involved superpowers, ideals, and large- arose when it did. At a later date, when weapons out of the four events. It was the USSR never got directly involved in compared to Khrushchev’s more cautious scale weaponry. This was the most direct decisions could be made in minutes, the not just a testing ground, like Vietnam, as the Korean war. However, China did. In policy, and focus on remaining safe, in face-off of the opposing sides: America consequences could easily have been intercontinental missiles were involved, October of 1950 Chinese troops crossed addition to the Allies’ persistence, and the and the Soviet Union. Although there was catastrophic.” He is correct in saying which could affect the whole world. This, the Yalu River to assist North Korean nature of the conflict, are why the Berlin little actual fighting in the Cuban Missile that a tension unparalleled by the other combined with the idealistic nature of troops, pushing back against American N Korean soldiers stage a battle drill in the late 1960s Blockade came closer to inciting war than Crisis, it is vital to remember that World events built up, and that one trigger the event, made it very much like a third advances. Fortunately, much like Stalin, the Cuban Missile Crisis did. War 3 did not actually happen and so it could have set off a war, only if the date world war. Khrushchev’s secret letter to China’s new leader, Mao, viewed this as The Berlin Blockade was Stalin’s response To conclude, although the Korean is irrelevant that Vietnam, for example, was slightly less conveniently timed. In Kennedy, from October 26th 1962, gives a cheap Cold War victory and a way to to the introduction of a new currency in War and the Cuban Missile Crisis included more fighting. The question May 1962, Nikita Khrushchev armed a first-hand hint of the mounting tension, assert his power, not the precursor to a West Berlin, and the Airlift was the West’s were incredibly tense and potentially is about scale, ideals, and how large an the Communist Cuba with many high- stating that “If you have not lost your world war. Ultimately, for the communist way of making it clear they intended dangerous conflicts, the Korean War effect the weapons involved could have quality arms, including missile erectors. self-control and sensibly conceive what superpowers, this was no more than a to stay in Berlin. However, some US was a war that showed no signs of ever had. While there was a direct standoff As Swift goes on to argue, “Kennedy’s this might lead to, then, Mr President, potential propaganda victory, and neither senior military officers, such as Lucius leaving Korea, and therefore could not in the Berlin Blockade of 1948 between presidency also saw the world stand we and you ought not now to pull on the made moves to extend the war beyond Clay, considered an immediate military have caused World War 3, and the Cuban East and West Berlin, and the North and on the brink of nuclear war during the ends of the rope in which you have tied Korea. For the US, this was a simple case response, instructing the military to send Missile Crisis was not only a stalemate South in the Korean War of 1950, they Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962.” the knot of war, because the more we of containment, not rollback. Although armed convoys to Berlin. This may have in which neither party was willing to were contained instances of fighting that Kennedy ordered a blockade on Cuba, pull, the tighter the knot will be tied.” some records show military hawks, in been because he feared an attack from move, but also a crisis that could be rather had little outside effect and are better demanding that Khrushchev remove Indeed, Broderick notes that “An obvious particular, General MacArthur requested the USSR on Berlin, given that the Red quickly resolved with some diplomacy. regarded as testing grounds. The Vietnam these missiles. In return, Kennedy had legacy of the management of these crises, permission to drop atomic bombs on Army was still present in and around The Berlin Blockade and Airlift, on the War was an individual investment that got to move his own missiles from Turkey, which is surprisingly easy to overlook, China after the Yalu River pushback, it Berlin. And, given that Truman sent B-29 other hand, was a conflict with no clear far out of hand for the USA and plunged but on 28 October 1962, Khrushchev is that I am alive to write this article and is clear that Truman flatly denied these bombers capable of carrying nuclear solutions, where both sides had shown them into disillusionment, but did not removed these warheads in order to you are alive to read it.” Broderick makes requests and even fired MacArthur missiles to West Germany in 1949, it’s themselves to be more willing to take directly involve the USSR. Thus, the “eliminate…the conflict” (Khrushchev it clear that had it not been for stable after several months of disagreement, clear that the West was worried about risks, consequently bringing us closest to Vietnam War cannot be said to have made speaking to Kennedy). Since Khrushchev management, this event could have had releasing a statement that confirmed the threat posed by Stalin throughout World War 3. the world come close to World War 3, as it was addressing his opposition, he would a huge impact further in the future; such the US was still very much dedicated to the Berlin Blockade. In fact, some was localised and isolated. have felt the need to lie and pretend the an impact would surely be the result of limiting the war to Korea, and even stated weeks before the end of the blockade reason for withdrawing missiles was a world war. To summarise, the Cuban this was “to prevent another world war.” America formed NATO, potentially as The Cuban Missile Crisis was the most direct standoff between USSR and peace. In fact, this source is exceptionally Missile Crisis was by far the closest that USA, and involved ideals and large- valuable as it reveals new information to the world ever came to a third world war, scale weapons, making it the closest us as to how Khrushchev actually feared as it met all the criteria of a world war: it

11 12 had large-scale weapons in the form of French and Soviet zones. America, savagely, causing a strong anti-Japanese missiles, it had idealistic clashes in the Britain and France’s formation of a revolution to occur under the Communist form of capitalism and communism, and single zone, called Trizonia, was taken Ho Chi Minh, who was very skilled and involved the world’s two superpowers; the by Stalin as a provocation. Trizonia was charismatic. After World War 2, the other events missed at least one criterion. recovering, with the West pouring in French wanted to rule Vietnam again, but The Korean War was “The first great money as a symbol of Capitalism. The Ho wasn’t prepared to allow this. From confrontation of the Cold War”, but tensions between the East and West of 1949, Ho was supported by China which not the closest it came to a third world Berlin caused Stalin to try and stamp had become a Communist state in the war. While the Communists and anti- his authority down on Berlin, by cutting same year. Even with the USA’s $500 Communists were fighting each other off two million people of West Berlin million, the French had to back out of in a clear-cut, open war, it was a very from Western help. Over the next three Vietnam in 1954. After a Geneva peace contained battle. The Korean War was months, the West air-lifted supplies to conference, the country was divided into more of a testing ground to symbolise West Berlin, eventually causing Stalin to North and South. As a result, in 1965, a US-Soviet conflict without having to reopen communications. “Berlin was the the USA effectively became at war with commit to mutual destruction, thus symbol of the Cold War, but also the point Vietnam (siding with South Vietnam), and missing the ‘large-scale’ factor of a world where the western Allies were at their poured in $500 billion to the war effort, war. “In Truman’s words: ‘The Reds were most vulnerable. To stop them setting up losing due to many factors, including probing for weaknesses in our armour; we a West German state in 1948, a blockade the North Vietnamese’s guerrilla tactics. had to meet their thrust without getting of West Berlin was the obvious measure The war finally ended in 1975, after $168 embroiled in a world-wide war.’ This was for Stalin to take. billion spent by the Americans. It was a achieved by testing the Soviets on the Militarily it made sense for the Western symbol that the USA tried to implement, battleground of Korea. What is more, the Allies to pull out from such an isolated which did involve the domino theory, but USA managed not to get involved in a outpost, but if they had, they would was mainly an independent investment third world war, thanks to the container have lost credibility as protectors of the by the USA that got very out of hand. On that was Korea. In 1950 the previously West German state and abandoned the February 25, 1964, President Lyndon B. mounting tensions between the West Berlin population to the USSR and Johnson said, “We could pull out of there, Communist north of Korea and the anti- their East German allies.” The use of the the dominoes would fall and that part of the world would go to the Communists.” Communist south turned to open warfare, word “credibility” demonstrates that the Poster from the Cultural Revolution, featuring Chairman Mao, and published by the government of the People’s Republic of China with the country eventually being split blockade was a symbolic one, and not a It was clearly just the USA’s concern, in two (much like it was before 1950). global one. It was not so much fuelled whether justified or not, that exacerbated Despite much deeply gruelling fighting, by ideals, more by authority and power. this conflict. The Soviets didn’t seem “Nevertheless, Berlin remained a thorn to be bothered and so it was quite an How and why did Mao’s methods of control change in the side of US-Soviet relations and the unprovoked American investment. On next ten years witnessed an increasing the one hand, it was tragic for America during the early period of the Cultural Revolution? isolation of the Eastern and Western to lose, and for Capitalism as a whole. sectors from each other.” This implies It showed that a great superpower like Georgie Walker, Year 13 that Berlin was a cause of the tension America could be toppled by a small which grew into the event closest to a Communist nation. But it was a localised Third World War: the Cuban Missile battle, that did not involve the world’s hairman Mao famously described Therefore, despite the complexity and Revolution as a means of ridding the Crisis. Despite this, these tensions existed other superpower, the USSR. Therefore, Cthe Cultural Revolution as ‘a single confusion of the Cultural Revolution, it is Communist Party of internal enemies. earlier and were bound to increase, it didn’t come close to a third world war, spark that started a prairie fire’, and start a evident that Mao initially relied heavily As a result of the document, alongside due to the opposition of two powerful, despite the scale of horror in the battle. fire it most certainly did. Plunging China on his cult of personality to persuade Mao’s public endorsement of numerous The victorious Vietnamese entering the former While a terrible conflict, it was not a into 10 years of political and social chaos, the urban student population to rise dazibao (handwritten, anonymous US base of Danang in 1975 ideologically different nations. Moreover, there were no large-scale weapons that direct conflict, meaning it was not the Mao’s attempt to use the Chinese masses up against the ‘corrupt Communist posters containing complaints about the conflict was contained in Korea. It was were ‘brandished’, only supplies were closest the world ever came to World War to both reinvigorate Communist ideology bureaucrats’ within the party; however, government officials), students had merely a testing ground that proved that brought (albeit three planes per minute’s 3. and reassert control over the Communist the violence which was provoked mobilised into paramilitary units known both powers had the potential to damage worth of them). It was a judgement of the Put simply, the Cuban Missile Crisis met party by purging its ranks caused the compelled Mao to rely solely on military as ‘Red Guards’ by August 1966, pledging each other. The roughly even split at character and nature of the other side. all of the criteria needed for a world war death of up to 2 million citizens, as his force to reassert control over the student to carry out Mao’s socialist vision. Under the end though, symbolises the mutual If one side attacked, this nature would to begin, thus being the closest the world incitement of the student population population itself. the campaign to wipe out the ‘Four Olds’ destruction that they were able to pose. be revealed. The domino theory does ever came to a third world war; it was an against the Communist Party hierarchy – ideas, customs, cultures and habits – the However, a symbol is incomparable to a not apply here, however, as the East of idealistic clash, with large-scale weapons spiralled wildly out of control. Students had mobilised Red Guards were encouraged by Mao crisis on the brink of a world war. Thus, Europe was already vastly Communist- involved (in the form of missiles), and the Although the Cultural Revolution lasted a to destroy any remnants of traditional while Korea involved an idealistic clash, dominated. Thus, to reiterate, this world’s two superpowers. Although the decade (from May 1966 until Mao’s death into paramilitary units ... values, with the majority of historical sites it simply was not large-scale enough to was merely a test case to specifically other events may have had a larger impact in September 1976), it is evident that pledging to carry out Mao’s and cultural relics destroyed as a result. be considered a situation near to world experiment with power and character, in a single area of the criteria, the Cuban the most extreme turmoil occurred in its The publication of the ‘Sixteen Points’ th war. Therefore, the Cuban Missile Crisis and not so much ideals. These are reasons Missile Crisis had them all to a high early years, and so this article will focus socialist vision declaration on August 8 1966 elevated outranks the Korean War when asked why the Berlin Blockade did not bring the degree. Finally, it is vital to remember on the crucial time period from 1966 to this student movement into a nationwide when the world came closest to a third world as alarmingly close to a third world that the amount of fighting in the event 1969. It is also clear that different phases The period from the Cultural Revolution’s mass campaign of disobedience, world war. war as the Cuban Missile Crisis. is ultimately irrelevant in this argument. of revolution occurred during this time. beginning – in May 1966 – until January instructing the ‘proletariat…to struggle against and crush those people in The Berlin Blockade was a situation that While the tragedy of Vietnam makes The whole meaning of ‘The Cold War’ These phases are distinguished firstly by 1967 is defined by the advocacy of authority who are taking the capitalist did make the world come fairly close to it difficult to suggest the world did not is that no fighting ever really happened the shift in who it was Mao was trying to disorder and terror, as Mao attempted road’: in this way, a campaign of murder a third world war. It was a direct face- come close to a Third World War, it was between the two superpowers, and the control; initially, he wanted to reassert to transform China’s administration and intimidation against China’s off between Soviets and Americans and not a direct standoff between the USSR question is that of when the world came authority over the Party, however he soon into a more popular-based system intellectual and political elites was given involved splitting a nation, which was and USA and was, therefore, missing one closest to World War 3, not actually to a needed to reassert control over the forces personally led by him. The publication official approval. warlike. Despite this, no fighting actually of the criteria needed to define a near- world war itself. Thus, the world came which had actually been unleashed for of a Chinese Communist Party Central th took place and, again, it was merely a world war situation. Until World War 2, closest to World War 3 in the time of the this very purpose. Secondly, these phases Committee Document on May 16 The strength of Mao’s cult of personality “test case” for the allies. After World Vietnam had been ruled by France. Then, Cuban Missile Crisis. are distinguished by the varying balance 1966 – outlining Mao’s concerns about was such that the release of a central nd War 2 and the Nazis’ defeat, Germany during World War 2, the Japanese invaded between Mao’s use of either his cult of ‘bourgeois’ infiltrators in his party and directive message on August 22 1966 – was divided into American, British, it and treated the Vietnamese people personality or his use of terror to control government – demonstrated Mao’s official which instructed the police not to prevent the Chinese population. ideological justifications for the Cultural the violence of the Red Guards – left 100

13 14 officials dead from the ruling and middle relocated to the countryside to experience classes in Beijing’s Western District alone, working life. Launched in December with zealous revolutionaries whipped into 1968, the programme’s dispersal – and a hysterical fervour by the instruction hence neutralisation – of millions of of their so-called ‘Supreme Leader’. Red Guards students can be seen as The still-centralised nature of terror a clear recognition of the detrimental advocation can be seen in the fact that, social disruption brought about by Mao’s in response to the emergence of two rival advocation of a revolutionary and violent factions – one supporting Mao’s purging of youth population. Therefore, Mao’s the Communist Party, the other backing primary instrument of revolution – whose the moderate party establishment – Mao very aim was to ‘make China Maoist actually called for an ‘all-around civil war’ from the inside out’ – was shown to have in December 1966. surpassed even his own desire for social This set the stage for the anarchy amongst anarchy. The subsequent implementation of a military dictatorship under Lin Biao rival revolutionary groups which was “To villages we go, to the borders we go, to places in the to define the next phase of the Cultural fatherland where we are most needed we go.” Advert seemingly undermined the revolution’s Revolution. Indeed, Mao’s desire for for Mao's Down to the Countryside Movement. original intention to create a socialist continued chaos as a means to achieve his state in which the population was ultimate vision of socialist control can be the spiralling social disorder, Defence not constrained by the authority of seen in his continuation of revolution in Minister and Mao’s second-in-command bureaucrats and public officials. October 1966, despite having eliminated Lin Biao ordered the army to aid the his key Politburo rivals – President Liu radicals. However, instead of producing Shaoqi and CCP General Secretary Deng unified support for the revolutionaries, Xiaoping – from the party. Prominent this simply engendered further tensions sinologist Roderick MarFarquhar claims between factions both within the army that ‘the fact he continued the revolution and with other organisations. In the […] showed that he genuinely wished to city of Wuhan, the army went directly carry out this crazy idea of making the against the central directive, siding whole country revolutionary.’ with conservative groups in July 1967 to repress the revolutionaries in the area: the ‘Wuhan Incident’, as it came to be known, involved the kidnapping of one of Mao’s emissaries, and forced Mao to imprison the regional army general Chen Zaidao in Chinese peasants read Mao’s ‘Little Red Book’, an attempt to establish authority over the of which anywhere from 800 million to over 6.5 increasingly lawless army. billion copies were distributed By late 1968, Mao had realised that the revolution had extended beyond his own As a final thought, however, perhaps the A wall plastered in ‘dazibao’, which were big- most significant lesson to take from the character posters used for protest, propaganda control; his instruction of the army in early 1969 to restore order demonstrates Cultural Revolution’s early, most radical and public denounciation during the Cultural stages, is not the fact that Mao was forced Revolution his disillusionment with the Red Guards over their inability to overcome factional to dismantle the very apparatus he had Protesters in central Bishkek on March 24, 2005 In fact, the period from February 1967 to differences. It is important to note that, set up to carry out his revolution, but the February 1968 is described by historians whilst official CCP sources blame the fact that the Cultural Revolution achieved as ‘virtual civil war’, and marks a fanaticism of students and workers for precisely the opposite of what it had been The Tulip Revolution significant departure from the centrally- intended for. After the bloody violence the destructive anarchy of the Cultural Tianle Shao, Year 13 controlled student protests with which Revolution; it was Mao himself who brought about during the initial years, the Cultural Revolution had begun. had originally intended to create ‘great the remaining leadership (most notably Deng Xiaoping) was forced to realise it Spurred by the success of the violent disorder under heaven’, in order to th had to prioritise growth at any ideological he Kyrgyzstan’s Revolutions of authoritarian rule, with the previously Abad on March 19 , which ultimately purging of elites in Beijing, numerous overcome the bureaucracy which he 2005 and 2010 marks the former mentioned revolutions achieving this led to the opposition occupying all major duoquan groups (‘power seizure’ groups) perceived to be so deeply ingrained in cost if the Communist Party were to T have a chance of surviving, signalling the Soviet Republic’s gradual transition from in a largely bloodless way. The Tulip southern cities in Kyrgyzstan. Soon after, formed across the country, intending to China. In an attempt to re-centralise the th advent of China’s embracing of free- authoritarian rule to possible democracy. Revolution, however, was far bloodier on March 24 , Akayleb fled to Russia with overturn existing Party power structures. Cultural Revolution and this ‘disorder’ rd The first Kyrgyz Revolution of 2005, than any other previous colour revolution. his resignation announced on April 3 . Mao’s praise of the overthrowing of in 1968, Mao instructed Revolutionary market principles which have enabled known widely as the Tulip Revolution, The revolution began shortly after the However, this did not mark an end to the Shanghai Municipal Government Committees to assume responsibility it to become the global superpower of saw the ousting of Director Askar Akayev, February and March Parliamentary the confusion and revolution. Multiple on January 3rd 1967 further incited for the consolidation of his vision of today. This raises the larger question and an end to his nearly 15-year reign as elections, after Akayev supporters gained influential government officials were various insurrectionary power-grabs Socialism, replacing the communes which as to whether revolutions themselves president, the only president Kyrgyzstan 65 out of 75 council seats. The opposition murdered after Akayev’s resignation, across China. However, the increasing had been set up by revolutionaries. Many really end: as China’s current leadership has known since independence. The accused Akaylev of corruption and and even after the new elections. The lack of centralised leadership amongst historians have noted that the persecution publicly ‘re-normalises’ Maoist political Tulip Revolution followed a trend election-rigging resulted in the breaking Tulip Revolution was also different to revolutionaries began to manifest itself by these committees of thousands of culture – with catchphrases such as of similar revolutions known as the out of large protests, starting from previous colour revolutions such as the in utter chaos, as can be illustrated people accused of factionalism and rectification (disciplining of wayward ‘Colour Revolutions,” which includes Southern cities such as Osh and Jalal- Georgian Rose Revolution and Ukranian by the declaration of power by three counterrevolutionary activities from party members) assimilating back into the 1986 Yellow Revolution of the Abad. These protests were characterised Orange Revolution, in that no clear leader separate duoquan groups on one day in 1969-1971 in fact marks the most violent official rhetoric – it is clear that, despite Philippines, 1989 Velvet Revolution by a violence unseen in previous colour for the opposition quickly took power. Beijing. Instead of working to overthrow period of the Cultural Revolution. its apparent turn away from Maoist principles, China will bear the political, of Czechoslovakia, and the 2003 Rose revolutions, including the bombing of In fact, the opposition consisted of a the existing Party set-ups, as Mao had Perhaps the most famous of Mao’s originally intended, many local groups social and psychological burden of the Revolution of Georgia. These revolutions the home of opposition leader Roza coalition of 44 parties, and the interim policies during this stage was the ‘Down Cultural Revolution for many years to were characterised by largely peaceful Otunbayeva, and violent clashes between government struggled to decide on a operated along long-established feudal to the Countryside Movement’, in which lines, leading to factional violence come. protests often led by opposition leaders riot police and opposition protestors. This leader. Eventually former Prime Minister an estimated 17 million young urbanites and students, against dictatorial and included a 50,000 strong march in Jalal- Kurmanbek Bakiyev was made interim across the provinces. In order to contain between the ages of 15 and 23 were

15 16 BOOK REVIEW

Four Princes: Henry VIII, Francis I, Charles V, Suleiman The Magnificent and the Obsessions that Forged Modern Europe John Julius Norwich

Tully Hyams, Year 13

here is a great deal to be said for the of Mohács, Norwich recounts the history in the mid-1500s by Charles’ Empire Tingenuity and originality of Norwich’s in all its astounding abhorrence as to spanning both modern day Germany and Protest rally in central Bishkek approach to the history of the early 16th- seem positively fictitious. For better (as Spain, and Henry’s Reformed England, century Mediterranean. A period Norwich historians) or for worse (as those heads) that Suleiman was “alone able to exert feels to be worthy of celebration, and what Norwich describes is an actual event pressure on the Empire from the east… president and prime minister, and he declared, leading to the arrest of several parliamentary republic similar to that of upon reading the book I am very much so major as to be firmly ingrained into ideal for his purposes.” Nonetheless, the subsequently won the July presidential opposition leaders. Protests on April 7th India. The chaos finally died down after inclined to agree. Hungarian folklore to this day. Using truly remarkable connections between elections with 90% of the vote. in the capital Bishkek numbered around the Kyrgyzstani parliamentary election th Fixating upon the lives, characters, this narrative style, interspersed with these princes lies with the European The peace would only be temporary, as 5,000 protesters; they overwhelmed the on 10 October 2010, which saw the achievements and failures of four of timely quips which Gerard DeGroot three – connected each to the other as Bakiyev himself was toppled from power police, seized weaponry, and stormed election of Almazbek Atambayev. By this the most important rulers of the period underscores as “quite simply wonderful” family not just geographically, not simply following the 2010 Kyrgyz Revolution, the parliament building, proclaiming time, a total of 2,000 people had died in who all happened to roughly coincide in his review of the book, opens the realm politically. The competition felt between only 5 years after the Tulip Revolution. an interim government with Roza the revolution and around 400,000 had on the tide of Renaissance, Norwich for the debate on history as a truth of past these rivals ostracises Suleiman as the The 2010 revolution would be one of the Otunbayeva at its head. been displaced from a population of just maintains an analysis of how these rulers affairs, versus history as an interpreted, outcast his culture, faith and indeed most violent and bloody in recent history. over 5 million. interacted and how each “individually constructed narrative (as Norwich would geography so made him out to be in the The peace would only be Since then however, Kyrgyzstan has Bakiyev failed to meet expectations after left his indelible imprint…transforming no doubt see it). Indeed, DeGroot goes as early-modern context. experienced its first non-violent transition he was elected in 2005, with accusations temporary, as Bakiyev the civilized world.” Never before has a far as to say “Some people read history as However, when Norwich casts light of presidents in the 2017 presidential of corruption and cronyism piling up. historian interpreted the period in such a a hobby. John Julius Norwich writes it.” on what was to become the gateway to himself was toppled from elections, which has been described This was in addition to a poor economic comparative fashion. And the similarities The innovation in this book’s aim meets more interaction with the Middle East as “Central Asia’s first competitive situation, which included energy price and interactions of the four princes, tenuousness where we witness the namely with ambassador Jean de La power following the 2010 Presidential election.” This could mark a rises of over 400% for heating in 2010. Henry VIII of England, Francis I of structure less than convincingly shoe- Forêt’s securing of the capitulations for future with more economic growth and Bakiyev’s government was met with Kyrgyz Revolution France, Emperor Charles V, and Suleiman horning the reality. Throughout much of French traders and goods to be protected th less violence for the Kyrgyz people; but violent protests starting on 6 April the Magnificent of the Ottomans, are the first half Suleiman hardly plays a role (effectively creating a monopoly in the Following the exile of Bakiyev to Belarus, only time will tell. 2010, and a state of emergency was overall credibly portrayed. and interacts next to nothing with the Orient), Norwich explores how this age further riots erupted in the southern European counterparts Norwich so seeks set the tone for European expansion cities Osh and Jalal-Abad in June, where The book provides a cohesive account to align him with. That is until Francis abroad. Likewise, Norwich alludes to supporters of Bakiyev clashed with of each individual prince such that sends a diplomatic mission in 1535. Europe in the New World, in particular the Uzbek minority in the region. This it constructs a firm and fairly broad Suleiman’s place appears tokenistic to a to those early Spanish missions which ultimately forced Uzbekistan to open its introduction to early-modern European narrative dominated by European affairs, brought greater wealth to Charles. In his borders to take in Uzbek refugees, and history, irrespective of any preconceived afforded only by fact of his supremacy conclusions on Henry he suggests “Had the interim government to declare a state niche of interest. For those convinced at the time, less by the actuality of his he lavished on South America half the of emergency. By this point, however, of a stagnancy to this period’s history interactions with the other three. Norwich attention that he paid to his grotesquely almost 1,000 people had died, and this book does much to reverse such even admits this when he says, “The outdated ambitions in France, it is quite 250,000 Uzbeks refugees had fled to judgment. This is aided by the easy- Turks were so remote, [Henry’s Cardinal possible that parts of that continent might Uzbekistan. Minorities such as Russians flowing narrative which works to Wolsey] said, that they really did not be speaking English today.” Relating and Meskhetian Turks in Bishkek were transform the historical figures of interest affect England at all”. This raises the back to the modern day makes Norwich’s similarly targeted. more into protagonists of a wider drama of intrigue and divisiveness. For instance, debate of Eurocentrism: where Norwich history appear more relevant, and his Kyrgyzstan’s governmental system was where Francis “The Most Christian King attempts to revise and account for it, princes more impressive. changed from a presidential system to a of France” colluded with “The Infidel”, he perhaps oversteps and overstates Overall Norwich’s attempt to examine Mr Bakiyev in the southern Jalalabad region, his Suleiman, against the Emperor Charles V the relevance of the Ottomans to the the characters who effectively ruled the stronghold, after fleeing Bishkek amid the protests Protestors outside the Kyrgyz government before signing a treaty with the Emperor Europeans. Yet as he retorts in the closing Mediterranean in the early-16th century th headquarters , April 8 2010 at Crépy-en-Laonnois in 1543, “after chapter, ‘Worth Celebrating’, which in a comparative, and thus revisionist which [Suleiman] very nearly impaled seeks to legitimise his comparison, the fashion is successful and laudable. Its the luckless French ambassador”. interactions that did occur were essential limits being only where this approach Depicting such grotesque abuses of power to shaping the landscape of European causes an overestimation of the Ottoman as Suleiman’s stacking of a pyramid of politics thereafter. In particular, those role in what were matters confined mostly 2,000 Hungarian heads after the Battle with Francis who was so entrapped to a European stage.

17 18 BOOK REVIEW ruthlessness,” Germany erupted into leaving the mob to pursue his ideological “An orgy of elemental violence against views. For most of the party activists, their its Jewish minority” which was named reasoning was based mostly on self-interest History Trip to Paris - Easter 2019 Reichskristallnacht after the millions of when participating in the campaign. Orla McMenamin & Tully Hyams, Year 13 fragments of broken glass outside wrecked Kershaw outlines that “Aryans” in business Hitler Jewish shops. Despite the blatant backing looked to every opportunity to profit at the Nazi mobs had from Hitler and the rest the expense of their Jewish counterparts. fter a nervous start, with the scare of spilled during the Revolution. In the space Palais de Justice that we were confused Ian Kershaw of the state, Hitler was hesitant to declare Hundreds of Jewish businesses including Aa potential 5 a.m. meet at St Pancras of a few minutes on this visit we could when Dr Dabby claimed what was within this anti-Jewish campaign publicly. After the well established banks such as Warburg due to the supposed 29th March Brexit look at several generations of history and to be more beautiful than Notre Dame. deadline where after we maybe ought how they interacted. In this way the trip The upper chapel, bathed in a radiance of Victor Bennet, Year 13 main synagogue in Munich was demolished and Bleichroder were forced to sell out for a on June 9th, 1938, Hitler gave reasoning for fraction of their value. Furthermore, “Aryan to have been in an ether of sovereignty provided us with a new angle on the affairs reds and blues from the 15 stained glass its destruction being that the building was Pillars” of the establishment like doctors and glorious independence, our group of 18th and 19th century France; it was windows, soon persuaded us. This was a hindrance to traffic, rather than the real and lawyers were equally welcoming of the of fourteen embarked upon the Eurostar refreshing to examine historical progression juxtaposed with a more sombre visit to the reason being its proximity to the Deutsches economic advantages that could come their (for perhaps our last time). We arrived outside the confines of chronology and dungeons where Marie-Antoinette was held Kunstlerhaus. The fact Hitler does not admit way following the expulsion of the Jews. in Paris a few hours later, stepping out textbook accounts, and instead in a more in her final hours. Further south from the t is undeniable that Germany held an to the synagogue’s destruction being racially Therefore, Kershaw leads us to believe that of the metro and the typical charm of geographical, off-the-cuff fashion. After Seine the darker mood intensified as we expansionist policy up until late 1939, I fuelled, rather arguing for its practical we cannot attribute the brutality that took those putrid-smelling tunnels and into a stop at the Champs du Mars, somewhat entered the Catacombs, a unique historical seeking and achieving lebensraum in reason alludes to Kershaw’s argument that place from November 1938 towards Jews the sunlight, right before the grandeur of shrouded today in the shadow of the Eiffel landmark bearing the skeletal remnants of the forms of Austria and Czechoslovakia in fact Hitler did supress his ideological aims as Hitler’s doing, rather Kershaw makes it one of Paris’ sectional assemblies - now a Tower, we went along the Seine to find almost 7 million bodies which was filled over from early 1938 to late 1939. However, for political expansion. clear that the Nazi mob acted in their own cosmetics store. Dumping suitcases at the ourselves before the Notre Dame Cathedral. a period of 12 years and now occupies ten another wish of Hitler’s personalised self-interest. hotel, we then set out into northern Paris, It seems we were uniquely fortunate to have kilometres of haunting passageways. Weltanschauung was his desire to fulfil his beginning our weekend getaway with a visited this masterpiece of medieval gothic ideological criteria. Predominantly, Hitler’s Kershaw, however, does pin some For the final visit of our brief getaway, we responsibility on the role of the fuhrer - hike up Montmartre, the once bustling red architecture, the product of 200 years of left Paris by train for Versailles. A pivotal ideological beliefs were channelled on light district now turned tourist haven, to labour and the survivor of two world wars, in solving the “Jewish Question,” the belief however indirect or direct – on evoking site whether one is studying the French this brutality towards Jews. Kershaw see the Sacré Coeur. The views from here what is now the aftermath of a great tragedy Revolution or the (in)famous Treaty of that behind Germany’s economic struggle set the perfect backdrop for our historical befallen to the French people and the lay Jewish profit. In Kershaw’s chapter mentions that “each group, agency, or Versailles signed there some years later. individual involved in pushing forward the introduction to first-hand Paris, the hub culture of the world. The sheer beauty and expanse of the palace “Marks of a Genocidal Mentality” Kershaw of revolutionary activity at the very heart discusses how Hitler managed to juggle radicalisation of anti-Jewish discrimination was simply unimaginable when described had vested interests.” Kershaw goes on of our studies of the past two terms. From The views from here set the in Room 3 of the history department. And these two wishes, highlighting historical here began a tour of the French capital, evidence indicating moments which to add that “uniting them all and giving perfect backdrop for our after lunch, we stumbled upon a similarly justification to them was the vision of racial steeped in acute historical detail, peppered serendipitous building, whose initially characterised either a priority of ideological with quizzes and pointers from Dr Dabby or expansionist plans. purification and, in particular, of a “Jew- historical introduction to underwhelming appearance gave no justice free” Germany embodied in the person of and Miss Martin, and informed by a whole to its underlying significance. After all, it Kershaw initially presents a more nuanced the Fuhrer.” Kershaw seems to imply here host of museums and public sites of the first-hand Paris was from here, the tennis court where the aspect to his argument that Hitler’s rd th that regardless of Hitler’s wish to distance revolutionary period. 3 Estate resolved to take their oath on 20 ideological aims had so far played only a himself from the campaign, he will always The self-guided tour provided freedom Days two and three had an itinerary of June 1789, that the revolution commenced. subordinate role in his expansionist policy be responsible for the atrocities given his and flexibility, allowing us to go wherever further impressive sites for us to explore. We With this final destination bringing us to up until 1939. Kershaw seems to suggest title as the “Fuhrer.” Perhaps, Kershaw is we wanted; it just so happened that en- began by visiting the Dôme des Invalides the place where French modern history that Hitler’s ideological aims acted as a hinting that Hitler acknowledged the power route to Notre Dame we came across the which included a stately military chapel began, we picked up our bags and headed causation factor for his expansionist policy, that comes with the title and consciously exact spot where Louis XVI’s corpse was built by “the Sun King” Louis XIV, now to the Eurostar. Everyone on the trip would highlighting that “it was Hitler’s belief decided to leave the campaign to the found, tossed unceremoniously upon the the resting place of Napoleon and other like to thank Dr Dabby and Miss Martin since the 1920s that German salvation Nazi mob, being able to simultaneously ground. Now built upon this site was the French military heroes. We then continued for “enlightening” us with their expansive could only come through a titanic struggle accomplish both his ideological and political Expiatory Chapel, commissioned by Louis through the back streets of Paris, arriving knowledge of the history of Paris and for for supremacy in Europe, and for eventual aims. XVIII and finished in the reign of Charles at the Sainte-Chappelle, another gothic making the trip so enjoyable for us all. world power, against mighty enemies It seems that Kershaw’s thesis does X to honour the blood of Louis XVI and staple of the old city. It lies so hidden behind backed by the mightiest of all: international Marie Antoinette, their blood, that was so the austere facades of the mid-19th century Jewry.” Here, Kershaw suggests that certainly come back to the idea that Hitler’s Further evidence of Hitler’s wish to distance Hitler’s wish to occupy and expand German ideological aims had thus far played only a himself from his anti-Jewish campaign is territory was fuelled by the need to solve subordinate role in his expansionist policy The court of honour of the Invalides, Dôme des Invalides abundant prior to the developing Czech the “Jewish Question” and ultimately up until 1938. Kershaw does, nevertheless, crisis. Hitler forbid any discussion by the attempt to eradicate Jewry. The decree of devote a portion of his argument to press surrounding the “Jewish Question” August 1938 can be identified as evidence of highlighting Hitler’s attempt to address in connection with his visits to different Hitler’s need to pair both political expansion his ideological aims. Drawing examples parts of Germany. Moreover, he insisted with Jewish extermination as a means of from the introduction of the fourth branch in September 1938 that his signing of the achieving German Salvation. The August of the SS, as well as the less convincing fifth implementation ordinance under the 1938 decree by Hitler met Himmler’s hint at Hitler’s role as Fuhrer and what Reich Citizenship Law, designed to oust wish to develop an armed wing of the SS. it represented. However, one aspect Jewish Lawyers, should not be publicised. It provided in effect a fourth branch of the of Kershaw’s work which is consistent Kershaw identifies that Hitler’s wish to armed forces – far smaller than the others throughout the chapter “Marks of a not be associated with the campaign was but envisaged as a body of ideologically Genocidal Mentality” is Hitler’s reluctance purely to preserve both his and Germany’s motivated “political soldiers.” Thus, it to radically and publicly pursue his image so as to not interfere with or hinder seemed that this new branch of the SS was ideological aims. This reluctance was very negotiations surrounding the Czech crisis. designed, with Hitler’s full backing, to much derived from Hitler’s wish to pursue Therefore, Kershaw believes that Hitler achieve territorial gains to provide Germany and further his lebensraum and he saw that did subordinate his ideological aims in his with the opportunities for ideological his personal request for new measures to expansionist policy, particularly in order experimentation and the ultimate vision of work against the Jews would fundamentally to secure the Sudetenland and further a racially pure German Reich. This suggests hinder developments in the Sudetenland Czechoslovakia in 1938. that Hitler’s ideological aims had not played in 1938. Kershaw alludes to the idea that a subordinate role in his expansionist policy, Kershaw goes on to add that “Hitler had Hitler was not directly involved in Jewish rather playing as the primary motivation. to do little or nothing to stir the escalating persecution, but more indirectly; using his campaign against the Jews.” Rather, officers to address his problem. Therefore After a speech made by Himmler to top Kershaw holds the view that others pressed this suggests that Hitler’s ideological aims SS leaders on the 8th of November 1938 for action and thus solidifies his view had so far only played a subordinate role in calling for Germany to “drive them [Jews] that Hitler’s ideological aims played a his expansionist policy. out more and more with an unprecedented subordinate role in his expansionist policy,

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