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ISSN 1991-8410 Volume 06, 2011
Editors: Prof. Yasmeen Iqbal, Ph.D Prof. Darlene A. Kluka, Ph.D
Coordinator: Prof. Iqbal Ahmed Qureshi
A Publication of the
Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science University of Sindh, Jamshoro Sindh-Pakistan
1
About Journal (The Shield) ISSN 1991-8410
The HEC recognized Research Journal on Physical Education & Sports Science entitled The Shield is published annually by the Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science, functioning in the Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan. The major objective of bringing out this journal is to provide a forum for the scholars engaged in the study of Physical Education, Health & Sports Science, and the scholars of other faculties that relate their subject matter with this important discipline.
Correspondence: All correspondence and manuscripts should be addressed to the Editors/Director of the Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science, University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan.
Guideline for Contributors: The research paper must be typed, double spaced on A-4 size paper, and limited to 10 – 15 computerized pages to be sent in duplicate, along-with the text in a CD-disc and through E-mail to [email protected] or [email protected]. All contributors should follow the recognized style of typing references and bibliography as incorporated in K. I. Turabian’s manual for term papers and research articles. It would be appreciated if footnotes/ references are given serial numbers/ or alphabetically and be placed at the end of article.
Note: *All statements of fact and opinions expressed in this journal are the sole responsibility of the authors, and do not imply any endorsement on part or whole in any form or shape whatsoever by the editors or publisher.
Ulrich’s Periodical Directory, New Jersey, U.S.A: Research Journal- “The Shield” is listed and indexed in Ulrich’s Periodical Directory, New Jersey, USA and the abstracts of the published articles are cited and printed electronically from its database directory (www.ulrichsweb.com).
Sports Information Resource Centre (SIRC), Ottawa, Canada: The abstract, and indexation of the articles published in “The Shield” are also available at SIRC (Sports Information Resource Centre) Ottawa, Canada, can be viewed electronically (www.sirc.ca).
ProQuest, Wisconsin, USA: The Shield is indexed in Natural Science in ProQuest, publisher and distributor of secondary source reference databases and can be viewed electronically ProQuest - Physical Education Index | Title List (xls)
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Articles of all published volumes of The Shield can be viewed electronically on University of Sindh website: www.usindh.edu.pk, see Research Journal / The Shield
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i The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
PATRON
Prof. Nazir A. Mughal, Ph.D. Vice-Chancellor, University of Sindh, Jamshoro
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Prof. Muhammad Tahir Rajput, Ph.D. Dean, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Sindh, Jamshoro
EDITORS
Prof. Yasmeen Iqbal, Ph.D. Director, Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science, University of Sindh, Jamshoro
Darlene A. Kluka, Ph.D Professor and Coordinator, Sports Management Programs, Barry University, School of Human Performance and Leisure Science, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Miami Shores, Florida, USA
COORDINATOR
Prof. Iqbal Ahmed Qureshi Former Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences Ex-Director, Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science University of Sindh, Jamshoro
ADVISORY BOARD
Prof. Gudrun Doll-Tapper, Ph.D. Prof. Frank Fu, J.P. Ph.D. President, Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences International Council of Sports Science & Hong Kong Baptist University Kowloon Tong, Physical, Berlin, Germany. Hong Kong.
Prof. Colin Higgs, Ph.D. Prof. Dorothee Alferman, Ph.D. School of Human Kinetics and Recreation Faculty of Sports Science & Management Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Leipzig University, Germany
Prof. Afzal Kazmi, Ph.D. Prof. Ikram Hussain, Ph.D. Former Chairman, Deptt. of Physical Health & Sports Education, Department of Physical Education, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India University of Karachi, Karachi
ii An Effect Of Mental Toughness
PANEL OF INTERNATIONAL PEER REVIEWERS
Prof. Colin Higgs, Ph.D. Prof. Frank Fu, J.P. Ph.D. School of Human Kinetics and Recreation Dean, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Faculty of Social Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist Canada University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong.
Prof. Darlene Kluka, Ph.D. Prof. Abel Lamina, Toriola, Ph.D. Professor and Coordinator, Department of Sports, Physical Rehabilitation Sports Management Programs, Barry University, and Dental Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Human Performance and Leisure Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, South Africa Miami Shores, Florida, USA
Farhan M. Khan, MD Prof. Salmar Burger, Ph.D. Clinical Assistant Professor of Medicine, Department of Sports Management, Chairman PGIP Committee University of Pretoria, South Africa Michigan State University, USA
Prof. Gudrun Doll-Tepper, Ph.D. Prof. Chung Pak-Kwong, Ph.D. President, Head, Department of Physical Education International Council of Sports Science & Hong Kong Baptist University. Physical Education, Berlin, Germany.
Prof. Phyllis Love, Ph.D. Prof. Ikram Hussain, Ph.D. Department of Exercise Physiology / Diabetes, Ex-Chairman Grambling State University, Louisiana, USA Department of Physical Education Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
Dr. Eric Peter Sabonghy, MD Doris, R. Corbett, Ph.D. The University of Texas Medical School Professor & Chairman, at Houston, USA Department of Health, Human Performance & Leisure Studies, Howard University, USA
Dr. Nabeela Iqbal Prof. Richard Smith, Ph.D. Clinical Research Coordinator & Data Manager Discipline of Exercise and Sports Science, University of Michigan Ann-Arbor, USA The University of Sydney, Australia
Prof. Maria Dinold, Ph.D. Prof. Rosa Lopez de D’Amico, Ph.D. Centre of Sports Sciences and Department of Physical Education, University Sports in Vienna, Austria Pedagogic Experimental University Liberator in Maracay, Venezuela
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The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Volume 06, 2011 ISSN 1991-8410
CONTENTS
An Effect of Mental Toughness on Different Level of Participation in Soccer Player 01 Rajender Singh and Rajesh Kumar
Sports as a Dynamic Force in the Development of relations among Nations in Global Politics 06 Aslam Pervez Memon, Soniha Aslam Ghouri, Deen Muhammad Jalbani and Yasmeen Iqbal Qureshi
Examination of public parks for physical activity participation by their Location, Size and Facilities 14 M. Muftler, Ahmet Yapar, Salih Gokhan Irez and Mustafa Levent Ince
Physical activity in individuals living with osteopenia: Association with Psychological need satisfaction and motives for well-being. 26 Diane E. Mack, Katie E. Gunnell, Philip M. Wilson, Jenna D. Gilchrist, Kent C. Kowalski, Peter R.E. Crocker, Leah J. Ferguson and J.D. Adachi
Gender Differences of self-confidence in sports with reference to Pakistan Socio-Cultural factors and attitudes towards women 42 Hameed Rehman, Jumshaid Ahmed and Muhammad Akram Ansari
A Musculoskeletal injury profile of athletes at a National Inter-UniversityAthletic meet in Minipal, Karnataka, India 50 Parachi Shah, Abraham Samuel Babu, Vaibhavi Satam, H.S. Ballal, Fiddy Davis and Arun G. Maiya
Sports as an institution for gender stereotype challenge and women empowerment: A reflection on Nigerian Elite Sportswomen at the Olympics 57 Ifeanyichukwu C. Elendu and Tammy T. Orunaboka
Curriculum Quality and Academic Reputation of Physical Education College in Health–Fitness Job Marketing in Jordan 70 Ahmed M. Al-Shishani, Akef M. Taifour and Aman S. Khasawneh
Physiological Profile of Trained Weightlifters 78 Bhavana S. Masale and Vijay A. Sawant
Effect of Combined action of Yogasanas and Pranayama Exercises reduces Lipid profiles and enhances antioxidant status in Young Healthy Individuals 83 Annida Balakrishnan and Suthakar Krishnaswamy
iv AN EFFECT OF MENTAL TOUGHNESS ON DIFFERENT LEVEL OF PARTICIPATION IN SOCCER PLAYERS
Dr. Rajender Singh and Rajesh Kumar
ABSTRACT
Many a time sportsmen are accused of not having mental toughness which is indispensable for high level performance. Thus, mental toughness becomes one of the most important aspects to be developed. Therefore, it has become the need of the hour to asses the degree of mental toughness in order to take necessary steps to improve the performance. The sample of the present study comprised of 40 male and female university badminton players of India. Keeping the view the purpose of the study they were divided into two groups: All India Intervarsity (N=30) and Intercollegiate (N=20) male soccer players. The result indicated that significance difference between all India intervarsity and intercollegiate male soccer players in the mental toughness level. It is evident that all India intervarsity and intercollegiate male soccer players in mental toughness test differed significantly on mental toughness as the obtained t-value of 1.688 is much more than the tabulated value t0.05 (58) = 1.671.
Key Words: Mental Toughness, Handling Pressure, Concentration, Mental Rebounding and Winning Attitude.
INTRODUCTION Sport psychologist (researchers and practitioners), coaches, sports Successful athletes are supposed commentators, sports fans, and to be not only Physically Tough but athletes acknowledge the importance Mentally Tough as well. The reason of mental toughness in sporting for this originates out of the performance (see Goldberg, 1998: realization that top sports are a Gould & Dieffenbach, 2002; Hodge, ruthless, cold, and hard business, 1994; Tunney, 1987; Williams, 1988). where there is no place for the In early work on the issue, Loehr tenderspirited. Tutko’s (1974) charac- (1982, 1986) emphasized that athletes terization of such trait indicates that and coaches felt that at least fifty the “Mentally Tough” athlete can percent of success is due to take rough handling; is not easily psychological factors that reflect upset about losing, playing badly, or mental toughness. being spoken to harshly; can accept Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton strong criticism without being hurt; (2002) conducted a qualitative study and does not need too much of elite athletes, aiming to define encouragement from his coach. mental toughness and to determine
1 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 the essential attributes required to be demographic characteristics of rugby a mentally tough performer. players and selected aspects of
Cohn (1991) interviewed profess- psychological performance in rugby sional collegiate golfers and found league football. The finding concern them to be highly focused and with previous work indicating immersed in the task at hand, superior hardiness is related to performed effortlessly and automa- improved performance in sports. tically, felt physically relaxed and Fourie and Potgieter (2001) invest- mentally calm, and felt in control of tigated the component of mental themselves and their performance. toughness as reported by 131 expert Garfield and Bennet (1984) interviewed coaches and 160 elite athletes from numerous elite athletes, who reported 31sports codes. The finding of the being mentally and physically relaxed, study is rated the effectiveness of confident, focused on the present, coaches and sport psychologists in highly energized, usually aware, and in strengthening the characteristic of control when playing well. mental toughness more highly than athletes did. Scarnati (2000) discusses an aspect of leadership that is beyond METHODOLOGY technical competence and practice by highly successful people. Mental Subject and Design toughness is defined as “between the ears” toughness. He also provides the For the purpose of this method to deal with stressful study, both the samples were situation and despotic bosses. The considered the true representative author emphasizes that the mind is of the entire badminton population where battles are truly won and lost. of Indian at the time their Kaiser (1981) conducted a study on assessment of the psychological pain tolerance. The purpose of this variables was done. study was to determine any The present study is a status relationship or differences in pain study, which did not require the tolerance and mental toughness with investigator basically to manipulate in collegiate football players. The any of the variables included in it. conclusion of this study was evident Rather the collection of data became between the pain tolerance and instrumental in providing correct mental toughness with in collegiate insight into the mental toughness. football players The questionnaire on mental tough-
Golby, Shread and Lavalee (2003) ness prepared by Alan Goldberg examined the relaxation between (1986) has sixty items. 2 An Effect Of Mental Toughness
The present study was conducted Mean and Standard Deviation of All on 60 male soccer players of India. India Intervarsity and Intercollegiate Keeping in view the objectives, the Male Soccer Players India on Mental players were categorized into two main Toughness Variable groups: Intercollegiate (N=30) and All Mean scores and standard dev- India Intervarsity (N=30) male soccer iations of the two groups on mental players. The sample representing the toughness variable are presented in inter collegiate male soccer players Table – 1. consisted of those players who are members of inter college male soccer Table-1 team of different colleges of Dr. Bhim All India Rao Ambedkar University Agra and Intercollegiate Intervarsity Players the sample representing All India Variable Players Intervarsity Man Football players who Mean S.D. Mean S.D. participated in the All India Mental 36.6 7.85 33.46 6.41 Intervarsity Man Football champion- Toughness ship, 2008 held at Goa University, Goa from 10/11/2008 to 16/11/2008. Comparison of Mental Toughness Statistical Analysis of All India Intervarsity and Inter- collegiate Male Soccer Players This was a comparative study of ‘t’ test of mental toughness is two groups of team game players for given in Table-2 and graphically finding out difference in criterion. portrayed in Figure-1 Measure the mean difference of these groups were tested for significance by MENTAL TOUGHNESS ‘t’ test and level of significance was 36.6 37 set at 0.05 level. 36.5 36 35.5 Analysis of Data and Result of the 35 34.5 SCORES 33.46 Study 34 33.5 33 32.5 There are at least two levels 32 31.5 at which data are categorized, ALL INDIA NORTH ZONE presen-ted and analyzed statistically INTERVARSITY INTERVARSITY in this study. The psychological LEVELS status of all India intervarsity (30) Fig.1: Comparison of Mental Toughness of and intercolle-giate (30) male soccer All India Intervarsity and Intercollegiate players has been compared. Male Soccer Players.
3 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Table-2 The performance of soccer has been
Significance of Difference of Mean regularly influenced to a great extent in Mental Toughness on Male and by skills, Psychological variables and Female Badminton Players psychological compo-nents for the
University players. In modern soccer Group Mean Mean SEM T- Significance Difference value level game, psychological factors, fitness and All India 36.6 3.14 1.86 1.688 0.05 rudiments of the game have been over Intervarsity Intercollegiate 33.46 emphasized at any level of competition. * Significant at .05 level Each player is necessarily required to Tab t.0.5 (58) = 1.671 be continuously stable and fit physic- ally and psychologically. This puts a RESLUT great deal of demand physically and mentally. It is observed from the Table-2 that means index score has increase by 3.14 The present study found significant after the test. Since calculated ‘t’ > difference. All India inter-varsity Tabulated ‘t’ (1.688>1.671). The result players had shown high mental indicated that significance difference toughness in comparison with inter- between all India intervarsity and collegiate players. (Golby, Shread and inter-collegiate male soccer players in Lavalee, 2003; Jones, 2002; Daniels, the mental toughness level. It is 1972; Fourie and Potgieter, 2001; Gould, evident that all India intervarsity and Hodge, Peterson, & Petlichkoff, 1987; inter-collegiate soccer players in Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002). mental toughness test differed The highly mental toughness was significantly, as the obtained t-value of measured and significant differences 1.688 is much more than the tabulated were found. The reason may be inter- value t 0.05 (58) = 1.671. collegiate players seem to loose against the players whom they think better. DISCUSSION Some players have also the tendency of getting injured before the big matches. From the analysis of data Most of the players are not able to significance difference is found perform well due to nervous-ness. between All India Intervarsity and Most of the intercollegiate players think Intercollegiate players in the mental about their past poor performances but toughness level. It is evident that all they concentrate only on the game after India intervarsity and intercollegiate the start of the match. They also get players in mental toughness test distracted by what others say or do differed significantly, as the obtained before the match. Most intercollegiate t-value of 1.688 is more than the players think about their mistakes tabulated value t 0.05 (58) = 1.671. during rest of the match, which affect 4 An Effect Of Mental Toughness their further performance. They are not Gould, D., Hodge, K., Peterson, K., & able to let go off any unfair thing if Petlichkoff, L. (1987). Psychological happens to them in the match. But All Foundations of Caching: Similarities India Intervarsity players have well and Differences among Intercollegiate Wrestling Coaches. The Sport experienced confi-dence and exposure Psychologist, 1, 293-308. level also high. He participates many Hodge, K. (1994). Mental toughness in times in the tourna-ment, he not gets sport: Lessons for life. The pursuit of distracted by what others say or do personal excellence. Journal of Physical before the match. Most of the All India Education New Zealand, 27, 12-16.
Intervarsity players not think about Jones, G., Hanton, S. & Connaughton, their mistakes during rest of the match, D. (2002). What is this thing called which affect their further performance. mental toughness? An investigation
REFERENCE: of elite sport performers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 205-218. Cohn, P.J. (1991). An exploratory study Loehr, J.E. (1982). Athletic excellence: on peak performance in golf. The Mental toughness training for sports. Sport Psychologist. 5, 1-4. Forum Publishing Company. Daniels, Alice Diane (November, 1972) “Pain Tolerance and Cardiac Loehr, J.E. (1986). Mental toughness Responses to Pain of Low and High training for sports: Achieving athletic Anxious Subjects Before and After excellence. Lexington, MA: Stephen Greene Press. Exercise” Dissertation Abstracts International 33:5: 2147-A. Scarnati, J.T. (May 2000) “Beyond Fourie, S. and Potgieter, J.R. (2001) “The Technical Competence; Developing Nature of Mental Toughness in Mental Toughness” Career Development Sport” South African Journal for International, Vol. V, No. 3.
Research in Sports, Physical Education Tutko, Lyon T. (1974) “The Athletic and Recreation. Motivational Inventory”, (California: Goldberg, A.S. (1998). Sports slump The Institute of for the Study of busting: 10 steps to mental toughness Athletic Motivation, 1969), Cited by and peak performance. Champaign, Alderman, Richard B., Psychological IL: Human Kinetics. Behavior in Sport, United States of Golby, J.; Sheard, M. and Lavalle, D. America: Saunders Company. (April, 2003) “A Cognitive Behavioural Analysis of Mental Tunney, J.(1987). Thoughts on the line. Toughness in National Rugby League Mental toughness: Biceps for the mind. Soccer Journal, 32, 4950 Football Team” Percept of Motor Skills. Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K., & Moffett, Williams, R.M. (1988). The U.S. open A. (2002). Psychological Characteristic character test: Good strokes help. But and Their Development of Olympic the most individualistic of sports is Champions. Journal of Applied Sport ultimately a mental game. Psychology Psychology, 14, 172-204. Today, 22, 60-62. 5 SPORTS AS A DYNAMIC FORCE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF RELATIONS AMONG NATIONS IN GLOBAL POLITICS
Dr. Aslam Pervez Memon, Dr. Soniha Aslam Ghouri, Dr. Deen Muhammad Jalbani and Dr. Yasmeen Iqbal Qureshi
ABSTRACT
Sports are understood as one of the dynamic forces in developing national integrity among the masses creating national unity in the country; whereas sports diplomacy is referred when sport is used as a political means to improve relations and some times may worsen diplomatic relations between two nations. The intention is to bring about fundamental changes relating to fine relations. While the Olympics events are the leading political examples of using sports for diplomatic means, such as cricket, table tennis and football as well as other international sports competitions have also been used in this regard. In the case of Apartheid, competitive sport was used to isolate South Africa that brought major changes in nation's social structure in terms of socio- political relationship, examining the sports diplomacy which implemented Nelson Mandela of South Africa for national reconciliation, and Iran’s former President Khatami's inspiring initiative provided an opening for a watchful rapprochement policy with USA, favoring peoples mutual contacts between these two nations to release tensions developed between them that may be compared with Ping Pong diplomacy, which softened US-Chinese relations.
Key Words: Sports, rapprochement, dynamic, diplomacy, apartheid, relationship, pride, tensions, integrity and nationalism.
METHODOLOGY and regular faculty members of the Centre for Physical Education, Health This article has been developed and Sports Science, functioning in the on the basis of descriptive research Faculty of Natural Sciences at method and data was collected from University of Sindh, Jamshoro, and various books and sports magazines, the results of the respondents were analyzing it from biographies further processed for analysis. published in national and inter- INTRODUCTION national newspapers of leading for- mer international players of Football, Most of the international sports Cricket and Table Tennis and also competitions are contested between from personal sports experiences. The national teams, which encourage the survey question-nnaire was adminis- use of sporting events for nationalist tered to 100 students and 20 visiting purposes that may have organized
6 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 intentionally or sometimes with It would be convenient for the other reasons. The national researcher to argue first with the solidarity achieved through sport impact of apartheid nations may be one of the primary sources confining their policies developing of developing nationalism as political systems of their govern- popular sports events, which people ments which was against the United like the most, are considered a Nation’s Human Rights Charter, matter of national pride for them then, elaborated on the charm of and cricket test match series Olympic games which witnessed between Australia and England boycotts and conflicts between popularly known as ‘Ashes’ comes nations, and the Ping Pong diplo- in the same category of national macy that reconciled the relations honor. Similarly, test cricket series between USA and Peoples Republic between India and Pakistan place of China. Further, charisma of both countries virtually immobile Cricket gave rise making friend- where match is being played and ships and some times brought some the normal traffic on roads is tensions among the people and heavily reduced as it has turned into lastly attraction. Soccer (Foot ball) a matter of national honor for the game has been discussed that majority of the local people.1 The brought severe conflicts and Olympic Games are the leading observed clashes among nations juncture for meeting the nationalist that also conveyed for national purposes, as it reflects the history of integration and bringing unity political conflicts between them among the citizens of these nations, since its inception at the end of the the incidences took place in various 19th century. The 1936 Summer countries would be good examples Olympics held in Berlin, Germany in this regard. Such as: has been an illustration of vital a. Apartheid Policy recognition of the sensitivity of the prevalent situation, where an It is notable that sporting ideology was rising which used the boycott of South Africa during Olympic event to strengthen its Apartheid understood to have position through propaganda. played vital role in forcing South Consequently, United States refused Africa to open up their society and to participate and politically aligned to end a global isolation. South nations joined her in the boycott of Africa was barred from the 1964 summer Olympics of 1988 and Summer Olympics and many sports' Soviet Union considered it as the governing bodies expelled or part of the Cold War conflict.2 suspended membership of South
7 Sports as a Dynamic Force
African affiliations. It was said that b. Olympics Charm the international boycott of apar- In 1936 Olympics, Adolph Hitler theid sport has been an effective used it as a vital occasion to move toward sensitizing world promote superiority of Germany opinion against apartheid and with his ideological belief of racial mobilizing millions of citizens for domination. These games were used action against that disgraceful as a means of strengthening the political system. The imposed ban German potency and bringing unity helped change official policies to- among the youth. It was also wards participation in sports.3 believed that sport was a "way to The South African Table Tennis weed out the weak, Jewish, and Board, founded in contravention to other undesirable communities. As the United Nations human rights, a result, many Jews and Gypsies White South African table tennis were banned from participating in board was replaced in consequence sporting events, while Germany of the boycott of the International secured top position in winning Table Tennis Federation. While medals, the Nazi portrayed ethnic former body managed to participate Africans as inferior nation was in the world championships held in dispelled by Jesse Owens' gold Stockholm in 1957, and team medals in the 100m, 200m 4x100m members were refused passports by relay and long jump events.5 the government as it ruled that no Again, in 1968, Olympic Games black person can compete inter- were used to demonstrate the world nationally except through the white the plight of the African-American sports body. struggle during the civil rights
United Nations in 1980 advised movement in their home country. member countries to inform about Black American, John Carlos during sports contacts with South Africa and the medal ceremony in Mexico City, provide a list of sportsmen who have performed the well-known Black participated in sports events. That Power salute. In 1972, Israeli action proved to be an effective Olympic athletes of Jewish team instrument discouraging collabora- were massacred in an assault by tion with apartheid sport and later on Palestinian gunmen at the Olympic in the same year South Africa was village that eventually resulted in 17 expelled from most inter-national deaths of the team members. In sports bodies and on June 21, 1988, 1980 the Soviet invasion of International Olympic Committee Afghanistan led to a boycott of the approved a declaration for the total Moscow Olympics by a large part of isolation of apartheid sport.4 the western nations and their allies 8 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 in protest against Russian actions. In and lost exhibition matches with the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics the their hosts, traveled around the Soviet Bloc countered a retaliatory Great Wall, Summer Palace and action in the form of boycott of the during their visit chatted with games in response to the American- Chinese students and factory led Moscow games.6 workers and had the opportunity to attend the Canton Ballet. c. Ping-Pong Diplomacy d. Cricket Charisma The exchange of table tennis players between the United States The charisma of Cricket has also and the People’s Republic of China played important role in developing led to make softer policies in Sino- relations between the nations help American relations that eventually to improve and some times severe led US President Richard Nixon to the relations between them. endorse rapprochement policy with Pakistan and India is the good the Chinese government. It was the example, which seems developed first initial public information of tensions in global politics. improved U.S. China relations Following the Soviet invasion of known to the world on April 6, Afghanistan, and Soviet pressurized 1971, when the American Ping-Pong India to deflect the tension they are team was visiting Japan, received a confronted with. Pakistan's dictator surprise invitation from their and former president General Zia- Chinese colleagues to visit People's ul-Haq, in 1987 watched a test Republic of China. On April 10, nine match between India and Pakistan players, four officials, and two in Jaipur, apparently it helped to spouses stepped across a bridge cool down the tensions and fifteen from Hong Kong to the Chinese year break in playing test matches, mainland. It was the first group of cricket tours between India and Americans allowed in Chinese Pakistan were also revived in 2004 territory since the Communist take- in the wake of diplomatic initiatives over in 1949.7 Ten journalists, to bury past history of mutual including five Americans, were also hostility. Both sides relaxed their invited to cover the visit of the team tough visa regulations for each thus, ending the information block- other, allowing thousands of fans to travel across the border. ade from the People's Republic since 1949.The delighted American public Taking the advantage of the were aware of the daily progress of cricket diplomacy another dictator the visit through newspapers and and former president Gen. Pervez television, as the Americans played Musharaf visited India in 2005
9 Sports as a Dynamic Force apparently for a cricket match. The anthem. Consequently the emotions trip, however, quickly turned over to of both nations became agitated. In summit meeting as both sides retaliation, violence against Salva- willing to avail a historic chance to doran residents in Honduras increa- end their dispute over Kashmir as sed and number of Salvadorans this enmity has traced with a brutally killed and tens of thou- religious-political current of air to it. sands began fleeing the country. A Pakistani fan in Karachi ran on the The press of both nations also pitch to attack the Indian captain, contributed to a growing climate of and fans threw stones at the Indian near-hysteria, and on June 27, 1969, players during the match in Karachi, Honduras broke diplomatic rela- and in 2006 a Hindu extremist dug tions with El Salvador and on July up the cricket pitch in New Delhi to 14, 1969, the Salvadoran army protest against Pakistan team's visit. launched an attack against The Mumbai attack on Parliament in Honduras. The Organization of 2008, the terrorists were believed to American States negotiated a cease- be from Pakistan also aggravated the fire which took effect on July 20, situation and India boycotted all with the Salvadoran troop’s with- kinds of mutual talks with bordering drawal in early August, 1969.9 nations.8 During 1986 Mexico World Cup, after the Falklands War between e. Football Attraction Argentina and the United Kingdom, The war between El Salvador Diego Mara Dona scored a goal that and Honduras took place mainly on fuel the fire between the two sides the sensitive rivalry of Football and matter further worsen as it was game that led to the war along with an unrecognized foul using the serious socio-economic issues of hand (referee did not watch it) to infamous immigration and land score a goal that severed relation- reforms fueled to chaos in these ships between these nations, called countries. The rise of tensions it as hand of God.10 encouraged rioters during the In 1998 FIFA World Cup second North American qualifying held in France, Iran recorded their round of 1970 FIFA World Cup first World Cup victory in the fighting broke out during the first second game, Iran beat the United game in Tegucigalpa, the situation States by 2-1 goals. The match was worsen in San Salvador. The preheated with much excitement as Honduran fans were physically both countries’ political stance was beaten and humiliated, its flag was detached after the Iranian torched and insulted national revolution. However, both sides
10 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 presented one another with gifts pride, although it confirms that and flowers and stood together for a national team’s success and hosting picture before the match kickoff.11 events throw a light in this direction. The 2004 AFC Asian Cup held in The increased self-esteem and China during the final between national honor pertaining to all China and Japan, apparently due to members of the society utilize sports historical relations dating back to to construct their national identity. World War II (2nd. Sino-Japanese Further, it should not be assumed War and Nanjing Massacre), the that all people within a community home fans expressed their anti- would derive pride from associating Japanese sentiment by insulting themselves with sporting success. It national anthem with their anti- could be just one of the characteristics Japan slogans.12 The Chinese fans that influence perceptions of national hooted at the players and watched identity and national pride as it Japan beating China by 3-1 score becomes a major source in the and after the conclusion of match, development and expression of some Chinese fans witnessed national aspirations.14 The philosophy uprising outside the Beijing of Olympic Games is considered to be Worker's Stadium. the effective way of discouraging On September 6, 2008, Armenia nations collaborating with apartheid and Turkey teams faced each other sport, expelled South Africa from in 2010 FIFA World Cup international sports bodies and qualification match in Yerevan, declared total isolation of apartheid where the presidents of Turkey and sports. The sports teams and events Armenia sat together behind the provide people with psychological bullet-proof glass, where the benefits as well, which leads with Turkish national anthem was pride and contributes towards insulted and hooted showing people’s better life style, confirming mistrust between the two countries. that sports has the capability to However, the gesture shown by the develop psycho-social behavior presidents demonstrated football which promotes the maintenance of diplomacy to resolve peacefully the mental well-being and developing legacy of the 20th century's first social interaction, societal cohesion, genocide.13 creating harmony and national integration. Consequently, many CONCLUSION governments of these countries took
It is rightly concluded that Sports adequate efforts to unify the multi- play a vital role in the development of ethnic and multi-religious commu- both national identity and national nities to revive the national spirit
11 Sports as a Dynamic Force which was prevalent under their 7. Darby, P. (2008) Stanley Rous's dynamic leadership at the time of 'own goal' football politics, independence and following the rise South Africa and the contest of the nationalism in African, North for the FIFA Presidency in American and Asian countries, 1974-9, p. 2.
attempted effective policies for social, 8. Gevisser, M. (2007) Thabo Mbeki: political and economic development The Dream Deferred Jonathan to promote social progress, reducing Ball Publishers, Johannesburg political tensions and maximizing and Cape Town economic performance for better and 9. Grundlingh, A., Odendaal, A. prosperous life standard of the and Spies, B. (1995) Beyond the people. Tryline: Rugby and South African Society. Ravan Press, Johannesburg REFERENCES 10. Keys, B. (2006) Globalizing Sport: 1. Alegi, P. (2004) Laduma! Soccer, National Rivalry and Inter- Politics and Society in South national Community in the Africa University of KwaZulu- 1930s. Harvard University Natal Press, Scottsville Press, Cambridge, M.A.
2. Allison, L. and Monnington, T. (2002) 11. Lapchick, R. (June 1976) Apartheid Sport, Prestige and International Sport and South Africa's Foreign Relations. Government and Policy: 1976. UN Centre against Opposition 37:1, pp. 106-134. Apartheid, Department of Political
and Security Council Affairs 3. Asmal, K., Chidester, D. and Lubisi, C. (2005) Legacy of Freedom: The 12. Limb, P. (2008). The Anti-Apartheid ANC Human Rights Tradition Movements in Australia and Jonathan Ball, Johannesburg Aoteroa / New Zealand. The
4. Beacom, Aaron. (2000) Sport in Road to Democracy in South Africa: International Relations: A Case Volume 3, International Solidarity, for Cross-disciplinary Investigation. Part 2 pp. 907-982. UNISA Press, The Sports Historian 20:2, pp. 1-23 Pretoria — South African Democratic Education Trust 5. Booth, D. (1998). The Race Game: Sport and Politics in South 13. Nye, J. (2004). Soft Power: The Africa. Frank Cass, London Means to Success in World 6. Broere, M. and Van der Drift, R. Politics Public Affairs, New (1997) Football Afrika! World York View, Oxford Press, London.
12 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
ANNEXURE- 1
Questionnaire:
Respondents were administered the questionnaire to answer marking Yes or No or to some extent. It has been prepared on 10 point Liker scale analyzing the results of this research paper.
Sr. To Some Question Yes No No Extent 01 Popular sportsmen possess the qualities of sportsmanship spirit to develop tolerance in resolving conflicts.
02 Match temperament is essential to normalize situation in bringing cordial relations between national teams.
03 Some times popular sports competitions severe the
relationships between two nations.
04 Alarming socio-political and economic conditions and conflicts between nations create tensions leading to clashes or war.
05 Apartheid policies debarred South Africa from Olympics
Games and international sports competitions.
06 Popular sports bring national unity and integration among the people of two completive teams.
07 The sticky Indian politicians attempt to score points avoiding playing test Cricket series in Pakistan.
08 The arrangement of ‘Shanti’ or Peace Cup of Cricket test
match Series would be a remarkable achievement for India and Pakistan to release the tensions
09 Sports should be kept clean of Politics and be held to develop the unity and tranquility among the nations to promote the standard of life style of the people.
10 Popular sports are considered to be an effective force in
making relations between nations.
13 EXAMINATION OF PUBLIC PARKS FOR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION BY THEIR LOCATION, SIZE AND FACILITIES
M. Muftuler, Ahmet Yapar, Salih Gokhan Irez, and Dr. Mustafa Levent Ince
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine park users’ Physical Activity (PA) participation in three different public parks with identical differences in location, size and facilities in Ankara, Turkey. System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities – SOPARC (McKenzie et al., 2006) was used for data collection. The results indicated significant differences in use of parks for PA (p<0.05). Most frequently used park for PA participation was in a centralized location with a larger park and activity areas. Park users for PA were mainly adults (67.5%). Most preferred activity was walking (80.6%). People used the parks for PA more on Tuesday (18.1%) and in the evening (41.3%) time period. These findings indicated that location, size and facilities in a park are important for PA participation. Municipalities should organize the parks according to the parks users’ preferences and needs.
Key Words: Physical Activity, Public Parks, Systematic Observation
INTRODUCTION in a week. Other studies examining Physically inactive lifestyle has PA behaviors of school age children become a significant public health indicated high inactivity rates issue in Turkey as well as in other (Cengiz, Ince and Cicek 2009; Kin- developed and developing countries Isler, Asci, Altintas and Guven- (Turkish Ministry of Health, 2004; Karahan, 2009; Ince and Ebem, WHO, 2010). Recent research 2009). According to studies in both evidence indicated that Turkish adult population and school aged citizens who were above 18 years of children, women were more at risk age were generally preferred seden- of inactivity than men (Turkish tary lifestyles (20.32%) and 15.99% Ministry of Health, 2004; Cengiz, of them were not sufficiently Ince and Cicek, 2009). physically active (Turkish Ministry Social-ecological model assumes of Health, 2004). This report also that PA behavior, similar to the indicated that only 3.5% of the other health behavior, is improved adults who were above 30 years of when environment and policies age participated in regular physical support the target behavior of activity (PA), at least 30 minutes of people (McLeroy, Bibeau, Steckler moderate to vigorous PA for 3 days and Glanz, 1988; Stokols, 1992). In
14 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 social-ecological approach, social for all people at all ages (Bedimo- environment (such as influence of Rung, Mowen and Cohen, 2005; significant others, community Cohen, McKenzie, Sehgal, William- norms, cultural background); phy- son, Golinelli and Lurie, 2007; Reed sical environment (such as avail- et. al., 2008). ability and access to facilities, Considering the socio-cultural and quality of facilities, safety, public physical environment for PA unique to transports); public policies (such as each country, number of comparative urban planning, educational, health, studies about the PA neighborhood environmental policies) should be enviro-nment has been increased (Sallis considered with individual level et al., 2009). However, comparisons in influences (such as knowledge, these studies were mainly included the attitudes, PA skills) to better western or developed countries. There understand the PA behavior of is a lack of research exami-ning the people (Stokols, 1992). physical environment, especially Even though individual level focusing on the park and recreation influences to PA behavior was area, use by the people in developing described very well in the literature, countries. As a developing country, influences of social environment, Turkey is an interesting example with physical environment and policy its cultural background, developing issues has recently taken a greater economy and approximately 70 million interest from the researchers (Sallis, populations. Geographically a part of Cervero, Ascher, Henderson, Kraft the country is in Europe and the other and Kerr, 2006; Cochrane and Davey, part is in Asia, and it includes both 2008; Sallis et al., 2009). Especially, western and eastern socio-cultural providing environmental supports influence. Despite the current efforts to including public parks have accepted increase the public awareness about the as one of the most promising method importance of PA participation in to promote PA in some of these Turkey, there is still a lack of studies (Floyd, Spengler, Maddock, information about the use of public Gobster and Suau, 2008; Reed, parks for PA. This knowledge is Morrison and Arant, 2009). A review necessary for health promotion by Kaczynski and Henderson (2008) specialist as well as park area planners. indicated that public park areas and Having information about the use of recreation settings had statistically park areas for PA in Turkey, also significant effects on PA partici- provide necessary evidence to use in pation. Public park areas promote cross cultural comparisons. PA participation because of easy Therefore, the purpose of this access and open facilities provided study was to examine park users by
15 Examination Of Public Parks For Physical Activity sex, age group, activity preferences, Although all the three public parks activity day and time preferences in were located in high SES three different public parks with neighborhood, the facilities identical differences in location, size provided in the parks varied due and facilities in Ankara, Turkey. to the size of the parks. There was no alternative public park for PA METHOD participation near the selected parks. All of the three public parks Park selection were located very close to the
Public parks were selected on houses / apart-ments and schools. the basis of their location, size and Considering their facilities, Park A facilities. Demographical features of had a walking path, two separate the selected public parks were areas with fitness equipments, presented in Table 1. table tennis areas, playground, cafes, grass areas, and banks for As presented in Table 1, each sitting. Although the facilities in park has varied in location, size Park B were categorized as poor and facilities. The Park A was in a because there was no area with centralized location (i.e., 850m to fitness equipment, still it had two the center of the city) as compared separate walking paths, grass area, to the Park B and Park C (i.e., 7.2 playground, and banks for sitting. km to the center and 6.7 km to the The Park C had a walking path, center, respectively). In terms of the area with fitness equip-ment, size of the public parks, the Park A basketball court, play-ground, and was large-in-size (110,000 m2), the banks for sitting. The Park A and Park B was moderate-in-size Park B had no facilities for team (11,000 m2), and the Park C was sports, like basketball court, small-in-size (4,141 m2), relatively. football area, volleyball court and According to the Turkish Statistical etc. Only the Park C had a Institute, the socioeconomic status basketball court. In the three (SES) of the neighborhood in which public parks, there were also no the public parks were located is organized activities for community categorized as high. and for elder people.
16 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Table- 1 Demographic characteristics of the public parks
Park A Park B Park C Location Central Suburban Suburban The distance to 850 m 7.2 km 6.7 km the city center Size Large Medium Small The size in m2 110,000 m2 11,000 m2 4,141 m2 Socioeconomic High High High status (SES) Facilities Good Poor Moderate The number of One walking path One walking path Two walking paths PA facilities Two separate areas No area with One separate area with fitness fitness with fitness equipments equipments equipments Other areas Other areas Other areas Year of 1999 (renewed) 2000 2006 construction
INSTRUMENTATION As the public parks are very complex settings to observe, there is SOPARC which is a valid and a need to virtually divide the whole reliable direct observation instrument park area into smaller areas (sub- (McKenzie, 2002) was used to target areas). Moreover, the time of examine the use of the public parks the day in which the observations for PA. It is designed to make take place should also be observation in open envir-onments predetermined in accordance with such as public parks to obtain the SOPARC description and information about the number of procedures manual (McKenzie and participants, their sex, age, PA Cohen, 2006). Therefore, in each preferences, and also to provide sub-target area, the observers make contextual information about the four different observations in the setting in which PA occurs. It is based predetermined time periods inclu- on momentary time sampling. ding morning, noon, afternoon, and Observation occurs one at a time to evening time periods at 7:30AM; count the participants in the observed 11:30AM; 3:30AM; and 6:30AM, areas (McKenzie et. al., 2006). respectively. For accurate obser- 17 Examination Of Public Parks For Physical Activity vations, the observers should make groups = 94.22% (92.59% for child, simultaneous scans for females and 95.24% for teen, 95.11% for adult, males separately with the informa- 91.18% for senior); PA preferences = tion about their age groups (child, 94.92% (97.48% for walking and 72.22% teen, adult, and senior) and PA for vigorous)]. Level of inter-rater levels (walking and vigorous). reliability was good (van der Mars, 1989).
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE DATA ANALYSIS Before the actual data collection The simple descriptive statistics was occurred, the observers practiced were used to determine the frequencies 3-day training by using SOPARC and percentages of participants by sex, manual. At the end of these training age group, PA preferences and the day days, the observers became familiar and time preferences for the use of the with this methodology. The actual park areas. The chi-square analyses data collection was taken place in were used to compare three public August, 2009 within a consecutive 7- parks (p < .05). day periods for each public park. Three independent observers made RESULTS their observation in each subtarget area Descriptive analyses of the public parks separately. The subtarget areas were: The results of the descriptive (a) walking path, (b) the area with analyses are presented Table 2. At fitness equipments and (c) the other the end of a seven-day observation free activity areas, including the area of each park, a total of 3119 park with table tennis, basketball court, users were observed. The most cycling area, grass area and the like. frequently used park was the Park Moreover, each sub-target area in each A with a total of 2287 (73.3%) park public park was observed within a 7- users. There were 323 (10.4%) park day period, for an hour at four different users in Park B and 509 (16.3%) in time periods. Totally 252 different Park C. There were a total of 1585 observation sessions were performed. (50.8%) women park users and 1534 Among these total observations, 10 (49.2%) men park users. Among all observation sessions were randomly of the park users, 311 (10%) of them selected for reliability data. The were categorized as child, 341 reliability percentages were calculated (10.9%) of them were categorized as with the use of van der Mars’s equation teen, 2105 (67.5%) as adults, and 362 (1989). The interater reliability for (11.6%) as senior (older adults). different variables was changing Most of the park users (80.6%) were between 72.2 and 99.1% for different generally used the park for walking variables [sex = 98.16% (97.17% for activity, rather than vigorous PA women and 99.11% for men); age (19.4%). The most frequently used 18 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
days were Tuesday with a total of Comparison of the public parks 566 park users and Saturday with a Table 2 presented the chi-square total of 507 park users. The least analyses of the public parks with the frequently used days were Friday (n park users’ sex, age group, PA = 309) and Thursday (n = 335). preferences and their day and time Among the four different time period preferences. According to the periods of a day, the most analysis, there were significant frequently used time period was differences in the public parks by the evening time (41.3%) and morning park users’ sex, PA preferences and time (36.4%). At noon and afternoon the day and time preferences (p < .05). time periods (9% and 13.3%, However, the park users’ age group respectively), there was apparently was not significantly different among fewer park users. the parks.
Table-2 Park users’ demographic characteristics and the use of the public parks for PA within a day and time periods Park A Park B Park C Total n % n % n % n % χ2 df p Total 2287 73.3 323 10.4 509 16.3 3119 100 Sex 8.12 2 .017* Women 1135 49.6 162 50.2 288 56.6 1585 50.8 Men 1152 50.4 161 49.8 221 43.4 1534 49.2 Age Group 5.79 6 .447 Child 229 10.0 31 9.6 51 10.0 311 10.0 Teen 263 11.5 29 9.0 49 9.6 341 10.9 Adult 1519 66.4 228 70.6 358 70.3 2105 67.5 Senior 276 12.1 35 10.8 51 10.0 362 11.6 Physical Activity 57.64 2 .000* Walking 1771 77.4 282 87.3 462 90.8 2515 80.6 Vigorous 516 22.6 41 12.7 47 9.2 604 19.4 Days 97.11 12 .000* Monday 318 13.9 40 12.4 80 15.7 438 14.0 Tuesday 402 17.6 49 15.2 115 22.6 566 18.1 Wednesday 342 15.0 29 9.0 96 18.9 467 15.0 Thursday 240 10.5 47 14.6 48 9.4 335 10.7 Friday 252 11.0 39 12.1 18 3.5 309 9.9 Saturday 330 14.4 64 19.8 113 22.2 507 16.3 Sunday 403 17.6 55 17.0 39 7.7 497 15.9 Time Periods 290.52 6 .000* Morning 837 36.6 106 32.8 193 37.9 1136 36.4 Noon 278 12.2 4 1.2 0.0 0.0 282 9.0 Afternoon 390 17.1 10 3.1 14 2.8 414 13.3 Evening 782 34.2 203 62.8 302 59.3 1287 41.3 * p < .05
19 Examination Of Public Parks For Physical Activity
Sex by public parks walking activity was more apparent The chi-square analyses indicated (77.4%) than the vigorous activity that there was a statistically significant (22.6%). Similar results were also difference between the park users’ sex seen in Park B (87.3% for walking among the three public parks, χ2 (2, and 12.7% for vigorous activity) and 3119) = 8.12, p < .05. More specifically, in Park C (90.8% for walking and 1135 (49.6%) of the Park A users were 9.2% for vigorous activity). women, and 1152 (50.4%) of them Moreover, the Park C users were were men. 162 (50.2%) of the Park B more frequently preferred walking users were women, 161 (49.8%) of activity than the Park B and Park A them were men. 288 (56.6%) of the users. However, the Park A users Park C users were women, and 221 were more frequently preferred the (43.4%) of them were men. Overall, it vigorous activity than the Park B can be inferred that there was a small and Park C users. but significant difference between women and men park users in favor of Day preferences by public parks women by the public parks. These There was a significant differe- findings also indicated that suburban nces in park users day preferences for parks were preferred with more women PA, χ2 (12, 3119) = 97.11, p < .05. In as compared to men counterparts. Park A, 13.9% of the park user attended PA on Monday, 17.6% of Age group by public parks them on Tuesday, 15% of them on According to the chi-square Wednesday, 10.5% of them on analyses with age group and public Thursday, 11% of them on Friday, parks, the results indicated no 14.4% of them on Saturday, and statistically significant difference 17.6% of them on Sunday. In Park B, between the public parks, χ2 (6, 12.4% of them on Monday, 15.2% of 3119) = 5.79, p = .45. Although the them on Tuesday, 9% of them on descriptive analyses indicated a Wednesday, 14.6% of them on higher percentage of adult park Thursday, 12.1% of them on Friday, users; this difference was not 19.8% of them on Saturday, and 17% statistically significant (See Table-2). of them on Sunday. In Park C, 15.7% Physical activity preferences by of them on Monday, 22.6% of them public parks on Tuesday, 18.9% of them on The results indicated that there Wednesday, 9.4% of them on was a significant difference between Thursday, 3.5% of them on Friday, the parks users’ PA preferences by 22.2% of them on Saturday, and 7.7% public parks, χ2 (2, 3119) = 57.64, p < of them on Sunday. Overall, the most .05. More specifically, in Park A, the frequently used days were Tuesday
20 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 and Sunday for Park A, Saturday and including sex and PA preferences Sunday for Park B, and Tuesday and and of the public parks’ contextual Saturday for Park C. It could be information including the day and inferred that the weekends and one of time period preference for PA by the weekday (Tuesday) were mostly the park visitors. preferred days for attending public The general results indicated that parks for PA participation. the public park which is located in a more centralized location with a larger Time period preferences by public parks size and facilities was the most According to the chisquare analy- frequently used one. Among the other sis, there was a significant difference two suburban public parks, the between the time period preferences number of park users in the medium of park users for PA by parks, χ2 (6, size one was lower than those of the 3119) = 290.52, p < .05. More specifi- small size one. The medium size cally, the evening time period was public park had poor PA facilities. mostly preferred for PA participation Therefore, availability of PA facilities in Park B (62.8%) and in Park C seems to be more important than the (59.3%), but not for Park A (34.2%). size of park. This result was consistent Although for Park A, there was with a previous study (Kaczynski, slightly more park users in the Potwarka and Saelens, 2008). In this morning time period (36.6%) than in study, the authors reported the evening time (34.2%); for Park B and availability of park PA facilities as a Park C, the morning time period good predictor of public park use for (32.8% and 37.9%, respectively) was this purpose. Thus, it was reasonable less frequently used time period. to state that the public parks with However, the noon and afternoon good and/or structured facilities for time periods were apparently the least PA participation should be needed for preferred time periods for each park. increasing PA participation. DISCUSSION The current results on the park In this study, three different users’ sex showed that there was a public parks by their location, size slight difference between women and and facilities were systematically men park users for PA participation. observed for acquiring the public More specifically, the small size park users’ demographic variables suburban park with moderate and the public parks’ contextual facilities for PA participation was information. The general results most frequently preferred by women indicated that there were differences park users. The controversial findings in three public parks in terms of the on the park users’ sex existed in the parks users’ demographic variables literature. Although there has been a
21 Examination Of Public Parks For Physical Activity number of studies indicating the consistent with the study investigating higher percentage of men public the positive effect of providing parks users for PA as compared to structural improvements including their women counterparts (Floyd et restoring walking path and other al., 2008; Reed et al., 2008; Shores and facilities on the use of the public parks West, 2008), some earlier studies for PA participation (Tester and Baker, (Brownson, Housemann, Brown, 2009). Thus, it can be inferred that Jackson-Thompson, King, Malone restructuring the public parks for and Sallis, 2000; Mowen, Graefe and better facilities for PA may be effective Williams, 1998) and a more recent in promoting PA participation study (Reed, Morrison and Arant, (Hoehner et, al., 2010). Because there 2009) have reported higher percent- were no organized activities and tage of women than men using the insufficient facilities for team sports, it parks for PA. can be recommended that there is a Although age groups were not need to restructure the public parks significantly differed by the public for the promotion of PA participation. parks, the total number of adult park It was found that both the week users was higher in the current study. days and weekends were preferred This result was consistent with the for PA participation in this study. previous studies (Cohen et al., 2007; As the data collection was Shores and West, 2008). Most of these conducted in a summer period and studies reported that mostly the adults the temperature was very high, the were participating in PA in public park users mainly preferred the parks. morning and also evening time Our findings indicated that the periods for PA participation. Floyd most frequently performed PA was et al. (2008) was also reported a the walking activity in the public similar trend. In their study, most of parks. It might be due to the fact that the park users preferred the there were no organized activities for morning time period and most of park users and also no facilities for them used the walking path. team sports, except for the Park C. In conclusion, this study revealed There were more park users that PA characteristics of the park users participating in walking activity in and day and time period preferences of Park C. However, in Park A, there them for PA are changing by public were more park users participating in parks location, size and facilities. This vigorous PA. This result indicated that knowledge informs the park area for the park users participating in planners, health promotion specialists, vigorous activity, more structured practitioners and the researchers to facilities for PA was required. It was promote PA participation in the public
22 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 parks. Further studies should provide Cengiz, C., Ince, M. L., & Cicek S. interventions for at-risk group (2009). Exercise stage of change in including youth, older adults, girls, Turkish university students by sex, disabled people to promote PA residence and department. Perceptual Motor Skills, 108, 411-421. participation in public parks (Librett, Henderson, Godbey and Morrow, Cochrane, T., & Davey, R. C. (2008). 2007; Reed et al., 2008). Another type of Increasing uptake of physical intervention can be the provision of activity: A social ecological organized and/or supervised activities approach. The Journal of the Royal in the public parks, which might be Society for the Promotion of Health, resulted in the increase of PA 128, 31-40. participation (Cohen et al., 2007; Mc- Cohen, D. A., McKenzie, T. L., Sehgal, Kenzie et al., 2006). Besides these kinds A., Williamson, S., Golinelli, D., & of interventions, park proximity, park Lurie, N. (2007). Contribution of amenities and safety issues were also public parks to physical activity. important predictors for PA partici- American Journal of Public Health, pation in public parks (Cohen et al., 97, 509-514. 2007). It was reasonable to suggest that Floyd, M. F., Spengler, J. O., Maddock, building public parks near to the J. E., Gobster, P. H., & Suau, L. households may also result in many of (2008). Environmental and social the people be more physically active. correlates of physical activity in Overall, from these current results, it neighborhood parks: An can be recommended that parks should observational study in Tampa and be well-structured to meet the needs of Chicago. Leisure Sciences, 30, 360- parks user for PA participation. 375.
REFERENCES Hoehner, C. M., Brownson, R. C., Allen, D., Gramann, J., Behrens, T. K., Bedimo-Rung, A. L., Mowen, A. J., & Floyd, M. F., … Yount, B. W. Cohen, D. A. (2005). The (2010). Parks promoting physical significance of parks to physical activity: Synthesis of findings from activity and public health: A interventions in seven national conceptual model. American Journal parks. Journal of Physical Activity of Preventive Medicine, 28, 159-168. and Health, 7, S67-S81. Brownson, R. C., Housemann, R. A., Brown, D. R., Jackson-Thompson, J., King, A. Ince, M. L., & Ebem, Z. (2009). Role of C., Malone, B. R., & Sallis, J. F. (2000). exercise stages in self-reported Promoting physical activity in rural health-promoting behaviors of a communities: Walking trail access, use, group of Turkish adolescents at and effects. American Journal of transition to university. Perceptual Preventive Medicine, 18, 235-241. Motor Skills, 108, 399-404.
23 Examination Of Public Parks For Physical Activity
Kaczynski, A. T., & Henderson, K. A. Reliability and feasibility measures. (2008). Parks and recreation settings Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 3, and active living: A review of S208-222. associations with physical activity function and intensity. Journal of McLeroy, K. R., Bibeau, D., Steckler, A., Physical Activity and Health, 5, 619- & Glanz, K. (1988). An ecological 632. perspective on health promotion programs. Health Education and Kaczynski, A. T., Potwarka, L. R., & Behavior, 15, 351-377. Saelens, B. E. (2008). Association of park size, distance, and features with Mowen, A. J., Graefe, A. R., & Williams, physical activity in neighborhood D. R. (1998). An assessment of parks. American Journal of Public activity and trail type as indicators Health, 98, 1451-1456. of trail user diversity. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 16, 80- Kin-Isler, A., Asci, F. H., Altintas, A., & 96. Guven-Karahan, B. (2009). Physical activity levels and patterns of 11-14 Reed, J. A., Arant, C. A., Wells, P., year-old Turkish adolescents. Stevens, K., Hagen, S., & Harring, Adolescence, 44, 1005-1015. H. (2008). A descriptive Librett, J., Henderson, K, Godbey, G., & examination of the most frequently Morrow, J. R. (2007). An introduction used activity settings in 25 to parks, recreation, and public health: community parks using direct Collaborative frameworks for observation. Journal of Physical promoting physical activity. Journal of Activity and Health, 5, S183-S195. Physical Activity and Health, 4, S1-S13. Reed, J. A., Morrison, A., & Arant, C. A. McKenzie, T. L. (2002). Use of direct (2009). Profile differences of paved observation to assess physical versus natural-surface trails. Journal activity. In G. J. Welk (Ed.), Physical of Physical Activity and Health, 6, activity assessments for health-related 112-118. research (pp. 179-195). Champaign, Sallis, J. F., Bowles, H. R., Bauman, A., IL: Human Kinetics. Ainsworth, B. E., Bull, F. C., Craig, McKenzie, T. L., & Cohen, D. A. (2006). C. L., ... Bergman, P. (2009). SOPARC (System for observing play Neighborhood environments and and recreation in communities): physical activity among adults in 11 Description and Procedures Manual. countries. American Journal of http://www.activelivingresearch.org Preventive Medicine, 36, 484-490. /files/SOPARC_Protocols.pdf Sallis, J. F., Cervero, R. B., Ascher, W., (accessed May 15, 2009). Henderson, K. A., Kraft, M. K., & McKenzie, T. L., Cohen, D. A., Sehgal, A., Kerr, J. (2006). An ecological Williamson, S., & Golinelli, D. (2006). approach to creating active living System for observing play and communities. Annual Review of recreation in communities (SOPARC): Public Health, 27, 297-322. 24 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
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25 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN INDIVIDUALS LIVING WITH OSTEOPENIA: ASSOCIATIONS WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL NEED SATISFACTION AND MOTIVES FOR WELL-BEING
Dr. Diane E. Mack, Katie E. Gunnell, Dr. Philip M. Wilson, Jenna D. Gilchrist, Kent C. Kowalski, Peter R. E. Crocker, Leah Ferguson and Jonathan D. Adachi
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this investigation was (a) to examine the association between leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) and motives for well- being and (b) to examine the potential role of perceived psychological need satisfaction (Deci & Ryan, 2002) in terms of the physical activity-motive for well-being relationship. Adopting a cross- sectional design, participants (N = 142; Mage = 65.01 years; SDage = 10.55 years) were individuals diagnosed with osteopenia who completed a self-report survey on a single occasion. Bivariate correlations indicated that LTPA was associated with motives for hedonic (r = .28) and eudaimonic (r = .35) well-being and psychological need satisfaction (r’s = .12 to .45). Multiple mediation analysis indicated perceived psychological need satisfaction mediated the LTPA– hedonic/eudaimonic motive relationship. The 95 percent bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrap confidence interval demonstrated that perceived competence and autonomy were the unique mediators. Collectively, results of this study support the relationship between physical activity and levels of hedonic/eudaimonic motives and that the satisfaction of basic psychological needs is a plausible mechanism underpinning such motivational orientations.
INTRODUCTION internationally demonstrate that less
Empirical evidence has supported than 50 percent of the population is the benefits of engaging in leisure considered sufficiently active for time physical activity (LTPA) at a health benefits (Sisson & Katzmarzyk, level commensurate with public 2008) with rates declining in older health guidelines across a variety of adult populations (McGuire et al., biomedical (Bouchard, Blair & 2003). In an effort to understand the Haskell, 2007) and psychological (Fox determinants of LTPA behavior, & Wilson, 2008) outcomes. Despite researchers have generally relied on established links between LPTA and theories of behavioral prediction various health indicators, prevalence (Fishbein et al., 2001) with modest data concerning LTPA behavior success obtained in terms of
26 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 advancing our understanding Two broad traditions seem worthy (Baranowski, Anderson & Carmack, of consideration in an effort to 1998). For example, Tavares, understand the relationship between Plotnikoff and Loucaides (2009) participation in LTPA and motives for found that between 16 and 60 percent well-being. Hedonic theory (Kahne- of variance in LTPA behavior in man, 1999) involves focusing on the employed women was explained outcomes (e.g., pleasure, entertain- through different constructs (e.g., self- ment) one expects to obtain from efficacy) embedded within varied engaging in a target behavior socialcognitive theories. (Cabanac & Bonniot-Cabanac, 2007).
As one alternative to the beha- The maximization of experienced vioral prediction approach, Ekkekakis, pleasure is a universal mechanism Hall, and Petruzzello (2008) suggested inherited within humans to motivate targeting the motivational cones- behavior (Cabanac, 1971) with quences (or implications) of LTPA. activities aligned with physical While a considerable amount of pleasures (e.g., eating) and social- literature has focused on motives (e.g., emotional pursuits (e.g., going to a appearance, health and fitness, etc.) for party) consistent with the hedonic engaging in physical activity approach (Steger, Kashan & Oishi, (Ingledew & Markland, 2008), reasons 2008). An emerging body of literature for participation linked with well- has generated support for the being has received comparably little application of the pleasure-displeasure attention despite its logical links to focus of hedonic theory to the initiation and adherence. Such a caveat investigation of acute bouts of LTPA in the physical activity literature is (Backhouse et al., 2007; Ekkekakis et surprising for at least two reasons. al., 2008) and subsequent physical First, a substantial body of evidence activity adherence behavior over time supports the link between engage- (Williams et al., 2008). ment in regular LTPA and increased Complementing the hedonic well-being, in addition to reduced ill- approach is the conceptualization of well- being (Dionigi, 2007; Fox et al., 2007). being housed within the eudaimonic Second, improvements in well-being tradition (Waterman, Schwartz, & Conti have been identified as the primary 2008), whereby the focus of motivational motivational force for engaging in consequences shifts from the experience LTPA for selected cohorts of the of pleasure to positive psychological population (e.g., individuals living functioning and optimization of human with Type 2 Diabetes; Ferrand, Perrin development. In accordance with the & Nasarre, 2008). eudaimonic tradition, motivation is
27 Physical Activity in Individuals Living with Osteopenia: fostered when people engage in activities humans are active growth-oriented for reasons linked to positive goal organisms who innately strive to pursuits that facilitate personal growth master challenges in their social (Ryan, Huta & Deci, 2008). The environment in an effort to actualize promotion of eudaimonic well-being has their innate potentials (Deci & Ryan, been linked to activities whereby effort 2002). Deci and Ryan (2002) posit the (e.g., volunteering), challenging oneself existence of essential supports for (e.g., learning to play a new musical motivation and wellness that manifest instrument), and engagement with themselves in the form of basic others (e.g., expressing gratitude) are psychological needs. Specifically, Deci foundational requirements (Steger et al., and Ryan (2002) purport that the on- 2008; Seligman, 2002). Limited consider- going satisfaction of competence, ation of the eudaimonic tradition is autonomy and relatedness needs evident in the physical activity literature, promote the motivation of behavior yet isolated studies with older adults and optimize feelings of well-being indicate that LTPA must be perceived of (Deci & Ryan, 2002). The approach as meaningful and have a sense of taken by Deci and Ryan (2002) within purpose to be adopted (Atachley, 1999; SDT is that basic psychological needs Grant, 2008; Nimrod & Kliber, 2007). represent innate tendencies that when Based on the above, principles stemming authentically satisfied exert univer-sally from the eudaimonic tradition may have positive effects on growth, actua- motive-tional relevance when studying lizetion, and well-being. LTPA within select cohorts (Ryan et al., This study contributes to, and 2008). extends, existing scientific literature Researchers have argued for the through various means. First, the advancement of theory-driven research present study addresses previous in contexts where LTPA is a focal topic recommendations in the literature (e.g., of interest (Bauman et al., 2002) to Ryan et al., 2008; Williams et al., 2008) to facilitate an understand-ding of the understand behaviors that engender mechanisms responsible for promoting hedonic/eudaimonic outcomes. In (or thwarting) psy-chological outcomes particular, while emerging studies have (Acevedo & Ekkekakis, 2006). Self- begun to identify the essential features Determi-nation Theory (SDT) (Deci & that characterize a eudaimonic lifestyle Ryan, 2002) has demonstrated utility (e.g., Seligman, 2002; Steger et al., 2008), for under-standing the motivational considerable scope exists to consider basis for LTPA (Wilson, Mack & other ‘target’ behaviors that may Grattan, 2008). According to the SDT promote perceptions of personal framework (Deci & Ryan, 2002), growth, which is the defining feature
28 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 representing a eudaimonic orientation, relationship between LTPA and to the study of motivation and well- hedonic/eudaimonic motives for well- being. Second, this study represents an being. initial attempt to consider basic METHODS psychological needs housed within SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2002) as a viable PARTICIPANTS theoretical framework for explain-ing Participants were 142 (nfemale = the relationship between LTPA and 133) individuals with osteopenia motives for well-being. Third, the (Mage = 65.01 years; SDage = 10.55 sampling frame (i.e., individuals years). Majority of participants diagnosed with osteo-penia) repre-sents reported their ethnic origin as a known cohort whereby LTPA is Caucasian (88.00 percent) and were promoted for con-dition management currently “married/common-law” and represents those who are at risk for (63.90 percent). Approximately half decreased psychological well-being of the sample reported earning a (Sawka et al., 2005). university/college degree (47.20 The main purpose of this percent). Time since condition investigation was to examine the diagnosis was approximately 7 association between LTPA and motives years (M = 6.79 years; SD = 5.44) for well-being that differ in their with 45.10 percent reporting a hedonic/eudaimonic orientation. A fracture in their lifetime. Body Mass secondary purpose of this study was to Index (BMI) values calculated based examine the role of fulfilling basic on self-reported height and weight psychological needs as a potential data indicated, on average that the mediating influence connecting participants were consistent with a participation in LTPA with variation in “healthy” weight classification (M = and the endorsement of hedonic / 24.19 kg/m2; SD = 3.82; Health eudaimonic motives. Given the Canada, 2011). evidencebase concerning the link INSTRUMENTS between LTPA and well-being among older adults (e.g., Fox et al., 2007; Grant, Demographic and Health History: 2008), a positive relationship was Participants provided self-reported hypothesized between engagement in information on gender, educational LTPA and hedonic / eudaimonic attainment, marital status, and motives for well-being. Extrapolating ethnicity. Health variables relevant from Deci and Ryan’s (2002) to condition diagnosis including contentions, it was further BMI, fracture history, and family hypothesized that psychological need history of osteoporosis were also fulfillment would mediate the queried for descriptive purposes. 29 Physical Activity in Individuals Living with Osteopenia:
Leisure-time Physical Activity: The was “pursuing excellence or a Godin Leisure-Time Exercise personal ideal”. Each HEMA item Questionnaire (LTEQ; Godin & was rated on a Likert-type scale Shephard, 1985) assessed the from ‘1’ (not at all) to ‘7’ (very frequency of mild, moderate, and much). Initial support for the strenuous LTPA done for at least 15 structural validity and reliability of minutes per session during a typical scores derived from items week. An overall score (expressed in comprising the original HEMA has metabolic equivalent units or METS) been documented (Huta, 2005). was calculated by summing the Psychological Needs: The Psy- weighted product of each LTEQ chological Need Satisfaction in item using the following formula: Exercise Scale (PNSE; Wilson et al., ∑([mild × 3] + [moderate × 5] + 2006) was modified for use as an [strenuous × 9]). Construct validity index of perceived psychological evidence for scores derived from the need satisfaction in LTPA contexts. LTEQ has been demonstrated Each item from the original PNSE (Jacobs et al., 1993). was modified by replacing the term Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motives “exercise” with “physical activity”. for Activities (HEMA): The HEMA Assessing each of the three (Huta, 2005) was used to assess psychological needs proposed by hedonic and eudaimonic motives in Deci and Ryan (2002) within the LTPA contexts. Given the focus of SDT framework, the 18-item PNSE the present investigation on LTPA, is anchored by response options the stem of the HEMA was ranging from ‘1’ (False) to ‘6’ (True) modified slightly to reflect the with higher scores being reflective contextual change. Following the of greater fulfillment of each instructional stem “To what degree psychological need derived from do you typically approach your engagement in LTPA. Construct physical activity with each of the validity of scores derived from the following intentions, whether or not original PNSE (Cf. Wilson et al., you actually achieve your aim?’, 2008) and a version of the PNSE participants were asked to rate the modified for use in LTPA research extent to which engagement in forthcoming (Gunnell et al., in LTPA was associated with hedonic press). (4 items) and eudaimonic (4 items) motives. One sample item for PROCEDURES hedonic motivation was “experien- Following institutional ethical cing pleasure”. A sample item clearance, participant recruitment assessing eudaimonic motivation adopted Dillman’s (2007) recom- 30 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 menddations for administering as an additional source of information surveys. Participant referrals were complementing the r-point estimate made through one-to-one contact related to null hypothesis testing. with a physician. Each participant Finally, to test for mediation, was subsequently briefed about the bootstrapping analyses (k = 5000 study purpose, given unlimited samples) using methods described by opportunity to ask questions, and Preacher and Hayes (2007; 2008) for provided with study materials estimating direct and indirect effects including informed consent. A self- with multiple mediators was addressed stamped envelope was conducted. Preacher and Hayes included along with explicit (2008) recommend that the absence of instructions on survey completion zero in the 95 percent bias corrected procedures and contact information and accelerated confidence interval should additional questions or (BCa CI), rather than interpretation of concerns arise during the data p-values, serves as evidence for collection phase of this study. Upon mediation in the bootstrap samples. completion of the study, a $5.00 Specific indirect effects and pairwise donation was made on behalf of the contrasts were examined through the participant to the bone health use of BCa CI’s to examine the unique organization (e.g., Osteoporosis contribution and strength of each Canada) of their choice. psychological need in the multiple mediator model analysis. DATA ANALYSIS RESULTS Preliminary data analysis was conducted in order to identify data PRELIMINARY ANALYSES entry error, patterns of missing data, and compliance with relevant Inspection of sample data statistical assumptions. Descriptive indicated minimal presence of non- statistics were calculated and response errors for items estimates of internal consistency representing HEMA and PNSE (Cronbach’s α; Cronbach, 1951) were scores for competence and computed to determine score autonomy, with no more than 1.30 reliability for responses to the HEMA percent of the data missing on any and PNSE items. Pearson correlations item. Missing data were deemed (r) were calculated between LTEQ, nonrandom and replaced using a HEMA, and PNSE subscale scores to within-person mean substitution determine patterns of bivariate procedure (Hawthorne & Elliot, association between these constructs. 2005). Thirteen participants did not Confidence intervals were calculated respond to any PNSE-relatedness
31 Physical Activity in Individuals Living with Osteopenia: item suggestive that LTPA was behaviour than were perceptions of engaged in as an individual pursuit effectance and skill mastery as opposed to one with others. As a characteristic of the psychological consequence, analyses incorporating need for competence. the psychological need for Pearson correlations between relatedness were based on n = 129. study variables were in the Examination of the distributional hypothesized direction (see Table 1 properties (see Table 1) for all study for specific values and confidence variables, in combination with their intervals). Interpretation of relation- respective standard error (SE) values ships demonstrated that LTEQ scores (Tabachnick & Fiddell, 2007), ranged from weak (i.e., r12 < |.20|) to demonstrated a pattern of non- moderate (i.e., r12 = .45) with PNSE normal distributions for PNSE- and HEMA scores (Cohen, 1992). All Autonomy and PNSE-Relatedness Pearson correlations were statistically scores, and HEMA responses for both significant (p < .01; one-tailed hedonic and eudaimonic motives in significance), with the lone exception this sample. Estimates of internal of LTEQ scores and fulfillment of the consistency score reliability (Cron- psychological need for relatedness in bach, 1951) ranged from 0.83 to 0.94 LTPA (r12 = 0.12; p = .08). A moderate- (see Table 1 for specific values). to-strong (Cohen, 1992) positive correlation between HEMA subscales Participants reported engaging representing scores for hedonic and in an average of 30.94 METS (SD = eudaimonic motives towards well- 19.91) per week (see Table 1). being was noted in this sample (see Interpretation of LTEQ scores Table 1). suggested individuals living with osteopenia were comparable to Inspection of the results of the adults living with chronic multiple mediator model examining conditions (Gunnell et al., in press; LTEQ scores on hedonic motives for Motl & McAuley, 2009). Descriptive well-being through the three statistics for HEMA and PNSE psychological needs was significant scores fall above the theoretical (R2adj = .29; F(4,123) = 14.04, p = midpoint with motives in LTPA .001). The total indirect effect contexts aligned with hedonic and through the three mediators was eudaimonic traditions highly meaningful with a point estimate of endorsed (see Table 1). The .0107 (BCa CI’s ranged from 0037 to fulfillment of autonomy and .0205; see Table 2). Perceived relatedness was endorsed more fulfillment of competence and strongly in the context of LTPA autonomy served as the unique
32 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 mediators in this model, however mechanisms via which engagement in interpretation of the pairwise regular LTPA impacts hedonic / contrasts indicated that the eudaimonic motives for well-being. magnitude of each psychological Overall, this investigation of adults need did not differ appreciably (i.e., living with osteopenia offers initial BCa CI’s did not span zero). evidence for the link between greater LTPA and stronger endorsement of When examining the role of motives for well-being irrespective of psychological need fulfillment on their hedonic or eudaimonic the LTEQ – eudaimonic motive orientation. Evidence from the relationship, the multiple mediator multiple mediation analyses demons- model was significant (R2adj = .36; trated the plausibility of basic F(4,123) = 18.88, p < .001). The point psychological need fulfillment, estimate for the total indirect effect especially perceptions of competence through the three mediators was and autonomy, long championed by 0.0107 and a corresponding BCa CI Deci and Ryan (2002) as viable ranging from .0043 to .0186 in this pathways linking engagement in sample. Consideration of the LTPA with both hedonic and specific indirect effects evident in eudaimonic motives for well-being. the multiple mediation analysis indicates that fulfillment of Observations reported in this perceived competence and auto- study are largely consistent with nomy needs in LTPA were the those reported in previous research unique mediators. However, inter- linking LTPA with constructs pretation of pairwise contrasts embedded in hedonic theory (e.g., suggests that the magnitude of the Williams et al., 2008). The noted link effects for each psychological need between more frequent LTPA and was comparable in the LTEQ – stronger endorsement of eudaimonic eudaimonic motives for well-being motives for well-being evident at relationship. both the bivariate and multivariate levels of analyses extends the DISCUSSION available literature considering The main aim of the present study different factors associated with a was to examine the link between eudaimonic lifestyle to include LTPA LTPA and motives for well-being that (Ryan & Deci, 2002; Seligman, 2002; vary in their hedonic versus Steger et al., 2008). Joint consideration eudaimonic focus. In addition, the of the direction and absolute secondary aim was to test the utility of magnitude of the effect size evident SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2002) as a between LTPA and motives for well- framework for understanding the being (Cohen, 1992) in individuals 33 Physical Activity in Individuals Living with Osteopenia: living with osteopenia suggests this in the mastery of challenging tasks health behavior contributes to that create a sense of effectance and fulfilling one’s human potentials and competence may contribute to with pleasurable outcomes at markers of well-being that are ostensibly comparable levels. As characterized by both hedonic hedonic pleasure is associated with a pleasure and eudaimonic growth. person’s well-being in the short term Further evidence in support of (Oishi, Schimmack, & Diener, 2001) our original hypotheses was found and eudaimonic wellness associated in terms of the role played by self- with more enduring characteristics governance and volitional direction (Ryan et al., 2008), it seems logical to in the context of understanding the suggest that sustained LTPA holds potential influence of LTPA on promise as one means through which hedonic and eudaimonic motives an individual may gain both short for well-being in adults living with and long term benefits. osteopenia. Such observations are Consistent with our original consistent with SDT and Ryan et al. hypotheses and SDT (Deci & Ryan, (2008) who asserted that feeling 2002), it appears that fulfilling the autonomous in any given context basic psychological needs for within life is a fundamental competence, autonomy, and prerequisite to eudaimonic well- relatedness in adults living with being. Interestingly, it was further osteopenia mediates the impact of noted in this study that perceiving LTPA on motives for well-being that oneself to be autonomous when vary in their hedonic and eudaimonic engaged in LTPA was also linked focus. Closer inspection of the findings with hedonic outcomes in the form indicated that perceived competence of well-being motives characterized appeared to be the most important by features such as pleasurable psychological need satisfied via sensations. Previous studies of engagement in LTPA in terms of adults engaged in various forms of shaping motives for well-being. This structured exercise have noted observation has been previously noted comparable evidence (Wilson et al., in samples of exercisers free from 2009). It remains unclear at this known markers of disease (Wilson et juncture why satisfying the need for al., 2008) and physically active adults autonomy via participating in LTPA living with chronic disease (Gunnell et would promote both hedonic and al., in press). It seems reasonable to eudaimonic motives for well-being suggest on the basis of these yet this remains an important observations encouraging people agenda for future research to irrespective of health status to engage consider in greater depth. 34 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Observations pertaining to the ness (Edmunds et al., 2007; Wilson role of perceived relatedness in the et al., 2003) that could easily render context of LTPA noted in this study any psychological need (including further contribute to the equivocal perceived relatedness) more impor- nature of research concerning this tant at various time points than at aspect of the SDT framework when others in terms of links with applied to physical activity contexts motivational outcomes and well- (Edmunds et al., 2006; Wilson & being criteria. It seems clear that Garcia Bengoechea, 2010; Wilson et arguing over the scope of influence al., 2003). It remains plausible that attributable to any of the psy- the centrality of perceived compe- chological needs espoused by Deci tence and autonomy to well-being and Ryan (2002) within the outcomes in physically active framework of SDT especially humans (Ryan et al., 2008), perceived relatedness is largely combined with the knowledge that premature at this juncture. Future individuals can sustain motivation studies using more sophisticated for individual activities without a research designs will provide network of meaningful connections greater insight into the dynamic to others (Ryan & Deci, 2002), may nature of ‘how’ and ‘why’ each render fulfilling the need for psychological need central to SDT relatedness as less important in the operates in the domain of LTPA context of LTPA. It is also plausible especially in relation to the role of that the research design used in this fluctuations in psychological need study masked potential contri- satisfaction across time in relation to butions from relatedness to the variation in motivational and well- criteria of interest. Other studies in being outcomes. structured exercise contexts using While the results of this study single time point designs have are novel and theoretically found that competence, and to a informative, a number of limitations lesser extent autonomy, remain should be acknowledged. First, uniformly linked with motivational extensive construct validation into outcomes in a positive fashion the original (Huta, 2005) or (Edmunds et al., 2006; Wilson & modified HEMA adopted in the Rogers, 2008). Alternatively, the present investigation has not been limited number of longitudinal undertaken. Additional construct studies demonstrate considerable validation research (Messick, 1995) variability in the fulfillment of each is recommended to determine the psychological need as a function of meaningfulness of test score time including perceived related- interpretation. Additional concerns
35 Physical Activity in Individuals Living with Osteopenia: may be forwarded based on the endorsement of hedonic and degree of statistical overlap evident eudaimonic motives for well-being between dimensions of eudaimonic was found. Additional evidence / hedonic motives. While being generated in this investigation associated at such a magnitude not suggests that satisfying basic uncommon in existing literature psychological needs, especially for (Waterman et al., 2008), the task of competence and autonomy, re- demonstrating discriminant validity present one plausible mechanism between constructs offers a unique toward the promotion of hedonic / challenge. As Telfer (1990) has eudaimonic outcomes (Deci & Ryan, suggested that eudaimonic activities 2002; Ryan, 1995). On the whole, the are always associated with observations reported in this study perceptions of pleasure (but not vice support the beneficial role of versa), the association between participating in LTPA as a factor hedonic / eudaimonic motives motivating well-being outcomes in should not be surprising and is adults living with a chronic disease. deserved of empirical inquiry. Further support for the utility of Third, the data collected was Deci and Ryan’s (2002) conceptual- restricted to a sample of individuals lization of psychological needs with osteopenia assessed on a single within SDT as a unifying occasion. This approach limits the framework for the study of well- internal and external validity being markers linked with LTPA is attributable to the interpretations warranted. advanced and suggests that more REFERENCES formal tests of mediation, adopting Acevedo, E.O. & Ekkekakis, P. longitudinal designs, are warranted. (2006). Psychobiology of Physical In summary, the purpose of this Activity. Champaign, IL: Human study was (a) to examine the role of Kinetics. LTPA in relation to hedonic and Atchley, R. (1999). Continuity and eudaimonic motives for well-being, Adaptation in Aging: Creating and (b) to test the importance of Positive Experiences. Baltimore: The SDT-based psychological needs as a John Hopkins University Press. unifying framework for under- Backhouse, S. H., Biddle, S. J. H., standing how LTPA contributes to Ekkekakis, P., Foskett, A. & variation in motives for well-being Williams, C. (2007). Exercise characteristic of hedonia and makes people feel better but eudaimonia. On the basis of this people are inactive: Paradox or study, support for the positive artifact? Journal of Sports & relationship between LTPA and Exercise Psychology, 29, 498-517 36 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
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Table-1
Descriptive statistics, internal consistency, and correlation coefficients
M SD Skew Kurt 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. LTEQ 30.94 19.91 0.57 -0.60 --
2. PNSE- 3.94 1.25 -0.37 -0.49 .45 .92 Competence (.30 - .57) 3. PNSE- 5.28 0.82 -1.36 2.28 .21 .22 .92
Autonomy (.04 – .36) (.06 - .37) 4. PNSE- 4.93 1.15 -1.30 1.47 .12 .32 .23 .94 Relatedness (-.05 – .29) (.15 - .46) (.05 - .38)
5. HEMA: 5.40 1.40 -1.06 1.00 .28 .29 .39 .44 .85 Hedonic (.12 - .42) (.13 - .44) (.24 - .58) (.28 - .57) 6. HEMA 5.72 1.22 -0.94 0.13 .35 .46 .39 .47 .67 .83 Eudaimonic (.19 - .48) (.32 - .59) (.24 - .52) (.32 - .59) (.56 - .71)
Note: M = Mean. SD = Standard Deviation. Skew. = Univariate Skewness. Kurt. = Univariate Kurtosis. LTEQ = Leisure-time exercise questionnaire; PNSE = Psychological Need Satisfaction in Exercise; HEMA: Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motives for Activities. Reliability estimates Cronbach’s (1951) coefficient alpha (α) are placed along the
principal diagonal. Sample size for bivariate correlations range from 142 – 129 depending on participant responses. 95% confidence intervals for each bivariate correlation can be found in parentheses.
Table 2
Bootstrapped indirect effects of change in LTPA on well-being
motives through psychological need satisfaction
Variable Point Estimate Bca CI R2adj. Hedonic Motives * Total .0107 .0037- .0207 .29 PNSE – Competence .0056 .0009 - .0132 PNSE – Autonomy .0032 .0005- .0092
PNSE – Relatedness .0019 -.0011- .0067 C1 .0024 -.0044 - .0105 C2 .0037 -.0024 - .0116
C3 .0012 -.0046 - .0064 Eudaimonic Motives Total .0107 .0043- .0186 .36*
PNSE – Competence .0063 .0025- .0124 PNSE – Autonomy .0027 .0004- .0078 PNSE – Relatedness .0017 -.0010- .0057
C1 .0036 -.0018 - .0102 C2 .0045 -.0007 - .0110 C3 .0010 -.0033 - .0057
Note: Number of bootstrap resamples = 5000. Bca CI = Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals. PNSE = Psychological Need Satisfaction in Exercise C1 = contrast between competence and autonomy, C2 = contrast between competence and relatedness and C3 = contrast between autonomy and relatedness. *p = . 41 GENDER DIFFERENCES OF SELF CONFIDENCE IN SPORTS WITH REFERENCE TO PAKISTAN SOCIO CULTURAL FACTORS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS WOMEN
Jamshaid Ahmed and Muhammad Akram Ansari
A. ABSTRACT
The main purpose of the study was to examine the gender differences of self confidence in sport with reference to socio cultural factors associated with sports performance in Pakistan. Another purpose of the study was to examine and find out whether one psychosocial (self confidence) dimension exerted a stronger influence on gender. The analysis was administered to a sample of 300 (150 males and 150 females) athletes aged 17 to 24 who participated sports at university, regional or national level in a variety of sports like cricket, hockey, basketball, table tennis, badminton and athletics. Each of the subject responded to a modified version of Trait Sports Confidence Inventory (Vealey, RS. (1986). An analysis of the results illustrated that significant difference existed between male and female player's self confidence in Pakistan due to the socioeconomic and socio cultural attitudes and conditions.
B. INTRODUCTION ideology of purdah (literally "veiled"), negative social biases, and cultural Gender is one of the organizing practices; the concept of honor linked principles of Pakistani society. with women's sexuality restrictions Patriarchal value embedded in local on women's mobility; and the traditions and culture predetermined internalization of patriarchy by the social value of gender. An women themselves, become, the basis artificial divide between production for gender discrimination and and reproduction, created by the disparities in all spheres of life. ideology of sexual division of labor, has placed women in reproductive The status of women in Pakistan roles as mothers and wives in the is not homogenous because of the private arena of home and men in a interconnection of gender with productive role as breadwinners in other forms of exclusion in the the public arena. This has led to a low society. There is considerable level of resource investment in diversity in the status of women women by the family and the state. across classes, regions, and the Thus, low investment in women's rural/urban divide due to uneven human capital, compounded by the socioeconomic development and the
42 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 impact of tribal, feudal, and Earlier researches in the capitalist social formations on Achievement Goal Theory women's lives. However, women's discovered that the task oriented situation vis-à-vis man is one of climate would enhance the systemic subordination, determined development of motivation and by the forces of patriarchy across confidence (Duda, 1992). There is classes, regions, and the rural / a relationship between goal urban divide. orient-tation and sport confi- dence. Especially, the task orient- Keeping in mind the gender tations of athletes are positively differences in Pakistan we tried to correlative to their sport confi- evaluate these differences in sports dence. In another words, if an setting and tried to compare the athlete tends to emphasize skill- sports self confidence between two acquisition (per-fection), and both gender. learning and competitive pro- Self-confidence has been viewed cesses, his / her sport confidence as some of the most important factor would be higher. Shane (2000) that influences the sport performance. examined 620 high school and Many studies had shown that athletes collegiate athletes of both genders with high sport confidence would to examine the relationship possess better concentration, game between goal orientation and strate-gies, healthy emotions, control sport confidence. The findings of tempos, and performance (Chi, indicated that male and females 1996; Mahoney, Gabriel & Perkin, athletes are significantly different 1987). Therefore, the relationship in task orientation, ego orient- between sport confidence and tation, and several factors related performance should be a critical topic to the source of sport confidence, for sport psychologists to investigate. such as skill perfection, demons- tration of ability, and physio- Sport competition is a basic logical / psychological prepara- environment for pursuing exce- tion. In addition, the per-ceived llence and performance (Duda, sources of sport confidence were 1987). How do athletes develop different between high school and their confidence? The Achievement collegiate athletes of both Goal Theory under the social- genders. cognitive construct has gradually The present investigation become a popular model for this sought to extend the previous research topic in the field of sport research in this area and to psychology. (Ames & Archer, 1988). increase our understanding of the
43 Gender Differences of Self Confidence in Sports
reasons for gender participation in C. METHOD/Strategy organized sports in Pakistani 1. Sample sports setup. However many SAMPLE: Design
questions remain only partially A sample of 300 players (150 male answered or unanswered altoge- and 150 female), was drawn through ther. What are the self confidence stratified randomly sampling from differences between the two randomly selected universities, and genders in sports setting? To what departmental sports teams of Pakistan degree do male and female divided into two groups male/female. athletes differ in self confidence One hundred and fifty (n=150) male level with each other? and the same number of female athletes. They were also sub-divided To study the gender differences into two more groups like individual of self confidence in Pakistan’s sport (n=75 and team sport (n=75) each players, the researchers assumed group. Each male and female player that the self confidence will be was selected on the basis of his current different according to the gender of performance and involvement in his / the player. her particular sports by determining
the current level of participation.
300 (Total Sample)
150 (Male) 150 (Male)
75 75 75 75 Individual Sports Team Sports Individual Sports Team Sports
44 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
2. QUESTIONNAIRES responding, participants were asked to
Respondents completed a simp- compare their confidence to the most lified version of the Trait Sports confident athlete they know. For Confidence Inventory (Vealey, R.S. example, participants are asked to (1986). Before completing the "compare your confidence in YOUR questionnaires all subjects completed ABILITY TO ACHIEVE YOUR informed consent forms which COMPETITIVE GOALS to the most informed them and their team confident athlete you know." Each managers of its purpose and how it player was asked to fill out the was to be completed. Subjects questionnaire carefully and tick one of responded the researcher by filling the best options. After collecting the the “Trait Sports Confidence data, every individual player's options inventory” (TSCI) questionnaire were computed to analyze the data by applying t-test. designed by Vealey, R. S. (1986) to conceptualize sport-confidence and D. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA aggressive direction introductory The t-test analyses indicated the examination and tool development. differences in self confidence 3. PROCEDURES between male and female players. The test was used to compare the Before the survey had taken place, difference between genders. coaches and trainers developed a good Male players had recorded higher relationship with players, so they scores in "Trait Sports Confidence could understand players' practice and Inventory" than female players did. game schedules precisely. Before the Mean of male group is 102.24 and survey was administered, the mean of female group is 90.01 and the researchers had explained the content SD of male group is 14.129 and SD of of the questionnaires to the players. female group is 14.441. Researchers had informed the players that their responses were submitted Hypothesis: anonymously, and the information There is no significant difference that was gathered was strictly in the Confidence level of male and confidential. It would take 30 minutes female player. for players to fill out the Trait Sports Analysis of Problem Confidence Inventory. The TSCI contains 13 items that were placed in 1. H0: µ1 = µ2 inventory format using a 9-point 2. H1: µ1 ≠ µ2 Likert scale. Participants were asked to 3. α = .05. indicate how confident they generally 4. Statistical test "t" feel when competing in sport. When Decision Rule: Reject H0 if t > 1.66
45 Gender Differences of Self Confidence in Sports Computation of the data
Independent Samples Test
Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means 95% Confidence
Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error Interval of the
tailed) Difference Difference Difference F Sig. T df Lower Upper Trait Equal .127 .72 *7.412 298 .000 12.227 1.650 8.980 15.473 Sports variances confi- assumed dence Equal *7.412 297.858 .000 12.227 1.650 8.980 15.473 Total variances not assumed
CONCLUSION Table shows that the tabulated value Lack of skills limited general/ sports t = 1.66 which is less that the calculated opportunities in the job market, and value t = 7.412 at the level of significance social and cultural restrictions limited a = 0.05. The hypothesis is therefore women's chances to compete with rejected and it is concluded that there is a confidence for better results. This significant difference between male and situation has led to the social and female players regarding their economic dependency a woman that confidence level, in competitive sports. becomes the basis for male power over The male players were found to have women in all social relationships. higher self confidence level than the female counterpart. However, the spread of patriarchy is not even. The nature and degree of E. Summary women's oppression / subordination In the social context, Pakistani vary across classes, regions, and the rural women lack social value and status / urban divide. Patriarchal structures are because of negation of their roles as relatively stronger in the rural and tribal producers and providers in all social setting where local customs establish roles. The preference of sons due to their male authority and power over women's productive role dictates the allocation of lives. Women are exchanged, sold, and house hold resources in their favor. bought in marriages. They are given very Male members of the family are given limited opportunities to create choices for better education and sports facilities and themselves in order to change the are equipped with skills to compete for realities of their lives. On the other hand, resources in the public arena, while women belonging to the upper and female members are imparted domestic upper middle classes have more skills to be good mothers and wives. opportunities of education and employ- 46 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 ment than the women of middle and the assumption of racial superiority lower middle of the Pakistani society. and the accompanying implication of The woman of the upper class has intellectual inferiority. The view of greater control over their lives than the female as inferior in sport may not rest of the classes. necessarily be viewed as a negative attribute, given that it is so deeply The most powerful aspect of ingrained in our culture. Rather, the social and cultural context is the view of women as less able in sport is internalization of patriarchal norms consistent with societal expectations, by men and women. In learning to be so that women who are athletically a woman in the society, women gifted are at risk to be viewed as internalize the patriarchal ideology inappropriate. Athletic superiority and play an instrumental role in runs counter to expectations, and for transferring and recreating the gender some females may actually constitute ideology through the process of a negative image. socialization of their children. The aspect of women's life has been The analytical results of the largely ignored by the development present investigation provide further initiatives in the country. support for the findings of a number of previous studies (Gill et al., 1983; & With reference to the earlier Gould et al., 1985). The purpose this conducted research, females have been investigation was to determine if stereotyped as biologically and differences existed between the male physically inferior to men. This and female subjects in their self cultural notion has been passed on confidence level and the differences from one generation to another in the performance had on the two through school education, community, genders. media, and parents, and accepted as a The results indicated that male fact existing between men and women produced significantly greater self throughout the centuries (Crandall, confidence level than the females. 1994; Eccles & Harold, 1991; Gould, These results are consistent with 1996). Gender stereotypes have Gill et al. (1983) study where male pressured women and men to behave place greater importance on in certain ways in order to satisfy the achievement and status than their expectations of society, which has counterparts. limited female's involvement in physical activity and sports, especially In relation to Pakistani women's activities that are vigorous in nature). participation in decision making, it is The stereotypical view of female as important to go beyond increasing inferior in sport is not as complex as numbers to enhancing women's voice in 47 Gender Differences of Self Confidence in Sports shaping policies, resource allocations, Blais, M. R. (1995). Toward a new and programme development and measure of intrinsic motivation, management. Women's access to extrinsic motivation, and a promotion opportunities within spor- motivation in sports: The Sport ting organization at all level should be Motivation Scale (SMS). Journal assessed, and the types of support of Sport & Exercise Psychology, mechanism required to increase these 17,35-53. opportunities should be identified and provided. Chi, L. K. (1996). Stress management of athletes. National Physical Organizational change is parti- Education Quarterly, 25(4), 51-57. cularly important, including changes to organizational cultures, Chou, W. H.(1995). The establishment values, norms, rules and proce- of sport confidence based on self- dures. Practical aspects organiza- efficacy. National Physical tional change can be critical to Education Quarterly, 25(4), 62-69. ensure women's full involvement, such as establishing appropriate Crandall, C.S. (1994). Prejudice meeting schedules and provision of against fat people-ideology and childcare. Since the representation self interest-Journal of personality of women in Pakistani sporting and social psychology, 66,882-894 organizations is currently low, men in leadership position have a major Duda, L.J. (1992): Motivation in sport responsibility for promoting and settings: A goal perspective sustaining the required standard of approach .In G.C. Roberts (Ed.), Pakistani women's sports participation. Motivation, and Sport and Exercise (pp.57-91). Champaign, REFERENCES Illinois: Human Kinetics.
Ames, Carole, and Jennifer Archer. Duda, L.J. (1987). Toward a 1988. “Achievement goals in the Developmental Theory of Children's classroom: Students' Bibliography Motivation in Sport. Journal of Sport module: Ames and Archer 1988; Psychology, 9, 130-145. In overview module Eccles, 1.S., & Harold, RD.(1991). Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Gender differences in sports Toward a unifying theory of involvement: Applying Eccles' behavioral change. Psychological expectancy-value model. Journal of Review, 84, 191-215. applied sport psychology, 3, 7-35
48 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Gill, D. L., Gross, J. B., & Huddleston, Lrigg, C. D. (1991). Gender differences S. (1983). Participation motivation in self-confidence in physical in youth sports. International activity: A meta analysis of recent Journal of Sport Psychology, 14, studies. Journal of Sport & 114-131. Exercise Psychology, 8,294-310.
Mahoney, M.J., Gabriel, T.J., & Gould, D., Feltz, D., & Weiss, M.R. Perkins, T.S. (1987). Psychological (1985). Motives for participating skills and exceptional athletic in competitive youth swimming. performance, TSP, 1, 181-199. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 16, 126-140. Shane, S. (2000), "Prior knowledge and the discovery of entrepreneurial Gould, S.J. (1996). The mis-measure opportunities", Organization Sci- ence, Vol. 11 No.4, pp.448-69 of man (Rev. And Expanded). NY: Norton. Vealey, R. S. (1986). Conceptualization of sport-confidence and compe- Huang, C. R, Kuo, H. Y.(1999). The titive orientation Preliminary sources of athletes' sport investigation and instrument confidence. The Chinese Physical development. Journal of Sport Education, 13(3), 60-66. Psychology, 8, 221-246.
49
A MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURY PROFILE OF ATHLETES AT A NATIONAL INTER-UNIVERSITY ATHLETIC MEET IN MANIPAL, KARNATAKA, INDIA
Parachi Shah, Abraham Samuel Babu, Vaibhavi Satam, H.S. Ballal, Fiddy Davis and Arun G. Maiya
ABSTRACT
Background: Sports physical therapists form a part of the team in all major sporting events. However, their presence at the university or recreational level is not commonly seen. The profile of injuries during an athletic event varies on whether the person is a recreational athlete or an elite athlete. As there is no data available from India on athletic injuries, we describe the profile of injuries at a national inter- university health sciences athletic meet. Methodology: During the inter university athletic meet, an analysis of the profile of injuries was done and the injured were classified according to the National Athletic Reporting System. Results: A total of 200 athletes took part in this competition. 32 (16%) athletes sustained injuries, of which musculoskeletal injuries were most common and accounted for 71.87% (23/32) of the total injuries. Most injuries were managed on the field without any loss of time except for four (viz., dislocated shoulder, heat exhaustion, injury of medial collateral ligament of knee and ankle lateral collateral ligament tear with avulsion injury) who required further attention in the hospital. Conclusion: We observed a high rate of injuries amongst the athletes, out of which musculoskeletal injuries, especially ankle injuries, were common during track and field events. Heat - related illnesses of varying degrees of severity were also seen.
Keywords: Sports injury, Sports physical therapy, National athletic reporting system, Heat related illness
INTRODUCTION Athletic events are challenging with respect to the various fitness Sport participation is no more parameters like speed, agility and just a leisure activity but rather an power. integral part of keeping oneself fit. Along with academic work, sport Competitive sports range from participation has been given participation at high-school to the importance since early schooling. university level. In India, the presence Track and field events, a major of a medical team at an inter aspect of athletics involving various university or lower level of distances of running, jumps and competition is not commonly seen. throws, are the earliest sport Studies have shown that 80% of the activities (Pendergraph, 2005). injuries occurring on the field are
50 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 musculoskeletal in nature (Patel, athletes from all over India participated 2006). This highlights the importance in this event. The list of events on the of having a sports physical therapist three days has been provided in Table on the field so as to decide on 1. A medical stall was setup at the athletes’ sport fitness and help treat as ground which was easily accessible to well as to facilitate a faster return to the athletes. It also gave the medical the game (Rehberg, 2007). Studies team a good view of all the events and that have reported injuries have been thereby aided in analysis of the from major athletic events like the mechanism of injury. All the athletes Olympics, wherein only elite athletes were informed of the medical stall to participate (Junge, 2009). However, which they were to report any injury. injuries among the recreational In events where a higher rate of injury athletic population or at junior levels, was expected a physical therapist (PT) in which most college students was present at the event site. participate, have hardly been studied An analysis of the profile of in our country. As this group may not injuries was done for the duration of have adequate training like elite the athletic meet for all the injuries that athletes, it is possible that they maybe were reported to the medical team. All at a greater risk of sustaining injuries the injuries were classified using the during competitive events. Further- national athletic reporting system more, there is a paucity of informa- (NARS) (Patel, 2006). This included tion regarding the profile of sports the following categories, viz., no time injuries in India. It was therefore lost, minor (1-7 days lost), moderate decided that the reporting of injuries (8-21 days lost), major (> 21 days) and from such an event would help severe (permanent disability). physical educators, sports organizers, All injuries were attended to on physical therapists and athletes deal the field by one of the physical with injuries and prevent them therapists. Injured athletes were during training and competition. We evaluated and diagnosed from a describe the profile of injuries among thorough clinical examination. athletes who participated at a national Injured athletes were managed using inter-health university athletic meet at the ‘PRICE’ protocol i.e., prevention, Manipal University, Manipal in 2009. rest, ice, compression and elevation. METHODOLOGY In cases of ankle injuries, supportive An all India inter - health university taping was utilized to help in early athletic meet was held at Manipal return to the event. Taping to prevent University, Manipal, Karnataka, India secondary injury was also given to for three days, i.e. 5th – 7th of December, those athletes who approached the 2009. A total of 13 universities and 200 physiotherapists with a history of 51 A Musculoskeletal Injury Profile of Athletes chronic ankle injury. Taping for toes It was seen that 28 injured were done for athletes who preferred athletes were able to return to their running barefoot. Stretching and icing event without losing time. were used to manage muscle cramps. However, four athletes (with heat This was also supplemented by exhaustion, anterior dislocation of giving them adequate hydration with shoulder, injury of the medial oral rehydration solution and glucose. collateral ligament of knee and a Cuts and bruises were cleaned and lateral collateral ligament avulsion dressed using a sterile procedure. injury of the ankle) required Return to the event was decided by hospitalization for further medical the treating physical therapist based management. on the type and severity of the injury DISCUSSION and also the athlete’s willingness and recovery stage. Our study showed that 32/200 (16%) were injured during the RESULTS athletic meet. A report by Junge et al., (2009) described a rate of injuries A total of 200 athletes (83 women of 11.3% among 2,132 elite athletes and 117 men) from 13 health during athletic events. The higher universities all over India participated rate seen here could be attributed to in the athletic meet (Table 2). The the level of conditioning of the distribution of athletes with injuries as athletes. Most athletes here were per the NARS is given in Table 3. amateurs with only a few being elite. There were 32 injured athletes out of which 3 had multiple injuries. A high rate of return to Musculoskeletal injuries were a participation, i.e., 28/35 (80%), seen in common occurrence (23/32) followed this athletic meet is indeed credible. by abrasions and bruises (7/32) and These high rates show that a multi- systemic involvement, like heat- disciplinary medical team is to be related illnesses (2/32). The ankle and present at all sporting events irrespec- foot were the most commonly affected tive of their competitive level to help part observed with eight being acute maintain a high rate of return to injuries and six recurrent injuries. sporting event. Despite this high level of Events like long jump and triple jump return to event, few cases still required had the most injuries (Table 4). Twelve further medical attention. Seven out of athletes (6%) reported having muscle the 35 injured (20%) could not return to cramps of which two had recurrent their event. This rate was higher than episodes on all three days. Cramps those found by Junge et al., (2009) were seen in most of the running wherein only 7.3% lost time due to events except the 10,000m race. injuries. 52 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Three of the cases, who had a distal fibula. He was put on a major type of injury with >21days posterior slab and was advised to lost as per the NARS classification engage in non-weight bearing (Table 3) are described here. The walking with crutches for four first was a case of an anterior weeks. The third athlete suddenly shoulder dislocation following a fall complained of medial knee pain by a 23-year old male in a 5000m after running 4,800m of 10,000m, run. The fall was on the elbow, forcing her to discontinue the race. 100m from the start line. The On examination she had a localized shoulder was relocated on the field swelling on the medial aspect of the by the physical therapist using the knee with instability. Her knee was modified Kocher’s technique, and immobilized by using a Jones he was then transported to hospital compression bandage and she was for an orthopaedic evaluation and then shifted to the hospital with a radiographs. He was managed with diagnosis of medial collateral immobilization and analgesics as ligament injury for further prescribed by the orthopaedic investigation and management. As surgeon. The second case was a 24- she was from another state, she was year old male injured during the asked to rest and continue the long jump. He had a history of left bandaging. Symptomatic treatments ankle instability and bilateral with analgesics were given. quadriceps strain for which adequate secondary injury We had two cases of heat prevention precautions were taken exhaustion which are described before the event. He sustained an here. The first, being a 23- year old inversion and plantar flexion injury male who presented with confusion, with a popping sound. Examination drowsiness and nausea at the end of of the ankle by the physical the second day. He had a systolic therapist revealed tenderness over blood pressure of 80mmHg. He had the lateral collateral ligament tachycardia and tachypnea. A insertion with swelling. A diagnosis history of no oral fluid intake of a complete lateral collateral during the day was given. The ligament tear with the possibility of athlete had participated in two an avulsion fracture of the fibula events (800m and 4x400m relay) was made. After appropriate first earlier in the day and had not taken aid using the PRICE protocol, he adequate rest or hydration. A was referred to a hospital for further working diagnosis of heat exhaust- evaluation and management. The x- tion and dehydration was made. Ice ray of his ankle showed a fracture of was applied to his body to cool him
53 A Musculoskeletal Injury Profile of Athletes down, as there was no facility for ice cramps. This could be attributed to water immersion, and he was made the timing of the events. The to drink sips of water. When he 10,000m run was held at 6:30am showed no improvement, he was while the other running events were transported to hospital for further held between 9am and 4pm. Also management. There he had a blood the athletes were participating in work up done and re-hydrated with various events on consecutive days. fluid intravenously. There was Therefore emphasizing the role of another case of heat exhaustion to a replenishment of macronutrients, 19 - year old female who was fluid and electrolyte imbalances that managed on field. As she was stable would have occurred after the event as she did not require any form of is very important to reduce the advanced medical care. She was occurrence of cramps during monitored regularly by the medical subsequent events. However, these team to ensure adequate hydration aspects seem to be neglected by and rest. She recovered completely many athletes and their coaches. with proper hydration. It was noted Most participants who received that athletes had their own views medical help for musculoskeletal regarding hydration. Among those conditions reported the lack of a requiring medical attention, it was structured, regular training found that they believed water protocol. To the best of our should not be taken prior to the knowledge, there were only three event resulting in poor hydration cases who had received a status. Other factors that could have supervised training programme by also contributed to the heat related a physical therapist prior to their illness are harsh environmental participation in this athletic event. conditions, conditioning status of This shows that small number of the athlete and prolonged participa- athletes participate in post- injury tion in sports with continuous rehabilitation. Therefore, awareness exposure to extreme heat. among the athletes regarding the Muscle cramps were another importance of post- injury rehabili- tation will have to be stressed. common occurrence seen among athletes participating in running It was also observed that a few of events. The heat and loss of body them had inappropriate techniques in water could have predisposed them various running events (hurdles and to cramps. Most of them were sprints) which could have potentially reported after 12:00 noon. Sur- contributed to their injury. Another prisingly, those who participated in contributing factor could also be the the 10,000m run did not report any type of athletic footwear used for 54 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 these events. It was noted that CONCLUSION athletes wore spikes and running In this study, it was observed a shoes for their events whilst some of high rate of injuries (16%), with them preferred running barefooted. majority being musculoskeletal in Even though these factors need to be nature. Events in which most considered they beyond the scope of injuries occurred were the long this study. jump, triple jump and hurdles. A Our medical team consisted of good rate of return to participation four physical therapists, two doctors was seen following acute manage- and one nurse with first aid kits and ment on field by the medical team emergency equipment for advanced and hence, their presence is of airway and cardiac life support. The tremendous value to athletes. It is physical therapists and doctors were recommended that they be present trained in both basic as well as for future events at various levels of advanced cardiac life support. competition. Subjective feelings of comfort were also reported by the athletes with the REFERENCES presence of an on field medical team. 1. Junge A, Engebretsen L, From the above findings, the Mountjoy ML, et al. Sports authors wish to make the following Injuries During the Summer recommendations: Olympic Games 2008. Am J Athletes and coaches need to be Sports Med 2009; 7:2165-2172 educated on the importance of adequate hydration and nutria- 2. Patel DR, Baker RJ. Muscu- tion as well as their roles in loskeletal injuries in sports. Prim health and sport performance. Care Clin Office Pract 2006; 33:545-579 Proper training techniques need to
be emphasized with regard to long 3. Pendergraph B, Ko B, Zamora J, and triple jumps, and hurdles. Bass E. Medical Coverage for Athletes with recurrent injuries Track and Field Events. Current must seek proper rehabilitation Sports Medicine Reports 2005; from sports physical therapists 4:150-153
The presence of a medical team on site is imperative to manage 4. Rehberg RS. Sports Emergency acute injuries and heat related Care: A Team Approach. NJ, ailments. USA. Slack Incorp. 2007: 23 – 24.
55 A Musculoskeletal Injury Profile of Athletes
Table -1: Demographic details of athletes Total number of athletes, n 200 Males, n (%) 117 (58.5) Females, n (%) 83 (41.5) Total number of athletes injured, n (%) 32 (16) Musculoskeletal injuries, n (%) 23 (71.87) Abrasions and bruises, n (%) 7 (21.87) Systemic involvement, n (%) 2 (6.25)
Table-2: Daily list of events Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 1500 m£‡ 200 m £‡ 10,000 m £‡ 100 m£‡ 800 m £‡ Long jump £‡ Javelin Throw£‡ High Jump£‡ Hammer throw £‡ Triple Jump£‡ Shot-put‡ 400 m £‡ Shot-put£ 4 x 400 m relay£‡ 4 x 100 m £‡ 5000 m£‡ 100 m hurdles‡ Discus throw‡ 110 m hurdles£ 400 m hurdles£‡ Discus Throw£ £ Men, ‡ Women
Table-3: Classification of injuries according to National Athletic
Reporting System (NARS) Type of injury Number of injuries No time lost 28 Minor (1 – 7 days lost) 3 Moderate (8 – 21 days lost) 1 Major ( > 21 days lost) 3 Severe (Permanent Disability) 0 TOTAL 35 Table-4: Musculoskeletal injuries and the events in which they occurred
EVENT INJURY NUMBER % Hammer throw Supraspinatus strain 1 2.86 Partial biceps rupture 1 2.86 Long Jump and Patellofemoral pain syndrome 2 5.71 triple jump Quadriceps strain 1 2.86 Achilles tendinopathy 2 5.71 Lateral ligament avulsion fracture of ankle 1 2.86 5000m Shoulder dislocation 1 2.86 Peroneus tendinopathy 1 2.86 10,000m Medial collateral ligament strain of knee 1 2.86 800 m Tibialis posterior tendinopathy 1 2.86 400m Acute ankle sprains 2 5.71 100m hurdle Ankle soft tissue contusion 1 2.86 110m hurdle Groin injury 3 8.57 Shin splint 1 2.86 4x100m relay Shin splint 1 2.86 Chronic ankle sprain 6 17.14
56
SPORT AS AN INSTITUTION FOR GENDER STEREOTYPE CHALLENGE AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: A REFLECTION ON NIGERIAN ELITE SPORTSWOMEN AT THE OLYMPICS
Dr. Ifeanyichukwu C. Elendu and Dr. Tammy T. Orunaboka
ABSTRACT
This paper is a documental research based on literary review on the role of sport in challenging gender stereotype and serving as an institution for women empowerment in Nigeria. Women are always looking for how to address certain social issues and problems that affect them. Women empowerment is a social issue which women all over the world are clamoring for. Women have initiated and are still initiating movements geared towards ensuring that they have control over their socio-economic and political lives. Women have adopted several strategies including education to ensure that they achieve their goals. One of the strategies that could be used for women empowerment is sports. Sport is an empowerment avenue for all. Sport has also challenged gender stereotype that women are weak and inferior in social organizations. Among the areas that reflect one's empowerment are physical, economic, and social lives of the individuals. Sport empowers its participants including women physically by enhancing their strength, endurance, flexibility, power, agility; economically through salaries, match allowances as officiating officials and match commissioners, endorsement fees, and socially through interpersonal relationships, self-efficacy, friendship, among others. Among the challenges facing women empowerment through sports in Nigeria that were discussed include sexual harassment of women in sports; poor media coverage of women in sports; inadequate, substandard, and poor condition of sports facilities and equipment for women; poor funding of women's sports; inadequate motivation of women in sports; societal negative attitude towards women participation in sports, among others. Recommendations were made to improve the sports atmosphere for women, which will ensure women's maximization of the opportunity of being empowered through sports.
Keywords: Women empowerment, Sports, Gender stereotype.
INTRODUCTION sport, meaning of empowerment and This paper is a documental women empowerment, levels of research based on literary review of empowerment, and Nigerian elite the role of sport in challenging gender sportswomen at the Olympics. The stereotype and serving as an paper is equally subdivided into the institution for women empowerment role of sport in physical, social and in Nigeria. The subdivisions of the economic empowerment of women, paper are introduction, meaning of and problems confronting women gender, stereotype and gender empowerment through sports in stereotype, gender stereotype and Nigeria (poor media coverage of
57 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 women in sports; sexual harassment Hargreaves (1999), argued that sport of women in sports; inadequate social is an oppressive activity instead of an support for women sports; gender empowering activity for individuals inequity and inequality in sports in the minority group (such as leadership positions; inadequate, women), many sports scholars substandard, and poor condition of (Blinde, Taub, & Han, 1993; Blinde, sports facilities and equipment for Taub, & Han, 1994; Pohl, Borrie & women; poor funding of women's Patterson, 2000) maintained that sports; inadequate motivation of women personally can make sport or women in sports, and societal other physical activities a very negative attitude towards women empowering experience. participation in sports). Empowerment, according to In a patriarchal society, gender Czuba and Nanette (1999) is a multi- dominance, discrimination and in- dimensional social process that helps equity are encouraged. Patriarchy people gain control over their lives. relations manifest in heterosexual Sport sociologists have affirmed sport women’s economic dependence on as a tool for empowerment. Realizing men (Hartman, 1997). The worldwide the empowerment potentials of sport, women's movement over the past Fasting (1996) noted that some thirty years has emphasized that women of all ages pursue their females be treated as human beings interest in sports. Sports, in sport when they have opportunities to sociology perspective, according to develop their intellectual and physical Coakley (1998), are institutionalized abilities (Fasting, 1996). Women's competitive activities that involve struggle for empowerment could be vigorous physical exertion or the use seen in their series of conferences, for of relatively complex physical skills instance, the fourth world women by individuals whose participations conference held in Beijing China, from are motivated by combination of 4 - 15 September, 1995. physical enjoyment and external rewards. Women always anchor on Sports scholars like Nelson (1994), the outstanding performances of Kane (1998); Pohl, Borrie, and sportswomen at international Patterson (2000) rightly observed that competitions to contest and argue one issue concerning women and gender stereotype in the traditional sport has been sports ability to society. Commenting on women deconstruct traditional gender sports performance, Dada (2005) stereotyping, norms, and behaviours stated that Nigerian women athletes through the empowerment of have won more medals than their women. As Birrell and Richter (1987); male counterparts. Women medal 58 Sport as an Institution for Gender Stereotype profile at international sports compe- Meaning of Gender, Stereotype and titions such as Olympics which Gender Stereotype challenges the gender stereotype where women are seen to be weak, According to Igbuzor (2006), independent, emotional, and non- gender is the socially and culturally competitive. constructed roles for men and women. Stereotype refers to a fixed The feminist scholars advocate for idea or image that many people empowerment in the personal have of a particular type of person qualities gained by women to aid in or thing, but which is often not true betterment of their lives at individual, in reality (Hornby, 2005). Hence, group, and societal level. Personal or gender stereotype is a fixed idea or individual empowerment is a image that people have about men prerequisite for group and societal or women which is not often true. It empowerment. Pensgaard and Sore- is the socio-cultural expectations nsen (2002) noted that empowerment from men and women in a given in sport has mostly been studied at the society. Highlighting the stereo- individual level. This could be because typical expectations of men and empowerment at individual level is women, Fiebert and Meyer (1997) foundation for empowerment at other stated that women are expected to levels. Even at the sports sector, be gentle, sensitive, emotional, and individual sportsmen and women are talkative; while men are to be empowered before the group and competitive, independent, unemo- societal empowerment. Empower- tional, and objective. ment easily reflects on physical, economic, and social lives of The Nigerian society is not an individuals including women. Gibson exception in gender stereotyping. In (1991) noted that the development of the society, women are seen to be qualities such as positive self-esteem, weak, incompetent, unskilled, perceived competence, self-efficacy, an unintelligent, too emotional, not internal locus of control, personal objective for public social positions satisfaction, a sense of connectedness, but only good at domestic activities and an improved quality of life in the family and home. Due to facilitate empowerment at the gender stereotyping, according to personal level. This paper therefore Tavris (1994) women have been express how sports had challenged known to feel inadequate, worth- gender stereotype and discussed the less, trapped, and overall have low role sports can play in physical, self-esteems. This situation necessi- economic, and social empowerment of tated Nigerian women and their women in Nigeria. colleagues worldwide to strive 59 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 towards violating and disproving to be aggressive, competitive, and the societal norms. Nigerian confident, and so forth to be successful. women's popular saying that "what There is a link between successfulness a man can do, woman can do it and empowerment. better" is geared towards showing Sport experts (Blinde, Taub, & that they are not weak and inferior Han, 1993; Nelson, 1994) noted that even in the area of sports. stereotypes of women as less Gender Stereotype and Sport capable, less physically skilled, weak, helpless, and lack decision In the sport context, societal making skills that are necessary for norms are challenged and violated for organized physical activity lead women to be successful and many women to ignore sport or to empowered. Sport is an empowering believe that they were not institution for athletes irrespective of physically able to participate. In gender. Sport is a ground that has sport, women were able to display, been used to disagree with the what at the time were considered societal stereotyping norms as many inappropriate gender behaviours women have gone outside the limits such as aggression, competitiveness, of the norms. Many women have and independence. Women were proved to be objective, competitive, allowed to sweat, get dirty, get hurt, and independent at national and be muscular and physically fit while international sports competitions participating in sport. Sport served such as National sports festivals and as a place where women could Olympics. For an athlete (male or transgress from the strict and rigid female) to be successful or gender norms (Blinde, Taub & Han, empowered, certain traits, charac- 1993; Kane 1998). teristics, and behaviours must be present. This is in line with Tuffey's Meaning of Empowerment and (1995) statement that the charac- Women Empowerment teristics of a successful athlete reflect the necessary characteristics of The definitions of empowerment successful athlete, regardless of sex or by scholars are different but related. gender. This is not far from Anshel Rappaport (1987) viewed empower- (1994), and Cote and Salmela (1996) ment as a process by which people idea that to be a successful female gained mastery over their lives. athlete, it is necessary to possess the Blinde, Taub and Han (1993) same traits, characteristics, and defined empowerment as the behaviours as male athlete. According process by which individuals in a to them, successful female athlete needs disadvantaged social group develop
60 Sport as an Institution for Gender Stereotype skills and abilities to gain control intrapersonal empowerment is how over their lives and to take action to one sees himself or herself which improve their life situation. manifests in a perceived control and Wallerstein and Bernstein (1988), self-efficacy, motivation to control, and Gutierrez (1990) noted when an mastery, personality, cognitive, and individual becomes empowered, he motivational aspects of perceived or she becomes proactive and takes control. The interactional empower- personal responsibility in impro- ment provides a bridge between ving his or her life situation and perceived control and taking action to wellbeing. In the context of this exert control, encompassing how paper, empowerment is the social people think about and relate to their process of enabling women to social environment. The behavioural discover, develop, and strengthen component of individual empower- their skills and resources which are ment refers to actions taken to directly geared towards gaining power and influence outcomes in one's environ- control over their lives through ment. sports. This paper also discusses Group empowerment refers women empowerment as the process to a group's perception of influence of making women self-reliant, and control within a larger independent, confident, strong- community (Wallerstein, 1992). This minded and have total control over is a situation where the group may their lives through sports. control the actions of members of the group. Bandura (1997) affirmed Levels of Empowerment that a strong belief in a group's self- Empowerment is a multi-level efficacy may override a weaker construct. According to Rappaport personal self-efficacy. Empower- (1987), and Zimmerman and Rappa- ment at the community level is port (1988), empowerment occurs at connected with empowerment at individual or psychological, group, and the individual and organizational community levels. Zimmerman and level (Wallerstein, 1992). Comm- Rappaport, (1988) viewed psycho- unity empowerment (Bandura, logical empowerment as the connection 1997) assumes that people strive for between a sense of personal and desire political influence. Sherill competence, a desire for, and a (1998) explained that community willingness to take action, in the public empowerment represents a global domain. Individual empower-ment, structure, which focuses on the according to Zimmerman (1995), advancement of a certain group into comprises intrapersonal, interactional, positions of societal or political and behavioural components. The power in society.
61 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Nigerian Elite Sportswomen at the elite sportswomen to compete and won Olympics medals is a challenge to the societal
History has it on records that assumption of women as weak, non- Nigeria first participated in the competitive, and emotional.
Olympic Games in 1952 at Helsinki The Role of Sport in Physical from July 19 - August 3. Women have Empowerment of Women been participating in Olympics and Nigerian women are not left out in Women who were traditionally Olympic history. For instance, the relay perceived to be less capable, less team of Beatrice Utondu, Christy physically skilled, helpless and Opara-Thompson, Mary Onyali, and weak (Nelson, 1994) are empowered Faith Idehen at 1992 Barcelona Game through physical qualities, which won bronze in 4 x 100 metres relay. In are required for self control in one's the 1996 Atlanta Games, Chioma daily living. Such physical values Ajunwa won gold medal in long lump, and attributes which sports could and Olabisi Afolabi, Fatima Yusuf, contribute to women sport partici- Charity Opara, Falilat Ogunkoya won pants include improved muscular silver medal in 4 x 400 metres relay. In strength, cardio-vascular endurance, the same 1996 Atlanta, Mary Onyali cardiorespiratory endurance, agility, won bronze medal in 200 metres, with flexibility, power, improved reac- Falilat Ogunkoya also winning bronze tion time, speed among others. medal in 400 metres (Wikipedia Sport empowers women by deve- Foundation, 2009). loping their strength to run, walk, jump, to cater for their daily needs, At Sydney in Australia 2000 and escape from dangers in the (Sept. 15th to Oct. 1st) Olympic hostile environment. Games, Ruth Ogbeifo won silver in weightlifting. In the same 2000 Researchers have reported that Sydney Games, Glory Alozie made active sportswomen possess imp- a record in 100 metres women roved physical attributes (strength, hurdles by winning silver medal. In endurance, flexibility, agility, speed, the records of 2008 Beijing Olympic etc.) than inactive sportsmen. It is Games, Blessing Okagbare had no doubt that for female athletes bronze medal to show for her like Chioma Ajunwa, Blessing participation in long jump, with Okagbare, Glory Alozie, Mary Franca Idoko, Gloria Kemasuode, Onyali, among others to make Halimat Ismalia, and Oludamola historic marks in Olympics, they Osayomi who won bronze in 4 x 100 must have been empowered with metres relay. Olympics Games are physical fitness attributes through highly competitive and for Nigerian sports. 62 Sport as an Institution for Gender Stereotype
The Role of Sport in Social Em- interact with other social powerment of Women environments outside their homes. For instance, Nigerian elite female Blinde, Taub, and Han (1994), athletes have socialized themselves Nelson (1994); Pohl, Borrie and in Barcelona, Atlanta, Sydney, and Patterson (2000) noted that sport can Beijing due to Olympic Games. serve as a social networking arena Sport expands one's social environ- that allows women to come in ment. With sports, women who are contact with other women. in the past felt trapped, now feel Women's feeling of low self-esteem free in their social relationships. and inferiority in the past seems to With the view of athletes being have changed. Today, Nigerian agents of socialization, the social women thrive and win medals in value of sportswomen increases. sport which demands competitive- Many people, and corporate bodies ness and aggressiveness. The self or organizations establish friendship identity of female athletes has been with sportswomen. Government improved in modern sports world. also partner with sportsmen and Sport has exposed women to sportswomen in inculcating right establishing social relationship with values to its citizen. They are now other athletes, sport associations, seen as agents of social change in sport officials, fans, spectators, sport the society. Elite sportswomen have managers and administrators. had the opportunity of meeting Theberge (1987) opined that with the presidents of nations of the traditionally, contact with other world (Tavris, 1992). women has been limited, for most of The Role of Sport in Economic the women's work has revolved Empowerment of Women around the family and home. The author further emphasized that both Unless women's economic security team and individual sports have is strengthened, it will be difficult to provided women with the oppor- eliminate poverty, and achieve gender tunity to come together and work equality or realize genuine progress on together towards common goals. the United Nation's Goals (Negash, This simply means that sport has 2006). According to Negash (2006), served as an extension of women increased income controlled by social environment which was women gives them self-confidence, traditionally taken to be limited to which helps them to obtain a voice the family and home. Sport mobility and vote in household decisions, has made female athletes to tour economic decisions, fertility decisions, many countries of the world to and land use and conservation
63 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 decisions. Elite athletes including workers in sport facilities, equip- female athletes are sometimes ment and supplies manufacturing rewarded with millions of dollars or industries, are opportunities that pounds. They are paid endorsement have economically empowered in- fee for associating their names or dividuals including women. performance with some products. Problems Confronting Women Em- Some manufacturers associate them- powerment through Sports in selves with athletes to market and Nigeria promote their products. For instance, sports wears, t-shirts are designed A lot of problems confront using an elite athlete's identity, women in sports and tend to thereby attracting endorsement fees discourage them from sharing with for the athlete. Sport has contributed the empowering experience and to economic empowerment of athletes potential of sports. The problems and female athletes are not exempted. include:
Poor media coverage of women in sports Women economic dependency on men may be ameliorated through Media coverage of good perfor- sports. Athletes including female mance of athletes is a way of athletes are among the highest motivating and marketing the income earners in the world, thus athletes to the sports world. portraying economic empowerment Athletes including female athletes ability of sport. Sport as an feel more delighted to continue international career has made it participating in sports. Sports infor- possible for elite female athletes to mation is made available to the be paid with foreign currencies. public through print and electronic Sportswomen receive financial means of the media. There has been allowances for competitions either a difference in the way media from their nation, club side, team or personnel, and sports commentators association. Apart from getting report or speak about female economic and financial entitlement athletes which are different from the as a female athlete, other women way they report male athletes. The assume positions in sports commentators attribute male industries which economically em- athletes' outstanding performances powered them. Sport positions like as a mark of their athletic skills, coaches, sport referees, sport overall dedication and remarkable organizing secretaries, sport marke- amount of courage and that of the ters, sport analysts, sport officials, female athletes' performances to sport journalist (sport reporters, luck or the guidance of a strong sport announcers or commentators), male influence (Eastman & Billings, 64 Sport as an Institution for Gender Stereotype
1999; Eastman & Billings, 2000). Inadequate social support (parents, Wensing and Bruce (2003) reported siblings, friends, peers, role models) that there is less coverage of for women sports women's sports than their male Sportswomen expect support counterparts. Male athletes are more from their social environment. These glorified by media than the female sportswomen expect some encoura- athletes. In most cases, male athletes gements and cheering from their are praised and female athletes parents, siblings, friends, peers. Some criticized. Women's sports are not parents and other social groups with given due coverage by the Nigerian their negative attitude towards media. A review of Nigerian women participation in sports do not national newspapers and magazines give these sportswomen their shows biasness and poor coverage consent. This discourages sports- of women sports, and this does not women, as those who are already encourage women to continue their involved in sports may be left with no participation in sports. option other than to pull out, and Sexual harassment of women in sports those yet to participate cease to think Sexual harassment is a violation about it. of human rights. Sexual harassment is a social problem that thrives in Gender inequity and inequality in sports leadership positions every human organization including sports. Women are mostly Sports leadership positions are the victims of sexual harassment dominated by men with very few which is often perpetrated by men. women. Sports policies and deci- Supporting this, Elendu (2009) sions are taken by these leaders. reported that southern Nigerian More women are likely to be universities female athletes mostly involved in sports when they see for experience sexual harassment, and instance retired elite sportswomen is mostly perpetrated on them by who serve as their role model in male athletes, sports administrators, sports leadership position. The and spectators. This ugly experience sports leadership positions are of sexual harassment by women in dominated by men. the course of their participation in sport has made some of them to Inadequate, substandard, and poor cease from participation. Sexual condition of sports facilities and equipment for women harassment of sportswomen has forced many women back to their Athletes need not just sports homes, and never to engage in facilities and equipment, but ad- sports outside their homes. equate and standard ones that are in 65 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 good condition. Most of the available Societal negative attitude towards sports facilities and equipment are women participation in sports substandard, and in poor condition. Training with these facilities and Though the societal negative equipment exposes athletes to a lot of attitude towards women partici- injuries. Injuries as a result of poor pation in sports in Nigeria is condition of facilities and equipment gradually changing, but women's scare some women from sports. On sports have not been given the other hand, men show their proper attention. Sports are still dominating power by driving women seen as a masculine activity. Most away from sports facilities when they Nigerians still perceive sport as (men) want to train. This embarra- an activity that makes women ssment makes some women to retire muscular, affects a woman's from sports. menstruation, and other physio- logical changes that endangers Poor funding of women's sports the reproductiveness of women. The society expects women to Sports require huge amount of concen-trate on child rearing, and money for the payment of athletes', other domestic activities than to coaches' and officials' allowances, be involved in sports. This does procurement of sports equipment, not encourage women who have construction and maintenance of sports interest in sports to participate. facilities. In Nigeria, women's sports do not attract financial support like their Conclusions and Recommendations male counterparts both at national and international competitions. Sport has challenged the gender stereotypical assumptions Inadequate motivation of women and expectations of the public. in sports Women should consider using Sportswomen are not properly sport as one of their empower- motivated, as could lead to their ment strategies as it has been drop-out in sports. This has earlier affirmed to be an empowering been expressed by Nikos, Anne- experience. In order to sustain the Marte, Chris, and Katie (2004) that empowering opportunities in lack of motivation in sports or sports for women and to encou- exercise context will make rage more women to participate, individuals not to take part in the following recom-mendations sports. Motivation is needed for are made based on problems individual to participate or continue discussed on this paper facing to participate in sports. women's sport in Nigeria. 66 Sport as an Institution for Gender Stereotype
1. There should be zero tolerance covering sports irrespective of of sexual harassment of women the gender.
in sports settings. Sexual 8. Proper and adequate motivation harassment prevention policies should be provided for women should be made and imple- who participate in sports, such mented throughout the country. as cash rewards, scholarship, job 2. Adequate and standard sports offer, and recognition should be facilities and equipment should given to sportswomen.
be provided for women to use. 9. Sports enthusiasts should form non- 3. There should be gender balance in governmental sports organizations, and sports clubs for women. appointment of leadership posi- tions in sports. More women REFERENCES should be absorbed into the sports Anshell, M. (1994). Sport psychology: From positions in Nigeria. They should theory to practice. Scottsdale, AZ: be appointed as minister of youth Gorsuch Scarisbrick Publishers and sports, commissioners of youth and sports, sports officials, match Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The commissioners, sports analysts, exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company sports reporters / commentators, referees, sports administrators, Birrell, S, & Richter, D. (1987). Is a organizers, sport association secre- diamond forever? Feminist trans- taries, among others. formations of sport. Women's Studies 4. There should adequate enlight- International Forum, 10, 393 - 409.
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69
CURRICULUM QUALITY AND ACADEMIC REPUTATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION COLLEGES IN HEALTH – FITNESS JOB MARKETING IN JORDAN
Dr. Ahmed M. Al-Shishani, Dr. Akef M. Taifour and Dr. Aman S. Khasawneh
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of quality P.E curriculum that meets the standards of (ACSM) personal trainer certificate on the academic reputation of P.E graduates in Jordan in the health fitness job market as reflected by the owners and managers of 14 first class health fitness clubs in Jordan including fitness clubs in 5 star hotels which served as sample of the study. The samples were requested to answer a questionnaire that requested to rate the best P.E graduates qualified to work in the health fitness business. The results indicated that the Hashemite University is regarded as the best source of P.E graduates qualified to work in the fitness club industry compared to the rest of Jordan colleges as rated by 72 percentages with a 66 percentage of employees in the 14 fitness club which served as sample of the health fitness job market. The Hashemite University is the only university in Jordan who adopted the content of (ACSM) personal trainer certificate study package which proves that the academic knowledge and skills of P.E graduates than other factors contributing to academic reputation such as history, size, and research activity.
Key Words: ACSM: American College of Sports Medicine, PTC: Personal Trainer Certification in Sport Medicine, AHA: American Heart Association, KSA’S: Knowledge Skills and Abilities, ARC: American Red Cross,
P E: Physical Education
INTRODUCTION Jordan and the Arab world is the business of the health fitness and Academic reputation is a weight management clubs and product of a number of interacting spa’s. In fact this job market is attributes of academic higher exclusively a physical education education institutions such as domain; after all, the motto of P.E history, size, admission and gradua- colleges is within two philosophies, tion standards and research activity that is: (Ref 6,8) of faculty members. However, job 1. Educating the physical market evaluation of college 2. Educating through the physical graduates is more practical criteria in reflecting academic reputation of However, health fitness job higher education institutions. One markets care less about the philosophy of the emerging job markets in of teaching in colleges of physical
70 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 education that is: “either philosophy is In this regard, the ACSM offer accepted in the health fitness job certifications in two sport medicine market as long as the P.E major tracks as follows: (Ref 4) graduate is competent and capable in 1. The ACSM health and fitness track. delivering the promised services to 2. The ACSM clinical track. customers of health fitness job market”. (Ref 7) The health fitness track is geared to work with people classified as Yet, the traditional curriculum being apparently healthy which of colleges of physical education is means in short that they have no heavily geared and organized risk factors associated with any towards teaching sport skills and particular major chronic disease stunts as a leisure or athletic such as cardiovascular diseases, activities in schools and athletic diabetes and hypertension. sport clubs more than teaching the academic knowledge and skills In this track, the ACSM offers required in the health fitness and three levels of certifications as weight management clubs and follows arranged from the lowest centers. Thus, academic matching level to highest level. (Ref 1,2,3,4) between job market criteria for 1. Personal trainer certificate (PTC). competence in the health fitness 2. Health fitness instructor certificate. industry and the curriculum taught 3. Health fitness director certificate. to P.E majors will have a strong impact upon the academic The PTC certificate is the 1997 reputation of PE graduates in the modified version of the exercise job market. (Ref 7,9) leader certificate of 1970’s. In the other hand, the ACSM clinical track Competency standards in the health is more involved in working with fitness job market patients who already have major risk factors contributing to chronic Health fitness job market is a diseases and /or actually suffered a domain of sports medicine, thus, the heart attack or stroke and survived ACSM is the highest academic and need physical rehabilitation as authority in sports medicine and its part of the total medical rehabili- position stand regarding compe- tation program. tence criteria of health fitness clubs In this regarded, the three levels staff is the golden criteria to work of certificates in this track are as (employment standards) in the follows from the lowest to the health fitness job market (Ref 10). highest level of certification.
71 Curriculum Quality and Academic Reputation
1. ACSM exercise test technologist. effective exercise methods and 2. ACSM exercise specialist. motivation strategies to increase 3. ACSM program director. awareness and interest in perusing and adhering to Exercise programs The ACSM certification standards and life style behavioral changes that are promoted through ACSM'S increase the effectiveness of exercise publications and newsletters as the for health purposes. most rigorous in either track (Ref 5). Minimum requirements Indeed, reputable Exercise physio- logists consider the ACSM as the Minimum prerequisites for preeminent organization to offer certifi- admission to the ACSM personal cation programs and workshops for trainer certificate are as follows: health fitness professionals (Ref 10). 1. A high school diploma or For the purpose of this study, a equivalent and detailed description of ACSM personal 2. Current adult CPR certification trainer certificate will be provided. that has a practical skills examination component such as ACSM certified personal trainer the American heart association certificate (AHA) or the American Red The ACSM certified personal Cross (ARC). Certificates. trainer certificate is given to individuals Recommended Competencies who demonstrate competence in developing and implementing an The ACSM standards of individualized approach in exercise competence as personal trainer prescription for healthy populations includes the following (Ref 5,9) and / or people with medical clearance Demonstrate competence in to exercise. KSA'S required of the ACSM Using a variety of teaching personal trainer as listed in the ACSM techniques, the ACSM certified guide lines for exercise testing and personal trainer is proficient in leading prescription (5th edition -2001) and demonstrating safe and effective methods of exercise by applying the Adequate knowledge of and skill fundamental principles of exercise in risk factor and health status science which demands academic identification, fitness appraisal, knowledge relevant to writing and implementing appropriate exercise and exercise prescription. recommendations and demonstrate Demonstrate ability to incorporate leadership in constructing safe and suitable and innovative activities 72 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
that will improve clients work and independent and strongly instrumental exercise capacity. in gaining academic reputation of higher education institutions in Jordan. Demonstrate the ability to effectively
educate and / or communicate with SAMPLE AND PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY individual's regarding life style behavioral modification. The sample of this study was 14 private "first class" health fitness Relevant studies owners and managers in Amman
the Capital of Jordan. Health fitness job market is rather new in Jordan and the Arab The sample investigated repre- world. In fact, the Hashemite sents the elite of health fitness and University is the only university so weight management centers in Jordan. far which introduced a special P.E STUDY DESIGN curriculum that complies with the This study is a post facto study in ACSM standards required to be which the independent variables of eligible for personal trainer the study (novel curriculum) are certificate of the ACSM (PTCsm). introduced to one sample and the Thus, similar studies are lacking academic reputation of this sample is and the only study relevant to this compared to academic reputation of study was a study that investigated the similar groups who did not study the effect of curriculum promotion in P.E same curriculum (treatment). The colleges upon employment history of novel curriculum was prepared P.E major graduates in Jordan and the according to ACSM’S competence results of the study carried out by the criteria for personal trainer certificate. same authors of this study indicated The curriculum was approved that quality P.E curriculum is decisive and implemented at the Hashemite factor in increasing job opportunities of University in the sport rehabilitation gra-duates to 87% (rang84-93) department of the college of physical compared to 10% (range 7-17.9) for education and movement sciences in graduates of traditional P.E curriculum the school year 1999-2000. Under the as described in this study. (Ref 6) name of "sports rehabilitation" the curriculum, included courses covers HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY basic athletic training concepts and The hypothesis of this study is as applied skills in sports injuries follows: matching between academic prevention and treatment domain. curriculum in physical education colleges Part of graduation requirements with the knowledge and skills required was to spend one full semester as in health fitness job market is an internship in health fitness clubs and 73 Curriculum Quality and Academic Reputation this part of graduation requirements Academic reputation of the PE was the first awareness by health major applicants in health fitness job fitness owners and mangers with market was investigated using a sports rehabili-tation specialization as a questionnaire method in which new area of study in physical education owners and mangers of 14 first class colleges in Jordan. health fitness clubs in Amman were
ACADEMIC REPUTATION requested to evaluate the best EVALUATION PROCEDURES source of PE graduates who In the academic year 2003-2004 the demonstrate on-the-floor compe- first graduate class completed gra- tence in delivering health fitness job duation requirements and received a market service among PE major bachelor degree in sports rehabilitation. graduates in Jordan. This study was undertaken in the academic year 2004-2005 after one year The questionnaire included data following graduation in which the job regarding the number and source of market of health fitness clubs received current staff employed in their job applications from PE majors in the 4 private commercial fitness clubs and colleges of physical education including centers. (Appendix B shows the the sports rehabilitation graduates questionnaire format)
Table- 1
Ranking of Jordanian universities from the best to the poorest source of
graduates competent to work in the health fitness job market in Jordan
from the stand point of the clubs managers
No University name Number of votes Percentage
1 Hashemite university 12 72%
2 University of Jordan 2 28%
3 Yarmouk university - -
4 Mou”tah university - -
Table (1) shows that the Hashemite university was ranked as the best
source of P.E graduates competent in their on- the- job performance in health
fitness job market with (72%) consensus (12 out of 14 )of health fitness clubs while the university of Jordan came second with the remaining (28%) consensus.
74 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Table- 2 Ranking of the best P.E specialization in Jordan universities that teach a curriculum compatible with knowledge and skills needed in the health fitness job market ordered from the best to the poorest curriculum
No Name of University name Number percentage specialization of vots
1 Sport rehabilitation Hashemite university 12 72%
2 Coaching and - - - administration
3 P.E teacher University of Jordan 2 28%
Table (2) shows that regarding the best P.E specialization that qualifies students to work in the health fitness job market, the sports rehabilitation department at the Hashemite university was voted as the best P.E specialization fit to work in the health fitness job market according to 12 out of 14 respondent which makes (72%) of the total sample of health fitness clubs owners and mangers who answered the questionnaire.
Table- 3 Employ and Staff sources number in the (14) health fitness job market sample of the study
No Academic source Staff number
Males Females Total percentage
1 Hashemite university 29 27 56 66% 2 University of Jordan 12 11 23 23%
3 Yarmouk university 4 1 5 5%
4 Mu’tah university - 1 1 1%
Total 45 30 85
Table (3) describes the data regarding the number of currently employed staff in the (14) health and fitness clubs job market.
75 Curriculum Quality and Academic Reputation
As the table indicates, the sport market aside from other aspects and rehabilitation department graduates attributes of academic reputation of of the Hashemite university cons- higher education institutions. titute (66%) percent of health fitness The logical explanation for the staff employed in the (14) sample of results of this study is in the fact fitness clubs investigated. 56 emplo- that private business is more yees out of total of 85 are sports concerned with academic know- rehabilitation graduates (29 males ledge, skills and abilities (KSA) of and 27 females). The university of their staff that will enhance the Jordan came second with a total of delivery of high – quality programs (23) employees (12 males and 11 that satisfy its clients. After all, females) and Yarmouk university clients’ satisfaction is the essence of came in third place with (5) business market including health employees (4 males and 1 females) fitness job market. and finally came Mu’tah university One distinguished innovation in with only one females employee. the staff employment in the College of
CONCLUSIONS Physical Education at the Hashemite The results of this study is in University is the recruitment of two favor of accepting the major graduates of medical colleges to teach hypothesis on the basis of the data the medical content of sports presented in tables 1,2,3 which clearly rehabilitation curriculum. One MD was indicate superiority of sports a family physician with a master rehabilitation graduates in the health degree in medicine; the other MD was an orthopedic (master degree). fitness job market compared to graduates of traditional graduates of Thus, the faculties in charge of P.E colleges in Jordan despite the fact implementing the sport rehabilitation that the Hashemite University is the curriculum were a perfect blend of newest university in Jordan and the exercise science experts, and medical smallest student enrollment wise. experts. Consequently, the concept of exercise–health connection was trans- DISCUSSION lated to reality faculty wise in sports The result of this study is in rehabilitation department which in favor of the hypothesis that turn contributed to the results of this emphasize the importance of the study. After all, the concept of exercise curriculum in physical education – health conne-ction is the academic colleges and department as a major background for the emergence of attribute that confer academic health fitness job market in the united reputation to the universities and state and the rest of health conscious colleges in the health fitness job societies of the world. (Ref1,2,3,4) 76 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
RECOMMENDATION REFERENCES 1. ACSM. (1994). Exercise Leader Based on the results of the study Workshop Study Packet. the following recommendations are 2. ACSM. (1995). Guide Lines for Exercise suggested: Testing and Prescription, 6th edition. 1. Higher education institutions 3. ACSM. (1999). Health Fitness must keep abreast with changing Instructor Study Packet. job market demands regarding 4. ACSM. (2000). Guide Lines for the KSA of graduates irrespective Exercise Testing and Prescription, of academic specialization. KSA 5th edition. of graduates in their particular 5. ACSM.(2001). Health and Fitness academic domain is what counts Certification Review. in the job market when it comes 6. Adams. W. C. (1991). Foundation to academic reputation of higher of Physical Education and Sport education institutions as this Science, Lea & Febiger, UK. study concluded. 7. Adel, A. Taifour. A, and Khasawenh.
2. Colleges of physical education are A. (2010). The Effect of Quality invited to follow the model of the Physical Education Curriculum on Hashemite University in deve- Job Market Opportunities for loping a curriculum compatible Graduates: The Hashemite University with job market demands to Model, Unpublished yet. increase employment opportuni- 8. Golding, L.A. (2000). From the ties of its graduates. Editor: Physical Education, Kinesiology, Exercise Science, What 3. Medical doctors should be is in a Name? ACSM Health encouraged to join teaching Fitness Journal. Vol.4, No. 4.p1. faculty in colleges of physical 9. Bucher, C.A. (1983). Administration education to add medical of Physical Education and Athletic knowledge relevant to exercise Programs. (8th Edition), the C.V prescription and precautions in Mosby Company.
the health fitness job market to 10. McArdel, W. Katch. F, and Katch.V prevent any liability cases in this (2007) Exercise Physiology: Energy, blooming job market. Nutrition, and Human Performance. 4. Feed back seminars with (6th Edition) p 927. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. graduates, manager, and owners of the health clubs to modify the 11. Patton .R.W. (1999). Evaluation of the present curriculum in the Health and Fitness Industry is Increasing: Physical Education College and Here is a Good Assessment Tool, ACSM departments, is highly needed. Health Fitness Journal, Jan- Fab. p. 40-41. 77
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROFILE OF TRAINED WEIGHTLIFTERS
Bhavana S. Masale and Vijay A. Sawant
ABSTRACT
Weightlifting is one of the major sports in India. In the present study, men and women weightlifters of state and national level category (55 men and 35 women) have been studied considering anthropometric variables such as height, weight, skin fold along with other physiological parameters such as heart rate, blood pressure, cardiovascular efficiency, etc. The study revealed that stature of athlete plays crucial role in the performance of the athlete. The changes in the values of various physiological variables have found to be significant
Key words: Weightlifting; cardiovascular efficiency; aerobic strength and power; sport physiology.
INTRODUCTION physical structures of the Meitei women weightlifters and control Weightlifting is a major sport in group of non-athlete women. Byrd et India. It is one of the oldest games. al (2003) reported longitudinal data Physical strength plays a vital role over approximately two years in in weightlifting. In fact, weight children training and competing in training is an integral part of many weightlifting. Performance improved resistances training program of in these children, who participated in athletes as well as non-athletes as a an average of eight competitions. Fry part of an exercise regimen. Many et al (2003) carried study on muscle sport scientists, Malhotra et al fiber characteristics and performance (1084), Ghosh et al. (1983), Khanna correlates of male Olympic-style et al. (1983) have carried out studies weightlifters. However, the data on on body composition, static strength body composition, efficiency of and cardiovascular efficiency in physically trained weightlifters, who terms of aerobic capacity on Indian had participated into various local national sportsmen. weightlifting competitions, is scanty.
Venkateshshwarulu et al (1990) The importance of scientific have studied relationship of muscle theory in the design of training and mass and fat mass to strength on coaching program was the motive- national and international tional force behind the present study. weightlifters and wrestlers. Devi Attempts have been made to Sarojini (2006) has recently done a determine the level of physical fitness comparative study of variations in of trained weightlifters, who had
78 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 participated at least to the university The cardiovascular efficiency was level weightlifting com-petitions by determined by Harvard’s modified step performing simple tests. test method. The measurements of grip strength were recorded by using grip MATERIAL AND METHODS dynamometer for both right and left hands. The blood pressures of the The samples of the present weightlifters were recorded by study consists of 53 male and 35 ‘Sphygmomanometer’ before exercise female trained weightlifters, classi- and after exercise. The lung function test fied into two cate-gories, viz. was carried out by using peak flow national level and state level meter. Statistical constants such as according to their involvement in mean, standard deviation (S.D.), sport events or competitions. The standard error of mean (S.E.) of each weightlifters under training from variable were calculated. The t-test was various training centers of western applied for bi-variate comparison of the Maharashtra (India) volunteered two groups. themselves for the present study. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Total of six (6) anthropometric The weightlifters were separated measurements were collected from each into two groups on the basis of their individual following the norms of involvement in the events or Weiner and Lourie (1969). The competitions with help of professional anthropometric measurements are body experts (coaches).The physical charac- weight, standing height, and skinfolds teristics of the weightlifters are pre- at four sites i.e. Biceps, Triceps, supraliac sented in table-2. Mean age of the and subscapular. The skinfolds subjects was 17.8 yrs and 19.43 yrs for measurements were recorded with help state and national level respectively of skinfold caliper. The body density with little variation. Very low and fat percentage were calculated by variation in age indicates that the formulae of Durnin and Rahaman sample of subjects under study was a (1966); Siri (1961) respectively. homogeneous group.
Table -1 Weightlifting: Body Composition
Parameter Men Women State Level National Level State Level National Level Age (yrs) 17.8 ± 1.9 19.43 ± 1.35 18.67 ± 3.67 18.85 ± 1.46 Height (cm) 161.4 ± 9.2 164.72 ± 6.86 155.6 ± 5.2 155.15 ± 7.30 Weight (kg) 68.4 ± 21.6 67.08 ± 18.03 56.5 ± 12.3 56.04 ± 8.29 79 Physiological Profile of Trained Weightlifters
Table-2: Muscular Strength and Power
Parameter Men Women Grip Strength State Level National Level State Level National Level Vertical Right 32.3 ± 13.3 56.93 ± 10.10 26.87 ± 4.22 41.30 ± 5.36
Left 29.2 ± 12.2 54.30 ± 8.85 25.20 ± 6.44 39.45 ± 5.27 t-value 0.82 0.76 0.84 1.10
Horizontal Right 32.1 ± 12.3 51.83 ± 10.06 24.73 ± 3.92 40.30 ± 5.22
Left 32.3 ± 11.0 49.48 ± 9.26 24.00 ± 3.36 38.05 ± 5.11 t-value -0.06 0.67 0.55 1.38
Grip strength of the weightlifters is exhibited in the table-2. Mean vertical grip strength of national level male weightlifters was 56.93 kg and 54.30 kg for right and left hands respectively, but when it was measured in horizontally corresponding values were decr eased. The difference between right and left hand grip is not statistically significant but the difference between the grip strengths of state and national weightlifters has clearly seen to be significant.
Table-3: Aerobic Capacity
Parameter Men Women State Level National Level State Level National Level
Max. Heart Rate 112.20 ± 10.80 103.90 ± 5.35 93.93 ± 10.55 106.90 ± 5.98 (b. p. m)
P.E.F.R. 493.3 ± 93.00 514.00 ± 61.80 400.70 ± 36.10 434.8 ± 38.30 Systolic B.P. 140 .60 ± 8.00 141.77 ± 4.13 119.53 ± 7.39 139.40 ± 4.76 Diastolic B.P. 86.80 ± 5.30 84.00 ± 3.75 79.73 ± 6.31 86.20 ± 3.19
The static heart rates of the there are marked changes in BP weightlifters were measured which rapidly abate once the immediately after a bout of exercise. challenge is discontinued. In the It was observed that heart rate present study, it has been observed increase but the quantities by which that both systolic and diastolic B.P. it increases for state and national increased from baseline mean of level and also for men and women 117 ± 11 mm Hg to various weightlifters were quite significant, quantities with maximum of which may be due regular exercise. 141.77±4.13 mmHg for national The peak expiratory flow rate values level male weightlifters. for all categories of weightlifters According to the classification of were found to be higher than the Brouha (1943), the cardiovascular standard values which indicates that efficiency of the weightlifters, as mea- weightlifters were having very good sured by Harvard’s modified step test lung capacity. Huy Phun (2006) was found to be of good category for have reported that during resistive national male weightlifters and for challenge such as weightlifting, others it was of high averages category. 80 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Table -4 Anaerobic Capacity
Men Women Parameter National National State Level State Level Level Level
Fitness Score
( Harvard step Test) 74.70 ± 9.10 87.07 ± 8.06 70.28 ± 7.41 76.94 ± 6.71
Table-5 and 6 exhibits body composition of men and women weightlifters. The mean values of percent body fat, total body fat and lean body mass determined from the skin fold measurements.
The difference between national level and state level male and female weightlifters for each of these three components are not significant except for lean body mass of national level male weightlifters.
Table-5
Distribution of Mean, S.D. and t-values for Body composition of
Male Weightlifters
State Level National Level Sr. No. Component Mean S.D. Mean S.D. t-value
1 Fat Percent 21.56 4.5 20.75 3.75 0.56 2 Total Body Fat (kg) 13.97 2.5 13.92 3 0.05
3 Lean Body Mass(kg) 50.83 2.95 53.16 3.75 -1.93*
* P < 0.05 statistically significant.
Table -6 Distribution of Mean, S.D. and t-values for Body composition of Female Weightlifters
Sr. State Level National Level No. Component Mean S.D. Mean S.D. t-value 1 Fat Percent 24.55 5.45 23.15 4.65 0.79
2 Total Body Fat (kg) 13.87 10.2 12.97 8.5 0.28 3 Lean Body Mass(kg) 42.63 9.5 43.07 7.88 -0.14
81 Physiological Profile of Trained Weightlifters
REFERENCES 9. Khanna G. H. et. al.: Body composition, 1. Astrand P. O. and Rodahl K.: strength and cardiovascular efficiency Textbook of Work Physiology: of 252 sportsmen of various disciplines; Physiological Bases of Exercise, Snipes Journal, 9 (3): 56-61. Third Edition, McGraw-Hill 10. Khanna G.L., Gosh A.K., Sharma Book Co., Singapore. (1986) J.G. and Malhotra, M.S.: Physical 2. Brouha, L.: The step test: A simple status of some judoists in India, method for measuring physical Ibid, 6 (2), pp-21-27 (1983). fitness for muscular work in 11. Loren Z.F. Chiu and Brian K. youngmen, Res. Quart. 14 (1), Schilling: A primer on weightlifting pp-31-36 (1943) from sports to sports training; 3. Byrd, R., K. Pierce, L. Rielly, and Strength and Conditioning journal, J. Brady: Young Weightlifters’ 27(1), pp-42-48 (2005). Performance across time. Sports 12. Malhotra, M.S., Khanna, G.L. and Biomech, 2(1):133-140 (2003). Verma, S.K.: Functional Characteris- 4. Devi Sarojini H.: Variations in tics of Indian National track cyclists, Physical Structures of the Meitei Ibid 7(11), pp-89-95 (1985). Women Weight Lifters and the 13. Sodhi, H.S. and Sidhu, L.S.: Controlled Group, Anthropologist, Physique and selection of 8(4): 227-230. (2006) sportsmen; Punjab publishing 5. Fry A.C., B. K. Schilling, R.S. Staron, House, Patiala (1984). F.C. Hagerman, R.S. Hikida and J.T. 14. Venkateshwarulu, P., Krishnakumar, Thrush: Muscle Fiber Characteristics and N. and Sodhi, H.S.: Comparison and performance correlates of male Olympic- relationship of muscle mass and fat mass to style weightlifters, J. strength and con. strength on weigh lifters and wrestler. Res, 17(4), pp: 746-754, (2003). pp.111-116. In: Origin of Kinanth- 6. Ghosh A.K. and Ahuja A.: A ropometry. H.S. Sodhi, D.P. Bhatnagar, modified test for evaluation of physical P. Suriarajan and R. Mokha (Eds.). fitness of sportsmen in ball games; National Working Group on SNIPES journal, 7(4) (1984). Kinanthropometry, Patiala (1990). 7. Huy Quoc Phun: Blood Pressure 15. Wilmore J: Training for Sports Changes during Weightlifting, A and Activity: The Physiological thesis submitted to the Yale school of Basis of the Conditioning Process, Medicine for the degree of M.D. (2006) 2nd Ed, Allyn and Bacon Inc. 8. Kanehisa, H and T. Fukunaga: Profiles of Musculosketal development in limbs of college Olympic weightlifters and wrestlers. Eur. J. Appl. Physio., 79, pp: 414-420, (1999).
82
EFFECT OF COMBINED ACTION OF YOGASANAS AND PRANAYAMA EXERCISES REDUCES LIPID PROFILES AND ENHANCES ANTIOXIDANT STATUS IN YOUNG HEALTHY INDIVIDUALS
Dr. Annida Balakrishnan and Suthakar Krishnaswamy
ABSTRACT
The present study was designed to find out the effect of yogasanas and pranayama exercises lowers the lipid levels and increases the antioxidant status. Sixty men students of age 25-28years were selected randomly as subjects from B.P.E.d in the Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Annamalai University. Selected subjects were divided into four groups with fifteen numbers of each. Group1 served as Control; Group 2 as Asana; Group 3 as Pranayama and Group 4 as Asana and Pranayama. Experimental study was carried out for three months duration. Selected yogasnas and pranayama exercises were given to the experimental groups for (4days/week) for 12 weeks. Blood samples were collected before and after the complete course of treatment. Biochemical analysis was done on selected lipid and antioxidant variables by the concerned Biochemist, Department of Biochemistry, Annamalai University. Resulted Data were statistically analyzed using ANOVA and DMRT and they were significant at p≤ 0.05 levels. Thus our study concluded that combined exercises of yogasanas and pranayama practices reduces the lipid levels and retains the antioxidant status. It is also revealed that combined exercises produced better effect than alternate exercise groups.
Keywords: TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances), Hydroperoxides, Cholesterol, Freefattyacids,
Triglycerides, Phospholipids, and Antioxidants
INTRODUCTION and breathing exercises (prana-
Yoga is one of the many yamas) (Parshad, 2004; Pilkington et different techniques for achieving al.,2005) that aim to focus the mind, relaxation. Yoga has its origin in achieve relaxation and increase ancient India and in its original wellness. form consisted of a system of Various health benefits of yoga spiritual, moral and physical have been described in previous practices (Pilkington et al., 2005). studies. A review of anti-depressive The most central and common effects of different forms of yoga aspects of yoga practice today are (Parshad, 2004; Pilkington et al., different bodily postures (asanas) 2005) indicated potential beneficial
83 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 effects of yoga on depressive the production of ROS. Correspon- disorders. Other studies reported dingly, a few recent studies have shown beneficial effects of yoga on anxiety, that relaxation techniques reduce stress reduction and general well- oxidative stress (Schneider et al., 1998; being (Lavey et al., 2005; Ray et al., Bhattacharya et, al., 2002; Jatuporn et, al., 2001). However, the results need to 2003). be interpreted carefully since many Since only a few studies of this of the published studies about yoga type are available, more studies are are small and no systematic and needed to establish the place of comprehensive reviews of scientific various relaxation techniques in research on yoga have been pub- mitigating the biochemical, effects lished. It may also be difficult to of psychosocial stress. Our study is compare studies done on different an attempt in that direction. One of forms of yoga since benefits of yoga the indicators of oxidative stress is practice might differ by the style of the degree of lipid peroxidation. the practice (Cowen and Adams, Lipid peroxidation is thought to be 2005). a major factor in pathogenesis of Oxidative stress induces free many human diseases (Halliwell radical generation. While oxidation and Chirico 1993). Lipid peroxi- of nutrients is essential for life, one dation may be assessed from the of the adverse side-effects of blood concentration of lipid peroxi- oxidation is generation of reactive dation products as measured by oxygen species (ROS). The oxidative thiobarbituric acid reactive subs- stress imposed by ROS contributes tances (TBARS), of which malondia- to the process of aging as well as a ldehyde (MDA) is a principal consti- variety of chronic degenerative tuent. We have measured the con- diseases (Halliwell 1994; Gutteridge centration of TBARS in the blood of 1993; Halliwell et al., 1992). The patients undergoing a comprehen- impact of the oxidative stress is sive yoga based lifestyle modify- minimized by a large number of cation program at the beginning and endogenous as well as dietary end of the program antioxidants. Sudarshan Kriya and related The level of oxidative stress practices (SK&P) is a form of yoga depends on the balance between practice that emphasizes breathing production of ROS and their quenching exercises. In addition to asanas, three by antioxidant mechanisms. Psych- different forms of pranayamas are osocial stress increases oxidative stress practiced in succession (Jana-kiramaiah (Sivonova, 2004), possibly by increasing et, al., 2000). Previous studies suggested
84 Effect of Combined Action of Yogasanas that SK&P may be useful for relieving METHODOLOGY depression, improving the antioxidant Selection of subjects: Sixty male defenses of the body, giving rise to students studying BPED in the beneficial EEG patterns, and possible Department of Physical Education improvements in blood chemistry and sports science, Annamalai (Janakiramaiah et al., 2000; Nagaven- University, Tamil Nadu were katesha murthy et al., 1998; Sharma et selected randomly as subjects and al., 2003). For example, Janakiramaiah et their age ranged between 25- al. found that the degree of depression 28years. All the subjects involved in significantly decreased (68–73%) in the experiment were healthy subjects with clinical depression after volunteers. they practised SK daily for three weeks and this decrease was as effective as Experimental Design: Selected conventional pharmacological treatment subjects were grouped into four of (Janakiramaiah etal., 2000). each fifteen members namely,
The study was to develop a Group I - served as Control with protocol that can investigate fifteen of each, whether asnas and pranayama could Group II - as Asana, be considered in connection with Group III- as Pranayama and increased wellness. Even though Group IV - as Asana and Pranayama. what constitutes wellness can be Experimental Duration: The yogic debated, there are a number of practices were given to all the studies demonstrating that the treatment groups except the control variables included in this study are for 3 months (4days/week). among the most relevant to feeling of Food and Diet: Normal diet were wellness by different approaches taken and there is no restriction on diet (Sharma et, al., 2003; Cowen,1994; Adams et al., 1997). To that end, Selection of variables: outcome measures that were Biochemical variable includes evaluated included depression, Lipid peroxidative indices such as anxiety, mood, optimism, energy TBARS and hydroperoxides, HDL, levels, and experience of altered states LDL, VLDL, Cholesterol, triglycerides, of consciousness. The present study Freefattyacids and phospholipids. was aimed to find out whether Antioxidants includes both enzymic combined action of yogasnas and and non-enzymic antioxidants such as pranayama exercises reduces lipid SOD, Catalase and GPX; non enzymic profiles and enhances antioxidant antioxidants includes GSH, Vitamin C, status in young healthy individuals. Vitamin E.
85 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Selection of yogasnas and pranayama terol using Allain et al., 1974, exercise triglycerides estimated by the method (Foster and Dunn, 1973), Yogic practices include specific Freefattyacids by (Falholt,1973) and asana such as: phospholipids( Zilversmit and Suryanamaskar, Tadasana, Trikona- Davis,1950). asana, Paschimottanasana and Bhujan- Antioxidant includes enzymic gasana to increase HDL and decrease antioxidants such as SOD estimated cholesterol, triglycerides, freefattyacids by the method of Kakkar et al., and phospholipids, VLDL and LDL. (1942), catalase (Sinha, 1972) and Sudarshan Kriya asana, Ujjayi- GPX (Rotruck etal., 1973). Non Pranayam, Bhastrika, Kapal-bhati, enzymic antioxidants include GSH Bhramari, and Shavasna were prac- by (Ellman, 1959) method, Vitamin ticed to increase the antioxidant C (Roe and Kuther, 1942), Vitamin E levels. (Baker et al., 1980) was analyzed.
Sudarshan Kriya (SK) is a Measuring Instrument breathing technique introduced by Sri Sri Ravi Shankarji and involves Colorimeter was used for taking breathing in three different rhythms. readings for the above estimations.
UjjayiPranayam- (long and deep Statistical analysis breaths with constriction at the base of throat) and Bhastrika (fast and Biochemical variables were forceful breaths through nose along assessed before and after 3 months of with arm movements). yoga practices. The data were
Biochemical estimations analyzed using ANOVA and the group means were compared by Biochemical Estimations were Duncan’s Multiple Range Test done by the concerned Biochemist (DMRT). Differences was considered in the Department of Biochemistry, to be significant when p≤0.01. Annamalai University. They follo- wed the appropriate methods and the results were produced by them.
Lipid peroxidative indices such as TBARS were estimated by the method of Ohkawa et al., (1979) and hydroperoxides by Jiang et al., (1992). HDL, LDL, VLDL (Ross and Harker,1976), Estimation of Choles- 86 Effect of Combined Action of Yogasanas
RESULTS
Table -1 Changes in the levels of TBARs and hydroperoxides in control and exercise groups
Hydroperoxides Groups TBARS(mM) -5 (×10 mM) Control 2.01±0.13 a 8.22±0.2a Asanas 1.53±0 .2b 7.1±0.4b Pranayama 1.68±0.25 c 6.11±0.13c Asanas and Pranayama 1.46±0.13 d 5.36±0.2d Data represents mean± SD from 15 subjects in each group. Values not sharing a common superscript letter (a,b,c, d) differ significantly at p≤0.01 (Duncan’s multiple range test) Group comparison: Group one with all, Group 2 and 3 with 4.
Descriptive
95% Confidence Min. Max. Std. Std. Interval for Mean N Mean Deviation Error Lower Upper Bound Bound 1.00 15 2.0167 .13886 .03585 1.9398 2.0936 1.53 2.11 2.00 15 1.5387 .20135 .05199 1.4272 1.6502 1.33 2.20 TBARS 3.00 15 1.6867 .25681 .06631 1.5444 1.8289 1.53 2.60 4.00 15 1.4613 .13298 .03434 1.3877 1.5350 1.33 1.70 Total 60 1.6758 .28299 .03653 1.6027 1.7489 1.33 2.60 1.00 15 8.2233 .20866 .05388 8.1078 8.3389 7.68 8.62 2.00 15 7.1060 .40781 .10530 6.8802 7.3318 6.45 8.30 Hydroperoxides 3.00 15 6.1173 .13025 .03363 6.0452 6.1895 5.99 6.50 4.00 15 5.3687 .28377 .07327 5.2115 5.5258 5.03 5.89 Total 60 6.7038 1.11433 .14386 6.4160 6.9917 5.03 8.62
ANOVA
Sum of Mean df F Sig. Squares Square
Between Groups 2.717 3 .906 25.249 .000 TBARS Within Groups 2.008 56 .036
Total 4.725 59 Between Groups 68.959 3 22.986 299.165 .000 Hydroperoxides Within Groups 4.303 56 .077
Total 73.262 59
87 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Table.2 Changes in the levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, freefattyacids and Phospholipids in control and exercise groups
Groups Cholesterol Triglycerides Free fattyacids Phospholipids mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl
Control 179.10±26.05a a 5.76±0.9a 184.33±0.21a 119.38 0.3 Asanas 175.6±10.9b 116.3±0.13 b 4.41±0.26b 177.44±0.2b Pranayama 170.32±9.9c 110.22±0.7 c 3.79±0.22c 174.86±0.4c Asanas and Pranayama 165.7±.1.75d 102.3±4.19 d 3.16±0.21d 170.38±0.1d
Data represents mean± SD from 15 subjects in each group. Values not sharing a common superscript letter (a,b,c,d) differ significantly at p≤0.01 (Duncan’s multiple range test) Group comparison: Group one with all, Group 2 and 3 with 4.
Descriptive
95% Confidence Std. Std. Interval for Mean N Mean Min. Max. Deviation Error Lower Upper Bound Bound Cholesterol 1.00 15 179.1067 26.05819 6.72820 164.6761 193.5372 165.90 272.30
2.00 15 175.6000 10.93891 2.82441 169.5422 181.6578 166.90 213.15
3.00 15 170.3280 9.90281 2.55689 164.8440 175.8120 162.30 204.50 4.00 15 165.7000 1.75368 .45280 164.7288 166.6712 164.69 171.90 Total 60 172.6837 15.49129 1.99992 168.6818 176.6855 162.30 272.30 Triglycerides 1.00 15 119.3887 .31713 .08188 119.2130 119.5643 118.92 119.95 2.00 15 116.3040 .12783 .03301 116.2332 116.3748 116.10 116.70 3.00 15 110.2240 .72477 .18714 109.8226 110.6254 107.63 110.60 4.00 15 102.3053 4.19090 1.08209 99.9845 104.6262 87.18 103.70 Total 60 112.0555 6.89947 .89072 110.2732 113.8378 87.18 119.95 Freefattyacids 1.00 15 5.7613 .93705 .24195 5.2424 6.2803 4.20 6.60 2.00 15 4.4167 .26912 .06949 4.2676 4.5657 4.10 4.90 3.00 15 3.7953 .22360 .05773 3.6715 3.9192 3.50 4.20 4.00 15 3.1687 .21013 .05426 3.0523 3.2850 3.02 3.90 Total 60 4.2855 1.08821 .14049 4.0044 4.5666 3.02 6.60 Phospholipids 1.00 15 184.3333 .21266 .05491 184.2156 184.4511 184.00 184.67 2.00 15 177.4453 .20000 .05164 177.3346 177.5561 177.20 177.90 3.00 15 174.8667 .42538 .10983 174.6311 175.1022 174.00 175.40 4.00 15 170.3880 .12491 .03225 170.3188 170.4572 170.23 170.60 Total 60 176.7583 5.09923 .65831 175.4411 178.0756 170.23 184.67
88 Effect of Combined Action of Yogasanas
ANOVA
Sum of Mean df F Sig. Squares Square Between Groups 1561.210 3 520.403 2.313 .086 Cholesterol Within Groups 12597.619 56 224.957 Total 14158.829 59 Between Groups 2553.678 3 851.226 187.022 .000 Triglycerides Within Groups 254.882 56 4.551 Total 2808.561 59 Between Groups 55.243 3 18.414 70.509 .000 Free fatty acid Within Groups 14.625 56 .261 Total 69.868 59 Between Groups 1530.182 3 510.061 7240.626 .000 Phospholipids Within Groups 3.945 56 .070 Total 1534.127 59
Post Hoc Tests Homogeneous Subsets CHOLESTEROL
Duncan
Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 4.00 15 165.7000 3.00 15 170.3280 2.00 15 175.6000 1.00 15 179.1067 Sig. .027 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000.
TRIGLYCERIDES Duncan
Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 4.00 15 102.3053 3.00 15 110.2240 2.00 15 116.3040
1.00 15 119.3887 Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000. 89 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
FREEFATTYACID
Duncan
Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 4.00 15 3.1687 3.00 15 3.7953 2.00 15 4.4167
1.00 15 5.7613
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000.
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Duncan
Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 4.00 15 170.3880 3.00 15 174.8667 2.00 15 177.4453
1.00 15 184.3333
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000.
Table- 3 Changes in the levels of HDL, LDL and VLDL in Control and exercise groups
Groups HDL mg/dl LDL mg/dl VLDL mg/dl Control 55.7 ±0.3a 110.41 ± 0.10a 32.49 ±0.2a Asana 57.4 ± 2.7b 107.45 ± 0.18b 28.36 ±0.16b Pranayama 59.9 ± 1.6c 103.37 ±0 .23c 25.24 ± 0.1c
Asanas and Pranayama 66.25± 0.19d 100.4±.18d 23.27±.15d
Data represents mean± SD from 15 subjects in each group. Values not sharing a common superscript letter (a,b,c,d) differ significantly at p≤0.01 (Duncan’s multiple range test) Group comparison: Group one with all, Group 2 and 3 with 4. 90 Effect of Combined Action of Yogasanas
Descriptive
95% Confidence
Std. Std. Interval for Mean N Mean Min. Max. Deviation Error Lower Upper Bound Bound
1.00 15 55.7067 .35421 .09146 55.5105 55.9028 55.10 56.04
2.00 15 57.4087 2.79359 .72130 55.8616 58.9557 50.60 65.30 HDL 3.00 15 59.9073 1.63423 .42196 59.0023 60.8123 59.25 65.78 4.00 15 66.2507 .19514 .05038 66.1426 66.3587 66.00 66.75 Total 60 59.8183 4.33817 .56006 58.6977 60.9390 50.60 66.75
1.00 15 110.4140 .10329 .02667 110.3568 110.4712 110.20 110.60
2.00 15 107.4587 .18330 .04733 107.3572 107.5602 107.12 107.80 LDL 3.00 15 103.3753 .23862 .06161 103.2432 103.5075 103.00 103.70 4.00 15 100.4060 .18130 .04681 100.3056 100.5064 100.18 100.80 Total 60 105.4135 3.85792 .49806 104.4169 106.4101 100.18 110.60
1.00 15 32.4933 .20275 .05235 32.3811 32.6056 32.15 32.80
2.00 15 28.3693 .16131 .04165 28.2800 28.4587 28.16 28.65 VLDL 3.00 15 25.2427 .10375 .02679 25.1852 25.3001 25.12 25.45 4.00 15 23.2753 .15629 .04035 23.1888 23.3619 23.12 23.55 Total 60 27.3452 3.51626 .45395 26.4368 28.2535 23.12 32.80
ANOVA
Sum of Mean df F Sig. Squares Square Between Groups 961.427 3 320.476 120.498 .000
HDL Within Groups 148.937 56 2.660 Total 1110.364 59
Between Groups 876.253 3 292.084 8713.984 .000
LDL Within Groups 1.877 56 .034 Total 878.130 59
Between Groups 728.049 3 242.683 9487.126 .000 VLDL Within Groups 1.432 56 .026
Total 729.481 59
91 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
Post Hoc Tests Homogeneous Subsets
HDL
Duncan
Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4
1.00 15 55.7067
2.00 15 57.4087 3.00 15 59.9073 4.00 15 66.2507 Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000.
LDL
Duncan
Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 4.00 15 100.4060 3.00 15 103.3753 2.00 15 107.4587
1.00 15 110.4140
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000.
VLDL
Duncan
Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 4.00 15 23.2753 3.00 15 25.2427 2.00 15 28.3693
1.00 15 32.4933
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000. 92 Effect of Combined Action of Yogasanas
Table- 4 Changes in the level of enzymic antioxidant status in control and exercise group
SOD CATALASE GPX Groups (UA/mg Hb) (UA/mg Hb) (UA/mg Hb) Control 0.93±0.4a 8.7±0.7a 55.11±0.4a Asana 1.36±0.1b 9.8±0.1 b 60.33±0.1b Pranayama 1.7±0.2c 11.8±1.2c 62.11±0.4c Asanas and Pranayama 2.4±0.1d 14.42±0.3d 64.54±1.6d
Data represents mean± SD from 15 subjects in each group. Values not sharing a common superscript letter (a,b,c,d) differ significantly at p≤0.01 (Duncan’s multiple range test) Group comparison: Group one with all, Group 2 and 3 with 4. A- Enzymes required for 50% inhibition of NBT reduction/min/mg Hb
Descriptive
95% Confidence Std. Std. Interval for Mean N Mean Deviatio Min. Max. Error n Lower Upper Bound Bound
1.00 15 .9393 .46108 .11905 .6840 1.1947 .59 2.55 2.00 15 1.3600 .14142 .03651 1.2817 1.4383 1.26 1.85 SOD 3.00 15 1.7080 .24826 .06410 1.5705 1.8455 1.09 2.30 4.00 15 2.4000 .13464 .03476 2.3254 2.4746 2.20 2.59
Total 60 1.6018 .60449 .07804 1.4457 1.7580 .59 2.59
1.00 15 8.7033 .75273 .19435 8.2865 9.1202 8.10 11.30 2.00 15 9.8013 .19026 .04912 9.6960 9.9067 9.50 10.12 CATALASE 3.00 15 11.8080 1.25303 .32353 11.1141 12.5019 10.70 13.80 4.00 15 14.4207 .34599 .08933 14.2291 14.6123 13.82 14.77
Total 60 11.1833 2.31450 .29880 10.5854 11.7812 8.10 14.77
1.00 15 55.1180 .44967 .11610 54.8690 55.3670 54.35 55.80 2.00 15 60.3360 .10894 .02813 60.2757 60.3963 60.20 60.60 GPX 3.00 15 62.1167 .44432 .11472 61.8706 62.3627 61.23 62.80 4.00 15 64.5467 1.69158 .43676 63.6099 65.4834 62.20 66.20
Total 60 60.5293 3.60202 .46502 59.5988 61.4598 54.35 66.20
93 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
ANOVA
Sum of Mean df F Sig. Squares Square
Between Groups 17.186 3 5.729 73.361 .000
SOD Within Groups 4.373 56 .078 Total 21.559 59 Between Groups 283.963 3 94.654 165.149 .000 CAT Within Groups 32.096 56 .573 Total 316.059 59 Between Groups 719.678 3 239.893 293.183 .000 GPX Within Groups 45.821 56 .818
Total 765.499 59
Post Hoc Tests Homogeneous Subsets SOD Duncan
Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 1.00 15 .9393 2.00 15 1.3600 3.00 15 1.7080 4.00 15 2.4000 Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000.
CAT Duncan
Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 1.00 15 8.7033 2.00 15 9.8013 3.00 15 11.8080 4.00 15 14.4207 Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000. 94 Effect of Combined Action of Yogasanas
GPX Duncan
Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 1.00 15 55.1180 2.00 15 60.3360 3.00 15 62.1167 4.00 15 64.5467 Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000.
Table-5 Changes in the levels of nonenzymic antioxidant status in control and exercise groups
Groups GSH mg/dl Vit-E mg/dl Vit-C mg/dl a Control 58.34±0.19a 1.53±0.21a 1.88±0.1
Asana 64.19±0.23b 1.98±0.13b 2.37±0.15b Pranayama 65.73±0.47c 2.37±0.11c 3.07±0.33c Asanas and Pranayama 70.33±0.12d 2.98±0.15d 4.3±0.26d
Data represents mean± SD from 15 subjects in each group. Values not sharing a common superscript letter (a,b,c, d) differ significantly at p≤0.01 (Duncan’s multiple range test) Group comparison: Group one with all, Group 2 and 3 with 4. A-µmoles of H2 O2 utilized/min/mg Hb
Descriptive
95% Confidence Std. Std. Interval for Mean N Mean Min. Max. Deviation Error Lower Upper Bound Bound 1.00 15 58.3467 .19104 .04933 58.2409 58.4525 58.10 58.90 2.00 15 64.1947 .23772 .06138 64.0630 64.3263 63.80 64.67 GSH 3.00 15 65.7300 .47580 .12285 65.4665 65.9935 65.11 66.40 4.00 15 70.3360 .12437 .03211 70.2671 70.4049 70.12 70.55 Total 60 64.6518 4.33009 .55901 63.5333 65.7704 58.10 70.55 1.00 15 1.5300 .21679 .05598 1.4099 1.6501 1.41 2.30 2.00 15 1.9873 .13541 .03496 1.9123 2.0623 1.80 2.20 VITE 3.00 15 2.3733 .11030 .02848 2.3122 2.4344 2.21 2.55 4.00 15 2.9813 .15982 .04126 2.8928 3.0698 2.80 3.30 Total 60 2.2180 .55910 .07218 2.0736 2.3624 1.41 3.30 1.00 15 1.8807 .10747 .02775 1.8212 1.9402 1.76 2.20 2.00 15 2.3733 .15079 .03893 2.2898 2.4568 2.22 2.85 VITC 3.00 15 3.0760 .33970 .08771 2.8879 3.2641 2.50 3.36 4.00 15 4.3887 .26060 .06729 4.2444 4.5330 4.00 4.90 Total 60 2.9297 .97812 .12627 2.6770 3.1823 1.76 4.90
95 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 1101.545 3 367.182 4386.066 .000 GSH Within Groups 4.688 56 .084 Total 1106.233 59 Between Groups 17.000 3 5.667 219.978 .000 VITE Within Groups 1.443 56 .026 Total 18.443 59 Between Groups 53.400 3 17.800 327.210 .000 VITC Within Groups 3.046 56 .054 Total 56.446 59
Post Hoc Tests Homogeneous Subsets
GSH
Duncan Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 1.00 15 58.3467 2.00 15 64.1947 3.00 15 65.7300 4.00 15 70.3360 Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000.
VITE Duncan Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 1.00 15 1.5300 2.00 15 1.9873 3.00 15 2.3733 4.00 15 2.9813 Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000.
VITC Duncan Subset for alpha = .01 GROUP N 1 2 3 4 1.00 15 1.8807 2.00 15 2.3733 3.00 15 3.0760 4.00 15 4.3887 Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 15.000. 96 Effect of Combined Action of Yogasanas
The levels of TBARS and significantly elevated in yogasna, hydroperoxides were found to be pranayama and yogasna and increased in control groups of pranayama group. Regular practice of healthy individuals. Practice of exercise enhances the antioxidant yogasnas and pranayama reduces status and it was also found that better the levels of TBARS and improvement in combined group of hydroperoxides but the combined yogasna and pranayama group than work of yogasna and pranayama other. (Table .4) were found to be more significant Non-enzymic antioxidants levels than other groups. (Table.1) were decreased in control group of Table 2 shows the levels of healthy individuals. The levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, free fatty GSH, vit-C and vit-E were retained acids and phospholipids in control in yogasna, pranayama and yogasna and exercise groups. The levels of and pranayama groups by doing lipid profiles increased in control their exercise regularly. Much better groups of healthy individuals. improvement in repairing the Yogasna and pranayama practices antioxidant status was noticed in decrease the levels of lipid profile. performing the combined exercise Significant reduction was seen in of yogasana and pranayama. combined action of yogasna and (Table.5) pranayama exercise group than other groups. DISCUSSIONS
Table 3 shows the levels of Resulted studies revealed that lipoprotein levels in control and Asanas and Pranayama group exercise groups. Significant increase produced better effect in modifying in HDL and decrease in LDL and the lipid levels and thereby VLDL were found in yogasna and enhances the antioxidant status. A pranayama groups. Practice of review showed that yoga had yogasna and pranayama reduces the beneficial effect on Body Weight, LDL and VLDL level and increases Blood Pressure, Blood Glucose level the HDL levels than non practice and Cholesterol level (Yang, 2007). control group. We found better The practice of yoga was improvement in combined action of associated with significant decrease both yogasnas and pranayama. in cholesterol among subjects with SOD, CAT and GPX were cardiovascular diseases, atherosc- significantly decreased in control lerosis, angina, hypertension and group of healthy individuals. The Type 2 Diabetes at different dura- activities of enzymic antioxidants were tion of yoga (Yang, 2007; Mahajan et 97 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 al., 1999; Agarwal etal., 2003; SKY is a unique breathing process Satyajit, 2004; Bijlani etal., 2005; not practiced as a single technique but Damodaran etal., 2002; Gorden etal., is integrated with asanas, pranayama, 2008). Results of our study found meditation and attitude training. This that 12 week practice of asana and type of yoga is said to heal and purify pranayama significantly decreases within, is a natural and non invasive cholesterol, triglycerides, free fatty stress relieving technique (Agte and acids, phospholipids, LDL, VLDL Tarwadi, 2004). SKY or “Proper Vision and increases HDL and enzymic by Purifying Action” is an advanced and non-enzymic antioxidant status. form of cyclical breathing at variant Better effect was observed in combi- rate, slow, medium and fast (Sharma ned form of asana and pranayama et, al., 2008). It is preceded by Ujjayi exercises. pranayama (long & deep breath with
Studies on the ancient practice of constriction at the base of throat) and Yoga have demonstrated an Bhastrika (fast and forceful breaths improvement in respiratory function. through nose along with arm Yoga consists of a number of different movements) (Sharma et, al., 2008). Our practices, the most common of which results shows decrease in total are the pranayama, the coordination cholesterol, LDL-C along with of controlled ventilation and the significantly increase in HDL-C after 12weeks of SKY training. asanas or stretching exercises. Pranayama requires breath holding TBARS and hydro peroxides are which may result in increased the lipid peroxidative indices prone to parasympathetic control of produce free radicals leading to respiratory control centers (Mauch disease condition in even healthy and Dr. Day 2008). Long duration individuals. (Girotti, 1985). Lipid training of SKY (Sudharsana Kriya peroxidation and generation of free yogasana) improves many body radicals are associated with pathogen- functions. nesis of many diseases. In our study Studies showed that the ancient increase in lipid peroxidation is found Indian yoga system emphasizes on due to oxidative stress. Oxidative controlled breathing (pranayama), stress/ free radicals may contribute to body postures (asanas), relaxation of the patho physiology of many chronic mind (Meditation) (Madan and Pal, diseases. (Himani Sharma et al., 2003). 2002; Agte and Tarwadi, 2004). Better ability to overcome stress can be cited Practice of Sudarshan Kriya as possible mechanism for Yoga (SKY) along with asana and improvement in lipid profile (Vyas pranayama performed consciously etal., 2008). and with awareness (Madan and 98 Effect of Combined Action of Yogasanas
Pal, 2002) play vital role in reducing ments which emphasize the stimu- total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol lation of the organs and glands by and significantly increasing HDL easy bending and extensions which cholesterol. do not over-stimulates muscles but concentrate on glandular stimulation Yoga emphasizes on controlled (Nayak and Shankar, 2004). A major breathing (pranayama), body benefit of non-exhaustive exercise posture (asana), relaxation of mind such as yoga is to induce a mild (meditation) keeps a person ener- oxidative stress that stimulates the getic & healthy for maintaining expression of certain antioxidant health and fitness and for treating enzymes. This is mediated by the diseases (Madan and Pal, 2002; Agte activation of redox-sensitive signaling and Tarwadi ,2004). SKY has a pathways (Reid, 2001). For example, sound scientific basis and is an ideal gene expression of SOD is enhanced tool for improving the health. A after an acute bout of exercise study reviewed that practice of yoga preceded by an elevation of NF- has beneficial effect on biochemical kappaB and AP-1 binding. An and physiological functions (Madan increase in de novo protein synthesis and Pal, 2002). of an antioxidant enzyme such as Recent research also showed SOD or catalase usually requires that regular practice of yoga reduces repeated bouts of exercise (Jil, 2002). the oxidative stress and improves This could explain the increase in the the antioxidant levels (Bhattacharya activity of SOD in the Hatha yoga and et al., 2002). conventional PT exercise groups at the end of six months. (Lorenzo A An antioxidant is a substance that Gordon etal., 2008). scavenges free radicals generated due to oxidative stress. It has been ‘‘Pranayama’’ (the practice of suggested that exercise training is voluntary breath control, consisting of known to be effective in type 2 conscious inhalation, retention and diabetes mellitus by increasing exhalation) is often practiced in insulin sensitivity (Ibanez J, Izquierdo conjunction with ‘‘dhyana’’ etal., 2005), and regular exercise can (meditation), and ‘‘asanas ’’(physical strengthen antioxidant defenses and posture) (Yardi, 2001). Versions of may reduce oxidative stress (Kim et pranayama vary from single nostril al., 1996). Exercises including yoga breathing to belly breathing. postures have been shown to play a Pranayama consists of three phases: role in preventing type 2-diabetes ‘‘puraka’ (inhalation); ‘‘kumbhaka’’ (Sahay and Dahay, 2002). The yoga (retention) and ‘‘rechaka’’ (exhalation) postures are slow rhythmic move- that can be either fast or slow 99 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011
(Chodzinski, 2000). Although all Cellular intracellular enzymes pranayama has three phases, different such as SOD and catalase along forms of pranayama evoke dissimilar with non-enzymatic antioxidants and sometimes opposite responses in (gluta-thione) act as primary line of the subject depending on variables defense to cope with the deleterious such as which nostril is used or the effects of reactive oxygen species speed of the respiration. Pranayama (Bradley and Nathan, 1984). has been researched mostly for its Superoxide dismutase detoxifies beneficial applications in treatment of superoxide radicals and converts cardiovascular diseases such as them to hydrogen peroxide which is hypertension (Chodzinski, 2000; Singh further converted to water by et al.2004; Harinath et al 2004), catalase and glutathione peroxidase. pulmonary disease such as asthma Reduced scavenging of free (Cooper S et al., 2003; Singh etal., 2000; radicals by SOD, decreased Vedanthan etal., 1998), autonomic glutathione and decreased activity nervous system imbalances (Pal et al., of catalase are associated with 2004), and psychologic or stress diabetes and vascular pathology related disorders (Harinath K et al. (Baynes and Thorpe, 1996). Reduced 2004; Brown and Gerbarg 2005). capacities of antioxidant enzymes Pranayama is known to improve lead to increased oxidative stress in pulmonary function (Malhotra et al diabetes (Arai et, al., 1987) in the 2002) and cardiovascular profile study evaluation of antioxidant (Chodzinski, 2000; Singh et al.2004; status demonstrated significant Harinath et al 2004). In studies that increase in SOD activity and non- examined pranayama as a form of significant increase in catalase exercise, nostril breathing was shown activity with a concomitant to increase hand grip strength of both significant reduction in MDA in the hands (Raghuraj P et al. 1997). Hatha yoga and conventional PT Pranayama, by reducing risk factors groups after six months. The associated with cardiovascular disease improved antioxidant status due to (Bijlani et al. 2005), has shown that it is these exercise regimens may point not only theraputic but also to adaptive response to oxidative preventative. Reduction in oxidative stress reflecting free radical stress levels with increased super-oxide production and increased enzyme dismutase and decreased number of biosynthesis (Lui etal., 1993). free radicals may explain in part the Furthermore, in oxidative stress beneficial long term impact pranayama when excessive superoxide forma- has on the cardiopulmonary system tion may be accompanied by increa- (Bhattacharya et, al., 2002). sed nitric oxide levels, elevated SOD 100 Effect of Combined Action of Yogasanas activity may play a protective role pranayama by their combined in preventing cells from peroxy- exercises helps us to keep our body nitrite formation (Li et al., 2000). and mind healthy and free from disease. A variety of natural antioxidants exist to scavenge oxygen free REFERENCES radicals and prevent oxidative damage to biological membranes. 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106 CONTRIBUTORS Effect of Combined Action of Yogasanas
Rajender Singh is Reader in the department of Physical Health & Sports Education, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India and Rajesh Kumar, Research Scholar in the same department are joint authors of the article titled “An Effect of Mental Toughness on Different Level of Participation in Soccer Player”
Dr. Aslam Pervez Memon, Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Sindh, Jamshoro; Soniha Aslam Ghouri, Assistant Professor, Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science; Dr. Deen Muhammad Jalbani, Associate Professor, Department of Political Science and Dr. Yasmeen Iqbal Qureshi, Professor & Director, Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science working at the same university have jointly written article titled “Sports as a Dynamic Force in the Development of relations among Nations in Global Politics”
M. Muftler, Research Assistant, Department of Physical Education and Sport, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey, Ahmet Yapar, Research Assistant in the same Department and University, S.G. Irez, Physical Education and Sport School, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey and M.L. Ince, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education and Sport, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey; have jointly written article titled “Examination of public parks for physical activity participation by their Location, Size and Facilities”.
Diane E. Mack, Associate Professor, Department of Kinesiology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada; Katie E. Gunnell, PhD Candidate, School of Human Kinetics, University of British Columbia, Canada; Philip M. Wilson, Associate Professor, Department of Kinesiology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada; Jenna D. Gilchrist, MA Candidate, of the same department and university, Kent C. Kowalski, Associate Professor, College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan, Canada; Peter R.E. Crocker, Professor, School of Human Kinetics, University of British Columbia, Canada; Leah J. Ferguson, Doctoral Candidate, College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada and J.D. Adachi, Professor, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Canada; have written joint article titled “Physical activity in individuals living with osteopenia: Association with Psychological need satisfaction and motives for well-being”.
Jumshaid Ahmed, Students Affairs / Sports, Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan and Muhammad Akram Ansari, Assistant Professor, Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science, University of Sindh, Jamshoro; have jointly written article titled “Gender Differences of self-confidence in sports with reference to Pakistan Socio- Cultural factors and attitudes towards women”.
(Continued on Page No. 02)
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Parachi Shah, Physical Therapist, Department of Physiotherapy, Manipal College of Allied Health Sciences, Manipal University, India; Abraham Samuel Babu, working as Physical Therapist in the same department at Manipal; Vaibhavi Satam also serving as Physical Therapist in the same department; H.S. Ballal is Professor and Pro-Chancellor, Department of Physiotherapy, Manipal College of Allied Health Sciences, India; Fiddy Davis, Associate Professor, Department of Physiotherapy in the same University and Arun G. Maiya, Professor and Head, Department of Physiotherapy, Manipal College of Allied Health Sciences, India are the joint authors of article titled “A Musculoskeletal injury profile of athletes at a National Inter- University Athletic meet in Minipal, Karnataka, India”
Ifeanyichukwu C. Elendu, Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria and Tammy T. Orunaboka working in the same department and university at Nigeria have jointly written article titled “Sports as an institution for gender stereotype challenge and women empowerment: A reflection on Nigerian Elite Sportswomen at the Olympics”
Ahmed M. Al-Shishani, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education, The Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan; Akef M. Taifour, Instructor, Department of Physical Education, and Aman S. Khasawneh, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education at the same University have jointly written article titled “Curriculum Quality and Academic Reputation of Physical Education College in Health–Fitness Job Marketing in Jordan”.
Bhavana S. Masale, Assistant Teacher in Biology, Department of Biology, Shivaji University, Kolahapur, Maharashtra, India and Vijay A. Sawant, Former Head and Professor, Department of Zoology at the same university have jointly written article titled “Physiological Profile of Trained Weightlifters”.
Dr. Annida Balakrishnan is Co-ordinator International Operations, Bharath Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India, and Suthakar Krishnaswamy is PhD Scholar in the Department of Physical Education and Sports Science at Annamalai University, Chidambaram, are joint authors of the article titled “Effect of Combined action of Yogasanas and Pranayama Exercises reduces lipid profiles and enhances antioxidant status in Young Healthy Individuals”.
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