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The Delta Barrage — the Most Expensive Bridge of Its Time? the First Attempts at Taming the Nile1

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The Delta Barrage — the Most Expensive Bridge of Its Time? the First Attempts at Taming the Nile1 The Delta Barrage — the Most Expensive Bridge of Its Time? The First Attempts at Taming the Nile1 Jakub Mazanec Few rivers hold a position in world history as important as the Nile does. The geopo- litical situation and the new technical opportunities of the “long nineteenth century” brought an opportunity for the more effective use of the Nile waters for economic pur- poses. This process was mainly possible through the improvement of irrigation sys- tems and the construction of large water management projects — the construction of dams, reservoirs and canals. Mainstream historiography of modern Nile history has until now always focused its attention on the Aswan Dam; the Low Dam completed in 1902 and the High Dam completed in 1971. Aswan frequently overshadows other pro- jects smaller in size, but often of no less significance. One of these overlooked projects is that of the dam in the Nile Delta which this article will be looking at. This dam in the Nile Delta, for which English writings have used the French term “barrage” was a project over which discussion began even before the government of Muhammad Ali (1805–1848), although it was upon his instigation that construction began.2 The primary objective of the project was to increase agricultural yields, in par- ticular cotton production, in Lower Egypt. Other objectives changed over the course of construction work, and this article attempts to analyse whether they were achieved. The Barrage project can be described as unique in many regards. It was the larg- est river regulation project of its time, and the first of its kind in the world. It is no exaggeration to say that it was a project which launched the era of large dams on the Nile and other rivers, a project which pushed the borders of imagination further and which demonstrated the potential of new technology and discoveries such as new pumps and construction methods. Construction of the Barrage also involved an unusually large deployment of human resources, mainly through a system of forced public labour (known as corvée).3 1 This article has been published with financial support from a grant provided by GA UK No. 292217 entitled: “Water Projects on the Nile in the 19th century and their Role in the Relations between France and Britain” provided by Charles University’s Faculty of Arts. 2 “Barrage” = dam; the project is sometimes termed the “Barrage in the Head of Delta”, “Del- ta Barrage of Lower Egypt” or “The Nile Barrage”, but the most widespread term is “the Barrage”, a simple and general term which was enough at the time of construction because there were no other similar projects. 3 Public labour on irrigation facilities in Egypt was often described using the French term corvée. Corvée labour was regularly used to clean irrigation systems and on large projects 22 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2017 The use of foreign advisors, in the first phase French engineers such as Louis Maurice Linant de Bellefonds and Eugène Mougel, demonstrated the great influence France had on Muhammad Ali’s Egypt. The use of British engineers Colin Scott-Mon- crieff, William Reid and William Willcocks in the project, which began in the 1860s, is in contrast a reflection of the beginning of Britain’s dominance of the Nile, which later culminated in what Norwegian historian and geographer Terje Tvedt fittingly terms the creation of the “British River Empire”.4 When a project of such huge size is beginning, the instigator and his supporters require motivation and a strong vision. Muhammad Ali’s vision was to boost yields in agriculture and improve the Egyptian economy, and he was willing to do a lot to achieve this. The French vision included consolidating its position in Egypt and in- creasing its cultural influence and power in Cairo. For Britain, it began as an endeav- our to strengthen its trade interests, then a consolidation of its geopolitical position in Egypt — a symbolic gateway on the route to India and a base for further penetra- tion of Africa. Over time, the Barrage project represented a commitment to fulfil these visions, and in some cases also a symbol of failure and disappointment. The analysis of the project’s objectives and whether they were fulfilled which I am trying to achieve in this article is based on a study of literature, archives at Britain’s Foreign Office and technical reports or monographs written in the second half of the 19th century by the engineers directly involved in Nile water management projects. Personal per- spectives contained in the memoirs of Linant de Bellefonds and Scott-Moncrieff’s biography written by his niece were also taken into account.5 Since the Barrage project is not included to a large extent in any contemporary studies, this article can be seen as a missing piece in the mosaic of Nile regulation his- toriography, which may help move the Barrage project out of the shadows of Aswan where it is unjustifiably located. EMERGENCE OF THE IDEA — PURPOSE, VISION AND THE FIRST FRENCH BARRAGE PLANS According to French doctor Antoin Clot, the first idea of building the dam came to Napoleon Bonaparte.6 During the Egyptian Campaign (1798–1799), Napoleon alleg- such as the Suez Canal, the Mahmoudiyah Canal, the Ismailia Canal, the Barrage, etc. For more on corvée: A. MIKHAIL, Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt: An Environmental Histo- ry, Cambridge 2011, pp. 170–200; N. J. BROWN, Who Abolished Corvée Labour in Egypt and Why?, in: Past & Present, Vol. 144, 1994, pp. 116–137. 4 T. TVEDT, The Nile in the Age of the British, Political Ecology and the Quest for Economic Power, London 2016. 5 M. DE BELLEFONDS LINANT, Louis Maurice, Mémoire des principaux travaux d’utilité pub- lique exécutés en Égypte depuis la plus haute antiquité jusqu’à nos jours, Paris 1873; M. A. HOLL- INGS, The Life of Sir Colin C. Scott-Moncrieff, London 1917. 6 Antoine Clot (also known as Clot Bey) was a French doctor and a participant in Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt. jakuB MAZaneC 23 edly pronounced his prediction that one day the Rosetta and Damietta branches of the Nile would be dammed, improving sailing conditions and irrigation.7 It wasn’t until Egypt’s ruler Muhammad Ali, however, that a specific plan to build a dam was conceived, with the planned construction playing an important role in Ali’s agricul- tural reforms. The need to regulate the Nile was closely related to the expansion in cotton grow- ing which occurred in Egypt over the course of the 1820s, assisted among other rea- sons by the spread of high-yielding long staple cotton.8 Growing long staple cotton required a general change in irrigation systems, which mostly worked on the basis of “basin irrigation”.9 In contrast to so-called winter crops, such as wheat, barley, flax, clover, tobacco and beans which only require water and inundation in the network of canals and banks during the Nile’s September culmination, cotton — a summer crop — required year-round irrigation and protection from mud.10 Damming the Nile would involve an overall increase in the water level during the river’s low period, and thus also an increase in water levels in the irrigation network canals, which further- more would not need to be so deep. Another effect was meant to be better protection from siltation, which otherwise had to be regularly removed utilising significant hu- man resources. Linant de Bellefonds calculated that over 13 million cubic metres of silt had to be removed each year, requiring 27,404 workers working for 100 days.11 It is clear then, that the principal objectives of the planned dam were to improve irri- gation in the Delta and to regulate the Nile. Another anticipated benefit of damming the Nile was the linking of the two (at the site of the branching of the river, all three) banks. Thus, the dam was also to function as a kind of bridge, and so was an important transportation node. In 1833, Muhammad Ali entrusted French engineer Louis Maurice Linant de Belle- fonds with preparing the first project. He came up with the idea of constructing dams on both branches of the Nile as close as possible to the point where they divided at Kafr-Mansour and Derrawé (approx. 10 km from the point of division). The dams were to include regulators which would affect how much water would flow in the 7 R. H. BROWN, History of the Barrage at the Head of Delta of Egypt, Cairo 1896, p. 1. Major Brown worked as an Inspector General of Irrigation in Lower Egypt, but he also looked at water projects from a historical perspective. His professional knowledge, excellent local knowledge and the fact he was personally involved in many projects mean that one can utilise his works still today, although they are dated. 8 Long staple cotton spread within Egypt after 1821 thanks to French textiles engineer Louis Alexis Jumel. It replaced the previously most widespread, but poorer quality short staple cotton and replaced wheat as Egypt’s most important crop. Egypt soon became a cotton su- perpower. For more on this topic: R. J. OWEN, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy 1820–1914: A Study in Trade and Development, Oxford 1969. 9 Basin irrigation — for 5000 years the only irrigation method used in Egypt. Floodwater was transferred to a network of canals and then held there with the use of small banks and basins. Gradually replaced from the beginning of the 19th century by a more effective year-round irrigation system.
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