電影中的亞裔美國人刻版印象 Asian-American Stereotypes in Movies

遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版

電影中的亞裔美國人刻版印象 ASIAN-AMERICAN STEREOTYPES IN MOVIES

杜約翰(John Duxbury) 美國南達科塔大學教育博士李分明遠東科技大學應外系副教授

摘要

本文以編年史的方式說明美國對亞裔人士的刻版印象。藉著呈現塑造刻版印象的可能目的，並對照經由回朔 17 世紀英國帝國主義所描寫的冒險故事中所傳達出來的刻版印象。這些刻版印象經由早期的喜劇素材和電影所傳播，文中介紹 6 種亞裔刻版印象(髒亂、無德、苦力、黃禍、典型弱勢、黃種人)。除了解釋並確認這 6 種刻版印象外，文中也藉著現代電影對於這 6 種刻版印象加以分析，並討論這些亞裔的刻版印象如何傳遞出長遠性的偏見，和好萊塢電影如何使用這些刻版印象來博取廉價的嘲諷。文中最後提到今日亞裔美國人曾經如何被這些美式電影所冒犯，並以作者的反思和評論做結論。關鍵詞：亞裔美國人、刻版印象

I-229 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版

John Duxbury, of Applied Foreign Language, Far East University

Fen-Ming Lee, Dept. of Applied Foreign Language, Far East University

ABSTRACT This article chronicles the origins of Asian stereotypes in America. It starts by presenting the possible goals of stereotyping and then gives some history about how modern day stereotypes date back to the adventure stories during 17th Century British Imperialism. These stereotypes were passed along to the early comic strips and then to early movies. Six Asian stereotypes have been constructed in the literature (the pollutant, the deviant, the coolie, the yellow peril, the model minority, and the gook). The reason for each of these six is explained and identified in context to popular culture. There is a quick analysis of more recent movies in regards to these six stereotypes. Then there is a discussion on how the portrayal of these Asian stereotypes perpetuates prejudices, along with instances where Hollywood uses them for cheap laughs. Attention is given to some Asian Americans who have been offended by these American films. The article concludes with the writer’s reflections and comments. Keywords：Asian-American、Stereotypes

I-230 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版

Stereotyping There has been an assimilation of different races, religions, and cultures into the United

States at an unprecedented rate and scale. Kunda and Spencer (2003) discussed Germans can understand this challenge because the goals of stereotyping.[1] They theorized Germany is a financial power located in the three goals: 1) Comprehension goals, 2) middle of Europe, it borders much poorer Self-enhancement goals, and 3) the motivation to countries and thus it has a constant immigration avoid prejudice. The self-enhancement goals and refugee problem. The disturbing note is that serve to maintain, protect and enhance Germany gave birth to the Nazi party, and still self-esteem (Taylor & Brown, 1988). [2] The has a neo-Nazi problem. motivation to avoid prejudice is a desire to Stereotyping enables “perceivers to comply with egalitarian social norms (Dunton & simplify and understand huge amounts of social Frazio, 1997; Plant & Devine, 1998). [3] The information” (Kunda & Spencer, 2003, p. comprehension goals encompass the need to 524).[6] An individual’s confusion over puzzling understand events and reduce complexity behavior may be resolved by stereotyping (Bruner, 1957). [4] Stereotyping derives from (Kunda, Davies, Adams, & Spencer, 2002). [7] the need to make order out of the world, to Although this cognitive process is functionally categorize events, places, and people. useful, it objectifies people; “it transforms man The current controversy over into a thing” (Fromm, 1966). [8] Once an multiculturalism may be a result people’s individual has been objectified in another tendency to categorize other people into groups person’s mind, there becomes no need to get to in order to make sense of their own past and know them personally (Freire, 1970). [9] relationship to others. Attempting to indoctrinate everyone into one’s own group can be considered assimilation. It is associated with the Some History concept of the melting pot and it became Modern day stereotypes and impressions prominent right after World War I. The push for about Asia probably date back to British conformity required immigrants to completely imperialism which, according to some scholars, renounce their ancestry (Ramsey, Vold, & started in 1707 with the “union of England and Williams, 1989). [5] Scotland. … The adventure tales that formed the There can be an inherent arrogance to light reading of Englishmen for 200 years and assimilation. First of all, it assumes that other more after Robinson Crusoe were, in fact the groups want to join one’s own group. Also, it energizing myth of English imperialism” (Green, implies that other groups do not have a lot to 1979, p. 30). [10] offer one’s own group. Assimilation may be a The first mention of the Chinese in the practical and desirable end if groups, like the United States was in the early eighteen hundreds: early American colonists, have a need for civil “In 1834, the American Museum in New York order and national security. put Afong Moy on Public display under the

I-231 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版 billing of ‘Chinese Lady’” (Asian Women Model minority originated in the racial United of California, 1989, p. 423). [11] logic of cold war liberalism of the 1950s, but it In his book Oriental: Asian Americans in is identified with the 1960s and 1970s (Lee, Popular Culture, Lee identifies “the six faces of 1999). [17] “Whites love us because we’re not the Oriental – the pollutant, the deviant, the Black” (Chin, 1974, p. xx). [18] The elevation of coolie, the yellow peril, the model minority, and Asian Americans to the position of model the gook” (Lee, 1999, p. 8). [12] Each of these minority had less to do with the actual success of faces, or stereotypes, was constructed in a Asian Americans than to the perceived failure – specific historical time in the United States or worse, refusal – of African Americans to because of some conceived threat to the white assimilate (Lee, 1999). [19] Americans and their families. Gook is a term derived from the Vietnam The concept of the Chinese as pollutants to War and may have had some origins in the our society came about in the mid 19th Century Korean War. However, Lee (1999) is not clear during the white settler’s expansion westward. about this. [20] Again, there seems to be an They were considered an alien presence in underlying threat to the US, this time California known as the “free-soil Eden” (Lee, economically, as the US economy shifts from 1999, p. 9). [13] The Chinese were arriving from large-scale industrial production to global the West across the Pacific. realignment of capital and labor. The United The deviant label was ascribed in the 1860s States begins to view the Asian Americans as an and 1870s when hundreds of Chinese women invisible enemy similar to the Viet Cong, were brought to San Francisco and forced into expecting them to emerge from the city jungles prostitution. Also, the Chinese were hired as as they did from the tropical jungles. domestic servants, hence the potential for interracial sex and intimacy. “A representation Comic Strips of the Oriental as both seductively childlike and One medium which contributed a great deal threateningly sexual allowed for both sympathy towards promoting Asian stereotypes was the and repulsion” (Lee, 1999, P. 10). [14] comic strip. In the case of adventure comic strips, The representation of the Chinese as coolies “the shortest route from boyhood to a ‘moral’ came about in the 1860s and 1870s. The Chinese and ‘intrepid’ adulthood seemed to cut across the immigrant workers were portrayed as “unfree exotic terrain of China and the erotic body of and servile, a threat to the white working man, Chinese Females” (Ma, 2000, p. 6). [21] which led to the nascent labor movement. … The creator of Flash Gordon, Alex Gillespie (That) excluded Chinese from the working Raymond, took up illustration because he class” (Lee, 1999, p. 9). [15] became unemployed in the Great Depression. At the turn of the Century, the term yellow “The Demonization of Orientals” (Ma, 2000, p. peril was coined for the large “Asiatic 6) was the main theme throughout his strips. [22] immigration” which posed “the greatest threat to The Leader Ming the Merciless, who had been Western civilization and the white race” (Lee, blessed by the god Tao, commanded a loyal 1999, p. 10). [16] The term was again used legion made up of evil Captains and Admirals during World War II.

I-232 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版 with names such as Lin Chu, Luong, and Doctor Fu Manchu’s daughter, Fah Lo Suee Chiung. (Sweet Perfume), appeared in Daughter of Fu Milton Caniff, creator of Terry and the Manchu (1931). [26] She had a Russian mother Pirates (Ma, 2000), is best known for his endowing her with attractive Caucasian characterization of the Dragon Lady. This characteristics making her accessible to the West “femme fatale who devoured men sadistically, (Ma, 2000). [27] turned into a solicitous geisha, conquered by the power of love for a white male” (Ma, 2000, p. 6). Movies– The Early Years [23] The temptation to duplicate Oriental Later, Sax Rohmer saw the early decades of villains in the movies was, and still is, great for the twentieth century as the perfect time for Hollywood. Examples might be Lucy Liu’s “launching a Chinese villain on the Market” (Ma, persona of a dragon lady/geisha girl masseuse in 2000, pp. 8-9) – Doctor Fu Manchu: Charlie’s Angels (Chin, 2003), [28] and a Imagine a person, tall, lean and feline, geisha/samurai boss in Kill Bill (Ebert, 2003). high-shouldered, with a brow like [29] Also, consider the Star Trek movies with Shakespeare and a face like Satan, a the evil Khan (Ma, 2000). [30] close-shaven skull, and long, magnetic eyes The counterparts to Fu Manchu and the of the true cat-green. Invest him with all Dragon Lady were Charlie Chan and Madame the cruel cunning of an entire Eastern race, Butterfly. Fu Manchu is “the villain, tall, bony accumulated in one giant intellect, and with and yellow; Chan, the detective is shorter, all the resources of science past and present, chubby and pink. The former is angry and with all the resources, if you will, of a threatening: the latter stays calm and apologetic” wealthy government – which, however, (Ma, 2000, p. 12). [31] Fu is demonic; Chan is already has denied all knowledge of his farcical and virtuous. Chan rose “from a existence. Imagine that awful being, and houseboy in Hawaii to a middle class you have a mental picture of Dr. detective … (He is cast) as a mixed-blood at Fu-Manchu, the yellow peril incarnate in ‘halfway point to Asia’” (Ma, 2000, p. 13). [32] one man. (Ma, pp. 8-9) [24] Whereas the Dragon Lady was eager to

devour her prey; Madame Butterfly was eager to Doctor Fu Manchu’s slave-assassin please her man. She falls in love and marries an Karamaneh risked her life to save Dr. Petrie, the American who soon leaves her. She waits for his sidekick of a British detective. The Detective return for three years. “Ever with her eye toward once advised Dr. Petrie: “If you would only the harbor, Butterfly holds a secret delight that seize her by the hair, drag her to some cellar, she eagerly wishes to surprise her husband with hurl her down, and stand over her with a whip, their son” (Dunlap, 2004). [33] The American she would tell you everything she knows … And returns to Japan with his American wife and she would adore you for your savagery, deeming Madame Butterfly, distraught, kills herself. your (sic) forceful and strong!”(Ma, 2000, p. 11). Two early silent movies, The Cheat (1915) [25] and Broken Blossoms (1919) showed audiences the subtle and intimate dangers of Chinatown.

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Both these movies portray the Asian male love. In South Pacific, the island of Bali Hai can immigrant as threatening the American family be seen in the distance and seems to be calling by their seduction of the white woman (Lee, out to the men, offering intrigue and pleasures. 1999). [34] Two of the soldiers eventually go there and one In The Cheat, a woman borrows money of them becomes enamored with a Tonkinese from a wealthy Oriental. The woman’s husband island girl, presented to and for him by the girl’s tries to pay back the loan but the wealthy mother. After having sex, he looks at her and Oriental refuses to accept the money and instead says, “but you are only a child” (South Pacific, brands the white woman’s arm as proof of his 1958). [38] Then he seems to find the fact ownership. The husband then kills the Oriental unimportant. Does this imply that pedophilia is and there is a trial (Lee, 1999). [35] okay with Asian girls? Broken Blossoms is the subject of the three Sayonara makes a statement about our powerful taboos: pedophilia, miscegenation, and government’s and our military’s unfair treatment incest. The heroine white woman, Lucy, is of Asian brides of US servicemen. The bride in essentially the passive object of male fantasy. the movie was supposedly the ideal newlywed The father sees her as servant and victim, but the because of her Asian manners. The Japanese Yellow man idealizes her. Marriage between the Kabuki actor wasn’t Japanese; he was Cuban. In races was a crime in 1919, and so the director his book, Oriental: Asian Americans in Popular only suggests with the Oriental’s face looming Culture, Lee (1999, p. 165) says the use of closer to Lucy as if he wishes to kiss her, and Ricardo Montalban as the kabuki actor created then pulling away (Lee, 1999). [36] “an ethnically exotic yet racially acceptable Sheng-Mei Ma devoted an entire chapter to potential rival to Gruver” (the protagonist). [39] the Disney movie, The Swiss Family Robinson. A white man with an Oriental woman is Okay, The story was based upon a book by a German but not vice versa - even for the actual actors. writer, Johann David Wyss (18--).[37] The Robinsons were shipped wrecked onto an island The Most Offensive Movies ever and quickly began measures to survive. They proved to be quite resourceful and in a short time for Asian Americans they were swimming, riding wild animals, and A couple of popular, well made, well living in an amazing tree house. Even fighting produced, and well acted movies from the early and killing the pirates was good fun. As the 1960s made it onto the “Most Offensive Movie father released the huge logs that rolled down Ever for Asian Americans” list (Goldsea, 2000). the hill, mangling, breaking bones, and killing [40] the pirates, the family cheered and whooped At number five was The World of Suzie with delight. Although their utterances were not Wong (1960), receiving 8% of the votes Chinese, the bumbling, stupid pirates looked (Goldsea, 2000). [41] It was one of the year’s Chinese. top-grossing films partly for its exotic setting in Two famous movies, South Pacific (1958) Hong Kong, and partly for the popularity of the and Sayonara (1956), were both based on James leading man, William Holden . Suzie Wong’s Michener’s novels and both deal with interracial character begins as a highly manipulative hooker

I-234 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版 who is haughty, cold and calculating (Galbraith through a window at an American flag as he IV, 2004). [42] In 1955, Holden starred in the compares Asian Americans with his former Hong Kong movie, Love is a Many Splendor Vietnamese enemies: “The difference was, there Thing. At that time, its producers decided to use I never saw the goddamned enemy, here they are a Western woman because they feared audiences right in front of your eyes – they don’t have a might react to Holden kissing a real Asian. There jungle to hide in” (Lee, 1999, p.197). [49] must have been progress made by 1960 because And the winner of the “Most Offensive Suzie Wong was played by Nancy Kwan. Movie ever for Asian Americans”, with 41% of Breakfast at Tiffany’s got the number 2 the vote, is The Joy Luck Club (Goldsea, 2000) spot with 16% of the vote (Goldsea, 2000). [43] [50] This movie received the number two spot because of Mickey Rooney’s portrayal of a In the family-oriented movie middle-aged Chinese man with buck teeth and based on Amy Tan’s book, the Joy broken English. The review by James Luck Club Portrayed Asian men as Berardinelli considers Rooney’s characterization undesirable … Out of the four the “most glaring fault of this movie … (It) daughters that appeared in the movie, borders on offensive” (2000, para 12). [44] only one married another Asian man Some of the more recent movies on the list while the rest of the daughters married are Tai Pan, Sixteen Candles, and Year of the white men. Even at that, the Asian man Dragon. Tai Pan (1986) is at number six with turned out to be a stingy, selfish man 7% of the vote (Goldsea, 2000). [45] This movie with little regard for his wife. On top of achieved, or deserved, this status for the that, the husbands of the mothers in this portrayal of the main character’s mistress: “(Her) story were abusive and promiscuous most tender moment comes when she loses face Asian men. In other words, Asian men with her lover and wants to commit suicide. (He) were seen as irresponsible and do not helps her regain face by whipping her but not value their families. (Mahdzan & really hitting very hard” (Ebert, 1986). [46] Ziegler, n.d. p. 5) [51] Sixteen Candles (1984) came in at number three with 15% (Goldsea, 2000) probably Actually, there are two lists. One: “The because of an exchange student with a Most Offensive Movie ever for Asians”; and the Vietnamese name, who everyone refers to as other (opposite): “The Greatest movie ever for “Chinamen,” and who at one point shouts Asians.” The Joy Luck Club is on both lists “Bonsai!.” [47] This, for some reason, gets a lot (Goldsea, 2000). It is number one on the “Most of laughs (Barsanti, 2003, para 4). [48] Offensive” list and number two on the “Greatest Year of the Dragon (1985) takes forth place Movie” list. [52] with 13% of the vote. This movie was seen as having the gook mentality. Stanley White, a Movies – More Recent Vietnam veteran, is given command of the Chinatown precinct. A scene shows White Rising Sun is a Michael Crichton novel playing with his Marine lapel pin and looking (1991) which later became a film. [53] It

I-235 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版 identifies Japan as an economic threat from the both The Aristocats and The Lady and the East. Japan is presented as a predator on our Tramp (Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd., 2000). [58] capitalistic system. As the police try to solve a The Asian American Film Home (June murder, they uncover an economic war waged 8th, 2003) [59] internet site has established a on America by a Japanese company vying for a Blog for comments about controversial movies. monopoly over the production of computer chips The fortune cookie scene in the movie Freaky and control over computer manufacturing. The Friday created quite a bit of discourse. Over the movie suggests a white and black liaison to period from June 9th, 2003 to January 8th, 2006, thwart the Asian threat: 77 people posted their opinions. These ranged from one word to over 100 words. The Blog The partnership of Wesley Snipes asked, “So is this yet another outrageous and and Sean Connery, despite the obvious offensive example of racial stereotyping in stereotype that marries balk brawn and American media?” [60] There seems to be some hip style with white brains and control, controversy over what typifies a stereotype since allows for a new racial alignment in the 40 people answered “yes,” 28 answered “no,” global city [LA]. The principle poster and nine people did not care (Asian American ad for the movie shows Connery and Film Home, June 8th, 2003). [61] Snipes on either side of a stylized Better Luck Tomorrow is a 2002 movie World War II Imperial Japanese battle that also has an Asian American internet Blog. flag that looms over an LA skyline. There have been 20 posted comments made from (Lee, 1999, pp. 214-215) [54] May 31st, 2003 to February 4th, 2005. Even though this movie featured a mostly Asian cast, there seemed to be nothing else Asian about it. Blade Runner is another movie The majority of the contributors appreciated the mentioned in the literature. It is a dark, futuristic fact that Asians were not shown as asexual nerds, film that reflects contemporary LA with an but some felt there should have been some type “elaborately racialized workforce” (Lee, 1999, of positive stereotypes for role models. One p.194) of Orientals as venders and specialty shop opinion described this movie as “the model owners, a contrast to the Rising Sun image of an minority gone bad” (Asian American Film, May Asian/American take over. [55] 30th, 2003, comment 13). [62] Two films were released just before and Another 2002 movie, Charlotte after the LA riots – Falling Down and Menace II Sometimes, was directed by Eric Byler, a Society. Both films open with big city acts of colleague of the director of Better Luck “retributive violence against Asian convenience Tomorrow. Byler is the son of a white father and store owners” (Lee, 1999, p. 218). [56] Chinese American mother. His personal Gung Ho, Mr. Baseball, and Wayne’s experiences with Asian stereotyping inspired World have been signaled out for exemplifying him to develop this movie. In particular, he Asian males as asexual and nerdy (Mahdzan & addressed the sexual stereotypes imposed on Ziegler, n.d.), [57] while Disney was mentioned Asians. In an interview, Byler commented that for its stereotypical use of Asian Siamese cats in Asian women are perceived as exotic and sexy,

I-236 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版 whereas the Asian men are considered either this is one way to define a coolie. Lee included asexual or “their sexuality is somehow Year of the Dragon in this stereotype. The new unwelcome or ugly” (Wang, May 8th, 2003, racist police officer is warned by his superior, para. 5). [63] The movie theme is unrequited “The Mafia concept is not even Italian, it’s love, but between Asians. Chinese (Lee, 1999, p. 197). [65] The gook and yellow peril seem to be themes in Rising Sun. A Quick Analysis of Stereotypes The fact that The Joy Luck Club is on the “Most Offensive” list for Asian Americans is a in These Movies conundrum. The men in the movie are not How do these movies make use of the portrayed well, but it didn’t feel like a stereotype, stereotypes? I would say The Cheat and Broken just personal choices for the writer - maybe her Blossoms portray Asians as either “pollutants” personal experiences. This is an intense or “deviants,” or possibly both. The Swiss woman’s movie; a lot of time is given to Family Robinson pirates appear deviant. Disney mother-daughter conflicts. It also seems to be seems to employ standard, formulized about Chinese-American woman trying to find stereotypes. there identities. This movie taught me how little Mickey Rooney’s role in Breakfast at I know about the Chinese and Asians because I Tiffany’s is confusing. His interpretation is racist, have no idea why it is number one on the “Most yet the racism does not seem to fit the story. The Offensive” list for Asian Americans. story just needed an irate neighbor, no matter the Freaky Friday employs a stereotype that nationality. Rooney’s character may be that of a does not seem to be included in Lee’s (1999) six middle-aged nerd (an irritating part of the model faces of the Oriental. [66] The stereotype is that minority stereotype). Long Duk Dong in Sixteen of Asians having age old mysterious secrets. It is Candles may also be of the model minority also used in Gremlins. I do not think it is such a variety, the crazy nerd. I’m guessing Gung Ho, negative stereotype, just misunderstood. The fact Mr. Baseball, and Wayne’s World could be the that the restaurant owner can not speak English “model minority” nerds as well, although the well in Freaky Friday might be her own personal Japanese plant manager’s character in Gung Ho handicap; similar to this writer’s handicap when is not stereotypical. It was well developed. he could not speak Chinese well, even though he South Pacific, Sayonara, and Love is a lived in Asia for a long time. This might be a Many Splendored Thing have the “model stereotype for Americans—the illiterate, minority” feel. The interracial romances suggest insensitive, loud Americans. Better Luck ethnic assimilation, though they don’t fit that Tomorrow and Charlotte Sometimes are genre well. The writers and directors were courageous and timely movies that make a making an honest attempt to show Asia as it is. conscious effort not to stereotype, thereby In Tai Pan, the portrayal of the main character’s provoking controversy. mistress appears more sexist than stereotypical. The 2005 movie Crash deals directly The Asians in Blade Runner appear to be with racism and stereotyping, though it does not coolies, However, Lee (1999) sees them as “The portray many Asian stereotypes other than a Model Minority as Gook,” (p. 180). [64] Perhaps Chinese woman shouting in a policeman’s face

I-237 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版 about a car accident, and her husband who is This woman’s values and personality are well involved in a slave trade. This movie seems to developed. You feel like you know her and her be a reaction to the entertaining Hollywood world as the French, then the Americans, intrude version of successful racial interaction in movies and destroy. The Viet Cong are also displayed in like Shanghai Noon, Rush Hour, and Cradle 2 a realistic and vicious light. The Vietnamese the Grave. woman becomes involved with an American, With the exceptions of Better Luck marries and is brought to the New World. The Tomorrow and Charlotte Sometimes, the above actress was born in Vietnam and came to movies are just a sampling of American cinema America as a child, so she also knew both with some negative Asian aspect. There are four worlds (Ebert, 1993). [69] Asian/American movies I believe are excellent: In The Last Samurai, Tom Cruise plays Iron and Silk, Snow fallings on Cedars, Heaven Nathan Algren, a disillusioned Civil War veteran and Earth, and The last Samurai. who is hired to train an army for the Japanese emperor. The army is faced with a samurai rebellion and in the first battle Nathan Algren is captured and taken to the samurai home base. Good Recent Movies The samurai leader feels that fate has brought Iron and Silk was a martial arts movie them together, plus he wants to know his enemy. with a lot of charm. The main character is a At least three aspects of the movie make it a “humble hero,” and the movie is gentle and not pleasure to watch. First is the gorgeous scenery violent. It is a true story (Brown, 1991, para. 4). and camera work; number two is watching their [67] relationship and mutual respect develop, and Snow Falling on Cedars (1999) is a number three is the attention paid to the beautiful and sad movie about interracial Japanese customs and culture (Ebert, 2003). [70] problems and a trial in a Pacific Northwestern town during World War II. The high school Reflections relationship between a white American boy and a Japanese American girl is quite natural and The Asians are on the other side of the romantic, absent of stereotypes. There is Earth and they look different from us so they are pressure from their parents not to mix with the likely candidates for prejudice and intrigue. other’s race, but they do. The story is told (Notice how I keep saying they … they … they). through flashbacks. One particularly powerful For me “they and us” is not such an easy scene shows the Japanese Americans ordered distinction because my son is Chinese and I just from their homes by local authorities and sent to talked to him this morning. I think there is internment ‘centers’. This splits up the high something in the fact that the Chinese look a school couple. Although the relationships feel little different from us. The World War II real in this movie, the audience doesn’t really get detention camps for Japanese-American citizens to know the Asian woman (Ebert, 2000). [68] are evidence. There were no camps for Heaven and Earth, a true story, views the German-American citizens, some of my war through the eyes of a Vietnamese woman. ancestors. It is time to be more conscious of

I-238 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版 prejudices and more open to Asians. Consider Ma, in her book The Deathly Embrace, suggests what the Yale educator Harold Bloom writes: there was a rape-mentality during the Imperial One of my growing convictions, exploitation of Asia by the West. Part 1 of her founded upon the last 20 or so of my more book is titled: “Clutch of Rape: Imperialist than 40 years of teaching at Yale Adventure Narratives” (Ma, 2000, pp. 1-50). [73] University, is that the life of the mind and It could be something even more obscene and the spirit in the United States will be shameful, or it could be something completely dominated by Asian Americans in the different. opening decades of the 21st Century. (1997, Women, at times, have been considered p. xiii) [71] the spoils of war – the expendable pleasures. The Asian American woman writer Renee E. Tajima Maybe they are not on the other side of puts it this way: the Earth. Forty nine point eight percent of Asian Americans over the age of twenty five have …the most expedient way of Bachelor’s degrees compared with thirty percent resolving the problems of of white non-Hispanic, seventeen point three miscegenation has been to get rid of the percent of Afro-Americans, and eleven point Asian partner. Thus, some numbers of four percent of Hispanic-Americans (USA hyphenated (made-for-television, TODAY, July 27th, 2004). [72] war-time, wives-away-form–home) How about the unfair portrayal of Asian Asian women have expired for the men as “asexual nerds?” They do have a more convenience of their home-bound slender and smaller body; they don’t have a soldier lovers. (Asian Women United of swagger when they walk; they do have a polite California, 1989, p. 331) [74] submissive manner. Plus, we come from a culture that glorifies cowboys, football, and A number of movies have this theme. pickup trucks. Maybe it’s our own macho thing. Madame Butterfly has it, as does South Pacific, Bruce Lee was able to change this image a bit China Gate, and The Toll of the Sea. The and some Asian males can now be seen as country and its women surrender and submit to having a disciplined strength and speed. I felt the conquerors. Young men faced with death this was furthered portrayed in The Last Samurai. will be overwhelmed with emotion, thus open to Again, this might only be a Hollywood image. Is feelings of love. “Between 1945 and 1975, some this an image put forth by Hollywood or an 45,000 Japanese wives of American servicemen image that Hollywood has perceived as currently immigrated to the United States” (Thornton, accepted? 1992, p. 65). [75] The fact that Hollywood may have Asians appear quieter and gentler, captured the American male’s idealized Asian especially in public. Their culture honors and woman on film could be a mirror into our encourages these traits. Their soft, gentle traits unconscious psyche. The fact that it is appeal to the macho male ego associated with unconscious implies it may be something we feel Western men and American men in particular. It ashamed of or do not want to admit. Sheng-Mei seems to offer a simpler and less threatening life.

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The movie The Last Samurai portrays other issue is the America’s attraction to Asia, this theme. Imagine a motionless Japanese more specifically, the American male’s woman in a kimono, sitting on her heels in a attraction to Asian women. tatami mat room with only a table, tea set and In addressing the first issue I take the one vase of flowers. The room is otherwise void example of Mickey Rooney’s offensive of distractions, sound and motion. She then characterization of the bucktoothed ranting and begins the measured art of serving tea. Every raving Chinaman in Breakfast at Tiffany’s. This detail of the ceremony is known by both parties - characterization shamed audiences and the familiarity of the movements settling their Hollywood into recognition of the stereotypical minds. They have the momentary allusion of a prejudices. But then we realized that the “yellow perfect world. peril” still existed; it had been hiding in cities The Samurai base camp in the movie was (Rising Sun, Year of the Dragon). We just didn’t set like a beautiful garden where the warriors have the label for it – “gook.” We seem to need practiced the disciplined correctness of their an enemy and if we can put a face to that enemy, martial arts. The emptiness and precision of it we know who and what to fight. The issue here seemed to create an edge for intense unspoken may be larger than racial. It may have to do with emotion. Beautiful, short lived, cherry blossoms our need for an enemy. The Arabs might be bloomed - a metaphor the Japanese use for their taking the full ballistic force of that need right beautiful and short lives. now. Where does that need come from? God More than half way through the movie only knows – Cane and Abel? Our fathers? Our Heaven and Earth, Le Ly tells her mother that own inadequacies? she will be immigrating to America with her The second issue concerns the American husband, an American soldier. Her mother warns male’s attraction to Asian females. To get a her, “Americans have no beginning and no end. sense of context, I am going to digress a bit. The They don’t care about their ancestors. So they general rule in Asia is that everyone takes care think they are free to do any bad thing they of their parents. Extended families are a support want.” After spending some time in America, Le system as well as a source of irritation. Teachers Ly realizes that she is starting to behave like an are in constant communication with parents American: “Yelling back at my husband – either in writing or on the telephone. The frowning, scowling.” neighbors try and get into each other’s lives and of course there are the work relationships. In Conclusion other words, every body is in everybody else’s life much more so than in the United States. This This paper gives a little information is the context in which you must see the Asian about where some of the stereotypes originated, woman. She is not really subservient; she has a and how they have been used. Does this certain role to play and she doesn’t want to information help or does it just perpetuate overturn the “tea set” too often. There is good labeling and categorizing people? I believe you and bad here. The good is the sense of family, can’t deal with a problem until you recognize the warmth of belonging, the assurance and that it exists. There are two issues here. One is security of a place in the extended family and the negative portrayal of Asians in movies. The

I-240 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版 community. The bad is the lack of freedom and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (1997): control over your destiny; two things that we value in America. 316-326; In Ashby Plant and Patricia Devine, The quiet, soft manner of Asian women ‘Internal and external motivation to respond can’t be seen out of context of their culture and their Asian male counterpart. The Hollywood without prejudice.’ Journal of Personality idealization of Asian woman is more like June Cleaver in Leave it to Beaver answering the door and Social Psycholog, 75 (1998): 811-832. with a warm, homey smile. June is not always [4]Jerome Bruner, ‘Going beyond the like that, and the Asian women are not always like that. They yell at their husbands, play power information given,’ in Contemporary games with friends, act petty with their Approaches to Cognition, eds. Jerome Bruner, neighbors, and talk nasty behind their mother-in-law’s backs. Hollywood’s image of an Egon Brunswik, Leon Festinger, Franz Heider, Asian woman is just that – an image that Asia Karl Muenzinger, Charles Osgood, and David portrays to the world just like the images we portray in our TV commercials. Rapaport (Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press, 1957), 41-69. ENDNOTES [5]Patricia Ramsey, Edwina Vold, and Leslie [1]Ziva Kunda and Steven Spencer, ‘When do Williams, Multicultural education: A source stereotypes come to mind and when do they book. (New York & London: Garland color judgment? A goal-based theoretical Publishing, 1989). framework for stereotype activation and

application,’ Psychological Bulletin 129 (4) [6]Ziva Kunda and Steven Spencer,’ When do

(2003): 522-544. stereotypes come to mind and when do they

[2]Shelly Taylor and Jonathon Brown, ‘Illusion color judgment? A goal-based theoretical

and well-being: A social psychological framework for stereotype activation and

perspective on mental health,’ Psychological application,’ p. 524.

Bulletin, 103 (1988): 193-210. [7]Ziva Kunda, Paul Davies, Barbara Adams,

[3]Bridget Dunton and Russell Fazio, ‘An and Steven Spencer, (2002). ‘The dynamic

individual difference measure of motivation to time course of stereotype activation during

control prejudiced reactions,’ Personality and interaction’’ in Motivated Social Perception:

I-241 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版

The Ontario Symposium (Vol 9, pp. 1-20), eds. [18]Frank Chin, Aiiieeee! An anthology of

Steven Spencer, Steven Fein, Mark Zanna, & Asian-American writers (Washington D.C.:

JamesOlson (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum). Howard University Press, 1974), p.xx.

[8]Eric Fromm, The heart of man (New York: [19]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

Harper & Row, 1966). popular culture [9]Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the oppressed [20]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in (New York & London: Continuum, 1970). popular culture [10]Martin Green, Dreams of adventure, deeds [21]Sheng-Mei Ma, The deathly embrace: of empire (New York: Basic Books, 1979), p. Orientalism and Asian American identity 30. (Minneapolis and London: University of [11]Asian Women United of California, Making Minnesota Press, 2000), p. 6. waves (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), p. 423. [22]Sheng-Mei Ma, The deathly embrace: [12]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Orientalism and Asian American identity, p. popular culture (Philadelphia: Temple 6. University Press, 1999): p. 8. [23]Sheng-Mei Ma, The deathly embrace: [13]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Orientalism and Asian American identity, p. popular culture, p. 9. 6. [14]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in [24]Sheng-Mei Ma, The deathly embrace: popular culture, p. 10. Orientalism and Asian American identity, pp. [15]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in 8-9. popular culture, p. 9. [25]Sheng-Mei Ma, The deathly embrace: [16]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Orientalism and Asian American identity, p. popular culture, p.10. 11. [17]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in [26]Sax Rohmer, The daughter of Fu Manchu popular culture (London: Cassell, 1931).

I-242 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版

[27]Sheng-Mei Ma, The deathly embrace: [34]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

Orientalism and Asian American identity. popular culture

[35]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

[28]Tracy Chin, (2003). Sayonara stereotypes: popular culture

The depiction of Chinese/Japanese Americans [36]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

in Hollywood cinema. Alpha Vision, 2(1) popular culture

(2003): 14-19. [37]Johann Wyss, The Swiss Family Robinson

[29]Roger Ebert, ‘Movie reviews: Kill Bill, (London and New York: George Routledge

Volume 1 (October 10, 2003),’ and Sons, 18--).

rogerebert.com, [38]‘Love scene on Bali Hai,’ South Pacific

http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/a (1958), directed by Joshua Logan.

rticle?AID=/20031010/REVIEWS/310100304 [39]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

/1023 (accessed March 2, 2006). Popular culture

[30]Sheng-Mei Ma, The deathly embrace: [40]Goldsea, ‘Best & worst movies,’

Orientalism and Asian American identity. http://goldsea.com/Poll/Movies/movies_1210.

[31]Sheng-Mei Ma, The deathly embrace: html (accessed July 15, 2004).

Orientalism and Asian American identity, p.

12. [41]Goldsea, ‘Best & worst movies,’

[32]Sheng-Mei Ma, The deathly embrace: http://goldsea.com/Poll/Movies/movies_1210.

Orientalism and Asian American identity, p. html (accessed July 15, 2004).

13.

[33]Debbie Dunlap, ‘Plot summary for Madame [42]Stuart Galbraith IV, ‘DVD talk: World of

Butterfly (1932),’ IMDb, SuzieWong,’

http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0023169/plotsumma http://www.dvdtalk.com/reviews/read.php?ID

ry (accessed July 16, 2004), para 1. =11339 (accessed July 20, 2004).

I-243 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版

[43]Goldsea, ‘Best & worst movies,’ [50]Goldsea, ‘Best & worst movies,’

http://goldsea.com/Poll/Movies/movies_1210. http://goldsea.com/Poll/Movies/movies_1210.

html (accessed July 15, 2004). html (accessed July 15, 2004).

[44]James Berardinelli, ‘Review: Breakfast at [51]Farah Mahdzan and Norlinda Ziegler,

Tiffany’s,’ ‘Asian American: An analysis of negative

http://movie-reviews.colossus.net/movies/b/br stereotypical characters in popular media,’

eakfast_tiffanys.html (accessed July 20, 2000), http://www.mahdzan.com/fairy/papers/asian/a

para. 12. sian03.htm (accessed July 14, 2004)

[45]Goldsea, ‘Best & worst movies,’

http://goldsea.com/Poll/Movies/movies_1210. [52]Number one was Dragon: Bruce Lee Story –

html (accessed July 15, 2004). 49%, The Joy Luck Club -23%, Enter the

[46]Roger Ebert, ‘Chicago Sun-Times: Current Dragon – 13%, Romeo Must Die – 8%, The

review: Tai-Pan,’ Corruptor – 5%, and The Last Emperor -2%.

http://www.suntimes.com/ebert/ebert_reviews [53]Michael Crichton, Rising Sun. (New York:

/1986/11/115940.html (accessed July 20, Ballantine Publishing Group, 1992).

2004) [54]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

[47]Goldsea, ‘Best & worst movies,’ popular culture, pp. 214-215.

http://goldsea.com/Poll/Movies/movies_1210. [55]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

html (accessed July 15, 2004). popular culture, p. 194.

[48]Chris Barsanti, ‘Filmcritic.com: Sixteen [56]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

Candles,’ popular culture, p. 218.

http://filmcritic.com/misc/emporium.nsf/Vide [57]Farah Mahdzan and Norlinda Ziegler,

oHome/CB59E8EF453602E688256D950064 ‘Asian American: An analysis of negative

(accessed July 20, 2004) stereotypical characters in popular media,’

[49]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in http://www.mahdzan.com/fairy/papers/asian/a

popular culture, p. 197. sian03.htm (accessed July 14, 2004)

I-244 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版

[58]Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd., ‘Discussions – make the call: Will the success of ‘Better

Welcome to the wonderful world of Disney’ Luck Tomorrow’ help other Asian American

http://www.learntoquestion.com/class/discussi features get made and distributed?’

on/showthread.php?t=1047 (accessed http://www.asianamericanfilm.com/archives/0

February 12, 2006) 00341.html (accessed February 12, 2006),

[59]Asian American Film Home (June 8th, comment 13.

2003), ‘Asian American film home: You [63]Oliver Wang (May 8th, 2003), ‘Interview

make the call: Is the ‘Freaky Friday’ fortune with Eric Byler: Director of Charlotte

cookie scene an outrage? You make the call,’ Sometimes,’

http://www.asianamericanfilm.com/archives/0 http://www.popmatters.com/film/interviews/b

00353.html (accessed February 11, 2006). yler-eric-030508.shtml (accessed February 12,

[60]Asian American Film Home (June 8th, 2006), para 5.

2003), ‘Asian American film home: You [64]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

make the call: Is the ‘Freaky Friday’ fortune popular culture

cookie scene an outrage? You make the call,’ [65]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

http://www.asianamericanfilm.com/archives/0 popular culture

00353.html (accessed February 11, 2006), [66]Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in

para. 1. popular culture

[61]Asian American Film Home (June 8th, [67]Joe Brown (March 08, 1991), ‘Home index

2003), ‘Asian American film home: You search archives: Washington Post: ‘Iron &

make the call: Is the ‘Freaky Friday’ fortune Silk’’

cookie scene an outrage? You make the call,’ http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/

http://www.asianamericanfilm.com/archives/0 longterm/movies/videos/ironsilkpgbrown_a

00353.html (accessed February 11, 2006). (accessed July 15, 2004), para. 4.

[62]Asian American Film Home (May 30th, [68]Roger Ebert (2000), ‘Chicago Sun-Times:

2003), ‘Asian American film home: You Current review: Snow falling on cedars’

I-245 遠東學報第二十三卷第三期中華民國九十五年九月出版

http://www.suntimes.com/ebert/ebert_reviews people in America (Newbury Park: Sage

/2003/12/120502.html (accessed July 15, Publications, 1992):64-67, p. 65.

2004). APPENDIX OF MOVIES USED [69]Roger Ebert (1993), ‘Chicago Sun-Times: IN ARTICLE Better Luck tomorrow Mr. Baseball (1992) Current review: Heaven and Earth,’ (2002) Rising sun (1993) http://www.suntimes.com/ebert/ebert_reviews Blade Runner (1982) Rush Hour (1998) Breakfast at tiffany’s Sayonara (1957) /1993/12/895982.html (accessed July 15, (1961) Shanghai Noon (2000) 2004). Broken Blossoms Sixteen Candles (1919) (1984) [70]Roger Ebert (2003). ‘Chicago Sun-Times: Charlie’s Angels Snow Falling on

Current review: The Last Samurai,’ (2000) Cedars (1999) Charlotte Sometimes South Pacific (1958) http://www.suntimes.com/ebert/ebert_reviews (2002) Star Trek (1979) China Gate (1957) Swiss Family /2000/01/010703.html (accessed July 15, Cradle 2 the Grave Robinson (1960) 2004). (2003) Tai Pan (1986) Crash (2004) The Aristocats (1970) [71]Harold Bloom (Ed.), Asian-American Falling Down (1993) The Cheat (1915) Women Writers (Philadelphia: Chelsea House Freaky Friday (2003) The Joy Luck Club Gremlins (1984) (1993) Publishers, 1997). Gung Ho (1986) The Lady and the

[72]USA TODAY (2004, July 27th). Snapshot. Heaven and Earth Tramp (1955) (1993) The Last Samurai P. A1. Iron and silk (1990) (2003) Kill Bill (2003) The Toll of the Sea [73]Sheng-Mei Ma, The deathly embrace: Love is a Many (1922) Orientalism and Asian American identity, pp. Splendored Thing The World of Suzie (1955) Wong (1960) 1-50. Madame Butterfly Wayne’s World [74]Asian women united of California. (1989). (1932) (1992) Menace II Society Year of the Dragon Making waves. Boston: Beacon Press, p. 331. (1993) (1985)

[75]Michael Thornton, ‘The quiet immigration:

Foreign spouses of U.S. citizens, 1945-1985,’

In Maria P. P. Root (Ed.), Racially mixed

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