Special Political and Decolonization Committee

Topic A: Privatization of Outer Space Exploration Topic B: Opium Trade and Trafficking

MUNUC 32

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Letter from the Chair………………………………………………………….. 3

Committee History………..…………………………………………………... 5

Topic A: Privatization of Outer Space Exploration…………………....… 6

Statement of the Problem…………………………………………….. 6

History of the Problem………………………………………………… 12

Past Actions…………………………………………………………….. 17

Possible Solutions………………………………………………………. 21

Bloc Positions…………………………………………………………… 24

Glossary…………………………………………………………………. 26

Bibliography……………………………………………………………. 27

Topic B: Opium Trade and Trafficking……………………………………. 33

Statement of the Problem…………………………………………….33

History of the Problem………………………………………………… 38

Past Actions…………………………………………………………….. 43

Possible Solutions………………………………………………………. 49

Bloc Positions…………………………………………………………… 52

Glossary…………………………………………………………………. 54

Bibliography……………………………………………………………. 55

2 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 LETTER FROM THE CHAIR

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Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the Special Political and Decolonization Committee at MUNUC XXXII. My name is Jake Walsh, and I look forward to serving as your committee chair. I am a fourth-year undergraduate at the University of Chicago studying biochemistry and computer science; this will be my second year staffing MUNUC.

This year, you will have the opportunity to discuss two topics that span the wide range of subjects under the purview of the Special Political and Decolonization Committee: the burgeoning privatization of outer space exploration, and the ongoing issue of opium trade and trafficking. Both topics will require you to think creatively and develop collaborative solutions to problems without clear answers. As you reflect upon the priorities of the nations you represent while keeping in mind the particular decolonial lens of this committee, I hope you will all have the opportunity to learn from one another and engage meaningfully with these global problems.

As you prepare for conference, I suggest you use this background guide as an introductory step into your own research on the topics of this committee. Although the background guide will be an invaluable starting point, you will have the best experience at conference if you have a strong understanding of your nation’s position on both topics. Thorough preparation will empower you to participate fully in the work of this committee. Whether this is your first experience with Model UN or you are veteran delegate, I encourage you to be thoughtful, detailed, and open-minded to your peers in both discussion and debate.

Whether we ultimately explore the role of private enterprise in humankind’s quest to go beyond planet Earth or devise strategies to combat the opium trade’s dual crises of public health and governmental instability, I look forward to hearing your creative solutions to some of the most pressing issues of our time. Please feel free to reach out with any questions or concerns you may

3 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 have about the conference. Thank you for choosing the Special Political and Decolonization Committee! I’ll see you at MUNUC XXXII.

Best,

Jake Walsh

4 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 COMMITTEE HISTORY

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The Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization Committee) is somewhat atypical compared to the other General Assembly committees. While the other GA committees typically have quite narrow purviews – the First Committee focuses on disarmament and security, the Second Committee on economic and financial matters, the Third Committee on social and humanitarian matters, the Fifth Committee on the budget, and the Sixth Committee on legal affairs – the Fourth Committee has a seemingly different one. The UN considers its purview to be broad enough to cover peacekeeping reform, UN Missions, mines, atomic radiation, and “information”, but what are the origins of a committee with such scattered topics of discussion?

The Fourth Committee was originally founded to focus entirely on decolonization issues. The UN Trusteeship Council, one of the principal organs of the UN, was created in order to put countries in a UN-controlled trust as they transitioned from colonies to sovereign nations.1 The Fourth Committee was set up in order to handle decolonization issues that fell outside the purview of the Trusteeship Council. In addition to the normal composition of the General Assembly, there were a few smaller supplemental committees – one in particular called the Special Political Committee (SPC) – designed to deal with political issues that didn’t fall under the purview of any other bodies. As trusteeship and decolonization became less of an issue, the decision was made to merge the SPC and Fourth Committee – turning them into the Special Political and Decolonization Committee that exists today.

1 “Trusteeship Council.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/trusteeship-council/

5 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 TOPIC A: PRIVATIZATION OF OUTER SPACE EXPLORATION

______Statement of the Problem

Introduction

NASA has been at the forefront of science and space exploration for over 60 years. Its motto “for the benefit of all” has inspired generations of space exploration, including grand enterprises like the Apollo moon landings and the Hubble Telescope launch.2 National space agencies, such as NASA, have done incredible things, but the space exploration paradigm has recently shifted to include privately funded programs by idealistic billionaires. The private funding of space is not a new concept. In fact, this was the case since the beginning of rocketry. Robert Goddard, often called the father of rocketry, funded his research out of his own paycheck.3 In addition, modern commercial air flight is a direct result from the relationship between privatization and government funding. World War I spurred great leaps in airplane technology and manufacturing capability. To encourage commercial use of this new capacity, the U.S. Congress passed the Air Mail Act of 1925,4 in which private companies quickly took over the air mail industry. This spurred more technological development and business, resulting in commercial passenger flights.

While national space industries have accomplished marvelous feats, not much profit has been generated from these government-funded space missions. On the other hand, almost all private companies are driven solely by the profit motive. Elon Musk funded SpaceX with cash from his first project, PayPal.5 Now that SpaceX has a working heavy launch vehicle with reusable boosters, Musk is eyeing colonies on Mars and beyond. Jeff Bezos, the founder of Amazon and his Blue Origin company, performed the first successful vertical landing after in 2015 with his Shepard

2 Deffree, Suzanne. “NASA: Revealing the Unknown to Benefit All Humankind.” EDN, www.edn.com/collections/4397490/NASA--Revealing-the-unknown-to-benefit-all-humankind. 3 Dunbar, Brian. “Robert Goddard: A Man and His Rocket.” NASA, NASA, www..gov/missions/research/f_goddard.html. 4 “AIRMAIL CREATES AN INDUSTRY: Postal Act Facts.” Postal Act Facts, Smithsonian National Museum , postalmuseum.si.edu/airmail/airmail/public/airmail_public_postal_long.html. 5 “Elon Musk.” Biography.com, A&E Networks Television, 12 Nov. 2019, www.biography.com/business- figure/elon-musk.

6 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 rocket.6 SpaceShipOne was solely funded by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen, while its successor SpaceShipTwo is now owned by billionaire Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic.7 Then, there is Russian billionaire Yuri Milner and his breakthrough Starshot Program with the intention of sending the first robotic probe to another star system.8 Private companies such as these have one very large advantage over nationally funded programs: the ability to take risks. The private industry is simply less constrained by politics and public opinion than the public sector. For example, SpaceX recently put out a video estimating that the Falcon Heavy had a 50% chance of blowing up on the launch pad, yet Musk continued with the launch anyways.9 Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo still forges ahead, even after the fatalities of a test flight crash and an earlier tank explosion.10 Aerospace billionaires see themselves as the new Wright brothers, seeing risks and unsuccessful investments as necessary for innovation. Because of their ability to take risks, the private sector can fulfill the unaddressed needs of government space programs, potentially creating a symbiotic relationship rather than a parasitic one. Whether the privatization of space is either an inevitable or a positive evolution during this new era of space exploration remains a hotly contested subject of debate.

The Existing Framework of

At first, national governments dominated human activities in outer space. This framework is in the midst of major change as private enterprises develop a space infrastructure parallel to that of national agencies. The privatization of space has led to a shift in the paradigm and nowadays private enterprises have a considerable role in the , usually with a predominantly commercial purpose. SpaceX, Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin, Planetary Resources, MarsOne and Deep Space Industries are only a few of the most notable players in this new . The emerging

6 Howell, Elizabeth. “Jeff Bezos: Biography of Blue Origin, Amazon Founder.” Space.com, Space, 1 May 2018, www.space.com/19341-jeff-bezos.html. 7 Sharp, Tim. “SpaceShipOne: The First Private : The Most Amazing Flying Machines Ever.” Space.com, Space, 5 Mar. 2019, www.space.com/16769-spaceshipone-first-private-spacecraft.html. 8 Grady, Monica. “Private Companies Are Launching a New Space Race – Here's What to Expect.” Phys.org, Phys.org, 3 Oct. 2017, phys.org/news/2017-10-private-companies-space.html. 9 Harwood, William. “SpaceX Falcon Heavy Launch Puts on Spectacular Show in Maiden Flight.” CBS News, CBS Interactive, 6 Feb. 2018, www.cbsnews.com/news/spacex-falcon-heavy-launch-spectacular-maiden-flight/. 10 Woolf, Nicky, and Amanda Holpuch. “One Pilot Dead as Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo Rocket Plane Crashes.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 1 Nov. 2014, www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/31/spaceshiptwo-richard- branson-virgin-crash-mojave.

7 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 movement of private enterprises being active in space is now known as the “NewSpace Industry,” contrasting with the traditional space industry.11 This NewSpace Industry has no universally accepted definition as it remains in a continuous state of flux; however, it can be usefully described as

“a worldwide phenomenon of entrepreneurs developing products and service enterprises focusing on space and are using private funding in their initial developments… the ethos of the movement has been to challenge the traditional ways of space exploration that are widely considered as too expensive, time-consuming, and lacking in room for inventive risk-taking. Companies are primarily funded by private capital to build products and services that challenge the cost to either access to space itself or access to services based out of assets in space.”12

With the increasing pressure of privatized companies taking over space exploration, how will their activities in space affect current space laws? Space law is a relatively new field of law. Its inception can be traced back to October of 1957 with the launch of the world’s first artificial satellite13 when the Soviet Union propelled Sputnik 1 into the uncharted territories of outer space, and at the time, the law did not extend into outer space. At the time, the law did not extend into outer space. From this point onwards, space law would evolve greatly.14

Nowadays, space law exists at a national and international level. The current legal framework was established over half a century ago. When the framework was being formed, the international context was wildly different from what it is today. National governmental bodies were the sole players in the space industry as the U.S.’s NASA rivaled the Soviet Union’s space program. Both programs had a strong emphasis on the military, so the primary focus of space law was to negotiate

11 “What's Up in The NewSpace Industry?” ASTROPRENEURS, 8 Mar. 2018, astropreneurs.space/2018/03/08/whats- newspace-industry/. 12 Jonckheere, Evarist. “Https://Lib.ugent.be/Fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01-002479330_2018_0001_AC.Pdf.” Faculty of Law and Criminology Ghent University, May 2018, lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01- 002479330_2018_0001_AC.pdf. 13 Garber, Steve. “Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age.” NASA, 10 Oct. 2017, history.nasa.gov/sputnik/. 14 Jonckheere, Evarist. “Https://Lib.ugent.be/Fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01-002479330_2018_0001_AC.Pdf.” Faculty of Law and Criminology Ghent University, May 2018, lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01- 002479330_2018_0001_AC.pdf.

8 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 peace and security; therefore, if economic, military, or political issues relating to space would arise, international law could provide the legal grounding to address them.15 More recently, the privatization of space and the birth of the NewSpace Industry has led to the emergence of national space law. Regulating space activities on a more national level seems like the most practical solution in this new era; however, one cannot ignore the international legal framework already set in place.16 This committee must therefore figure out how private enterprises and governments can cooperate.

The old regime of international space law was founded upon multi-lateral treaties and agreements set forth by the United Nations within two decades after the launch of Sputnik. While the history of these treaties will be described in more detail in the Past Actions section, the most important of these treaties is the Treaty on Principles Governing of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (The ) of 1967.17 This treaty, as well as the others that follow, emphasizes the same basic principle: the activities carried out in outer space and the accompanying benefits should be devoted to enriching all countries and all people.18 Thus, international cooperation is essential in space exploration. While these treaties were formed with good intentions, the existing legal framework is too rigid to keep up with recent revolutions in the space industry and the needs of dynamic private enterprises.19

An example of a legal problem in the space industry concerns one of the U.N. treaties, the of 1975.20 The registration of space objects is only applicable to those nations that have ratified the Registration Convention. It is up to each nation to determine its own definition of “space objects”, leading to a variety of interpretations. Registration is not equivalent to commercial ownership. A can be sold to different companies, but the new owner will not necessarily bear responsibility for the harm the satellite may cause because of complications in

15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Avgerinopoulou, Dionysia-Theodora, and Katerina Solis. Current Trends and Challenges in International Space Law . www.essc.esf.org/fileadmin/user_upload/essc/Article_Current_Trends_and_Challenges_in_Space_Law.pdf 18 Jonckheere, Evarist. “Https://Lib.ugent.be/Fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01-002479330_2018_0001_AC.Pdf.” Faculty of Law and Criminology Ghent University, May 2018, lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01- 002479330_2018_0001_AC.pdf. 19 Ibid. 20 Wickramatunga, Robert. “Registration Convebntion.” United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introregistration-convention.html.

9 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 transferring registration of the object. This presents many legal problems, including who is liable for a given space object. There are many instances like this where the current legal framework proves inadequate, and the privatization of space will only exacerbate such issues. It is evident that modifications need to be made to the current space law, especially the need for a more uniform reporting of information to the UN and a clearer definition of liability.

Evolution of the Modern Space Industry and Its Effects

Whereas “spaceflight in the 20th century was defined by heroic exploration, science, and national pride, the 21st century has seen an unprecedented rise in investment, from a combination of traditional defense contractors and Silicon Valley–backed startups”.21 SpaceX’s Dragon Module was the first private spacecraft to dock with the International Space Station (ISS) in 2012.22 Orbital ATK followed closely behind SpaceX’s footsteps and now both companies regularly resupply the ISS.23 These resupply missions are considered a big win for NASA, as its shuttle program costs around $4 billion annually, yet these resupply missions cost approximately $50 million each.24 Besides restocking the ISS, private companies have been looking at the possibility of human spaceflight. The main goal of these private companies is “to reduce the cost of access to space – mainly through reuse of launchers and spacecraft – making space accessible to people who are not specially trained astronauts”.25 To date, only one privately developed vehicle has carried a person to space – SpaceShipOne. In 2004, the first private astronaut, Mike Melvill, blasted this rocket-powered plane into a suborbital trajectory, topping 100 km in altitude and just touching space (but it counts). SpaceShipOne’s manufacturer, Scaled Composites, partnered up with Virgin Galactic with the plan

21 Baumann, Michael. “Who Gets to Own Outer Space?”. The Ringer. https://www.theringer.com/2017/12/27/16812048/future-of-space-x-nasa-elon-musk-donald-trump. 22 Howell, Elizabeth. “SpaceX's Dragon: First Private Spacecraft to Reach Space Station.” Space.com, Space, 14 Mar. 2019, www.space.com/18852-spacex-dragon.html. 23 Howell, Elizabeth. “NGIS: Cargo Ships to the ISS.” Space.com, Space, 21 June 2018, www.space.com/40950-northrop- grumman-innovation-systems-ngis.html. 24 “The Implications of the Privatization of Space Exploration.” Wharton Public Policy Initative, 12 Dec. 2016, publicpolicy.wharton.upenn.edu/live/news/1619-the-implications-of-the-privatization-of-space. 25 Baumann, Michael. “Who Gets to Own Outer Space?”. The Ringer. https://www.theringer.com/2017/12/27/16812048/future-of-space-x-nasa-elon-musk-donald-trump.

10 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 of turning SpaceShipTwo into a regular vessel;26 however, with these goals and upcoming innovations comes a plethora of problems.

With the increasing of privatization of space exploration, there is a corresponding increased need for lawyers and legal experts in the field. Extensive regulation and law is necessary to prepare for the scenario of multiple private companies and governments operating simultaneously in outer space. It is possible that companies may take greater risks in order to increase profitability, even as space- focused companies compete in nontraditional manners.27 With the emergence of private space enterprises in the era of the NewSpace Industry, a plethora of legal concerns will be introduced into space law. The goal of this committee will thus be to figure out how to modify or, to a more radical extent, to completely overhaul the existing international framework that has been set forth by the United Nations in order to prepare for and delineate the role of private enterprise in space exploration. Furthermore, once commercial spaceflight leaves Earth’s and enters the wider solar system, international bodies will need to be prepared with an adequate legal framework.

26 Howell, Elizabeth. “SpaceShipTwo: On a Flight Path to Space Tourism.” Space.com, Space, 5 Mar. 2019, www.space.com/19021-spaceshiptwo.html. 27 Grady, Monica. “Private Companies Are Launching a New Space Race – Here's What to Expect.” Phys.org, Phys.org, 3 Oct. 2017, phys.org/news/2017-10-private-companies-space.html.

11 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 History of the Problem

World War II and the Nuclear Arms Race

During the late 1930’s, Adolf Hitler began planning an invasion of Poland. With the cooperation of the Soviet Union, his armies would overrun the country, and it would be partitioned between the two great powers. On September 1st of 1939, the invasion of Poland began.28 At this point, France and Britain were drawn into the conflict by virtue of defense treaties they had signed with Poland. The subsequent Second World War involved virtually every part of the globe from 1939 to 1945. The Axis powers – Germany, Italy, and Japan – and the Allies – France, Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union – fought brutally over this time period.29 While the Soviet Union was originally an Axis power, Germany’s unsuccessful attempt at invading England led Hitler to break their non- aggression pact and invade the Soviet Union. In response, the Soviet Union joined the Allies and vowed to fight Germany and the rest of the Axis powers.

Besides the Soviet Union, the United States was another great power that did not join the Allies until later in the war, specifically when the Japanese bombed the American fleet in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on December 7, 1941.30 WWII eventually ended in May 1945 when the Allies defeated Germany. War with Japan continued, however, and United States President Franklin Roosevelt authorized the Manhattan Project to develop nuclear weapons in response to a letter he received from German physicist Albert Einstein, warning Roosevelt that Nazi Germany was already at work developing nuclear arms. Robert Oppenheimer headed the Manhattan Project, and on July 16, 1945, the first nuclear bomb was detonated in New Mexico.31 After pressure from military advisors, President Truman authorized the use of atomic weapons on Japan and on August 6, 1945, an American bomber dropped the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later, the

28 Editors, History.com. “World War II.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 29 Oct. 2009, www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/world-war-ii-history. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 “What's Up in The NewSpace Industry?” ASTROPRENEURS, 8 Mar. 2018, astropreneurs.space/2018/03/08/whats- newspace-industry/.

12 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 United States dropped a second bomb on Nagasaki with a total of 210,000 Japanese fatalities and injuries.32

WWII was the deadliest conflict in human history. This global conflict involved more than a hundred million people from over 30 countries, and it caused more than 85 million casualties, most of whom were citizens of the Soviet Union and China.33 The participating nations mustered their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities to achieve victory. The development of the atomic bomb by the United States marked the end of WWII, but also heralded the beginning of the . Despite the United States’ efforts to maintain its monopoly over the specific knowledge and the raw materials necessary for nuclear weaponry, the Soviet Union eventually detonated an atomic bomb of its own in 1949. The nuclear arms race was thus born with the United States and the Soviet Union fighting for supremacy in nuclear technology.34 Both countries adopted a policy of nuclear deterrence, using the threat of massive retaliation to prevent a nuclear attack by an enemy.35 This missile-based nuclear arms race eventually foreshadowed the start of another race – the space race.

Sputnik: The Beginning of the Space Age

History changed on October 4th, 1957 when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 or “Cпутник-1” – the world’s first artificial satellite.36 The International Council of Scientific Unions established the International Geophysical Year (IGY), a solar period from July 1, 1957 to December 31, 1958. This period was ideal for launching artificial as a means of studying Earth and the solar system due to the high level of solar activity at the time.37 Space exploration only fueled the tension between the world’s two greatest powers. The United States made plans in 1954 to launch an Earth- orbiting satellite for the IGY, hoping to show their dominance in spaceflight capability and their overall ideological superiority by being the first successful country to launch an artificial satellite;38

32 Ibid. 33 Hedges, Chris. “'What Every Person Should Know About War'.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 6 July 2003, www.nytimes.com/2003/07/06/books/chapters/what-every-person-should-know-about-war.html. 34 Harding, Rebecca. “How The End Of The Second World War Led To A Nuclear Arms Race.” Imperial War Museums, 20 June 2018, www.iwm.org.uk/history/how-the-end-of-the-second-world-war-led-to-a-nuclear-arms-race. 35 Ibid. 36 Editors, History.com. “The Space Race.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 22 Feb. 2010, www.history.com/topics/cold-war/space-race. 37 Ibid. 38 Garber, Steve. “Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age.” NASA, 10 Oct. 2017, history.nasa.gov/sputnik/.

13 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 however, the successful launch of Sputnik 1 from the Soviet Tyuratam base shocked experts and citizens in the United States.3940 This launch is widely considered to be the moment that began the space race.41

The Effects of Sputnik

In response to the launch of Sputnik, United States President Eisenhower poured additional funds and resources into the in hopes of catching up to and then exceeding the capacity of the Soviet Union. However, the Vanguard satellite, which was the first earnest satellite launch attempt by the US, was incinerated on its launch pad due to flaws in the rocket.42 The US would not find satellite success until the Explorer launch on January 31, 1958.43 Three months later, President Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which turned the National Advisory Committee into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which is to this day responsible for the civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and space research.44 The US would not remain caught up for long, though, as the USSR soon managed to place a live dog, Laika, into space.45At this point, more drastic action was needed on the part of the United States to close the gap. It was with this awareness in mind that the lunar landing program began. In July 1969, the first men walked on the moon, and the United states declared victory.46

39 Filmer, Joshua. “A Brief History of Sputnik 1.” , Futurism, 13 Aug. 2014, futurism.com/a-brief-history-of- sputnik-1. 40 “Sputnik Launched.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 24 Nov. 2009, www.history.com/this-day-in- history/sputnik-launched. 41 “The Start of the Space Race.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us- history/postwarera/1950s-america/a/the-start-of-the-space-race. 42 “The Launch of Sputnik, 1957.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State, 2001, 2001- 2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/lw/103729.htm. 43 Loff, Sarah. “Explorer 1 Overview.” NASA, NASA, 18 Mar. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/explorer/explorer- overview.html 44 Ibid. 45 George, Alice. “The Sad, Sad Story of Laika, the Space Dog, and Her One-Way Trip into Orbit.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 11 Apr. 2018, www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/sad-story-laika-space-dog- and-her-one-way-trip-orbit-1-180968728/. 46 Dunbar, Brian. “July 20, 1969: One Giant Leap For Mankind.” NASA, NASA, 19 Feb. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html.

14 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 The space race eventually ended with the Apollo-Soyez project (ASTP), a partnered spaceflight between the USSR and the US. The and Apollo spacecraft met on July 17, 1975 with a combined crew of five people — three Americans, two Soviets.47 This would not be the only international space project, as the station shuttle-docking program and the International Space Station followed in subsequent decades.48 Sputnik 1’s launch has proven to be one of the most pivotal moments of the space race, the Cold War, and modern history, as the consequences of collaborative human space exploration reverberate today.49 However, with this newfound desire for space exploration came a multitude of unexpected problems. These issues today highlight the urgent need to modify space law to better accommodate space activities of the 21st century.

The Origins of Space Law

In a paper in 1910, Emile Laude, a Belgian lawyer, declared the need for a new governing body to oversee judicial relations in space.50 In 1931, Vladimir Mandl, a Czechoslovak lawyer, surveyed some of the emerging legal problems of space usage. Mandl conceptually asserted that the space above the airspace, “the ether,” would have a completely different nature of flight from that of aeronautical space in terms of speed and altitude.51 Thus, flights in “the ether” would be and should be “free of and unrestrained by considerations of sovereignty over the airspace”.52

After the launch of Sputnik, the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) was established in 1959 “to review the scope of international cooperation on peaceful uses of outer space, to devise new programs, to encourage continued research on outer space matters, and to study legal problems that arise from the exploration of outer space”.53 Although

47 Loff, Sarah. “Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.” NASA, NASA, 16 Apr. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo- soyuz/index.html. 48 Howell, Elizabeth. “International Space Station: Facts, History & Tracking.” Space.com, Space, 8 Feb. 2018, www.space.com/16748-international-space-station.html. 49 Wallace, Tim. “How Sputnik 1 Launched the Space Age.” Cosmos, 3 Oct. 2017, cosmosmagazine.com/space/how- sputnik-1-launched-the-space-age. 50 Sundahl, Mark J. “New Perspectives on Space Law.” Proceedings of the 53rd IISL Colloquium on The Law of Outer Space, 2011, www.iislweb.org/docs/NewPerspectivesonSpaceLaw.pdf. 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 Avgerinopoulou , Dr. Dionysia-Theodora, and Katerina Solis. Current Trends and Challenges in International Space Law. www.essc.esf.org/fileadmin/user_upload/essc/Article_Current_Trends_and_Challenges_in_Space_Law.pdf.

15 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 COPUOS has produced many resolutions that have been constant drivers for the development of space law and international cooperation between the Member States of the UN, resolutions adopted by the United Nations General Assembly are not legally binding and the evolution of technology in the modern age has led to problems that were not anticipated during the creation of these resolutions.

16 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Past Actions

Developments in the United Nations

Since the launch of Sputnik, the UN has been committed in ensuring that space is used peacefully. As the Cold War progressed, due to growing concern in the international community, the General Assembly of the UN adopted resolution 1348 in 1958, which created the ad hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).54 This specialized committee consisted of 18 members that regulated the peaceful uses of outer space and facilitated international cooperation. One year later, COPUOS became a permanent body with 24 members. COPUOS is a unique body in that there is no voting; rather, decisions are taken by consensus (the absence of objections).55 Since 1958, the membership of COPUOS has grown significantly and at this point it is one of the larger committees in the UN. The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) was initially created in 1957 as a subgroup within COPUOS. Currently, it is a part of the UN Secretariat, implementing the decisions of the General Assembly and COPUOS. This office has the objective of supporting intergovernmental discussions in the Scientific and Technical and the Legal subcommittees, as well as assisting developing nations in improving their .56

United Nations Treaties

There are five principal treaties of the United Nations which form its core space law framework:

1. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (The Outer Space Treaty)57

54 Doyle, Stephen. “A Concise History of Space Law.” International Institute of Space Law, www.iislweb.org/website/docs/2010keynote.pdf. 55 Ibid. 56 Wickramatunga, Robert. “United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs.” COPUOS History, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/history.html. 57 Wickramatunga, Robert. “United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs.” Space Law Treaties and Principles, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties.html.

17 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 2. Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (The )58

3. Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (The Space Liability Convention)59

4. Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (The Registration Convention)60

5. Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (The ) 61

The first treaty is known as the Outer Space Treaty (OST) and is the most crucial document, with the others branching off from it and elaborating on its principles.62 The OST is the UN’s second non- armament treaty, with the Antarctic Treaty being the first. Like its predecessor, the OST seeks to prevent a new form of resource competition and the possible damage that exploitation of outer space might cause.63 The key points of each treaty are as follows:

The Outer Space Treaty is the cornerstone of UN space law. It prevents any nation from claiming sovereignty over any portion of outer space. Additionally, it designates that all planets and planetary objects in the solar system, aside from the Earth, are to be set aside for peaceful purposes. Pursuant to its stated aim of achieving peace in space, weapons of mass destruction are forbidden in Earth’s orbit. However, other offensive methods such as kinetic bombardment are still allowed, since these are not WMDs.64

58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid. 61 Ibid. 62 “Outer Space Treaty.” U.S. Department of State, 27 Jan. 1967, 2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/5181.htm. 63 Howell, Elizabeth. “Who Owns the Moon?: Space Law & Outer Space Treaties.” Space.com, 27 Oct. 2017, www.space.com/33440-space-law.html. 64 Ibid.

18 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 The Rescue Agreement states that if some entity observes a damaged or endangered spacecraft, they must notify the Secretary-General of the UN of that spacecraft. Furthermore, a state must provide all possible assistance to rescue the personnel of the spacecraft if they have landed within that state’s territory, whether the landing was due to distress, accident, or emergency.65

The Space Liability Convention claims that countries bear international responsibility for any space object launched within their territory. Thus, regardless of who launches the space object, if the object was launched from State A’s territory or facility, then State A is fully liable for the damages that result from that particular space object.66

The Registration Convention requires countries to provide to the UN enough information to determine the orbit of every object they have in space. Additionally, they must describe the function of each object placed in space.67

The Moon Treaty places the moon under the jurisdiction of the international community at large. The major clauses of this treaty ban military use of celestial bodies, require that the UN Secretary- General must be informed of all celestial activities, declare all states have an equal right to perform research utilizing planetary objects, and ban claiming sovereignty over celestial bodies.68

Four additional General Assembly resolutions were adopted after 1980 containing declarations of principles:

1. Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting69

65 “Status of International Agreements relating to Activities in Outer Space.” United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. 20 Feb. 2019. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/status/index.html. 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid. 68 Ibid. 69 Sundahl, Mark J. “New Perspectives on Space Law.” Proceedings of the 53rd IISL Colloquium on The Law of Outer Space, 2011, www.iislweb.org/docs/NewPerspectivesonSpaceLaw.pdf.

19 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 2. Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space70

3. Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space71

4. Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking Particular Account of the Needs of Developing Countries72

70 Ibid. 71 Ibid. 72 Ibid.

20 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Possible Solutions

Defining “Space”

The first step in drafting an ideal resolution is to define the term “space.” As simple as it may be, the term “space” can be used in many different ways, including:73

1. A geographic location without sovereignty or governments

2. A hostile environment for human beings

3. An empty vacuum filled with debris

4. A place for military operations and defense.

There are clearly many ways to consider the definition of space, and each differing view of the term can result in vastly different legal implications. For instance, if you were to view space as a place to conduct business with a large source of potential revenue, then space might be a rather attractive territory if you wish to commercialize, leading to the privatization of space. In this case, the value of the orbital position will be determined by the assessments of private corporations with an emphasis on profit, rather than a research-focused evaluation that might be favored by a national space agency.

Changing the Legal Framework

As mentioned in the introduction, registration of space objects holds no commercial significance – it is not a statement of ownership.74 A subsequent owner of a space object technically bears no explicit legal liability for the object, as there is no formal mechanism to transfer the registration (and thus responsibility) of a space object between companies and nations. In order to improve upon the

73 Hertzfeld, Henry. “Current and Future Issues in International Space Law.” NSU Works, 24 Oct. 2008, nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1640&context=ilsajournal.

74 “Status of International Agreements relating to Activities in Outer Space.” United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. 20 Feb. 2019. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/status/index.html.

21 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 registration convention, a more uniform and comprehensive reporting of information to the UN is necessary, along with a specific legal process to transfer the ownership and registration of a space object. For instance, in terms of joint launches between multiple nations, each object must be registered separately by each nation. In addition, the registration convention must be modified to account for commercial space objects. An effective legal framework should also require each nation or company to notify the UN of any change in ownership of a space object, according to the determined transfer mechanism of the framework. Thus, the new owners will have legal responsibility and liability in case of any accident or damage that may be caused by their space object.

This is just one small symptom of the larger inadequacy of the present UN legal framework on space. Delegates may consider the treaties mentioned in the Past Actions section to be jumping-off points, and may decide primarily to add to the existing documents. Alternatively, delegates may decide that that some elements of UN legislation which already exist are incompatible with the update to space law that they wish to provide. Thus, they may want to strike current international legislation. Delegates should read through all relevant UN documents to come to this decision for themselves, but creating brand new legislation, expanding existing laws, and scrapping present treaties are all options for SPECPOL.

The Role of Space Privatization

The private space industry reached a new technological level in 2012 when SpaceX became the first private company to dock a spacecraft at the International Space Station. This momentous event demonstrated that the private sector is capable of performing activities previously accomplished by governmental space agencies. These private companies often focus on three types of missions: reusable space launch vehicles, space tourism, and space mining.75 National governmental space agencies have recognized the rapid growth in the private sector. Space agencies such as ESA and NASA have already implemented new policies that are more open to cooperation with private space

75 Weinzierl, Matthew C. "Space, the Final Economic Frontier." Journal of Economic Perspectives 32, no. 2 (Spring 2018): 173–192.

22 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 companies.76 In 2010, President Obama announced that he would increase the stimulus of development of private vehicles to send astronauts and cargo to the ISS.77 In 2010, NASA awarded , Sierra Nevada, and SpaceX $10 million to develop innovations in the area of orbital and sub- orbital commercial services, with the goal of sending spacecrafts to the ISS.78 A paradigm shift is indeed occurring, in which private companies are being challenged to invent new ways to transport cargo and crew in space.

With this shift toward privatization come several obstacles that must be solved, primarily regarding technological improvements, environmental concerns, space law, governmental policies, and financial and economic issues. A possible solution to better harmonize national space agencies and the private sector is to first establish an extensive international legislation that provides a legal framework for the private exploration of space, particularly with respect to the rights, obligations, and regulations of private enterprises. Still, the privatization of space cannot be considered uncritically. Private actors are not beholden to democratic processes or motivated by an interest in the public good; whether wealth should grant individuals or companies unique access to the natural resources of outer space is hotly contested. As private space exploration is still in a nascent stage, there is a unique opportunity in the present moment to direct or restrain its growth in a way that is most beneficial to humanity as a whole. While the private sector can facilitate the rapid development of a more accessible journey to space, it is also important not to let space exploration fall entirely to profit seeking corporations. Space exploration should be done to benefit all, not just CEOs and shareholders.

76 Gomes, Joana R. “THE ROAD TO PRIVATIZATION OF SPACE EXPLORATION: WHAT IS MISSING?” Institute for Aeronautics and Space, 2013, www.researchgate.net/publication/289635460_The_road_to_privatization_of_space_exploration_What_is_missing. 77 Jacobson, Louis. “Updated - The Obameter: Support Commercial Access to Space.” PolitiFact, 15 Feb. 2010, www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/obameter/promise/349/support-commercial-access-to-space/. 78 Heiney, Anna. “Commercial Crew Program - Essentials.” NASA, NASA, 14 Aug. 2019, www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-crew-program-the-essentials.

23 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Bloc Positions

It is important to note we are gathered here in SPECPOL to collaborate, so do not feel constrained if your country has not had much to say about either of these topics historically. This section is intended to point you in the right direction for research and give all delegates a basis to contribute meaningfully to the committee, regardless of their assigned country.

While a symbiotic relationship between private and public space exploration is certainly ideal, the public and private sectors have yet to reach this level of harmony. Instead, there are many nations that believe that their governmental space agencies are unable to revolutionize space exploration alone. Governmental space agencies have needs that the private sector can fulfill. On the other hand, many countries are opposed to the privatization of space exploration. Grand enterprises like the Apollo moon landings inspired generations of space exploration.79 The and other space-based observatories have revealed the deepest mysteries of our cosmos and have kept a watchful eye on our own fragile planet.80 Humans have sent probes to every planet in our solar system and even landed on several. National and regional space agencies have done incredible things, and some countries fear that the space exploration paradigm will shift to the hands of cynical billionaires with pure profit motives. Should the grandest enterprises be funded and operated collectively by a national organization, or is it okay to cede these important decisions to individuals and private companies?

Developed Nations, Pro Space Privatization

There are some UN member states which have already experienced significant privatization of space exploration. The most obvious example is the United States, which is the headquarters of numerous such companies. NASA has found it beneficial to work with private companies, which can provide certain services more cheaply than NASA can provide them. This frees up more funding to go towards other exciting projects that NASA wishes to undertake. Other countries may observe the

79 “ (AS-506).” Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, airandspace.si.edu/explore-and- learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/landing-missions/apollo11.cfm. 80 Garner, Rob. “About the Hubble Space Telescope.” NASA, NASA, 27 Jan. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/story/index.html.

24 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 relative success of the system in the United States, and work to create a free international framework for private actors to flourish, within reason.

Developed Nations, Against Space Privatization

While some nations are attracted to the innovation and fast growth of the private sector, others are more opposed to privatized space exploration because a small increase in privatization might lead to a large increase in company control over national space agencies, distancing government institutions from public control. Privatization can lead to companies withholding information from the public with the sole intent of increasing profit, potentially exploiting natural resources legally or illegally. The mining of celestial bodies and the possibility of will not only lead to ethical problems but also issues of sovereignty, particularly for more colonization-minded companies. Some nations with less pro-market governments will be more skeptical of space privatization than the United States.

Developing Nations

While not every nation may have a well-established governmental space exploration agency, it is only a matter of time before more nations join this modern-age space race. Most developing countries use their limited funds to support their impoverished people. Nevertheless, there are more than 70 nations which operate satellites, a good benchmark of a minimal but successful space program in progress.81

Nations in this bloc will generally not have enough presence in the modern space race to have formed a strong or meaningful position on these issues. These nations will first want to begin developing a larger space exploration program (possibly in conjunction with other nations), and then consider their stance on the privatization of space exploration.

81 Dan, Major. “How Many Countries Have Space Programs?” History and Headlines, 24 Feb. 2019, www.historyandheadlines.com/how-many-countries-have-space-programs/.

25 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Glossary

Kinetic Bombardment: Essentially dropping a massive object from space, which gathers a huge amount of as it falls hundreds of miles, and then violently disperses that energy when it strikes its target.

NewSpace Industry: A movement encompassing a globally emerging private spaceflight industry.

Privatization: A move towards formerly government-controlled programs or processes being taken over by private entities.

Satellite: Any object that has been intentionally placed into orbit.

Sovereignty: The ability of a country or other entity to exercise jurisdiction over itself, or in other words to rule over itself as the ultimate authority in its territory.

26 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Bibliography

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Dunbar, Brian. “July 20, 1969: One Giant Leap For Mankind.” NASA, NASA, 19 Feb. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html.

27 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Dunbar, Brian. “Robert Goddard: A Man and His Rocket.” NASA, NASA, www.nasa.gov/missions/research/f_goddard.html.

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Grady, Monica. “Private Companies Are Launching a New Space Race – Here's What to Expect.” Phys.org, Phys.org, 3 Oct. 2017, phys.org/news/2017-10-private-companies space.html.

28 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Gomes, Joana R. “THE ROAD TO PRIVATIZATION OF SPACE EXPLORATION: WHAT IS MISSING?” Institute for Aeronautics and Space, 2013, www.researchgate.net/publication/289635460_The_road_to_privatization_of_space_explo ation_What_is_missing.

Harding, Rebecca. “How The End Of The Second World War Led To A Nuclear Arms Race.” Imperial War Museums, 20 June 2018, www.iwm.org.uk/history/how-the-end-of-the-second world-war-led-to-a-nuclear-arms-race.

Harwood, William. “SpaceX Falcon Heavy Launch Puts on Spectacular Show in Maiden Flight.” CBS News, CBS Interactive, 6 Feb. 2018, www.cbsnews.com/news/spacex-falcon-heavy launch-spectacular-maiden-flight/.

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29 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Howell, Elizabeth. “SpaceShipTwo: On a Flight Path to Space Tourism.” Space.com, Space, 5 Mar. 2019, www.space.com/19021-spaceshiptwo.html.

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30 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Pascual, Katrina. “Here's Why NASA's Came To An End.” Tech Times, 4 Feb. 2017, www.techtimes.com/articles/195823/20170204/here-s-why-nasa-s-space-shuttle program-came-to-an-end.htm.

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31 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Weitering, Hanneke. “NASA Hires Lockheed Martin to Build Quiet Supersonic X-Plane.” Space.com, 3 Apr. 2018, www.space.com/40187-lockheed-martin-building-quiet-supersonic jet.html.

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32 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 TOPIC B: OPIUM TRADE AND TRAFFICKING

______Statement of the Problem

The Origins of Opium

Opium, a potent narcotic substance naturally produced by poppy flowers, has been used across various societies for medicinal, recreational, and religious purposes for millennia. Recently, however, a sprawling illegal trade in opium and opium derivatives (known as opiates) has become an increasing concern for government stability and public health. The earliest surviving record of opium usage dates to 3400 B.C. in Lower Mesopotamia (what is presently southern Iraq).82 As knowledge spread of opium’s powerful medicinal properties – as well as its addicting, euphoric effects – opium cultivation expanded, increasing opium’s availability while decreasing its cost. Opium reached starting in the 11th century, first from crusaders bringing it back from crusades in the Levant and later from trade with the Ottoman Empire. Simultaneously, the extensive trade routes of the Silk Road allowed for opium to travel through Asia, ultimately reaching China. In the mid-1800s, when Chinese officials began banning the import of opium, the United Kingdom initiated the Opium Wars to protect the British East India Company’s lucrative trade in the drug, resulting in the annexation of Hong Kong and other concessions to the British.83 The Dutch East India Company similarly took advantage of opium’s addictive properties to both weaken and profit from colonies in Southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia (then known as the Dutch East Indies).84

In 1803, the German chemist Friedrich Sertüner made a critical discovery when he isolated the principal alkaloid responsible for opium’s euphoric effect, naming it ‘morphium’ after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. Today, this compound is known as morphine.85 Later inventions, such as the syringe – as well as the discovery of other active compounds in opium, including codeine and

82 “Cannabis, Coca, & Poppy: Nature's Addictive Plants.” DEA Museum, www.deamuseum.org/ccp/opium/history.html. 83 Ibid. 84 Scheltema, J. F. “The Opium Trade in the Dutch East Indies. I.” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 13, no. 1, 1907, pp. 79–112. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2762537. 85 Larsen, Staci. “Morphine's Modest Origin.” The Hospitalist, 14 Sept. 2018, www.the- hospitalist.org/hospitalist/article/123203/morphines-modest-origin.

33 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 thebaine – heightened the drug’s potency. Farmers also employed artificial selection to increase the opiate production of their poppies.86 Starting from the 19th century, morphine found use as a painkiller for wounded soldiers; this usage was particularly prominent during the American Civil War.87 By 1895, chemists at the German pharmaceutical company, Bayer, synthesized a morphine derivative that was supposed to have all the same analgesic properties as morphine without being addictive. Bayer sold it under the brand name ‘heroin’.88 However, scientists later discovered that heroin had narcotic and addictive properties that exceeded those of morphine.

What is Opium?

Opium is a highly addictive narcotic drug that is derived from the milky latex sap found in the seed pods poppy plant, Papaver somniferum.89 Opiates can be synthesized into opioids, which are man- made pain relievers. There are both synthetic and semisynthetic opioids.90 Heroin is a type of opioid derived from morphine. In the United States, drugs are organized into five different categories or schedules, determined by their potential to generate addiction and their potential as medicines, among other properties.91 Heroin is a Schedule I drug, the most severe class, which means that it has a high potential for abuse and serves no medical purpose.92 It is illegally sold as a white or brown powder that may be ‘cut’ – i.e. diluted – with sugars, starch, powdered milk, or quinine. Heroin is often injected into the veins, but it can be consumed in a variety of manners. Due to its ability to produce euphoria, heroin is among the most widely used recreational drugs in the world, not to mention one of the most dangerous.

86 Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast Asia , U.S. Department of Justice, Sept. 1992, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/141189NCJRS.pdf. 87 Ibid. 88 Ibid. 89 Kenoyer, Chris. “A DEA Report That Basically Is Their Own Guide ‘To Teach You How To Grow Your Very Own OPIUM!".” OnlinePot Comprehensive Resource on Medical Marijuana, www.onlinepot.org/dea-report-that-teaches- anyone-how-to-grow-opium/. 90 “Synthetic Opioid Overdose Data.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2 Apr. 2019. www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/fentanyl.html. 91 “Drug Scheduling.” DEA, www.dea.gov/drug-scheduling. 92 Ibid.

34 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Effects of Opium

The active compounds in opium mainly affect the human body's central nervous system, particularly the brain and spinal cord.93 The structure of opium’s painkilling alkaloids closely resembles that of endorphins, hormones that suppress pain and enhance mood. Opium suppresses pain signaling and mimic the effects of endorphins by binding to the same receptor sites as that endorphins.94 In terms of medical use, opiates are the most effective substance for managing extreme pain. They are able to reduce a person’s respiration and heartbeat, prevent automatic bodily responses such as gags or coughs, and relax the smooth muscles of a person’s gastrointestinal tract.95

Due to its addictive nature, opium dependency can occur, and many opium users find themselves experiencing withdrawal symptoms. Chronic opium users can eventually develop an opiate tolerance, which means that larger doses are required to achieve the same euphoric effect. However, these larger doses then further increase a chronic user’s opiate tolerance, leading to a vicious positive feedback loop of increasing drug abuse. The habitual use of opium produces a dependency which can lead to potential fatal overdoses.96

Harvesting and Processing of Opium

Since the opium poppy is an annual plant, it can only bear a flower once before dying.97 On average, opium growth and cultivation occurs over a span of 120 days. To harvest opium, an incision is made into the plant’s seed pods, allowing the opium to ooze out and coagulate on the surface of the pod.98 In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, India, Persia, and the eastern Mediterranean were all centers of opium production.99 Due to the decrease in demand of opium, the government began

93 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Opium.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 21 Dec. 2018, www.britannica.com/science/opium. 94 Ibid. 95 Ibid. 96 Ibid. 97 Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast Asia , U.S. Department of Justice, Sept. 1992, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/141189NCJRS.pdf. 98 Ibid. 99 Chandra, Siddharth. “Economic Histories of the Opium Trade.” EHnet, eh.net/encyclopedia/economic-histories-of-the- opium-trade/.

35 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 taking control of raw opium processing in some colonies. For instance, the Dutch built an opium factory in the Netherlands East Indies, known today as Indonesia. Similarly, the British started their own factories in Neemuch and Ghazipur, India.100

Opium Production in Afghanistan

There are three main opium-producing regions: Southwest Asia (particularly Afghanistan), Southeast Asia (particularly Myanmar), and Latin America (predominantly Mexico and Colombia). Since 2001, Afghanistan has been the world’s leading illicit opium producer, producing more than 90% of illicit heroin globally.101 The surge in opium production in Afghanistan occurred in the mid- 20th century in order to meet the demands of Iran after poppy cultivation was banned there.

Figure 1: Main Global Trafficking Flows of Opiates.102

Out of 177 countries, Afghanistan is ranked number 173 by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), according to the human development index.103 Development indicators included nutrition, infant mortality, life expectancy, and literacy, in which Afghanistan are all amongst the worst in the world.104 A shift from wheat farming to opium production has allowed farmers in

100 Ibid. 101 “The Global Heroin Market.” UNODC, 2010, www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/1.2_The_global_heroin_market.pdf. 102 Ibid. 103 Afghanistan Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments. Vol. 1, International Business Publications, 2013. 104 Ibid.

36 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Afghanistan to make a sufficient income, despite the fact that opium may be a more dangerous product to produce and distribute.

The global opium trade unites some of the worst factors in the world. This trade generates tremendous potential for transnational crime and terrorism. The product being conveyed is responsible for a bevy of deaths every year across the world. The global addictive liability of opium usage only grows year after year as more users become addicts. Opium trafficking represents exactly the variety of special political crisis that SPECPOL is charged with addressing. It is a tremendously pressing issue, but the full member body of the United Nations operating together will prove capable of solving it.

37 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 History of the Problem

Ancient Use

Although no one knows exactly when opium was discovered by the human race, the Mediterranean region does contain the earliest archeological evidence of human use. Opium was discovered at a Neolithic burial site near Barcelona, where it appears to have been used for its narcotic effects, as well for its food and ritual purposes.105 Cultivation of the poppy originated in Sumerian regions, but eventually spread to the Middle East by the Assyrians.106 Opium production continued through the Babylonians and the Egyptians. Through trade in the Mediterranean Sea, the ancient Greeks eventually learned about the poppy, who held the plant sacred. A figure was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, wearing a crown of three opium poppies, meaning the Greeks ascribed significant religious meaning to the plant.107 108

The Islamic Empire

While some Muslims believed that certain hadiths banned consuming intoxicating substances, most scholars agreed that intoxicants for medicinal purposes should be permitted. Thus, opium came to be used in the Islamic world. A famous Muslim physician, Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, recommended the use of opium in anesthesia. Specifically, he recommended opium in his work “in the absence of a physician,” a home medical manual for self-treatment when a doctor was not available.109 He may have been the first physician to use opium as a general anesthetic. In addition, the Persian physician labeled opium as the most powerful stupefacient in The Canon of Medicine. This

105 Peakman, Julie. “A History of Opium.” History Today, Oct. 2018, www.historytoday.com/reviews/history-opium. 106 Krikorian, Abraham D. “Were the Opium Poppy and Opium Known in the Ancient Near East?” State University of New York at Stony Brook, link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF00129597.pdf. 107 Kritikos, P. G., and S. P. Papadaki. “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” UNODC, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1967-01-01_3_page004.html. 108 Tsoucalas, Gregory & Markatos, Kostas & Korres, Dimitrios & Karamanou, Marianna. (2018). Diagoras of Cyprus (3rd century BC) – An eminent oculist and opposer to the use of opium. Archives of the Balkan Medical Union. 53. 179-183. 10.31688/ABMU.2018.53.3.22. 109 “Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Al-Razi (841 - 926).” The Jewish Virtual Library, www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/abu- bakr-muhammad-ibn-zakariya-al-razi.

38 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 text not only describes the medicinal effects of opium, including analgesia, hypnosis, and respiratory depression, but also as its potential as a poison.110

Opium in China

Arab traders on the Silk Road first introduced opium in China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907).111 Later during the Song (960-1279) and Ming (1368-1644) Dynasties, medical practitioners started using opium as a means of controlling bodily fluids and preserving the qi, or vital force.112 In 1589, opium became a taxable commodity, remaining legal until the end of the Ming Dynasty in 1637.

Until the 17th century, opium was quite limited in quantity and was generally reserved for medical use to relieve tension. Importation would soon force a dramatic change, and by 1729, opium addiction became so rampant that the Yongzheng emperor (1722-1735) placed an interdict on the usage of opium.113 Despite this prohibition, the opium trade continued, forcing the Jiaqing emperor to eventually outlaw opium importation and cultivation in 1796.114 The attempt at banishing opium importation, however, was not successful and trade only expanded.

In the 18th century, the Portuguese made a considerable profit by importing opium from India while simultaneously selling it to China. By 1773, the British followed in the Portuguese’s footsteps when the British East India Company (EIC) won the Battle of Buxar against the Mughal Empire of India in 1764. The British EIC then established a monopoly on opium cultivation in Bengal, developing opium poppies cheaply and abundantly. The British eventually became the leading suppliers of the Chinese market. In order to facilitate this trade, the East India Company provided opium to private traders who could swiftly enter the Chinese market and gain gold and silver, which was then turned over to the EIC.115 Before this increase of opium imports into China, there was a trade imbalance due to the

110 Heydari, M; Hashempur, M. H.; Zargaran, A (2013). "Medicinal aspects of opium as described in Avicenna's Canon of Medicine". Acta Medico-historica Adriatica. 11 (1): 101–12. 111 Li, Xiaobing; Fang, Qiang (2013). Modern Chinese Legal Reform: New Perspectives. Asia in the new millennium. University Press of Kentucky. 112 Zheng, Yangwen (2005). The Social Life of Opium in China. Cambridge University Press. 113 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Opium Trade.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 3 Jan. 2018, www.britannica.com/topic/opium-trade. 114 Ibid. 115 Ibid.

39 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 demand for Chinese goods (silk, porcelain, and tea) in Europe.116 The influx of narcotics by the EIC reversed this trade imbalance between the Qing Empire and Great Britain.

In 1729, approximately 200 chests of opium were imported into China.117 By 1767, up to 1,000 chests were imported. Eventually, between 1820-1830, opium imports reached 10,000 chests per year. By 1838, 40,000 chests were imported into China annually and for the first time, the balance of payments ran in favor of Britain rather than China.118 The increase in opium imports into China led to a rampant addiction, causing a widespread social and economic disruption. Over 20,000 chests of opium that were warehoused in Guangzhou by British merchants ended up being confiscated.119

The First Opium War arose in response to China suppressing the opium trade. The British government demanded compensation for the opium destroyed by Commissioner Lin during the Guangzhou raid and responded to Lin’s confiscation by dispatching a military force to China and using gunboat diplomacy to inflict a series of humiliating defeats over the Chinese Empire through naval power. Subsequent successful British campaigns eventually led to the capture of Nanking in 1842, ending the fighting between the British and Chinese forces. The Qing Dynasty was then forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking – the first of the unequal treaties – which granted the opening of five treaty ports to Britain and ceded Hong Kong to the British Empire.120

116 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. “Opium.” Edited by Kara Rogers, Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/science/opium. 117 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Opium Trade.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 3 Jan. 2018, www.britannica.com/topic/opium-trade. 118 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. “Opium Trade.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/topic/opium-trade. 119 Hayford, Charles W. “Lin Zexu.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 26 Aug. 2019, www.britannica.com/biography/Lin-Zexu. 120 Pletcher, Kenneth. “Opium Wars.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 Feb. 2019, www.britannica.com/topic/Opium- Wars#ref326269.

40 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32

Figure 2: The East India Company steamship Nemesis (right background) destroying Chinese war junks during the Second Battle of Chuenpi, 7 January 1841.121

Amidst Taiping Rebellion in the mid-1850s, the British sought to extend their trading rights in China. In 1856, Chinese officials boarded a ship belonging to the British in Guangzhou.122 These officials were arrested for allegedly lowering the British flag. In response, a British warship set sail to bombarded Canton, renewing hostilities. Trading between the Chinese and British ceased and a stalemate ensued. Matters quickly escalated and Second Opium War begun, also known as the “Arrow War”.123 The British, allied with the French, quickly captured Canton and Tientsin, forcing the Chinese to sign treaties of Tientsin in 1858.124 This treaty opened even more new ports for the Western powers. The defeat in the aftermath of the Opium Wars led to an entire collection of the “Unequal Treaties”, contributing to a “Century of Humiliation” for China.125

121 Duncan, Edward. Destroying Chinese War Junks. London, 1843. 122 Pletcher, Kenneth. “Opium Wars.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 Feb. 2019, www.britannica.com/topic/Opium-Wars#ref326269. 123 Ibid. 124 “The Treaties of Tianjin.” History Today, www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/treaties-tianjin. 125 Schiavenza, Matt. “How Humiliation Drove Modern Chinese History.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 16 Feb. 2017, www.theatlantic.com/china/archive/2013/10/how-humiliation-drove-modern-chinese-history/280878/.

41 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Modern-day Issues with Opium

In 1980, approximately 2,000 tons of opium supplied all legal and illegal uses of opium.126 By 2006, worldwide production of opium dropped to 6,610 metric tons, which is about one-fifth of the level of production in 1906.127 The UNODC reported that the production of opium rose by 65 percent from 2016 to 2017 to 10,500 tons, a record level.128 In recent years, opioid crisis has become a major threat to public health with opioids accounting for 76 percent of deaths where drug use disorders were implicated. 63,632 people died in 2016 due to a drug overdose in the U.S., a 21 percent increase since 2015.129

126 “The Global Heroin Market.” UNODC, 2010, www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/1.2_The_global_heroin_market.pdf. 127 Ibid. 128 “Global Opium and Cocaine Production at Record Highs, UN Report Says.” France 24, 27 June 2018, www.france24.com/en/20180627-global-opium-cocaine-production-record-highs-un-report-says. 129 “Opioid Overdose Crisis”. National Institute on Drug Abuse. January 2019. https://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs- abuse/opioids/opioid-overdose-crisis.

42 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Past Actions

Introduction

Despite the fact that opium has long been the basic raw material for the world’s narcotic drug industry, its production has never been directly controlled or even limited by an international treaty. In order to curtail the excessive production of opium, the International Opium Convention, the first international drug control treaty, was signed at the Hague in 1912 during the First International Opium Conference through the League of Nations.130 This treaty attempted to establish control regimes for the manufacturing of opium and its movement in international commerce. This treaty merely attempted to impose restrictions on the export of opium rather than prohibiting the drug itself or even criminalizing it. Furthermore, member states were unable to agree on what should constitute a legitimate production level, as some nations believed that traditional or indigenous uses of opium should not be regarded as legitimate for the purposed of calculating production.

The Commission on Narcotic Drugs

In order to eliminate the persistent problems associated with the trafficking and addiction liability of narcotic drugs, the United Nations (previously the League of Nations) entrusted the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) to establish the Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND).131 This commission was created in 1946 and the principal problem of the Commission has been to counter the overproduction of opium. The CND has achieved two major milestones in with respect to the world drug problem: The Political Declaration of 1998 and the Political Declaration of 2009.132 Both declarations aimed to enhance international cooperation in countering narcotic drug use and trafficking by reducing the supply and demand for illicit drugs. The Declaration of 1998 requested Member States to report their efforts in meeting relevant goals and targets in combating the world

130 Gregg, Robert W. “The United Nations and the Opium Problem.” The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 1, 1964, pp. 96–115. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/756095. 131 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” The Commission on Narcotic Drugs, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/commissions/CND/index.html. 132 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” Political Declarations on the World Drug Problem, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/commissions/CND/Political_Declarations/Political-Declarations_Index.html.

43 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 drug problem to the Commission.133 Then, the Political Declaration and Plan of Action on International Cooperation towards and Integrated and Balanced Strategy to Counter the World Drug Problem was adopted by the General Assembly in 2009.134 The purpose of this declaration was to enhance international cooperation and identify areas requiring further action in countering the world drug problem. This declaration also required Member States to report biennially to the CND on their efforts in fully implementing these goals. Besides adopting policy documents, the CND also meets annually to consider budgetary and administrative matters, as well as forming new ideas and resolutions in tackling narcotic drugs.

The Ad Hoc Committee: The Interim Agreement and the International Monopoly

After the establishment of the CND, the United States proposed the adoption of a unified convention on narcotic drugs. Under this new convention, the production of opium for scientific and medical purposes would be limited.135 China suggested an interim agreement between Member States that actually produced and manufactured narcotic drugs. The Commission thus endorsed the establishment of an ad hoc committee consisting of opium-producing states with the purposed of drafting a plan for limiting the production and allocation of narcotic drugs.136 Representative from India, Iran, Turkey, and Yugoslavia met in Ankara, Turkey in 1949 and agreed to freeze their respective shares of the opium trade and establish machinery for distributing opium on the world market.137

The Interim Agreement that emerged called for a limitation in the production of opium by assigning opium-producing states a shared responsibility in manufacturing a specified percentage respective to each country.138 The major achievement of this conference was the establishment of quotas. Besides setting a quota, the ad hoc committee also agreed on establishing an international

133 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” Political Declaration 1998, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/commissions/CND/Political_Declarations/Political-Declarations_1998-Declaration.html. 134 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” Political Declaration 2009, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/commissions/CND/Political_Declarations/Political-Declarations_2009-Declaration.html. 135 Gregg, Robert W. “The United Nations and the Opium Problem.” The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 1, 1964, pp. 96–115. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/756095. 136 Ibid. 137 Ibid. 138 Ibid.

44 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 monopoly with the purpose of acting as an international control authority to buy and sell opium.139 Transactions outside of the monopoly would be considered automatically illicit. An advantage of the international monopoly was that the price and supply of opium would no longer be dependent upon uncertain factors, such as weather or shifting international relations.

The international monopoly unfortunately was never established due to the problems with establishing a fixed price. The international monopoly would have to set a fixed price formula that was acceptable to both the producing and importing states.140 This fixed price formula was never found due to the fact that producing states wanted a high price for opium to deter farmers from selling opium in the illicit market. On the other hand, importing states clearly wanted to purchase opium at a low cost in order to manufacture drugs at a competitive price. Due to this reason, the establishment of a monopoly system was unfeasible.

The Opium Protocol

Still determined to reach limited opium production, the CND’s new goal was to limit global production but allow free trade simultaneously. In 1953 the Commission proposed that the production of opium should be limited by indirectly setting a country-specific maximum size of opium stocks.

At the UN Opium Conference in 1953, a treaty was drafted with special consideration of stock level as a control factor. The Opium Protocol had eight major points:141

1. “The use of opium as well as its import and export should be limited to medical and scientific needs. It is important to note that the protocol did not limit the production of opium to medical and scientific needs, only its use”.142

139 Ibid. 140 Ibid. 141 Gregg, Robert W. “The United Nations and the Opium Problem.” The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 1, 1964, pp. 96–115. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/756095. 142 Ibid.

45 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 2. “Estimates of areas to be cultivated, the anticipated yield, and the amounts to be exported should be reported annually to the Permanent Central Opium board”. 143

3. “Opium stocks of a country should be limited depending on the category of each State with opium-producing countries hold the largest stocks of opium”.144

4. “Statistical returns should be used to reveal the scope of opium cultivation and the amount of opium used for manufacturing and consumption, as well as the amount seized for illicit purposes”.145

5. “National agencies should be created in each opium-producing country in order to license cultivators, specify areas to be cultivated, and determine the total amount of opium”.146

6. “Import certificates and export authorizations should be required in any opium transaction”.147

7. A quasi-monopoly of opium-producing states should be established”.148

8. “The Permanent Opium Board has the authority to take corrective action against countries not complying with the provisions of the Protocol or tending to become illicit sources themselves”.149

Despite some imperfections, the Opium Protocol established for the first time the principle of opium supply limitation.

143 Ibid. 144 Ibid. 145 Ibid. 146 Ibid. 147 Ibid. 148 Ibid. 149 Ibid.

46 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 The Single Convention of 1961

The Opium Protocol was the greatest contribution in limiting opium production and it eventually shaped the adoption of the Single Convention. The United Nations 1961 Single Convention expanded existing control measures by including all plants that lead to the production of narcotics. Traditional producer countries like those in Asia, Latin America and Africa were impacted severely due to widespread use cultivation of the opium poppy, the coca leaf, and the cannabis within these countries. The Single Convention created four lists of controlled substances and are classified according to their respective degrees of control:

“Schedule I contains the substances considered the most addictive and harmful. Schedule IV contains a small number of substances with ‘particularly dangerous properties’ and with little or no therapeutic usefulness. With regard to Schedule IV narcotics in particular, Article 2, 5 (b) of the Convention says that “A Party shall, if in its opinion the prevailing conditions in its country render it the most appropriate means of protecting the public health and welfare, prohibit the production, manufacture, export and import of, trade in, possession or use of any such drug except for the amounts which may be necessary for medical and scientific research only…’”.150

UNODC World Drug Report: Afghanistan

In the UNODC’s annual world drug report, global production of opium in Afghanistan hit a record high. According to the report, the global production of opium increased by 65 percent from 2016 to 2017 with a total of 10,500 tons – the highest estimate recorded by the UNODC since it started monitoring global opium production at the start of the 21st century.151 Afghanistan accounts for 9,000 of the 10,500 tons produced annually.152 The possible drivers of this sudden increase include political instability and reduced economic opportunities.153 Due to Afghanistan’s increase in opium

150 Armenta, Amira, and Martin Jelsma. “The UN Drug Control Conventions.” Edited by Nick Buxton, TNI, 8 Oct. 2015, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/single-convention.html. 151 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” Afghan Opium Report, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/afghan- opium-report.html 152 Ibid. 153 Ibid.

47 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 production, the UNODC has urged NATO to take a more active role in countering opium production by supporting Afghan forces in destroying drug labs, markets, convoys.

48 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Possible Solutions

Introduction

Historically, the UN has focused on supply-side measures in countering opium growth and use, including targeting opium crops and drugs in transit; however, as drug trafficking complexity increases, nations must modernize their anti-drug policy in order to battle the situation at hand. This includes initiatives to reduce the demand for opium, which could be at least as successful as the supply-side initiatives.

Tackling Drug Trafficking at the Maritime Level: An Underrated Problem

Based on seizure and consumption data, the annual flow of the opium market is nearly 45o tons.154 Myanmar and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic produce 50 tons of that total, while the rest is produced exclusively by Afghanistan.155 The Balkan and northern routes enable Afghanistan to traffic to the robust markets of the Russian Federation and Western Europe.156

In response maritime trafficking, various anti-trafficking strategies have been established, including the EU’s Maritime Analysis Operations Centre-Narcotics (MAOC-N).157 Suggestions for tackling maritime drug trafficking can build upon the EU’s MAOC-N and incorporate a similar counter-drug organization at the international level. Besides creating counter-drug organizations, developing intelligence networks to target elements of the drug trade may prove useful.

Improving the Communications System

In order to tackle opium trafficking at a global level, counter-drug operations need to be monitored through the use of a secure database and communications system. Currently, INTERPOL has created a system known as I-24/7, which can issue within minutes drug alerts and time sensitive

154 United Nations. “GLOBAL MARITIME CRIME PROGRAMME ANNUAL REPORT 2018.” UNODC, 2019, www.unodc.org/documents/Maritime_crime/20190131_-_GMCP_Annual_Report_2018.pdf. 155 Ibid. 156 Ibid. 157 “Maritime Analysis and Operations Centre - Narcotics (MAOC-N).” EPSA, 2015, www.epsa- projects.eu/index.php/Maritime_Analysis_and_Operations_Centre_-_Narcotics_(MAOC-N).

49 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 information (including photos) related to traffickers and new trafficking schemes.158 Besides their I- 24/7 communication system, INTERPOL has also established the Global Security Initiative (GSI) in 2008 in order to create lasting partnerships between law enforcement agencies and information technology (IT) companies.159 These technological innovations are just a couple of examples that help increase communication between member states on this increasingly transnational trade. When developing solutions, consider how solutions like these can help monitor the trade globally as well as regionally.

Unintended Consequences of Drug Trafficking

As you draft your solutions and eventually your resolutions, you must consider the possible unintended socio-economic consequences of opium trafficking and trade in your country and at the international level. Some social implications of opium abuse include effects of the family and the community, health, education, crime, and work and employment. You should consider these factors when coming up with possible solutions. Some solutions to combat the unintended consequence of opium trafficking on a social level are to help individuals who are currently addicted or developing an addiction to opium through treatment, counseling, hotlines, etc.

Questions to Consider

1. To what extent should member states pursue a trans-national strategy in combatting problems caused by drug trafficking?

2. How can the international supply of drugs be reduced?

3. How can the international demand for drugs be reduced?

158 “Databases.” INTERPOL, www.interpol.int/en/How-we-work/Databases. 159 “INTERPOL Initiative with Microsoft Aims to Raise Global Standards against Cybercrime through Strategic Partnership with IT Sector.” INTERPOL, www.interpol.int/en/News-and-Events/News/2009/INTERPOL-initiative-with- Microsoft-aims-to-raise-global-standards-against-cybercrime-through-strategic-partnership-with-IT-sector.

50 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 4. What can be done to counter negative effects of the War on Drugs on healthcare, the environment, and vulnerable communities?

5. How can member states cooperate to battle illegal trans-national organizations that deal in the production, trafficking, and distribution of drugs?

6. Are there currently any laws or regulations in place in your country concerning the illegal drug trade?

51 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Bloc Positions

The opioid crisis has affected many countries around the world in numerous ways. As such, countries may have different approaches or bloc positions on how to solve the opioid crisis. The most evident bloc positions are countries that fall under the category of opioid producers and those that fall under opioid consumers. While these bloc positions are not set in stone, they provide guidance for collaboration amongst delegates in addressing this issue.

The Opioid Producers

Some countries are heavily involved in this issue and are major producers of opioids around the world. These countries include Afghanistan, Burma, and Colombia.160 Countries that fall under this bloc are responsible for most of the illegal production of opioids and are generally against efforts attempting to combat the flow of opioids around the world. For instance, most of the heroin that is produced in poppy farms in Mexico is trafficked through the United States. Thus, the drug cartels in Mexico would oppose stricter border regulations, as it would disrupt its entire operation and flow of funds. Furthermore, although the Mexican government has made previous efforts to combat opium trade and trafficking, the government has received much retaliation from the drug cartel, sometimes leading to political unrest.161

The Opioid Consumers

Once opioid has been produced from the poppy farms in opioid-producing nations, there are many countries that buy and consumer these opioid drugs, including but not limited to the United States, Germany, Canada, Austria, and China. These countries face a crisis of opioid overuse and may feel a sense of urgency when it comes to solving the opioid crisis than countries where the rates of addiction and consumption are much lower. Most of these countries have already launched

160 “Cannabis, Coca, & Poppy: Nature's Addictive Plants.” DEA Museum, www.deamuseum.org/ccp/opium/production- distribution.html. 161 “The Destabilizing Influence of Drug Trafficking on Transit Countries: The Case of Cocaine.” UNODC, 2010, www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/3.0_Destabilizing_influence_of_drug_trafficking_Case_of_cocaine.pdf.

52 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 initiatives, such as stricter border restrictions, but the rates of opioid addiction and overdose continue to increase, calling the need for more consequential solutions.162

Another important aspect of opioid trade and trafficking are citizens’ rights to healthcare. Some countries have relatively easy access to healthcare while others struggle in getting proper care. Countries with a strong healthcare system allow for greater exposure to prescribed opioid drugs making drug access somewhat normalized; however, in other countries such as Nigeria or Sierra Leone, many citizens might obtain opioid through illegal drug trafficking.163 Therefore, the approaches in combatting the opioid crisis could differ depending on a country’s specific healthcare policy.

162 “The Global Heroin Market.” UNODC, 2010, www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/1.2_The_global_heroin_market.pdf. 163 Kasarla, Madhukar. “The Opioid Epidemic and Its Impact on the Health Care System.” The Hospitalist, 14 Sept. 2018, www.the-hospitalist.org/hospitalist/article/149858/mental-health/opioid-epidemic-and-its-impact-health-care-system.

53 Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 Glossary

Drug trafficking: The transportation of drugs or drug-related products from the site of production towards consumers, often broken up into many distinct legs of transit.

Opiate: Any naturally occurring narcotic substance derived from opium.

Opioid: A narcotic substance distinct from an opiate, because it is artificial. An opioid may be synthesized through a series of chemical reactions with an opiate as its predecessor.

Opium: A naturally occurring narcotic substance found in the sap of the poppy plant prized for its euphoric effects, which has been one of the most prominent drugs used throughout history.

Narcotic: Any drug which primarily serves to alter the mood of a person instead of providing a medicinal effect.

Psychoactive substance: Any substance which alters the mental state of a person who consumes it.

Quota: Some limit imposed by a government which sets either the maximum or minimum amount of some product which can be imported, exported, or otherwise produced.

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