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Ambivalent Orientalism: Footbinding in Chinese American History, Culture and Literature

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Ambivalent Orientalism: Footbinding in Chinese American History, Culture and Literature ! ! Unicentre CH-1015 Lausanne http://serval.unil.ch ! Year: 2017 Ambivalent Orientalism: Footbinding in Chinese American History, Culture and Literature Roxane Hughes Roxane Hughes, 2017, Ambivalent Orientalism: Footbinding in Chinese American History, Culture and Literature Originally published at: Thesis, University of Lausanne Posted at the University of Lausanne Open Archive http://serval.unil.ch Document URN: urn:nbn:ch:serval:BIB_26A1A427958F Droits d’auteur L'Université de Lausanne attire expressément l'attention des utilisateurs sur le fait que tous les documents publiés dans l'Archive SERVAL sont protégés par le droit d'auteur, conformément à la loi fédérale sur le droit d'auteur et les droits voisins (LDA). A ce titre, il est indispensable d'obtenir le consentement préalable de l'auteur et/ou de l’éditeur avant toute utilisation d'une oeuvre ou d'une partie d'une oeuvre ne relevant pas d'une utilisation à des fins personnelles au sens de la LDA (art. 19, al. 1 lettre a). A défaut, tout contrevenant s'expose aux sanctions prévues par cette loi. Nous déclinons toute responsabilité en la matière. Copyright The University of Lausanne expressly draws the attention of users to the fact that all documents published in the SERVAL Archive are protected by copyright in accordance with federal law on copyright and similar rights (LDA). Accordingly it is indispensable to obtain prior consent from the author and/or publisher before any use of a work or part of a work for purposes other than personal use within the meaning of LDA (art. 19, para. 1 letter a). Failure to do so will expose offenders to the sanctions laid down by this law. We accept no liability in this respect. FACULTĖ DES LETTRES SECTION D’ANGLAIS Ambivalent Orientalism: Footbinding in Chinese American History, Culture and Literature THÈSE DE DOCTORAT présentée à la Faculté des lettres de l’Université de Lausanne pour l’obtention du grade de Docteur ès lettres par Roxane Hughes Directrice de thèse Agnieszka Soltyisk Monnet TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments iii Abstract v Introduction—Ambivalent Orientalism: Footbinding in Chinese America 1 PART I: FOOTBINDING IN THE U.S. ARCHIVES 1. Constructing China, Constructing America: Footbinding in the 55 Nineteenth-Century U.S. Imagination 2. Constructing Chinese America: Between Self- and De-Orientalization 91 PART II: SUBVERTING BINARIES: WRITING AND STAGING FOOTBINDING AT CULTURAL, GENERIC AND GENDER CROSSROADS 3. Voices from Past and Present: Footbound Women’s Conflicting 129 Textual and Oral Histories 4. Negotiating the Double Binds in The Woman Warrior and Of Flesh and Spirit 175 5. Exploring Footbinding History in Films and Performances: A Male 209 Feminist Perspective 6. Unsettling Unbinding’s Liberatory Power: Maxine Hong Kingston’s 239 and Genny Lim’s Immigration Narratives 7. Re-Orienting Footbinding: Writing the Communist Foot in Waiting and Becoming Madame Mao 277 Epilogue: Toward De-Orientalization 311 Bibliography 323 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Agnieszka Soltysik Monnet for her warm encouragement, support, guidance and very helpful feedback at all stages of this thesis. I am also indebted to her for enabling me to study for three years at SUNY University at Buffalo in the United States. Without her, this thesis would never have seen the light of day. It has been a great honor to be her student for over ten years. It is thanks to her excellent model as a teacher and scholar that I have become the passionate researcher and teacher I am now. I would like to express as well my special appreciation and thanks to my thesis committee, Prof. Cynthia Wu and Prof. Silvia Schultermandl for their generous and invaluable feedback, as well as for their support at various stages of this project. Cynthia Wu has played a tremendous role in my development as a scholar. Her numerous classes I followed at SUNY, University at Buffalo between 2010 and 2013, as well as her own work in Asian American and disability studies have shaped my thinking and this thesis in many ways. Silvia Schultermandl’s work on transnational matrilineage in Asian American studies has also been instrumental for this project. The discussions I had with her in Lausanne during a workshop on Transnationalism I organized in 2015, and in Warsaw for the occasion of the MESEA 2016 conference have also contributed to pushing my reflection further. Many thanks to both of you. I am honored and very grateful to have you both as part of my thesis committee. My sincere thanks as well to Brigitte Maire for making my three years of research and teaching at SUNY University at Buffalo possible. I extend my deepest gratitude to the University of Lausanne for assisting me financially during these three years abroad thanks to their generous funding. Many thanks as well to the Swiss Association for North American Studies SANAS for the travel awards I received in 2010, which enabled me to attend the Annual Conference of the Association for American Studies that took place in Baltimore in October 2010. My acknowledgment also goes to Prof. Susan Moynihan, Prof. Alexis De Veaux, and Prof. Michael Rembis whose directed readings and classes have had a remarkable impact on my thinking. It is thanks to our numerous discussions and their feedback on my work that early versions of my thesis chapters took shape. Furthermore, I would like to express my gratitude to the San Diego Chinese Historical Museum, the Chinese American Museum of Los Angeles, and the Mütter Museum for providing iii me with photographs of their footbinding artifacts and exhibition labels. I am also grateful to Grant Din, Community Director of the Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation, and Ben Fenkell, Park Ranger, for their kind answers and explanations regarding the display of lotus shoes at the Angel Island Immigration Station Museum. I extend my gratitude to Yue Ma for helping me conduct research at the Museum of the Chinese in America in March 2014, and to the Chinese Historical Society of Southern California for giving me access to parts of the Southern California American Oral History Project: Cumulative Index (1982). Many thanks as well to Franklin Odo for his help in locating lotus shoes at the National Museum of American History and for his comments on an early version of a paper revolving around Chinese American museum displays of footbinding artifacts. I would also like to thank the Chinese American Museum of Northern California, the Chinese Historical Society of America, the Chinese Historical Society of New England, and the Chinese American Museum of Chicago for kindly answering my queries regarding their exhibitions and archives. Thanks are also due to Barbara Williams of the School of Podiatric Medicine Shoe Museum, Wendy Watson from the Mount Holyoke College Art Museum, Deborah Woodiel from the McClung Museum of Natural History and Culture, Zenda Caldwell from the Museum of Clean, Noriko Sanefuji from the National Museum of American History, Margaret Tamulonis from the Fleming Museum of Art, and Jessica Bolt from the Museum of Anthropology (University Missouri-Columbia) for sharing information and documents regarding past displays of footbinding artifacts. Final words of gratitude are due to my family, and especially my husband Ryan Hughes who kindly encouraged me throughout the Ph.D. experience and offered a shoulder to lean on. He helped me to think further and develop my ideas when I was stuck. He patiently listened to my rambling over the years, and read the full manuscript of this thesis, offering invaluable comments and suggestions. Without him this thesis would never have reached completion. Thank you, Ryan, for your love and encouragements. You are my rock. iv ABSTRACT A trope of footbinding in Chinese American literary and artistic productions developed in the 1970s at a time of ethnic and feminist assertion. Several Chinese American female writers and male artists turned to the custom of footbinding to explore and represent their conflicting legacies and positionalities in the United States. Despite the proliferation of footbinding references in Chinese American literature and other forms of artistic representations between the 1970s and the early 2000s, this trope has escaped much critical attention. Literal and metaphorical depictions of footbinding and unbinding have mostly been read as representing Chinese immigrants’ and Chinese American women’s journey to self-assertion in the United States, and their progressive and symbolic move from China to the United States. The equations of footbinding with an oppressive Chinese cultural and historical past, as well as unbinding with American freedom and success, in addition to being assimilationist and Orientalist in scope, have obscured the ambivalent representations and functions of this imagery in Chinese American literature and art. Footbinding and unbinding references refuse fixity and categorization as they simultaneously reproduce and deconstruct Orientalist stereotypes of Chinese exoticism and barbarism. This contradictory undertaking reflects the ambivalent position of Chinese American authors and artists, torn between American expectations and ethnic preservation at a time of individual, communal and literary self-definition, as well as echoes the ambivalent role played by footbinding historically in the creation of Chinese America. Interdisciplinary in scope, this thesis puts literature, art and history in conversation in its exploration of the ambivalent Orientalism that has marked the literal and metaphorical development of footbinding in Chinese American history, culture and literature. Divided in two parts, this thesis first places the ambivalent footbinding trope in historical and cultural contexts. Following Chinese immigrants to the United States, this section retraces the construction of bound-footed women as Orientalist curios in the nineteenth-century U.S. imagination, the role played by this custom in Chinese women’s migration to the United States, as well as the Chinese American community’s conflicting visions of and responses to footbinding at the turn of the twentieth century.
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