NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 1 of 21

Assessment Schedule – 2010 History: Describe an historical development, in an essay (90213) Judgement Statement: all topics

Achievement Merit Excellence Content: Content: Content:

Description of the problems / A clear description of the problems / A comprehensive description of the challenges AND the responses to challenges AND the responses to problems / challenges AND the address / overcome those problems address / overcome those problems responses to address / overcome / challenges. / challenges. those problems / challenges. Structure: Structure: Structure: The historical information is The historical information is The historical information is organised in a satisfactory essay organised in a satisfactory essay organised in a satisfactory essay format that includes: format that includes: format that includes: • an opening statement or • an introduction • an introduction that states the ending statement focus of the essay • paragraphing. • sequenced and structured • sequenced and structured paragraphs containing paragraphs containing a range generalisations that are of generalisations that are supported by evidence supported by evidence • a conclusion. • a conclusion.

Topic One: Social Welfare 1891–1980 What problems did New Zealanders experience during the period of the Great Depression? How did the government respond to these challenges up until 1934?

Evidence may include: Problems New Zealanders experienced during the period of the Great Depression Increase in unemployment

• increased from about 10 000 in 1929, to about 81 000 in 1933; declined steadily after that (women not eligible to register, and Māori numbers unknown) because of falling production and cutbacks in government spending. • Women encouraged to give up their jobs to unemployed men. • Social stigma attached to unemployment and to receiving any form of charity or handout.

Hunger and extreme poverty • Prices for New Zealand exports (mostly wool, butter, cheese and meat) fell, leading to declining farm incomes, which had an effect in declining purchasing power through the rest of the New Zealand economy. • Mortgages were foreclosed by banks, as people could not keep up with repayments. People lost their homes and farms as a result. Homelessness increased. • Savings were lost. • The standard of living of most New Zealanders fell dramatically, but reduced incomes meant many people who were already on low incomes went hungry. • Soup kitchens were set up in the cities; many people used sugar bags for clothing. • People were evicted for non-payment of rent. • People learnt to ‘make do’ – and used inventive ways to make things last longer, or avoid more spending. • Emigration increased.

Demoralisation and general despair • Many marches protested lack of government help. • Frustration resulted in riots breaking out in Auckland, Wellington and Dunedin in 1932.

• A full 2 000 police and volunteers were needed to restore order in a three-hour riot in Queen Street, Auckland. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 2 of 21

• Marriage and birth rates decreased; male suicide and (illegal) abortion rates increased. • Domestic violence and marital breakdown increased. • Effects on Māori, still mainly rural dwellers, were even more severe. Often their hardships were not recorded.

How the Government responded to these challenges up until 1934 Cutbacks in government spending • The Coalition government embarked on a policy of retrenchment, believing that it must continue to ‘balance the budget’. • Declining incomes meant declining tax revenue, so government spending had to be reduced. • Government spending was slashed. • Wages of all government workers were cut by 10 per cent. • ‘Sinking lid’ policy in public service – workers who retired or resigned were not replaced where possible. • Public works spending was reduced, including work on railways schemes. • Teachers’ colleges were closed. • Kindergartens were closed. • Pensions (old age, widows, war, etc) were reduced. • The school starting age was raised to six. • Class sizes increased.

Assistance to farmers • The government, particularly George Coates (Deputy Prime Minister 1931–35), recognised the importance of farm incomes to the whole economy. • Interest payments on farm mortgages were reduced. • Freight charges were reduced for livestock and farm products. • Government work schemes enabled farm labour to be used but at subsidised rates. • Government introduced a fertiliser subsidy, hoping to increase production • The currency was devalued, which increased receipts for exports (mainly agricultural).

Work schemes for the unemployed • An Unemployment Board was created by the government to set up work schemes (Schemes 1 to 5) for the unemployed (‘relief workers’) – the government was adamant that there should be ‘no pay without work’. • Those on work schemes initially received 21/- per week if they were single, supplemented by 17/6 if they were married, and 4/- for each child; these rates were reduced in 1932. • Unemployment payments were paid for by a new tax on incomes. • Work camps were established in rural areas for single men – and later, married men also, who were forced to live apart from their families. • Work was often meaningless and humiliating because there were so many unemployed and it was difficult for local councils to find sufficient work. • Later subsidised work was rationed: two days a week for single men, up to four days for married men with more than two children. • Some major projects were undertaken through these schemes: eg planting of radiata at Kaingaroa Forest, new roads (Lewis Pass, road to Milford Sound), drainage schemes. • In late 1933, the government was forced into providing a subsistence benefit – the ‘dole’ – to unemployed. • Māori workers on relief paid less than non-Māori.

NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 3 of 21 Topic Two: New Zealand’s Search for Security 1945–1985 What caused New Zealand’s increasing involvement in South-East Asia and the Pacific in the period 1945 to 1985? How did New Zealand governments act to demonstrate that involvement? Evidence may include: Involvement in Southeast Asia Greater regional commitment grew out of post-war concerns about regional security and developments in Asia: • New Zealand under Peter Fraser and Labour sought collective security arrangements initially through the United Nations but, from 1948 as confrontation between the USSR and the West intensified and China looked increasingly likely to become another communist state, a new focus on regional security and the role New Zealand could play in it began to emerge. • New Zealand’s response to the Security Council request for help in Korea and the subsequent involvement of New Zealand armed forces in the Korean War from 1950–1953 marks the transition from advocates of collective security to willing participants in regional security arrangements. • Willingness to help in the fight against communism also promoted relations with the USA (although the ANZUS agreement is essentially a trade off for a ‘soft’ peace treaty with Japan). • Foreign aid to the region increased as part of both Commonwealth and United Nations commitments but the focus of government concern remained military. • New Zealand honoured pledge through ANZAM to help stop communism. New Zealand forces fought against Malayan Communists in the ‘Emergency’ (1950s) and the Indonesian forces in the ‘Confrontation’ (1960s) as part of the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve. o New Zealand established a base at Woodlands, in Singapore. It was there to demonstrate New Zealand’s readiness to counteract any communist aggression. o Disestablished in the mid-1980s. • Increasing concern over threat of communism in South East Asia saw New Zealand Government signing SEATO in 1954. • Involvement in Vietnam justified under SEATO. o Engineering unit and medical team first to be sent in 1964. o Artillery battalion sent after increasing pressure from USA. Involvement lasted until withdrawal by Kirk government in 1973. o Pro-communist uprising in Laos in 1962, New Zealand also troops involved as part of SEATO. • From 1967, New Zealand’s policy had to be more independent – as Britain withdrew from commitments “east of Suez” and joined the EEC. Latter development encouraged New Zealand to make trade with South East Asia – and Asia as a whole – an increasing priority. By the 1970s, Asia was a major focus of trade interest and New Zealand’s foreign policy was influenced by economic rather than political considerations: Robert Muldoon in 1980 – New Zealand’s foreign policy is trade”.

Involvement in the Pacific region • Peter Fraser chaired the Trusteeship Council of the UN, and New Zealand was able to work in a variety of ways with Pacific Island Trust Territories from 1945. • Western Samoa was guided to independence in 1962. • Cook Islands became self-governing in 1965, while Niue and Tokelau remained as Trust Territories throughout the 1960s. • Nauru under joint trusteeship of Australia, Britain, and New Zealand until 1968. • New Zealand retained strong links with Pacific Island countries after they gained their independence, especially in terms of foreign policy, defence needs, and education. • Cook Islanders had ‘open access’ to New Zealand and Niueans were New Zealand citizens. • Provision of aid to Pacific Islands – contribution of significant amount of bilateral aid to Pacific Islands.

How New Zealand governments acted to demonstrate that involvement Humanitarian and economic assistance • Wanted to provide poorer neighbouring countries with aid to develop their own systems. • Provision of better education, health resources, and living standards. • Aid assists trade prospects in region. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 4 of 21

To assist Pacific nations towards independence • New Zealand Prime Minister, Peter Fraser, wanted New Zealand to play a role in helping Pacific nations move to independence. • In his position as Chairman of the Trusteeship Committee of the UNO, Peter Fraser promoted this concept.

To campaign for a nuclear-free Pacific • New Zealand Governments campaigned against French nuclear testing in the Pacific as New Zealand began to see itself as a leader of Pacific Island nations.

Prevention of political instability • Communist victory in China and the intensification of the Cold War seen to be an increasing threat to New Zealand security. • Heightened further with the Korean conflict. • Aid will help prevent the spread of communism in the Pacific. • Fear that communism could spread as far as the Pacific Islands – that dissatisfied people would like the idea of communism. • From 1955 to 1961 a string of diplomatic missions were set up in Asia – Singapore, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia – Commonwealth and SEATO countries. • The extension of diplomatic representation to the Pacific got underway with a post being established in Samoa in 1962 (independence), followed by the Cook Islands in 1965. Further Pacific posts followed in the 1970s and 1980s as New Zealand sought a more active involvement – economically, diplomatically and in security arrangements – in the region. • From 1967, New Zealand’s policy had to be more independent – as Britain withdrew from commitments “east of Suez” and joined the EEC. • Increasing willingness to work with regional governments in both the Pacific and South East Asia – developmental aid “on site” and focused on transfer of expertise rather than “handouts” • Desire to be a “responsible neighbour” – taking refugees from Vietnam and Cambodia on humanitarian grounds and to ease pressure on “frontline” Asian states.

A change in New Zealand’s principal protector • Events of WWII still in everyone’s mind and the fall of Singapore of great concern to New Zealand – led to USA being seen as principal protector. It became clear that New Zealand was not able to rely solely on the protection of Great Britain any longer. • Despite defeat, Japan still seen by New Zealand as the greatest threat to homeland security.

Gain international recognition • USA and UK recognised the military contributions, diplomatic representation, and alliances that New Zealand was making. • It was hoped that trade benefits from these alliances would lead to improved and continued access for primary export products. • Pressure from the USA. • Collective security. • Social and economic development.

Trade benefits • Important markets for New Zealand • Ability to grow these markets important to our own economy, therefore stability required in these countries. • British withdrawal from region encouraged New Zealand to make trade with South East Asia – and Asia as a whole – an increasing priority. By the 1970s, Asia was a major focus of trade interest and New Zealand’s foreign policy was influenced by economic rather than political considerations: Robert Muldoon in 1980 – New Zealand’s foreign policy is trade”.

NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 5 of 21 Topic Three: Origins of World War II 1919–1941 What measures were taken in 1919 and 1920 to help restore and maintain peace after World War I? How did countries respond to these measures up to 1924? Evidence may include but is not limited to: Measures taken in 1919 and 1920 to help restore and maintain peace Treaties Treaty of Versailles • General Information: o 400+ articles describing re-establishment of Germany after the war o discussion and decision-making dominated by David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson (Big Three) and their policies and ambitions o Clemenceau determined that Germany should be weakened to the point where it couldn’t threaten France again o Lloyd George inclined to leniency, but British public wanted to ‘squeeze the [German] orange till the pips squeak’ o Woodrow Wilson was inclined to leniency, was an idealist, and wanted a fair resolution to the war. • Specific terms: o Articles 27–28—Germany’s boundaries: − loss of 13.5 per cent of land − loss of Alsace-Lorraine to France − loss of 17 800 square miles to Poland − East Prussia split from Germany by Polish Corridor − loss of land to Belgium and Denmark − loss of all overseas colonies. o Article 42—demilitarisation of the Rhineland: − had to be kept free of troops and armaments. o Article 45—cession of the Saar coalmines to France. o Article 49—Saarland government the responsibility of League of Nations; plebiscite concerning government to be held after 15 years. o Article 80—Germany to respect Austria’s independence: − Anschluss forbidden in the Treaty of St Germaine. o Article 82—over three million Germans left inside the borders of the new Czechoslovakia. o Article 102—Danzig a free city under the League of Nations: − Polish corridor to separate East and West Prussia. o Article 119—all Germany’s overseas possessions renounced. o Articles 170–198—Germany disarmed: − no imports of war materiel − no associations of any kind − no military instruction − no submarines − no air force − no tanks − army limited to 100 000 − small navy of six battleships. o Article 231—War Guilt Clause: − Germany had to accept responsibility for causing World War I. o Article 232—Germany to pay reparations of £6.6 billion. o Article 428—Allied army of occupation in the Rhineland for 15 years.

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Other treaties Austria: Treaty of Saint Germain (September 1919)

• Military limited to 30 000 volunteers, no navy • reparations agreed but never set • the Austro-Hungarian empire was dismantled. • Land to Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania, and Italy

Hungary: Treaty of Trianon (June 1920)

• Military limited to 35 000 volunteers, three patrol boats • 200 million gold crowns in reparations • Austro-Hungarian empire was dismantled • Land to Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania

Bulgaria: Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919)

• Military limited to 20 000 volunteers, four torpedo boats, no air force • 2.25 billion francs reparations • Land to Yugoslavia, Romania, and Greece

Turkey: Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920)

• Military limited to 50 000 soldiers, seven sailboats, and six torpedo boats • Land lost to Greece and Italy. Kurdistan, Armenia, Iraq, and Palestine became British mandates. Syria became a French mandate.

Reparations: Refer relevant measures from treaties above

Demilitarisation: Refer relevant measures from treaties above

League of Nations • Followed President Wilson’s idea. • Dealt with any problems arising from the Treaties established with the Central Powers. • Procedures for dealing with future problems: o Article 10—territory and independence of all League members to be respected o Article 11—any threat of war to be drawn to the League’s attention o Article 12—disputes to be submitted to the League for arbitration o Article 16—economic and trade sanctions to be applied if disputants do not comply with League recommendations. • Former German colonies became mandates under League control. • Promoted the idea of collective security—appealed to smaller nation such as New Zealand.

Responses by countries up to 1924 German Anger—Vengeance! German Nation • Germans very unhappy with the Treaty of Versailles: o felt it was a dictated peace (diktat) and many wanted revenge o Hitler emphasised the unfairness of the Treaty in Nazi Party speeches. • German government representatives were not present at the meetings and had to sign the Treaty with no negotiation involved. • War Guilt Clause caused the most anger and bitterness—Germany forced to accept that WWI was all Germany’s fault. • Terms of the treaty included land loss, reparations, disarmament, etc, which caused great anger.

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French Concerns • France still insecure despite Treaty of Versailles and existence of League of Nations. • France concerned that Treaty not harsh enough and that Germany may become strong again. • Idea of building the Maginot Line in order to protect herself from Germany—not actually built until 1928 • Signed agreements with countries bordering Germany—effectively encircling Germany with countries loyal to France: Belgium (1920), Poland (1921), and Czechoslovakia (1924). • Invaded Ruhr when Germany fell behind in reparation payments in 1923: • led to strike amongst the workers • German economy collapse under hyper-inflation • Dawes Plan (a system based on American loans to Germany) eventually sorted this out, satisfied France and helped to ease the tension.

American Isolation • America pulled away from Europe. • Congress did not ratify involvement in the League of Nations so USA not represented in this body—major blow to the League.

Washington Naval Agreement 1922 • USA, Britain, Japan, France and Italy agreed to: • limit the size of their navies • not to build any major ships for 10 years • the size of the American, British, and Japanese navies would be in the ratio 5:5:3

Topic Four: Revolutionary Leadership China 1921–1949 What challenges faced the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) between 1927 and 1936? How did the Chinese Communist Party overcome the problems that faced them between these dates? Evidence may include: Challenges facing the CCP The destruction of the ‘First United Front’ • During March–April 1927, the ‘First United Front’ between the Guomindang (GMD)—or Nationalists—and CCP formed in order to destroy the power of the warlords, came to an end with the ‘Shanghai slaughter’ when Chiang ordered GMD troops to kill communist supporters in Shanghai and elsewhere. • By late 1928, an estimated 80 per cent of the CCP had been killed. CCP numbers went down from an estimated 58 000 the year before, to an estimated 10 000 followers. • Michael Borodin, the CCP’s chief adviser, was forced to flee to the Soviet Union, along with other Russian advisers.

Leadership and organisational issues • The CCP lacked strong central leadership, which limited the ability to co-ordinate resistance to GMD attacks. There were disputes between leaders including Li Lisan, Zhou Enlai, Mao Zedong, and others. Some favoured an urban-based revolution (such as Li Lisan), others (including Mao) a rural-based revolution. There were also arguments over the role of the Red Army. • The ‘Autumn Harvest Uprising’ led by Mao in Hunan in 1927 failed because the CCP was poorly armed, the troops lacked commitment, and the overall planning was poor. • Until 1930, the controlling Central Committee of the CCP was based in Shanghai. Not only did the GMD control Shanghai, but it was a long way from the rural soviets, such as in Jiangxi, where the remnant of the CCP had established itself. • The Russian Comintern still effectively retained control of the CCP until the early 1930s, limiting the capacity of CCP leaders to act independently. Russians favoured an urban revolution. • Red Army attacks on several cities in 1930 failed. This undermined Li Lisan and also resulted in Mao’s influence weakening as young Russian-trained communists (known as ‘Young Bolsheviks’) had taken control of the Party by late 1932. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 8 of 21

Chiang Kai-Shek’s ‘extermination’ or ‘bandit suppression’ campaigns • Between 1930 and 1935, Chiang launched the GMD ‘Bandit Encirclement and Extermination Campaigns’ in an attempt to totally destroy the CCP: o five campaigns in total o first four achieved little success against the guerrilla tactics of the CCP o fifth campaign focussed on blockading the Jiangxi soviet and other CCP-controlled areas and destroying communist-controlled property within them. The soviets suffered major losses of property and soldiers. It appeared as though Chiang’s objective in destroying the CCP was about to be achieved.

How the CCP overcame the problems Mao Ze Dong’s leadership abilities • Mao had been involved in, and survived, practical and dramatic actions against the GMD (eg his escape following the Autumn Harvest Uprising, Long March, etc). • Mao was a thinker and strategist. He recognised from 1927 that for communist revolution to succeed in China, it must be led by peasants and not by urban-based proletariats, as in Russia. • Mao played a major role in the establishment of the Jiangxi soviet from 1929.

Role of the Red Army • By the early 1930s, the Red Army realised it needed peasant support. Zhu De, the Red Army commander, stated: ‘The people are the sea; we are the fish. As long as we can swim in that sea, we will survive’. • In the Jiangxi soviet, the Red Army protected the peasantry from local bandits and warlord soldiers. • Mao recognised and promoted the key role of the Red Army in the revolution—’Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun’. • The CCP realised that the Red Army would have to win popular peasant support. Most peasants’ experiences of other soldiers, such as the warlord and GMD armies, had been very negative, associating them with pillaging, exploitation, rape, brutality, etc: o soldiers were strictly disciplined and were not allowed to take advantage of people or property in areas they controlled; strict codes of behaviour were enforced by 1936; Red Army generals were under the strict control of Mao and Zhu De o Red Army soldiers also undertook ‘political education’, and so ended up fully committed to the communist cause o generals, including Zhu De, would dress simply and not be seen to have excess privileges that ordinary soldiers did not have. • Development of guerrilla warfare strategies: speed, surprise, avoidance of static engagements, ‘hit and run’, etc.

Success of the Jiangxi Soviet • The Jiangxi soviet was formally established in 1931 (there were a number of other soviets also). This became the power base for the CCP until it was forced out during the Fourth Extermination Campaign in 1934. • In Jiangxi, CCP theory was put into practice. Social and economic reforms took place that won widespread peasant support, eg:

o land reform / redistribution o debts of peasant families to landlords wiped o taxes reduced o GMD officials executed or forced to flee o local self-government promoted o peasant cooperatives established to develop farming productivity o evening schools established to promote literacy and spread communist propaganda o opium smoking, gambling, prostitution, etc outlawed. • Red Army cultivated support of peasants, protecting them from attack by bandits and warring warlord armies.

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The ‘Long March’ 1934–1936 • In a desperate attempt to escape GMD forces during the Fifth Extermination Campaign, the CCP organised a series of breakouts from the soviets and escaped thousands of kilometres north, eventually arriving in Yan’an. The major soviet of Shaanxi was established there, which became the CCP headquarters. • The largest group was known as the First Front Army: o this contained critical leaders of the CCP including Zhou Enlai, Zhu De, and Mao o within three months, half of those who started out with this group had died or had deserted o at a conference in Zunyi in January 1935, Mao became the Chairman of the Revolutionary o Military Committee and member of the Central Committee; effectively, he was now the dominant leader of the First Army. • The ‘marchers’ faced incredible hardships along the journey. Survivors became recognised as heroes:

o covered huge distances (9 000km), crossing high mountain ranges, deserts, etc o constantly pursued by GMD and local warlord armies o survived dramatic escapes from engagements with the enemy

o less than 10 000 of the reputed 86 000 who started out with the First Army made it to Shaanxi. • Became a major propaganda victory for the CCP and remained a source of inspiration for decades afterwards.

Unpopularity of Chiang’s government • Never enjoyed widespread popular support—GMD largely seen as benefiting the wealthy, business, landlords, etc. • Still associated with excesses of warlords. GMD achieved power often through making compromises with unpopular local warlords. Needed to maintain their support to stay in power. Much lawlessness remained in rural areas. Soldiers associated with Chiang’s government were poorly disciplined and took advantage of local populations. • GMD government riddled with corruption. • Chiang failed to make significant improvements for the life of peasants. No land reform. Economic burdens (high rents, taxes, interest rates, drafting into local armies, slavery etc) remained. Major famine 1929–31, killing millions. • Chiang failed to stand up to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. His priority was to destroy the communists by armed force first. Loss of Manchurian resources further depressed the Chinese economy.

Topic Five: Revolutionary Leadership USSR 1924–1957 What methods did Stalin use to remove the threat of opposition to his leadership during the 1930s? How did Stalin respond to the challenges of war?

Evidence may include: Methods Stalin used Purges and show trials • No form of opposition to Stalin tolerated—either inside or outside the communist party • The purges, or ‘Great Terror’, launched in 1934 following assassination of Leningrad party chief, Sergei Kirov. Some evidence links Stalin to the killing of this popular figure. Stalin used Kirov’s death to justify his accusations that the USSR was under threat from counter-revolutionary forces. NKVD (secret police) rounded up potential targets. Thousands of Leningraders were killed or exiled to Siberia. • Former prominent Bolshevik officials such as Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukhanin, and Rykov were charged with treasonous ‘crimes’ they could not possibly have committed. • Stalin’s most bitter enemy was Trotsky. Anyone who had been close to him was eliminated, and Trotsky himself was murdered by a Comintern agent in Mexico in 1940. • They, and other leading industrial managers etc, were tried at public ‘Show Trials’. • Many made false confessions to being “Trotskyites”, “saboteurs” or “wreckers,” plotting to overthrow Stalin, etc. • All were found guilty, and most executed.

• Red Army thoroughly purged. Leading generals arrested as German spies and executed. 35 000 officers ranking colonel or above removed. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 10 of 21

• A purge of the NKVD itself followed the army purge. A full 3 000 of its own agents, including its head, Yagoda, were shot. • Finally, the general populated was purged. NKVD agents permeated every area of society People denounced each other for all sorts of reasons – to keep jobs, houses, settle old scores. Children even denounced teachers and parents as “enemies of the people.” An ‘enemy of the people’ could be anyone who had criticised Stalin, was related to someone who had, those with foreign contacts, etc. People accused others just to save their own skin. Families were divided—children accused parents. Most were not even put on trial. The NKVD had arrest quotas to meet. • Contact with other countries was forbidden and anyone who had contacts overseas was closely watched or purged • Many victims simply ‘disappeared’. Others were banished to labour camps (gulags) in remote harsh regions such as Siberia. • The terror was called off in 1939.

Labour camps • An immense prison camp system, known as the Gulag, stretched across the country. • Provided source of labour in regions such as Siberia. Prisoners worked on industrial projects such as building power stations, felling trees, building the White Sea Canal, mining eg Kolyma gold mines, etc. • At their peak, the camps contained 8 million prisoners. Their work was an integral part of Stalin’s industrialisation programme • Brutal conditions. Isolated from families, insufficient food, harsh punishments etc. Food was used as an incentive, and rations were cut for prisoners who didn’t meet their work quotas. • Prisoners (zeks) were considered expendable. Millions died in gulags.

The ‘Stalin cult’ (‘cult of personality’) • Encouraged the virtual worship of Stalin. He was increasingly portrayed as super-human, as totally virtuous, as infallible, as god-like. • Propaganda showed him as Lenin’s disciple and heir. His role in the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution was exaggerated. • Wore raised heels to increase his height • Had his pock-marked face touched up in photos to make him seem handsome and imposing • Private life kept from public – made him seem mysterious, someone beyond a mortal man • Admiring poems were written about him. Artists wrote, painted, composed works extolling virtues of Stalin • He was credited with being able to accomplish anything • Portraits and statues of him were everywhere – in houses, shops, schools, town centres etc

How Stalin responded to the challenges of war Appeal to Russian pride and patriotism • Urged Russians to fight for the ‘Motherland’ – not for communism or for Stalin. Stalin took praise only in association with other Russian leaders and generals – not on his own. • Revived images of Russian tradition, pride, and history of repelling invaders – these had been suppressed previously as ‘czarist’ or bourgeois. Literary, artistic and military heroes from the past eg Tchaikovsky, Pushkin were invoked to encourage patriotic feelings. • Stalin’s personality cult was diminished and Stalin formed a State Committee of Defence, called GOKO. Stalin, together with several other senior Politburo leaders, had absolute power over the party, government, and military. This contrasts with his pre-war leadership style. • Listened to advice of his generals, in contrast to the previous 10 years, but he always made the final decision. • During parades, he would applaud along with the crowd.

Easing of controls and terror • Persecution of the churches virtually ceased. Russian Orthodox Church supported the war effort. • Many skilled people who had been banished during the purges were called back. • Retrieved some purged officers from labour camps.

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Economy placed on war footing • Factories converted to making munitions and other military equipment. • Essential industries were moved east over the Ural Mountains, away from advancing Germans. • Working hours were increased and holidays abolished. • Children and old people forced to work in factories to replace those recruited for the army. • ‘Scorched Earth’ tactics meant that all economic resources and infrastructure in path of advancing Germans was destroyed to stop them using it – farms, factories, roads, bridges, water supplies, crops, animals etc.

Worked closely with other allied leaders • Stalin demonstrated personal courage by refusing to leave Moscow. • Abolished Comintern (and therefore his policy of world communism). • Met with Churchill and Roosevelt at Teheran, Yalta, and Potsdam to coordinate allied strategy. • Received aid from the USA and Britain.

Topic Six: Black Civil Rights in the USA 1954–1970 What were the Civil Rights problems faced by Black Americans during the 1950s and 1960s? How did individuals and groups respond to these problems?

Problems faced by Black Americans Segregation • From the early 1950s, Black Americans began to highlight the problems faced by Blacks in the southern States of the United States. These problems included: o “Jim Crow” laws of the south, which led to poverty and segregation through “separate but equal” policies. o Public transport (especially buses) was particularly humiliating for Blacks, particularly in Montgomery. First 10 rows were reserved for whites; black passengers could not sit next to white passengers; black passengers had to move to the back if more white passengers got on and the bus was getting full; separate facilities at bus stations. o Public conveniences: separate public toilets, parks, and swimming pools. o Food outlets: “Negroes-only” areas in facilities and lunch areas in diners, stores, and restaurants meant “separate but equal” was unfair and disadvantaged blacks. o Education: blacks-only schools and universities, which were inferior to white schools and were given less state funding than white schools. o Health: separate hospitals, doctors’ surgeries. Black facilities were poorer, had less-qualified staff, and were given less financial support.

Voter registration • Severe restrictions on Blacks’ ability to register to vote in the South, resulting in lack of representation of Blacks in elected positions. • Very small percentage of Blacks voted, as most were employed by whites and could lose their jobs if their employers knew of their efforts to register. • A leading Alabama lawyer said Blacks “would never be good enough to vote”. Few Black people could take legal action against white people and had little hope of a favourable outcome. • Intimidation, harassment, and violence from police, state officials, and often governors in both North and South. The Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups intimidated Blacks, often beating them, and sometimes killing them (eg murder of Emmett Till in 1955, Birmingham Sunday School bombing, and murder of Medgar Evers in 1963). • Governors, state officials, and police were generally racist in these southern states.

Employment • Blacks were not allowed to apply for all jobs. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 12 of 21

• In Mississippi, 95% of Blacks were employed by whites and had little job security. Blacks were excluded from many employment areas. They lived in poorer areas and had poorer quality housing, and a lower standard of living. • The fair employment practices under Roosevelt had not filtered down to most states or cities by the 1960s because enforcing the practices was difficult. Blacks were still poorer, unable to apply for many jobs, and had poorer working conditions. • Blacks (7.3%) also had higher unemployment rates than whites (4.9%) in 1965.

Poverty • Because blacks were discriminated against in the areas of employment, it meant they were in lower-paid jobs with fewer rights, and on average they earned less than half of what white people earned. • This meant they had less disposable income and lived in poorer areas, which created Black-only and white- only communities. • This in turn affected their schooling; less funding was provided for Blacks-only schools, and the schools had larger classes and poorer facilities as a result • Individuals could do little to change their circumstances because they were discriminated against financially, which resulted in poverty for Blacks.

How people and organisations responded Use of Supreme Court • In Brown vs Board of Education of Topeka, one of a series of cases brought before the Supreme Court, the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) challenged the constitutionality of the segregation of education, in particular the idea of ‘separate but equal’ facilities. • In 1954, the Court declared segregation in public schools and other educational institutions illegal, and, in the following year, called for desegregation to begin immediately (but gave no time frame for this to be completed).

Boycotts Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955–1956 • The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) was organised to continue and extend the bus boycott. • Martin Luther King, Jr was appointed as the President of the MIA. • Under King’s leadership, the MIA adopted the three-point plan to demand Black bus drivers on mainly Black routes, seating on a first-come, first-served basis, and white drivers to be more polite. • Powerful speeches by King saw thousands of Blacks adopt the plan and continue the boycott for 12 months. • Despite King’s homes being bombed, he demanded no retaliation. • When the US Supreme Court ruled that the transport segregation laws in Montgomery were unconstitutional in 1956, King was one of the first to ride a desegregated bus. A significant event as this was based on King’s non-violent philosophy. • As a result, King became known nationally.

Sit-ins (boycotts of stores) • The Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) organised a series of ‘sit-ins’ in the South, 1960– 1961, after this proved successful in the Greensboro Woolworths store. It involved Blacks, mainly students, deliberately sitting in ‘whites only’ areas of restaurants, lunch counters, etc, until they were served. Despite being harassed and attacked, the protestors were trained to remain non-violent.

Marches • Marches were frequently used during civil rights campaigns – only a few became famous. For example, there were 1 600 civil rights marches in 1963 alone. • The Southern Christian Leadership conference (SCLC) campaign in Birmingham in 1963 used public marches to deliberately provoke Police Chief ‘Bull’ Connor. Injunctions to prevent marches were ignored, resulting in the imprisonment of King and others. A new element was introduced when marches involving school students was organised – Connor reacted violently (firehoses, police dogs), resulting in widespread public and political opposition. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 13 of 21

• The ‘March on Washington’ in 1963 was organised to protest at the slow rate of integration and show support for the Civil Rights Bill before Congress. Over 250 000 people attended – the climax was King’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech.

Birmingham Campaign, 1963 • King organised to go to Birmingham. Segregation was prominent. The planning was done by King and his supporters on two levels. In Birmingham, the Black community was to be activiated and on a national level King wanted to force the President and Congress to produce laws to enable desegregation. • Birmingham Manifesto issued by King calling for non-violent protest demanding desegregation. King attracted support through church groups initially. King led volunteers through the city, ignoring injunctions not to march. King was arrested. Wrote “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” while in prison. • Non-violent marches of Blacks contrasted with the violent police response under Police Chief “Bull” Connor, who was strongly criticised by President Kennedy and other politicians. Contributed to Kennedy’s drafting a far- reaching Civil Rights Bill.

March on Washington, 1963

• The largest ever march at the time. 250 000 converged on Washington to march for civil rights. Major impetus for Civil Rights Bill, which was struggling in congress. King spoke at the March giving his “I Have a Dream” speech.

Voter registration campaign in Selma, 1965 • King led the march of over 200 to courthouse to enrol to vote. They were arrested for being in a group of over 20. • At a nearby town in Marion, a Black person was shot during a voter registration demonstration. King and his co-workers decided to organise a 54-mile march from Selma to Montgomery to protest the death. The march was banned by George Wallace, Alabama governor. King did not attend, and the marchers were met with tear gas and police at State borders. • The march was reorganised by King despite being banned by a federal court order and a request from President Johnson not to disobey this. King led 1 500 supporters to the state highway, led them in prayer and went back to Selma. Lost the support of many young radicals. • Led to Voter Rights Act (1965) being passed by Congress and President Johnson.

March Against Fear, 1966 • Instigated by James Meredith’s • Solitary march initiated to protest against racism • Shot by sniper and many leaders decided to continue the march • During this march, Stokely Carmichael gave his “Black Power” speech • March attacked and some wounded • Concluded June 26

Poor People’s Campaign, 1967–1968 • Martin Luther King, Jr took up cause of economic poverty for many Americans, not just Blacks. While preparing for this campaign, King agreed to help in a garbage worker’s strike in Memphis. • “Poor People’s Campaign” was part of King’s redirected “broadening” strategy, following urban riots in the mid 1960s. “Broadening” involved King taking on issues of poverty that affected all races, and criticism of US participation in the Vietnam War. The campaign was to focus on a “camp-in” of the poor in central Washington, DC. • Thousands would pitch their tents and daily present their demands for better jobs, housing, and social services to lawmakers and government officials. They would also be involved in other non-violent techniques of protest such as sit-ins and marches.

Other Freedom Rides • Although inter-state segregation was illegal, few southern states complied. In 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organised a series of ‘freedom rides’ where interstate buses would drive through southern NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 14 of 21

states deliberately using segregated terminals and facilities. They were met with hostility, arrests and violence, but the campaign generated considerable publicity.

Non-violent direct action in the form of protest • Inspired by the techniques and philosophy of Gandhi, and by King’s Christian beliefs. Resulted in widespread media coverage nationally and internationally. Quite different from early civil rights strategies that focused on legal action.

Lobbying of Presidents • King’s methods and style won the respect and support of Presidents Kennedy and Johnson. • Establishing an effective working relationship with the White House enabled King to put pressure on for law change (eg Civil Rights Bill, Voter Registration Bill). • Johnson invited civil rights leaders to be present at the final signing of the Civil Rights Bill into law in 1964. • These methods gained widespread media attention and forced President Johnson to listen to the demands of poor America.

Topic Seven: The place of Te Tiriti o Waitangi in New Zealand Society 1975–1998 What actions were taken by Māori to raise awareness of the Treaty of Waitangi between 1975 and 1998? How did the government respond to these actions?

Evidence may include: Actions taken by Māori to raise awareness Marches Māori Land March in 1975 • Organised by Whina Cooper and Te Roopu O Te Matakite. • They were concerned about the loss of Māori land and recent government acts that allowed the crown to compulsorily take Māori land (Māori Affairs Amendment Act and rating Act both in 1967). • They marched from Te Hapua to Wellington. It took 30 days for them to reach Wellington. • They stopped at 25 marae along the way. The numbers had increased from 300 at the march’s beginning to 30 000 to 40 000 by the end. The marches were a mix of older people and younger, more radical groups. • A memorial of rights or petition about the land issue was presented to the Government (Labour), which had only about a month left in power at this stage.

Regular marches to Waitangi Treaty Grounds • There were small marches by Nga Tama Toa in the 1970s. • In the early 1980s, there were larger protests organised by the Waitangi Action Committee. These resulted in a large number of arrests and led to tension between these groups and traditional leadership in the North. • In 1990, during the 150-year celebration (Sesquicentenary), the Queen attended and she had a wet T-shirt thrown at her. There were a large number of protestors present. Some of the official speakers supported at least some of the protestors’ sentiments.

Te Hikoi ki Waitangi • included members from a wide range of disparate groups. • This included church groups, Waitangi action committee, Māori Women’s Welfare League and the Māori Council. • The march began in Turangawaewae and converged on Waitangi. Members from the group got to meet with the Governor-General. • This was followed by a major hui at Turangawaewae, where the Iwi pledged to put pressure on the Government to honour the Treaty by enabling claims dating back to 1840 to be heard by the Waitangi Tribunal.

NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 15 of 21

Protest Marches • about the Multilateral Agreement on Investment, which was seen by some as a attack on sovereignty allowing foreign investors to control larger portions of the economy and land.

Occupations Bastion Point • From 1977 to 1978, Bastion Point was occupied by a group led by Joe Hawke of Ngati Whatua ki Orakei. • The land was due to be sold by the Housing Corporation. The occupiers were removed by the Police in 1978. • There were smaller protests and occupations in the early 1980’s.

Awhitu, 1978 • an area of land at Manukau Heads that had been taken for Public Works was occupied

Raglan Golf Course • led by Eva Rickard, whose family used to own the land. • It had been taken by the government during World War II for defence purposes and then was not returned after the war. • The local council then leased it out as a golf course.

Pakiaitore, 1995 • a local park in Wanganui was occupied by Whanganui. • It was led by Tariana Turia and Ken Mair. • They claimed it was a Māori Reserve set aside in the 1840s. The occupation lasted 79 days. In this year, a Tuhoe Embassy was also set up in Taneatua which issued eviction notices to Pākehā (and also some Māori) who were on local land. It was led by Tame Iti.

Formation of Political and Protest Groups • Before the 1970s, the main political organisations outside Parliament were the New Zealand Māori Council and the Māori Women’s Welfare League. • In the early 1970s, a number of groups were formed by young Māori to press for ratification of the Treaty of Waitangi. This included: o Nga Tama Toa, the young warriors. They were mostly young urban Māori who were university-educated. o Te Huinga Rangitira and the Te Reo Māori Society were also formed in this period. o In 1975, Te Roopu te Matakite O Aotearoa was formed to organise the 1975 Land March. o The National Te Kohanga Reo Trust was established in 1982. It was responsible for the establishment of the national total-immersion Māori-language early-childhood centres. By 1998, there were 800 centres with 14 000 children enrolled. o Te Runanga Nui o Nga Kura Kaupapa Māori was formed in 1993 and became the organisation that nurtured the development of total immersion state-funded Māori-language schools, including secondary schools. o In 1989, the Labour Government started the devolution of the Māori Affairs Department. Under the policy of Te Urupare, Rangapu-Partnership Discussion established the Tira Ahu Iwi to nurture the establishment of Iwi authorities. Māori Affairs and Social Welfare programmes developed under the Puao Te Atatu policy would be devolved to these authorities. o Many Iwi began establishing a Runanga or Iwi authority and began the process of developing Iwi administrative structures. o Māori Parliamentary aspirations were expressed by different political voices. o In 1980, Matiu Rata left the Labour Party and formed and stood for re-election in the Northern Māori Seat. He received a strong vote but was defeated by Dr Bruce Gregory, the Labour Party candidate. In 1981, he lost again in Northern Māori. Mana Motuhake candidates stood in all the Māori seats in this election. In the 1981, 1984, 1987 and 1990 elections, Mana Motuhake candidates received a strong vote but failed to win any of the four Māori seats. In the early 1990s, Mana Motuhake joined the Alliance Party. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 16 of 21

o In 1993, left the National Party, stood in a by-election, and then formed the Party. In the 1993 election, Winston Peters retained his seat and won the Northern Māori seat, the first non-Labour candidate to win one of the Māori seats in 50 years. o The Alliance Party won two seats, including Sandra Lee, a Mana Motuhake Party member, in Auckland Central. In the 1996 election held under the new MMP system, there were five Māori seats. New Zealand First received 13 percent of the vote and won 17 seats, including all 5 Māori seats. The Alliance also won a substantial number of seats and included a number of Māori. New Zealand First went into coalition with the National Party to form the Government. In 1998, four of the five Māori seat MPs left New Zealand First and formed Mauri Pacific, staying as a part of the government. New Zealand First leader Winston Peters stopped being Deputy Prime Minister, and New Zealand First left the Government. In 1999, New Zealand First’s number of MPs was reduced to five. None of the Mauri Pacific MPs were returned to Parliament. After the 1999 election, the Labour Party went into coalition with the Alliance Party and formed the next Government. They won back all the Māori seats.

Lobbying Government • Views had been sought before the 1970s through a number of avenues. • One was through the Māori Affairs Department, which sent out Māori Community Officers to liaise with the community. • The Māori Council and Māori Women’s Welfare League were both consulted by the National and Labour Governments. • In 1984, Te Hui Taumata was held by Koro Wetere, the Māori Affairs Minister, after the Labour Government came to power. All tribes and national Māori Organisations were invited to submit proposals to the Government. This became a major policy development forum on Māori issues for the Labour Government until it lost power. • Māori also made submissions to the Royal Commission on Social Policy. • Breaches of the Treaty were referred to in these submissions and wanting to have more say in social policy. Iwi and Runanga authorities during the 1990s began to have more influence and made submissions to Parliamentary select committees and other government organisations. They formed a Federation of Māori Authorities. • Many government acts and policies were the subject of submissions. Māori also took issues to the courts and to the Waitangi Tribunal. • In 1987, NZ Māori Council vs. Attorney General was a landmark SOE case where the Court of Appeal found in favour of Māori that the transfer of state assets must not violate the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. A number of other cases followed this one that questioned government decisions.

How the government responded Treaty settlements • Māori Fisheries Commission was established in response to legal action by Māori and through negotiation of Crown with Māori. • The commission accumulated hundreds of millions of dollars of assets, with the task of coming up with a procedure to distribute the assets to Māori. • In 1998, there was division between Iwi and also with Urban Māori Authorities. • In 1995, the National Government came up with the proposal of a $1 Billion cap for settling all Treaty claims. This met with huge objections. o There were large settlements with Tainui ($170 Million) in 1995 and Tainui ($170 Million) in 1997. o There were also smaller settlements including money and partnership agreements with Ngati Koata and Turanga Tukua. o There was a deal over Māori reserved or perpetual lease land in the Ta.

Recognition of Te Reo and Education • In 1972, Māori Language Day was instituted. It helped to encourage the teaching of Māori Language in schools. • In 1973, this became Māori Language week. By the late 1990s, this had been increased to Māori Language Month. • In 1987, the Labour Government made Māori an official language of New Zealand. o In 1977, the first bilingual school in New Zealand was established in 1977. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 17 of 21

o In 1981, Te Ataarangi was opened. It was a private development that later became a national adult language learning programme that eventually received support from the state through polytechnics.

o In 1982, Pukeatua, the first Kohanga Reo ,was opened. It later grew to 800 Kohanga Reo with 14 000 children enrolled. o In 1984, Te Runanga O Raukawa, the first private Whare Wanaga, was established. It later became state- funded. Three other wanaga were opened during this period. o In 1985, the first Kura Kaupapa Māori, Hoanai Waitit,i was opened. It later became state-funded. 60 state- funded Kura had been opened by the end of this period, with 5 000 children enrolled in these schools.

Treaty referred to in Acts and Treaty Policy • Education Act 1989 set up Kura Kaupapa Māori under s155. • Crown Forestry Act in 1989 set up the Crown Forestry Rental Trust as a result of the SOE case. • Māori Affairs Department split into Māori Policy Agency and the Iwi Transition Agency, nurturing the growth and development of Iwi authorities in order to receive government funding for the implementation of Māori development programmes. • In 1991-1992, the Ka Await policy was implemented with the Māori Affairs Department and Iwi Transition Agency. • Te Puni Kokiri was established solely as a policy agency. • All Māori programmes were mainstreamed to be implemented by mainstream agencies. • In 1993, Te Mangai Paho, the Māori Broadcasting Funding Agency was established to nurture the establishment of Māori radio stations and television agencies. In 1997, the Māori Health Commission was established under Te Puni Kokiri to make recommendations on Māori Health.

Topic Eight: Conflict in Ireland 1909–1922 What were the aims of the leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising? How did the consequences of the Easter Rising affect conflict in Ireland up until the end of 1919? Evidence may include: To create an independent Republic • Using the slogan “England’s Difficulty is Ireland’s Opportunity” in 1915, the IRB began to plan a fully armed uprising to achieve independence. • The IRB rejected the home rule option for Ireland. They wanted a full republic. Home rule would see Ireland still tied to Britain in significant ways, without control of finance and foreign policy, whereas an independent republic would provide Ireland with the greatest amount of freedom, as Ireland would have its own government with an elected President as head of state, rather than the British king. War time was a good time to look for independence. • Those members of the IRB who were also members of the Irish Volunteers saw the volunteers as the basis of the Rising but kept this concealed from MacNeill. One of the planners of the Easter Rising was Patrick Pearce. He believed the shedding of blood by a few willing martyrs would encourage greater members of Irishmen to rebel against the British. • From the Proclamation of Independence: We declare the right of the people of Ireland to the ownership of Ireland, and to the unfettered control of Irish destinies, to be sovereign and indefeasible. The long usurpation of that right by a foreign people and government has not extinguished the right, nor can it ever be extinguished except by the destruction of the Irish people. In every generation the Irish people have asserted their right to national freedom and sovereignty; six times during the last three hundred years they have asserted it to arms. Standing on that fundamental right and again asserting it in arms in the face of the world, we hereby proclaim the Irish Republic as a Sovereign Independent State, and we pledge our lives and the lives of our comrades-in-arms to the cause of its freedom, of its welfare, and of its exaltation among the nations.

Blood sacrifice • Some leaders realised that the Rising was unlikely to succeed. Their lack of weapons was a fundamental, insoluble problem that was only going to be compounded by the smaller numbers likely to turn out following MacNeill’s cancellation of the “manoeuvres” that were to signal and cover the outbreak of the rising. This caused Pearse and Connolly to reassess their aims and accept more limited, pessimistic outcomes. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 18 of 21

• Patrick and William Pearse wanted to use the Rebellion, which they believed must inevitably fail, as a Blood Sacrifice. They believed the fate of the martyrs would incite both Irish Nationalist sentiment and anti-British hostility. • Easter was chosen for the rising because it had the religious theme of “sacrifice and redemption” (the death and resurrection of Christ), which the IRB planners hoped would encourage Catholic Irishmen to draw parallels and to rebel against the British. • From the Declaration of Independence In this supreme hour the Irish nation must, by its valour and discipline and by the readiness of its children to sacrifice themselves for the common good, prove itself worthy of the august destiny to which it is called. • “Blood sacrifice” as an initial aim is not generally accepted. There is some evidence that it emerged as a tactic later, when the leaders accepted the inevitability of defeat and sought to save the lives of their men by offering their own.

Socialism • The Irish Citizens Army (ICA) was also involved in the rising at the latter stages. • They were led by socialist James Connolly. • Connolly wanted to establish Ireland as an independent socialist nation. • Connolly had been kidnapped by the IRB when it appeared the ICA had been planning the rising but disagreed sharply with Pearce’s idea of a blood sacrifice. • Connolly had some significant influence on the Proclamation, which suggested that the Rising was not just a political event but would also lead to social and economic change. The vision was of a free Irish state which would provide for the welfare of all citizens. There was a clear intention to differentiate the new state from the British oppressor. The republic would offer ‘religious and civil liberty, equal rights and opportunities ...pursue the happiness and prosperity of the whole nation … cherishing all the children of the nation equally’. This section shows the influence of Connolly’s socialist principles. It held the brightest hope for the future but also the seeds of the deepest disappointment. In the years that followed, national energies focussed on the struggle for political independence; questions of social, civil and economic reform received scant and secondary attention.

Revenge • Some had personal reasons for their involvement in the rising, such as the desire for revenge against the British authorities for some previous action against them or their families.

How the consequences of the Easter Rising affected conflict in Ireland

Initial Military Failure and Response • Rebellion was a military failure and also a political failure initially. o The rebels were defeated in five to six days. o British forces under Sir John Maxwell crushed the uprising. o Gunboat Helga pounded rebel strongholds in Dublin. o The British Army reported casualties of 116 dead, 368 wounded and 9 missing. Sixteen policemen died, and 29 were wounded. Rebel and civilian casualties were 318 dead and 2 217 wounded. The Volunteers and ICA recorded 64 killed in action, but otherwise Irish casualties were not divided into rebels and civilians. o Massive property damage. o No general uprising took place. o Dubliners were hostile to the rebels when the rebels were first captured by the British. • Irish attitudes changed with the severity of the British retribution. o All the key leaders were shot, including the Pearse brothers and the wounded Connolly. o Casement was hanged.

o 1 500 were imprisoned including MacNeill – who had not participated – and new people such as Eamon de Valera. o The British government maintained the imposition of nationwide martial law until November 1916. The government also arrested prominent and articulate critics of its administration and threatened to impose conscription. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 19 of 21

o These measures all deepened resentment, especially among young Catholic men who could be recruited to the cause.

The Rise of Sinn Fein • The harsh treatment of the rebels who were executed led to a significant change in public opinion throughout Ireland concerning Irish independence. • Before the Rising, most Catholics supported Home Rule and the moderate policies promoted by the Irish Parliamentary Party. • By 1918, Sinn Fein was a much more extreme political movement, supporting a fully independent Ireland, and became the dominant in the land. • Sinn Fein had been not directly involved in the Rising, but benefited from being associated with it in the minds of the public. Sinn Fein was believed to be involved as it was the best-known, openly anti-English, nationalist propaganda body in Dublin. As admiration for the rebels grew, so did Sinn Fein’s status and popularity. In the course of 1917, three developments transformed the organisation. • It changed its organisation to absorb other militant nationalist bodies. • The party organisation spread out from Dublin, becoming nationwide. • Eamon de Valera was a new kind of leader. De Valera oversaw the adoption of a political programme that committed Sinn Fein to the goal of a free Irish republic.

Dail Eireann • In the 1918 election, Sinn Fein campaigned on a policy of boycotting the Westminster Parliament and establishing their own de facto parliament in Dublin. The Sinn Fein MPs who had been elected in 1918 met at Mansion House, Dublin, in January 1919 and declared themselves the first Dail (parliament) Eireann. • They declared Ireland to be an independent republic. • Only 27 members were able to attend the first meeting; 34 were still in jail. They had been arrested by Lord French near the end of WWI for an alleged conspiracy. • The Dail established several government departments even though it had no legal or constitutional status. These included the court system, the Irish Rural bank, independent Post Office, and the Irish Republican Army. • The British initially ignored the de facto parliament.

New nationalist leaders emerged • Redmond out of favour now and new leaders began to emerge such as Collins and de Valera. De Valera was elected as the first President of the Dail Eireann replacing Griffith as Sinn Fein leader. • Khaki election of 1918, Irish nationalist lost most of their support. • Sinn Fein emerged as the Irish political champion and won most of the parliamentary seats outside of Ulster. • Michael Collins has become leader of the IRB in 1917 and organised the IRA as the paramilitary wing of Sinn Fein.

Focus on political independence • leaving the social, civic and economic issues that had been of central concern to Connolly

Hardening of attitudes and tactics • Especially Collins’ ruthless training of murder squads. Some of this undoubtedly inspired by the testaments of executed “martyrs” from 1916 like Eamonn Ceannt: I leave for the guidance of other Irish Revolutionaries who may tread the path that I have trod this advice: never to treat with the enemy,never to surrender to his mercy but to fight to the finish” NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 20 of 21 Topic Nine: Effect of Population Movement on Māori Society 1946–1998 What effects did the urban migration of Māori have on traditional Māori social kinship groups of Whānau, Hapū and Iwi? How did Māori respond to those effects? Evidence could include: Effects that urban migration of Māori had on Whānau, Hapū and Iwi Tension between Urban and Rural Māori • Tensions arose between the two groups in the 1970s through the 1990s. • This was particularly apparent in the actions of the protest groups in the 1980s. It was considered by traditional leaders, who mainly came from rural areas, that the actions of these groups such as Nga Tama Toa and the Waitangi Action Committee were disrespectful. • The disruption of the knighthood ceremony at Waitangi for Graham Latimer and Whina Cooper at the Waitangi Day celebration in 1981 was an example of this tension. • In the 1990s, some of the migrants returned home. This led to some tensions as they began to take up leadership roles. • In the 1990s, urban Māori groups began to challenge the power of the rural Iwi in terms of treaty settlements. Urban Māori groups pushed to be recognised as an Iwi so that get a share of the Māori fisheries quota. This led to a lot of tension in the late 1990s.

Migration of Māori leading to instability • Māori were attracted in urban areas to low-cost housing and rental accommodation. In the 1950s and 1960s, this was often in the inner-city suburbs. • These inner-city houses often became over-crowded; and to help relive this pressure, new housing estates were built in the 1960s. • These were in places like Otara and Mangere and Te Atatu. Similar estates were built in Porirua, the Hutt Valley and Wainuiomata. • Urban Māori were often congregated in these areas. Early urban migrants were familiar with tikanga and Te Reo. Their children did not have the same opportunities, however. • Māori were not encouraged to maintain tikanga in the city environment. It was felt by many that Te Reo Māori was not valuable for their children to know. • Many parents thought knowledge of English would help their children succeed in the Pākehā world. • Urbanisation also meant that Māori no longer mixed with other Māori speakers and most began to use English as their main language. As migration continued the level of inter-marriage increased in the cities.

Strains on rural communities • Many people left the rural communities in the 1950s and 1960s. Māori communities had been traditionally based around their marae. By the 1960s, many marae had started to fall into disrepair. • Hapu that had depended on their whanau to maintain their marae no longer had their labour force available. Some marae gardens sometimes became non-existent. • Māori Affairs policies were developed to assist rural marae through grants. The number of sports teams started to decline in the rural areas, and many places became depopulated. Villages of 50 to 100 people dwindled to a few households. • Families had formally shifted around their local area doing seasonal work, supplementing their income from subsistence farming. Rural Māori families were often part owners or trustees of multiple owned Māori land blocks. As a result of urban relocation, many of these blocks were left with only a few owners to look after them.

Loss of links to rural areas • The early urban migrants maintained contacts with their rural roots by occasional visits to their kainga and marae for holidays, weddings, tangi and unveilings. However, their children were less likely to do this. • Many families continued to go back home, but many did not. This was especially true of families and people that had moved away to cities a long way from their home areas. • Inter-marriage between Māori and Pākehā also led some to sever their links with rural areas. By the 1990s, 1 out of every 7 people who identified themselves as Māori were unable to identify their Iwi affiliations. NCEA Level 1 History (90213) 2010 — page 21 of 21

How Māori responded to those effects Urban Māori Centres • In the 1950s, young Māori and their families needed places to congregate. Community centres were set up in the major cities. A variety of social and sporting events were held around these venues. People from different Iwi were living, working and cooperating with each other. • The existing marae in the cities were for the Tangata whenua of the area. • For many years in the early stages of the urban migration, communal halls in the city centre served the needs of urban Māori; but by the mid-1960s, it was obvious that the actual marae were needed to cater for the needs of migrated Māori. • In 1965, the first urban marae named after Te Puea was opened in Mangere. It was a Tainui marae but was available to use by all migrants whatever their Iwi affiliation was. • Other urban marae that opened up during this time often had a religious affiliation. In Auckland, these included Te Whaiora at Otara (Catholic), Te Unga Waka (Catholic) in Epsom and Tatai Hono in Khyber’s Pass (Anglican). Marae without religious or Iwi affiliations were also opened. Hoani Waititi at Te Atatu catered for West Auckland urban migrants and had a multi-Iwi, inclusive basis.

Adapting to city life • Māori were at first mainly living in inner-city areas. The Māori Affairs response to the buildup in the inner cities was to encourage “pepper potting”, or spreading out urban migrants in state or rented housing throughout the suburbs. • Eventually, in the 1960s, new suburbs were set up in the major cities with a lot of state housing. • In terms of employment, Māori had to adapt quickly, having to adjust to the economic demands of the new urban areas. Māori had to take full-time employment, often in factories, which left little time for traditional practices such as tangi, hui and family. • As well as going to the Māori Community Centres, many Māori joined sporting clubs and working men’s clubs in the areas they were living. Māori sports teams and associations were also formed in the cities. • Intermarriage between Māori and Pākehā became more common in the 1960s. This helped to lead a confusion of identity, especially amongst mixed ethnicity children. • In terms of education, all schooling and education was in English and adults together with children were reminded that the right way to conduct themselves in a European and Pākehā way. Later, some of these children completed a Tertiary Education. • In order to maintain a Māori identity in an urban environment, some people joined various groups such as Māori sections of Orthodox churches, the Māori churches Ringatu and Ratana. Others joined Māori culture groups, family and tribal organisations, Māori committees, Māori Wardens, Māori Councils and the Māori Women’s Welfare League. By the 1980s and 1990s, urban Kapa Haka groups were dominating the National Kapa Haka competitions.

Retention of Turangawaewae • Some Māori families have continued to maintain their connections with whanau mare and other Iwi connections. Rural Māori encouraged whanau to return to tribal areas for Tangihanga and mare event. • Sports exchanges and traditional practices were also encouraged. Some managed to retain links through retaining family church links. • In the 1980s and 1990s, rural places increasingly held events to try to encourage people to come home on an annual basis. Sometimes these were based around sporting events. In the 1970s and 1980s, urban Māori families increasingly chose to affiliate with the new urban Māori groups.