NUMBER 45 2016
GAJAHJournal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group Number 45 (2016)
The journal is intended as a medium of communication on issues that concern the management and conservation of Asian elephants both in the wild and in captivity. It is a means by which everyone concerned with the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), whether members of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group or not, can communicate their research results, experiences, ideas and perceptions freely, so that the conservation of Asian elephants can benefit. All articles published in Gajah reflect the individual views of the authors and not necessarily that of the editorial board or the Asian Elephant Specialist Group.
Editor
Dr. Jennifer Pastorini Centre for Conservation and Research 26/7 C2 Road, Kodigahawewa Julpallama, Tissamaharama Sri Lanka e-mail: [email protected]
Editorial Board Dr. Ahimsa Campos-Arceiz Dr. Prithiviraj Fernando School of Geography Centre for Conservation and Research University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus 26/7 C2 Road, Kodigahawewa Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Kajang, Selangor Julpallama, Tissamaharama Malaysia Sri Lanka e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]
Heidi Riddle Dr. Alex Rübel Riddles Elephant & Wildlife Sanctuary Direktor Zoo Zürich P.O. Box 715 Zürichbergstrasse 221 Greenbrier, Arkansas 72058 CH - 8044 Zürich USA Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]
Dr. T. N. C. Vidya Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research Bengaluru - 560064 India e-mail: [email protected] GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group Number 45 (2016)
This publication was proudly funded by Wildlife Reserves Singapore Editorial Note
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Cover
Female elephant at Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary (Bangladesh) Photo by Md. Abdul Aziz (See article on page 12)
Layout and formatting by Dr. Jennifer Pastorini
Printed at P & G Printers, Colombo 10, Sri Lanka Gajah 45 (2016) 1
Editorial
Jennifer Pastorini (Editor)
E-mail: [email protected]
This current issue completes 30 years of success- The News and Briefs section reports on a work- fully publishing Gajah. The first Gajah – at that shop conducted in Myanmar to train mahouts of time the journal was still called Asian Elephants the newly set up Elephant Emergency Response Specialist Newsletter – was published in 1986. Units. We also hear from a workshop held in Existing for so many years definitely marks Kerala to build local and regional capacity in Gajah as an old and well-established journal. veterinary care for elephants and tigers. There is an overview of the International Elephant & Gajah 45 includes one peer-reviewed article, three Rhino Conservation and Research Symposium research articles and three short communications. held in Singapore this year, where 90 talks Three articles are about elephants in India and were well received by the numerous audience. the other four articles are from Bangaldesh, Recent publications on Asian elephants include Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and Cambodia. 66 abstracts and the news briefs present 21 news items. The Peer-reviewed Research Article by Vanitha Ponnusamy et al. presents the opinion of 359 Vivek Menon, the chair of the Asian Elephant farmers on electric fences in their neighbourhood. Specialist Group, talks about three important The study also revealed a relatively low tolerance meetings held in the last few months. The Asian towards elephants in Peninsular Malaysia. Elephant Specialist Group members who could not attend the meeting in Assam will find his note All three Research Articles deal with aspects of particularly interesting. human-elephant conflict. Md. Abdul Aziz and co-authors studied human-elephant conflict in During the Asian Elephant Specialist Group Northern Bangladesh where they estimate that Meeting the ‘Mandate for Gajah’ was also 70–80 elephants regularly cross the border into discussed by the members. It was felt that it India. Rohini et al. present interview data of 239 would be useful for Gajah to give authors the residents of two Forest Divisions in Kerala, India. opportunity to present a second abstract in their About two thirds of them have a positive attitude local language – if they wish to do so. It was towards elephants but consider human-elephant also decided that if an editorial board member conflict management a responsibility of the Forest is working with the authors to improve their Department. Mabeluanga et al. interviewed manuscript, (s)he should be acknowledged with people living around the Bannerghatta National the notation of ‘Manuscript Editor’ in a footnote Park (India), where also human-elephant conflict on the front page of the article. is a major problem. I would like to thank the authors who contributed In Short Communications, T.G.S.L. Prakash articles to this issue of Gajah. I am most grateful et al. report three incidents of foreign tourists to the editorial team for their help with paper getting hurt by wild elephants. The good news editing and working with the authors to improve of zero elephant poaching for the last 10 years in the manuscripts. I also appreciate the effort of the the Cardamom Rainforest Landscape is provided reviewers of the peer-reviewed paper. Thanks to by Thomas Gray et al. Arindam Kishore Pachoni the financial support from the Wildlife Reserves et al. describe how they successfully treated a Singapore Group this Gajah can be printed and gunshot injury of a wild juvenile elephant. mailed out free, to all its readers.
1 Gajah 45 (2016) 2-3
Notes from the Chair IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Vivek Menon
Chair’s e-mail: [email protected]
Dear members New members are still being inducted as we speak and by the end of the first quarter we will As the year 2016 comes to an end I would like to actually have a strengthened membership that wish all of you a very happy 2017 and hope that both covers more regions as well as balances the the group will have a productive and a fun-filled skill sets of individuals in the group. We have now quadrennium. We will start the new year with more young members while having a number of the energies that we have shared at our meeting Emeritus members to advise the group. A healthy in Assam in which so many of you participated. balance of youth and experience is always a great While the most important outcome I had wanted advantage for any specialist group. I am glad that from the meeting was only that most of us meet we agreed to have range state ex-officio members and discuss what we had done for elephants in as well as representatives of our Strategic Partners the past decade, I think we did better than that. also in that capacity.
We heard from all the Working Groups that were Apart from all this, the meeting also had formed from the year before and the extraordinary productive discussions on distribution and popu- amount of work all those members had put in lations of the Asian elephant, captive elephant voluntarily for the group. Their work has given management and health and human elephant the group a draft mandate, a draft logo and a draft conflict mitigation. These topics and more need communication plan. We have the mandate for to be taken up in this new quadrennium so that Gajah finalised, which is published in this issue the group has products that can be used by those and we also have a new Program Manager in Dr. who are working on elephant conservation. Sandeep Tewari. Finally, we have an approved membership guideline and a Membership Advis- I personally felt that the meeting really profited ory Group that is chaired by Dr. Anwarul Islam with the Chair of the newly instituted IUCN from Bangladesh. They are busy finalising the Task Force on Human-Wildlife Conflict Dr. Alex membership for this quadrennium and I am Zimmerman holding a back to back meeting on sure that a number of you would have already human-elephant conflict mitigation as well as received your new membership invites from the by the participation of a senior representative of IUCN SSC Secretariat based on the new list. the IUCN Connectivity Conservation Specialist
2 Group in the meet. This sort of lateral integration even within the IUCN community is critical if we are to achieve consensus conservation. Finally, it was great to have a Strategic Partners meet that had participation of several leading zoo associations, NGOs and potential funders for the group chaired by the former SSC Chair Simon Stuart and facilitated by Kira Milleham. All this augurs well for the group.
Before all the excitement of meeting everyone at Guwahati, there were two great global meets where luckily some of us met, bonded and had all this debate the endangered Asian elephant useful preliminary discussion. First, in August was of course not a topic of direct discussion but the IUCN General Assembly was held at a rather we all know that the ivory trade endangers all grand location at Honolulu, Hawaii. Boosted by extant elephants and those of us there followed President Obama declaring the largest marine the discussions with great attention to detail. The protected area in the world, the meeting had Asian elephant had its spot in the sun with a side several important and contentious decisions. The event hosted by Elephant Family and in which most contentious of them that involved elephants Simon and I participated, which released a report was the motion that encouraged the global on Live Trade in Asian elephants to coincide community to ban the trade in domestic ivory. with an intended discussion on the same theme at Despite it clearly not getting consensus among the CoP. It was horrific to see evidence of large- all the attending members, which is a normal scale illegal trade in live elephants in Asia as also IUCN tradition, the motion passed. In between the visuals of elephants being skinned for a new the frenzied dealings of the committees and my consumption pattern in China. own rather late night sittings (as I served on the Resolutions Committee for the conference), After a huge meeting each in September, October some of us, notably Shermin de Silva, Anwar and November, I was happy to have some time ul Islam, Aster Zhang, Arnold Sitompul, Alex off in December to relax but not far away from Zimmerman and Peter Leimgruber met up to elephants. I was happy to be in Sri Lanka again have some preliminary discussions on the group. to continue discussions for the planned Asian This proved very useful later as many initial Giants Summit in early 2018 that Sri Lanka has thoughts could be crystallized in the Guwahati promised to host and I was happy to see many meet of the AsESG. elephants in Koudulla Sanctuary tear up the wewa grass in large clumps and feed. Across the straits, The second meeting that was of importance for I spent the remaining days in Wayanad where elephants and thus the group was the CITES COP large bulls kept me homebound every evening at Johannesburg in South Africa that was held four nights in a row. What an elephantine way to immediately after the Hawaii meet. I attended finish off a year! the meet as a Technical Advisor to the Indian delegation and Simon Hedges represented the I want to thank each and every one of you for AsESG formally at the meet. Here, too, domestic making the inaugural meeting that I chaired so ivory trade bans dominated much of the meeting. meaningful and warm. It gives me the energy A move to put all elephants on Appendix I was to hopefully take this group to newer and better defeated as was a move to downlist further popu- heights for the benefit of Asian elephants. lations of African elephants that were already on Appendix I to II. In other words more of a status Vivek Menon quo was achieved on the listing of elephants. In Chair AsESG, IUCN SSC
3 Peer-Reviewed Research Article Gajah 45 (2016) 4-11
Farmers’ Perceptions and Attitudes towards Government-Constructed Electric Fences in Peninsular Malaysia
Vanitha Ponnusamy1, Praveena Chackrapani2,3, Teck Wyn Lim2, Salman Saaban4 and Ahimsa Campos-Arceiz2,3*
1Nottingham University Business School, The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia 2School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia 3Mindset Interdisciplinary Centre for Tropical Environmental Studies, The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia 4Department of Wildlife & National Parks Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. In Peninsular Malaysia, the government has recently initiated a human-elephant conflict mitigation program based on electric fences. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 359 famers living near eight fences to describe their perceptions and attitudes towards fences, elephants, and human-elephant conflict. Most of our respondents reported positive perceptions about the effectiveness of the fence and sharp reductions of human-elephant conflict-caused economic losses; on the other hand, we found low levels of tolerance and empathy towards elephants. Our study shows that the electric fence program has support from farmers and should be continued. Additionally, we recommend efforts to increase people’s tolerance to elephant presence.
Introduction ability to co-exist with them, which inevitably involves the effective mitigation of HEC. The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) plays important ecological and cultural roles but is HEC is an ancient phenomenon (Sukumar 2003) endangered due to the rapid decline of populations and many strategies exist to mitigate it (Fernando across its range (Sukumar 1992; Barua et al. et al. 2008). Common HEC mitigation techniques 2010; Campos-Arceiz & Blake 2011; Fernando include the removal of problem elephants & Pastorini 2011). It is widely accepted that the (e.g. Fernando et al. 2012), crop guarding main threat for Asian elephant conservation is the (e.g. Hedges & Gunaryadi 2010), economic combined effect of habitat loss and the human- compensation (e.g. Chen et al. 2013), and the use elephant conflict (HEC) that subsequently arises of physical and psychological barriers, such as (e.g. Leimgruber et al. 2003). electric fences (e.g. Hoare 2003; Graham et al. 2009). Electric fences are increasingly becoming HEC can take several forms but the most common a popular choice to mitigate HEC. They require one is crop raiding by elephants (e.g. Fernando et very labour-intensive maintenance (Naughton al. 2005; Sukumar 2006; Campos-Arceiz et al. et al. 2000; Chong & Dayang 2005; Cox 2012, 2009). Farmers sharing landscapes with Asian Hoare 2012) and easily fail in the absence of elephants may suffer severe economic losses and good management. However, if effectively other forms of distress due to HEC and often have managed, electric fences allow people to share low tolerance towards elephants (Fernando et al. the landscape with elephants. Key aspects of 2005). Given the high degree of fragmentation of electric fence success are the buy-in by local Asian elephant habitats (Leimgruber et al. 2003), communities and the appropriate fence design the future survival of the species depends on our and management.
© 2016 The Authors - Open Access 4 Peninsular Malaysia is home to an endangered Here we present a social study aiming to under- population of wild Asian elephants (Saaban stand farmers’ perceptions and attitudes towards et al. 2011). Due to the rapid transformation the electric fences and elephants. Our specific of Malaysia’s landscapes, often involving the objectives include: (a) assessing whether farmers conversion of dipterocarp forest into oil palm and perceive the electric fences as effective to mitigate rubber plantations, elephant habitat is currently HEC; (b) assessing the reported economic impact rather fragmented (Clements et al. 2010). Like of these fences on farmers livelihood; and (c) elsewhere in the elephant range, HEC is a serious assessing farmers tolerance towards elephants concern in Peninsular Malaysia, where rogue and HEC. In order to address these issues, we elephant translocation has been the most common interviewed farmers living in the proximity of strategy since 1974 (Daim 1995; Saaban et al. eight recently built electric fences. 2011). Methods Recent studies (e.g. Fernando et al. 2012) suggest that translocation is not sustainable as a long-term Study area elephant conservation strategy. Accordingly, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in This study took place in eight sites located in the Peninsular Malaysia has initiated a new electric- states of Perak, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang, fence program to mitigate HEC in critical and Johor, in Peninsular Malaysia (Fig. 1). conflict hotspots. Since 2009, 20 fences have These eight sites have electric fences recently been constructed under this program in villages constructed by the Department of Wildlife and adjacent to elephant habitat. The use of electric National Parks to mitigate HEC. fences, however, has been a common practice by Malaysian oil palm plantation companies since Data collection the 1940s (Monroe & England 1978).
Figure 1. Map of Peninsular Malaysia showing the location of the electric fences built by the Malaysian government to mitigate HEC.
5 We used a semi-structured interview to gather data we create new plantations?’ or ‘are you willing to on the farmers’ perceptions and attitudes towards tolerate some amount of damage by elephants?’. the government-made electric fences. Data collection was carried out by the lead researcher Data analysis (VP) assisted by field assistants to administer the questionnaires in the local language (Bahasa The data was analyzed by means of simple Melayu). We aimed to interview 50 respondents descriptive statistics. All analyses and plots were per site, which represented 20–25% of the conducted with R statistical environment (R Core households in six of the sites (the other two Team 2016). were smaller than 50 households). We did not randomize households, rather we conducted the Results sampling haphazardly from July 2014 till August 2015 (Table 1). In all cases, the respondents Demographics were farmers with plantations in the respective landscape. We interviewed a total of 359 farmers (49.6 ± 2.6 respondents per site; Table 1). Our respondents Questionnaire design were predominantly male (55%). The mean (± SD) age of our respondents was 50 ± 16 (range = Our questionnaire was divided in four general 14–86) years. In terms of education, 46% of the sections. First we recorded demographic infor- respondents had completed secondary school, mation on the interviewee such as location of 36% had completed primary school, 16% had residence, gender, age, and highest level of no formal school education, and 3% had tertiary formal education, and basic information on land education. ownership and agricultural activities. Second we collected information on the interviewees’ These farmers were mainly smallholders; 88% of perception on electric fences based on yes / the respondents owned 0–3.6 hectares of land, 8% no / I do not know questions such as ‘is the of them owned 4–7.6 hectares, and less than 5% fence effective to mitigate HEC?’. Third, we had more than 8 hectares. The two most common collected information on the HEC suffered by the cultivated crops were oil palm and rubber. interviewees before and after the construction of the fence. And finally, we asked yes / no / I don’t Perceptions and attitudes know questions related to farmers’ empathy and tolerance towards elephants, such as ‘do you care Our respondents had a predominantly positive about the habitat loss suffered by elephants when perception of the electric fences and their
Table 1. Description of the eight electric fences studied. No. Site Length Completion date State Survey dates No. of (km) respondents 1 Sungai Rual 15 Aug 2009 Kelantan Sep 2014 46 2 Lenggong 34 Nov 2010 Perak Oct 2014 51 3 Batu Melintang 12 Dec 2013 Kelantan Sep 2014 49 4 Mawai 18 Dec 2013 Johor Aug 2014 54 5 Pelung 35 Dec 2013 Terengganu Aug-Sep 2014 50 6 Mentolong 2 Oct 2014 Pahang Jun 2015 13 7 Payong 8 Dec 2014 (Phase I) Terengganu July 2015 50 Dec 2015 (Phase II) 8 Som 22 Nov 2014 (Phase I) Pahang July 2015 46 Dec 2015 (Phase II) Total 146 359
6 effectiveness (Fig. 2). In general, 74.7% of farmers felt that the fences bring economic bene- fits to them and 76.7% felt that they are effective (Fig. 2). When asked if fences are sufficient to mitigate HEC, 86.1% felt that the fences are sufficient (Fig. 2). Respondents had a high level of agreement, with 84.9% saying that the fence is needed and also 86.1% felt that more fences are needed to mitigate HEC in their village.
Farmers were also asked their perception of the fence maintenance, where 64.1% of people felt that it was well maintained. However 92.5% of the respondents were not involved in maintaining the fence (Fig. 3). 55.8% of the respondents felt that farmers should be involved in maintaining the fence and 37.7% of them were willing to contribute time to do so. There seemed to Figure 3. Farmers involvement and willingness be a much stronger support for community to contribute to the management of electric fences involvement (69.7%) towards fence maintenance to mitigate HEC. (Fig. 3). Economic impact of the electric fence
The construction of the electric fences seemed to clearly reduce the economic losses suffered by farmers due to HEC (Fig. 4). Before their con- struction, 55% of respondents reported to have suffered economic costs; while 19% suffered losses after the construction (Fig. 4). One third of the respondents reported HEC costs of more than MYR 2500 per year (~USD 640 in April 2016) before the fence; while this number was reduced to 3% after the fence was built (Fig. 4).
Figure 2. Farmers perceptions and attitudes towards electric fences as a measure to mitigate HEC in eight locations of Peninsular Malaysia. Figure 4. Reported annual losses due to HEC WTC = willingness to contribute. Numbers by farmers before and after the construction of indicate mean percentage values. Error bars electric fences in eight locations of Peninsular represent standard error values. Malaysia.
7 Tolerance and empathy electric fences to mitigate HEC. Our results show some very promising patterns in terms of Farmers were divided when we asked whether farmers’ acceptance of the fences and the positive they thought that elephants ‘can be present in the impact of fences on livelihoods; but also some area’: 54.8% of them said that elephants should concerning ones regarding farmers’ tolerance not be there, while 40.6% said they can (Fig. 5). towards elephants and HEC. Most of the farmers (75.5%) said they cannot live with HEC and 74.8% were not willing to Overall, there was a general agreement among bear costs related to HEC (Fig. 5). our respondents in that these electric fences (a) are effective in reducing HEC, (b) are actually We found also mixed responses in terms of needed and not a waste of resources, (c) are farmers’ empathy towards elephants. On the one financially beneficial for the local communities, hand, a strong majority of respondents (75.5%) (d) are well maintained, and (e) are enough to thought that it is not acceptable to kill elephants mitigate HEC in these sites (Fig. 2). These results to mitigate HEC. On the other, 74.8% of them show local buy-in for the electric fence program did not care if elephants are affected by habitat initiated by the Malaysian government in 2009. loss (Fig. 5). Local buy-in is key for wildlife conservation, especially when it comes to conflictive and Discussion potentially dangerous species such as elephants. Farmer perceptions in Malaysia are similar to We interviewed farmers in eight localities where those described by Kioko et al. (2008) for farmers the Malaysian government has recently built in Amboseli, Kenya, in that in both cases a large majority of farmers reported a decrease in crop raiding and a reduction of the economic burden of HEC after the construction of the fence.
Our respondents reported very clear economic benefits as a consequence of the building of the electric fences. Remarkably, the incidence of high economic losses (> RM 2500 per year) due to elephant crop raiding dropped from 34% to just 3% of the respondents (Fig. 4).
It is important to mention, however, that the high economic losses might be misrepresented in our sample because respondents had problems estimating the amount. Some respondents were unable to provide quantitative results other than ‘a lot’, ‘too much’, ‘so much that I had to quit my plantation’, and things alike, which we are not able to analyze quantitatively. On the other hand, some of the higher end estimations (e.g. RM 200,000 per year) are likely to be exaggerations. Indeed, farmers have a tendency to exaggerate the amount of damage caused by wildlife on their Figure 5. Farmers attitudes (tolerance and crops (e.g. Roper et al. 1995; Hoare 1999). empathy) towards HEC and elephants in eight locations of Peninsular Malaysia. Numbers Another limitation of these results is that indicate mean percentage values. Error bars although the estimate of the costs was meant to represent standard error values. be ‘annual’, many respondents might be pooling
8 economic losses of more than one year when The farmers in our study showed relatively low talking about the past. In any case, our results tolerance towards elephants and HEC. Three out suggest that the Malaysian government should of four respondents in our sample are not willing continue this program. to bear any cost of HEC and think it is not possible to live with HEC (Fig. 5). Tolerance is important It is important to stress that although electric because Asian elephant conservation in the 21st fences can be effective, they are not silver century inevitably requires sharing landscapes, bullets to mitigate HEC. For example, fences which means conflict between elephants and are considered relatively expensive and difficult people. It is naïve to expect sharing landscapes to maintain, and some elephants are known without any conflict; hence conservation goals to become ‘elephant breakers’ (Perera 2009). should focus on keeping conflict within tolerable Factors such as the location and maintenance of levels for both people and elephants. At this point, the fence, the proximity to areas of high elephant it seems that farmers in Peninsular Malaysia are concentrations, and the previous experiences not inclined to bear any negative consequences of elephants with fences have been found to be of living next to elephants. More research is determinant on the performance of electric fences needed to understand how this tolerance can be (Thouless & Sakwa 1995; Kioko et al. 2008). enhanced.
Although we found buy-in regarding the In terms of empathy, we found mixed responses effectiveness and economic advantages of the from the farmers. There is a general consensus fences, it is clear that the local communities are that elephants should not be killed to mitigate not involved in the maintenance of the fence; HEC. We found surprising, however, that one and most respondents had mixed feelings about out of four farmers considered killing as an contributing to such maintenance. While more acceptable option (Fig. 5). Most of farmers (75%) than half of the farmers agreed that farmers showed little concern about the loss of habitats should be involved in the maintenance and more for elephants. We predict that sympathy for than two thirds were willing to contribute through elephants and other endangered wildlife precedes community initiatives, a solid 56% expressed not people’s care and willingness to compromise for to be willing to contribute time to maintain the their conservation. fence (Fig. 3). This study provides important information This attitude pattern is concerning because the to assess farmers’ buy-in towards Malaysia’s long-term success of electric fences programs government efforts to mitigate HEC and in Malaysia will require a strong community conserve elephants. Our results show that involvement (e.g. Osborn & Parker 2003; Guna- people have very positive perception towards ratne & Premarathne 2005). Indeed, the current the effectiveness and value of the government- program, led by the Malaysian Department of made electric fences but also that their tolerance Wildlife and National Parks should be seen as towards elephants and the conflict associated to a pilot but not something that can be scaled- them is very low. A potential unforeseen risk of up to all conflict hotspots in the country. Only fences made and maintained by the government if farmers take ownership and responsibility in is that they may enhance farmers’ perception the development and maintenance of electric that elephants ‘belong to the government’ and fences, this program will be feasible at a broader hence HEC mitigation is also the government’s scale. Moreover, if this electric fencing program responsibility. In future studies we recommend is scaled, it will be important to consider the to investigate perceptions relative to elephants ecological needs of elephants and potential ‘ownership’ and their implications. Based on our disruptions of their movement patterns through results, we encourage the Malaysian government the landscape. This problem could, to some to continue with this electric fencing program to extent, be mitigated with the design of elephant mitigate HEC. Furthermore, we encourage future corridors within fenced landscapes. work to focus on (1) how to transfer ownership
9 and responsibility to the local communities and (2) Campos-Arceiz A & Blake S (2011) Mega- how to enhance these communities’ willingness gardeners of the forest – the role of elephants in to share landscapes with elephants, even if this seed dispersal. Acta Oecologica 37: 542-553. involves bearing some costs. Importantly, we call for ways to share these costs with other Chen S, Yi Z-F, Campos-Arceiz A, Chen M-Y & stakeholders, such as other government agencies Webb EL (2013) Developing a spatially-explicit, (e.g. agriculture and infrastructure agencies), the sustainable and risk-based insurance scheme private sector (e.g. large plantations), and urban to mitigate human-wildlife conflict. Biological dwellers (who do not suffer HEC but care for Conservation 168: 31-39. elephant conservation). Chong DKF & Dayang Norwana AAB 2005. Acknowledgements Guidelines on the Better Management Practices for the Mitigation and Management of Human- This study is part of the Management & Ecology Elephant Conflict in and around Oil-Palm of Malaysian Elephants (MEME), a joint research Plantations in Indonesia and Malaysia, Version project between the Department of Wildlife and 1. WWF-Malaysia, Petaling Jaya. National Parks (DWNP) Peninsular Malaysia and the University of Nottingham Malaysia Clements R, Rayan MD, Zafir AAW, Ven- Campus. We are very grateful to DWNP, and kataraman A, Alfred R, Payne J, Ambu LN & especially to its Director General Dato’ Abdul Sharma DSK (2010) Trio under threat: Can we Rasid Samsudin, for the permits to conduct this secure the future of rhinos, elephants and tigers research and for the continuous support in the in Malaysia? Biodiversity and Conservation 19: field. Field activities were generously financed 1115-1136. by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (grant NASB-0001) and Yayasan Sime Cox B (2012) An Overview of our Work from Darby (grant M0005.54.04). We are particularly 2006-12. Elephant Conserv. Network, Thailand. grateful to Mr Charles Keliang and wildlife officers from the Rompin, Mawai, Besut, Gerik, Daim MS (1995) Elephant translocation: The Jeli, and Temerloh districts for their help in the Malaysian approach. Gajah 14: 43-48. field; to Farah Najwa, Paveethirah Suppiah, and Fadhil Barsey for their contribution to the data Fernando P, Wikramanayake E, Weerakoon D, collection; to Nurul Azuwa for the long hours Jayasinghe LKA, Gunawardene M & Janaka typing the raw data; to Ange Tan for producing HK (2005) Perceptions and patterns of human– the map in Fig. 1 and useful feedback on the elephant conflict in old and new settlements in Sri manuscript; and to other MEME members for the Lanka: Insights for mitigation and management. support at different stages of the project. Biodiversity & Conservation 14: 2465-2481.
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11 Research Article Gajah 45 (2016) 12-19
Elephants, Border Fence and Human-Elephant Conflict in Northern Bangladesh: Implications for Bilateral Collaboration towards Elephant Conservation
Md. Abdul Aziz1,2*, Mohammad Shamsuddoha1, Md. Maniruddin1, Hoq Mahbub Morshed3, Roknuzzaman Sarker1 and Md. Anwarul Islam4
1Department of Zoology, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh 2Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK 3Bangladesh Forest Department, Government of Bangladesh 4Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka and WildTeam, Dhaka, Bangladesh *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. We conducted a study on human-elephant conflict in northern Bangladesh. Approximately 70–80 elephants were found to move across 50 km of the international border between Meghalaya state of India and Sherpur-Jamalpur districts of Bangladesh. From 2000 to 2015, 78 people and 19 elephants died due to human-elephant conflict in this region. In addition, 228 houses were destroyed by elephants between 2013 and 2014, affecting 133 families in 25 border villages. Our study suggests that the permanent barbed wire fence on the Bangladesh and Indian border is a barrier to the normal movement of elephants, and contributes to the rise of human-elephant conflict.
Introduction management (IUCN Bangladesh 2004, 2011; Islam et al. 2011) and human attitudes towards Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are increas- elephant conservation (Sarker & Roskaft 2010). ingly losing their habitats due to unprecedented However, no comprehensive information human use of resources across their range. on HEC and related issues is available from Intensity of human-elephant conflict (HEC) northern Bangladesh. In this study, we identify mounts where elephant needs and human HEC localities, elephant movement routes and demands overlap. In Bangladesh, Asian elephants trans-frontier elephant crossing points, and are critically endangered (IUCN Bangladesh assess human and elephant losses in Sherpur and 2000) and protected by the Bangladesh Wildlife Jamalpur districts of Northern Bangladesh. (Conservation and Security) Act of 2012. Elephant distribution in Bangladesh is limited to Materials and methods a few areas. Trans-frontier areas covering three administrative districts of northern Bangladesh, Study area Sherpur, Jamalpur and Netrakona harbour several herds of non-resident elephants, coming from the Our study area encompassed two trans-frontier neighbouring Meghalaya state of India (Islam et administrative districts, namely Sherpur and al. 2011). Approximately 200 elephants occur in Jamalpur districts in northern Bangladesh. Both the hilly areas of Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar and districts are bounded by the Meghalaya state of Chittagong Hill Tracts (Aziz et al. 2005; Islam et India to the north and Mymensingh district of al. 2011) in southeast Bangladesh. Bangladesh to the south and east. The Garo Hills are situated in the northern parts of these districts A number of studies have been carried out on adjacent to the western part of Meghalaya. elephants in southeast Bangladesh, including We focused on three upazilas (mid-level their status and distribution (Islam et al. 2006, administrative unit under district) from Sherpur 2011), ecology and HEC (Aziz et al. 2002; (Sreebordi, Jhenaigati, Nalitabari) and one Shamsuddoha & Aziz 2014), conservation (Bakshiganj) from Jamalpur. Of the 606 villages
© 2016 The Authors - Open Access Manuscript Editor: Prithiviraj Fernando 12 in these four upazilas, 54 remote border villages Data collection were selected for this study based on location and previous HEC incidents (Fig. 1). The overall Data was collected through visits to conflict human population density of the study area was areas, focus group discussions, key informant 803 per km2 (BBS 2011). Besides the dominant interviews and secondary data sources. We Muslims, Hindu and several ethnic communities conducted 25 focus group discussions with such as Garo, Hazong, Hodi, Mandi and Koch a total of 376 participants (with 7% of them live in these areas (BBS 2011). Most of the being female) consisting of farmers, local southern parts of the study area consist of human traders, forest officials, NGO workers and local dominated landscapes while remnant degraded government representatives. We interviewed forest patches exist on the northern parts near 94 key informants using a semi-structured the border. The area is predominantly agrarian questionnaire. We selected key informants and and rice is the major crop cultivated. Other crops organized focus group discussions from 54 include mustard, jute, wheat, potato, pulses, villages, covering all four upazilas and seven vegetables, and tobacco. The major income unions (lower level administrative unit under for local people is from agriculture (70%) and upazila). We selected these upazilas and unions commerce (10%) (BBS 2011). based on a reconnaissance study and previous HEC incidents (Islam et al. 2011). The study area is located in the tropical monsoon region and its climate is characterized by high Major issues covered in focus group discussions temperature, heavy rainfall and high humidity. and interviews included HEC localities, intensity, The average temperature is 27°C and annual elephant movement points, herd size, damage rainfall is approximately 2000–2500 mm. The to crops and houses, and injuries and death of topography is very rugged with series of ridges humans and elephants. Data on death and injury running in a north-south direction. The forest of humans and elephants were obtained from remnants consist of a mixture of tropical semi- Forest Department records from 2001 to 2015. evergreen and deciduous trees, bamboos and Data collected from secondary sources and bushes. through focus group discussions were validated
Figure 1. Study area, showing location of villages, unions and upazilas.
13 Figure 2. Gate between Bangladesh and India in Figure 3. Metal and barbed wire fence between northern Bangladesh. Bangladesh and India. by subsequent visits. Field data collection was let them through to Meghalaya when elephants done between 2013 and 2014. approached the fence from Bangladesh. Our focus group discussion participants stated that We used Garmin eTrex GPS units to record there were no ‘gates’ when the fence was built locations of elephant movement routes and entry in 2007 and consequently elephants broke many points across the border, crop and house damage, parts of the fence to cross the border. This was and death and injury of humans and elephants. also noted by Choudhury (2007), who mentioned To record movement routes, we followed tracks that elephants broke the fence after repeated and signs (e.g. feeding and damage signs) of attempts. Therefore, such ‘gates’ were probably elephants, in addition to interview data. Repeated created to facilitate elephant movement across tracks (back and forth) noted during field visits the border. were identified as elephant movement routes. GPS data was imported into ArcGIS 10.2 Our elephant movement track data and interview and Google Earth to delineate HEC hotspots. results show that elephants used the gates with Microsoft Excel was used for data analysis. varying intensity. Nine gates were used frequently, seven moderately and 28 occasionally. Besides Results and discussion the gates, elephants used 11 rivers and streams as underpasses (there is a motorable road on the Elephant movement through the trans-frontier Indian side approximately parallel to the fence fence and there are bridges and culverts where rivers and streams cross the border line), which cross Border areas of Sherpur and Jamalpur are the border from India to Bangladesh (Fig. 4). separated from India by a strongly built fence across ca. 50 km of the border (Figs. 2 & 3). The fence has 44 ‘gates’ within this area. The highest number of such gates was on the boundary of Sreebordi (n = 15), followed by Bakshigonj (n = 11), Nalitabari (n = 9) and Jhenaigati (n = 9) upazila. The gates are approximately 3 m width. Interview results indicated that the gates usually remained closed but were opened by the Indian Border Security Force (BSF) when a herd of elephants from Meghalaya appeared to want to move into Bangladesh and closed once Figure 4. Bridge and fence over river that crosses they crossed. The BSF also opened the gates to the India-Bangladesh border at Haligram village.
14 Figure 5. Map showing border entry points, elephant movement routes, and HEC incidents.
Based on observations and interview data, we and homes frequently because the border gates estimate that 70–80 elephants make back and are next to the village. Thus the chances of forth movements across the border between the HEC incidents around the border gates maybe two countries. Group size ranged from single increased. Overall, while HEC incidents were individuals to a maximum of 13 elephants in a limited to a few localities in the past (Islam et herd. The source populations of these elephants al. 2011), we noted that HEC has increased in may be three major protected areas (Balpakram many areas of adjacent Jamalpur and Netrakona National Park, Siju Wildlife Sanctuary, Baghmara districts including in previously affected areas. Reserve Forest) of Meghalaya located near our study area. These protected areas are thought We found that elephants used adjacent areas of to support about 1800 elephants (Marcot et al. the border more than areas away from the border 2011). and moved a maximum of 7 km into Bangladesh. Our observations and information suggest Based on 253 elephant signs detected (foot that elephants cross the border from India to print, feeding and raiding signs) we identified Bangladesh, raid for a few weeks and then move 40 elephant movement routes in our study area back across the border, crossing the fence through which were linked with the 44 border gates (Figs. gates and underpasses. Elephants that use these 2 & 5) and 11 rivers and streams. The average trans-frontier areas may also be obstructed by length of these routes was approximately 5 km the fence and remain in the Bangladesh side for (Fig. 5). We noted 18 such routes in Jhenaigati a longer time. Our results confirm the findings Upazila, 10 in Sreebordi, 9 in Nalitabari and 3 of Choudhury (2007), who suggested that the in Bakshigonj. Many of these routes or areas barbed wire fence between the India-Bangladesh located in these upazilas were not used in the border could increase HEC. past but are now being used because elephants can access the other side only through certain Local people of Nalitabari, Bakshigonj, Sreebordi points in the border. Thus, the permanent fence and Jhenaigati of Sherpur and Jamalpur districts may restrict normal movement of elephants. affected by HEC are increasingly becoming Some villages did not experience HEC incidents intolerant towards elephants due to the rising in the past but elephants now raid their crops trend of incidents (Fig. 6). Our interviews found
15 Damage to crops and houses
Paddy cultivation was the most common agricultural practice in the study area and three paddy seasons covered almost the whole year: Three major paddy varieties were cultivated: Aman from December to January, Boro from March to May and Aus from July to August. Raiding paddy fields and other crops (e.g., cabbage, cauliflower, bean, potato), has become Figure 6. Annual human deaths and injuries commonplace across 35 border villages located caused by elephants between 2001 and 2015. in the upazila of Sherpur and Jamalpur districts. Among them, Kangsha Union under Jhenaigati that 95% of respondents were frustrated with HEC Upazila suffered the highest crop raiding incidents incidents and wanted immediate mitigation. In (30) in 2013, with a significant number of raids our focus group discussions 63% of participants also in Ramchandrakura (16), Singaboruna (13), said that coexistence is impossible with the Nunni Paragao (12) and Ranishimul (11) (Fig. current state of HEC. However, 32% of focus 7). On a more local scale, Balijuri of Sreebordi group participants still believed in coexistence if Upazila experienced 10 crop raiding incidents the Forest Department took appropriate measures followed by Gajni (7), Nakshi (7), Gandhigao to protect their crops and houses from ‘Indian’ (6), and Jhulgao (6). Aman (40%) was the most elephants. affected paddy variety followed by Boro (31%) and Aus (29%) (Fig. 8). More incidents of crop- Permanent fences along the international border raiding were observed in 2013 (61%) compared in northern Bangladesh are an emerging threat to to 2014 (39%). elephants (Islam et al. 2011) and have become barriers to the normal movement of wild elephants A total of 228 houses were destroyed by (Choudhury 2007). Our observations support elephants between 2013 and 2014 along with these findings as many elephant movement trampling of stored grain and other household routes have been cut off due to the construction material. Consequently, 133 families in 25 of the permanent fence, resulting in geographic border villages were affected in these raids with expansion of HEC over the years. Previous studies a higher frequency of incidents in 2013 (n = 70). also suggest that HEC is strongly correlated Types of houses destroyed were thatch-roofed with the disruption of elephant corridors by (136), thatched (36), tin-shed (27), wooden (22) establishing human settlements and conversion and brick built (7). Three houses of two forest to agricultural land (IUCN Bangladesh 2011). stations and two temples and one grocery shop were also destroyed. Nalitabari Upazila (n = 120) experienced a higher frequency of house raids
Figure 7. Raiding intensity of paddy in seven Figure 8. Raiding intensity by paddy variety in unions in the study area during 2013-2014. 2013 and 2014.
16 Table 1. Details of elephant deaths from 2008 to 2015. Year Village Union Upazila Sex Cause of death 2008 Dudhnoi Kangsha Jhenaigati Calf Unknown 2009 Bakakura Kangsha Jhenaigati 1 Female, Unknown 1 Calf 2009 Boro Gajni Kangsha Jhenaigati Male Unknown 2009 Gandhigao Kangsha Jhenaigati Unknown Fallen into well 2010 Boro Gajni Kangsha Jhenaigati Male (injured) Shot at conflict situation 2010 Hatipagar Poragao Nalitabari 1 Male, Accidental electrocution 1 Female 2011 Balijuri Rani Shimul Sreebordi Male Shot at conflict situation 2011 Gajni Kangsha Jhenaigati Male Unknown 2011 Gandhigao Kangsha Jhenaigati Unknown Unknown 2012 Shomnathpara Dhanua Bakshigonj Male Shot by poacher for tusks 2012 Panihata Ramchandrakura Nalitabari Male Unknown 2012 Gopalpur Beat Office Nalitabari Female Unknown 2012 Nalitabari (Haluaghat) Ramchandrakura Nalitabari Male Shot by border guard at conflict situation 2014 Balijuri Office Para Rani Shimul Sreebordi Male Unknown 2014 Mayaghashi Ramchandrakura Nalitabari Male Fallen into well 2015 Hariakona Ranishimul Sreebordi Female Shot at conflict situation 2015 Halchati Kangsha Jhenaigati Male Shot at conflict situation 2015 Tawakocha Kangsha Jhenaigati Unknown Fallen in pond followed by Sreebordi (n = 45), Jhenaigati (n = highest number (15%) was in 2009 and only 33) and Bakshigonj (n = 16). On a local scale, single deaths occurred in 2001 and 2003 (Fig. Daodhara Katabari village in Nalitabari was 6). Approximately 42% of people died in crop severely affected by house destruction (n = 53) fields and 38% during house raiding. Most of in 2014 while the highest number of house raids the people (90%) who died or were injured took place in Batkuchi village (n = 36) in 2013. were male, possibly because men were mainly involved with the protection of crops and houses Human death and injury from elephants.
From 2000 to 2015, at least 78 people died Elephant death and injury and 68 were injured in HEC incidents. The Observations and secondary data revealed that 19 elephants died due to HEC incidents from 2008 to 2015. The highest number of elephants died in 2009 and no deaths occurred in 2013 (Fig. 9). Many elephants were injured during people’s attempts to prevent crop and property damage. Jhenaigati Upazila was the highest elephant- incident area with 50% of deaths. About 55% of elephants that died were males, although the sex of a few elephants was unknown. The Forest Department recovered tusks from two Figure 9. Elephant deaths from 2008 to 2015. elephants, but poachers or local people removed
17 the tusks from six elephants, before detection. etc. (MoEF 2010). Most of our respondents (87%) Six elephants were shot dead by law enforcement appreciated this compensation scheme. However, agencies during HEC incidents to stop further 69% of respondents expressed apprehension of the casualties, while several were accidental or due bureaucratic process of approval of applications. to unknown causes (Table 1). Only 12% of respondents were happy with the current compensation approval process. HEC hotspots In terms of community effort, local people devised We identified several HEC hotspots based on a number of traditional tools and approaches the number of crop and house raiding incidents, to deter elephants from raiding their crop fields and human and elephant casualties. Of six HEC and houses (Table 2). However, most of these hotspots identified, three were in Jhenaigati, two measures were short-term solutions, which are in Sreebodri and one in Nalitabari Upazila (Fig. largely ineffective. Many of these tools are lethal 5). Forest Department records show that elephants or often leave elephants wounded and enraged, started coming into conflict with humans in these resulting in more raiding incidents afterwards. areas in 1997, although HEC was sporadic and minimal then. As in southeast Bangladesh (IUCN Bangladesh 2011; Shamsuddoha & Aziz 2014) encroachment Compensation and mitigation measures of forest land, clear-felling through social forestry practices (forest plots are clear-cut at maturity), A compensation policy was formulated under the uncontrolled firewood collection, land conversion Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order 1973 and uncontrolled grazing were commonplace in [revised as Bangladesh Wildlife (Conservation the study area. Remaining forest habitats in the and Security) Act 2012] in 2010 to recompense region under government management have been the losses caused by elephants. The amounts severely degraded due to overexploitation and allocated were, US$ 1400 for loss of life, US$ encroachment. People living in the study area are 700 for major physical injury and US$ 350 for poor farmers and predominantly cultivate paddy. loss of livestock, household property, trees, crops Rice being a crop frequently raided by elephants,
Table 2. Locally used tools and their effectiveness in deterring raiding elephants. Tool Preparation Effectiveness and impact Fire spear Spear attached with a long stick and Often cause burn and injury to elephants. flammable natural fibres. Fuel (kerosene) is Very effective but makes elephants enraged. added to make it catch fire before use. Iron spear Large iron spear attached to a long bamboo Causes serious wounds and injury to elephants. stick. Thrown towards elephants from a Effective. However, often makes elephants reachable distance. aggressive leading to even more raids. Stones & sticks Villagers keep reserve of stones/bricks and Used to make elephants go away from a raiding sticks in their backyard to use when necessary. spot but not so useful and effective now. Fire crackers Thrown towards elephants from short Used to scare elephants. Very effective but too distance. costly to use on regular basis. Sound maker Empty plastic drum, hand mike, bullhorn, etc. Used to gather people and to produce sound for deterring elephants. Moderately effective. Setting fire Dried fuel wood and bamboo is kept stored in Set fire by adding fuel to it, close to crop fields and backyard. houses. Effective as short-term measure. Flash light High-powered flashlight with portable Very effective but not widely available being generator. expensive to afford and maintain. Chilli powder Locally made dry chilli powder. Thrown towards elephants from very close dis- tance. Effective but often makes elephants furious. Salt container Salt put in container for setting outside crop Some ethnic communities put salt to attract ele- fields. phants out of their crop fields; not much effective.
18 alternative crops should be explored. For long- Choudhury A (2007) Impact of border fence along term conservation, afforestation with suitable India-Bangladesh border on elephant movement. plant species and stopping exploitation of forest Gajah 26: 27-30. resources is urgently needed to restore degraded elephant habitats. Grazing of livestock within the Islam MA (2006) Conservation of the Asian forest habitats should be stopped. The remaining elephants in Bangladesh. Gajah 25: 21-26. forest patches should be preserved as a core elephant zone while lands under social forestry Islam MA, Mohsanin S, Chowdhury GW, schemes can be used as buffer zones. Building Chowdhury SU, Aziz, MA, Uddin M, Saif S, relationships between Forest Department and Chakma S, Akter R, Jahan I & Azam I (2011) local people is essential to better manage HEC Current Status of Asian Elephants in Bangladesh. and habitats in these areas. Gajah 35: 21-24.
Immediate collaboration between India and IUCN Bangladesh (2000) Red Book of Threatened Bangladesh is necessary to identify and preserve Mammals of Bangladesh. IUCN - The World elephant routes allowing free elephant movement Conservation Union, Bangladesh Country Office, across the fence. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Acknowledgements IUCN Bangladesh (2004) Conservation of Asian elephants in Bangladesh. IUCN - The World We are grateful to local people who participated as Conservation Union, Bangladesh Country Office, respondents in this study and Forest Department Dhaka, Bangladesh. officials for providing their cordial support during this study. Local government administration IUCN Bangladesh (2011) The Asian Elephants provided office space for conducting focus group and Associated Human-Elephant Conflicts in discussion with respondents. We are thankful to South-Eastern Bangladesh. IUCN – The World the anonymous reviewer for the comments, which Conservation Union, Bangladesh Country Office, greatly improved the content of the manuscript. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
References Marcot BG, Kumar A, Talukdar G & Srivastava AK (2011) Habitat relationships of Asian Aziz MA (2002) Ecology of Asian Elephant, elephants in shifting-cultivation landscapes of Elephas maximus and Its Interaction with Man in Meghalaya, Northeast India. Gajah 34: 8-17. Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Zoology, Jahangirnagar MoEF (Ministry of Environment and Forests) University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. (2011) Compensation Policy for Casualties Caused by Wildlife. Bangladesh Forest Aziz MA, Feeroz MM & Shahriar AFM (2005) Department, MoEF, Government of the People’s Feeding movements of the Asian elephants in Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. the northern side of the river Karnafuli in the Chittagong Hill-Tracts, Bangladesh. Bangladesh Sarker AHMR & Røskaft E (2010) Human Journal of Life Science 17: 51-58. attitudes towards conservation of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Bangladesh. International BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics) (2011) J. of Biodiversity and Conservation 2: 316-327. Population & Housing Census 2011. Statistics and Informatics Division, Ministry of Planning, Shamsuddoha M & Aziz MA (2014) Conservation Government of the People’s Republic of status of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary of Bangladesh. Tigerpaper 41: 6-13.
19 Research Article Gajah 45 (2016) 20-27
Human-Elephant Conflict around North and South Forest Divisions of Nilambur, Kerala, India
C. K. Rohini1*, T. Aravindan1, K. S. Anoop Das2, 3and P. A.Vinayan4
1Post Graduate Department of Zoology and Research Centre, Sree Narayana College, Kannur, Kerala, India 2Centre for Conservation Ecology, Department of Zoology, M.E.S Mampad College, Kerala, India 3Wildlife Research and Conservation Trust, Chungathara, Kerala, India 4WWF-India, Western Ghats Nilgiris Landscape Office, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. We studied attitudes towards elephant conservation and human-elephant conflict through a questionnaire survey of 239 forest fringe residents of Nilambur North and South Forest Divisions, Kerala. Respondents perceived restriction of free movement and crop damage as the most important problem. Conflict increased in some areas during the rainy season due to failure of protection methods, and in others in the summer due to availability of water and fruiting trees in the forest fringes. In some areas conflict occurred throughout the year because of perennial crops. Co-operative management of conflict was supported by only 27.4% and most considered conflict management as the exclusive responsibility of the Forest Department. Two thirds of the respondents expressed positive attitudes towards elephant conservation.
Introduction in conflict related instances in India, and nearly 500,000 families are affected by crop damage Conservation of the Asian elephant (Elephas (MoEF 2010). HEC negatively affects people’s maximus) ensures maintenance of large tracts of tolerance and thereby poses a challenge to the natural habitats that facilitate ecological functions survival of elephants (Sarker & Roskaft 2010). and improve the quality of life of millions of Due to regular conflict incidents people oppose people across India (Baskaran 2013). Expanding ventures promoting conservation of elephants human populations and developmental activities in the wild. It has been recognized that people have isolated elephant habitats of Western residing in proximity to conservation areas make Ghats (Sukumar 1989), where the largest Asian significant contributions towards the survival of elephant population in the world occurs. Asian elephants (Naughton-Treves 1998). Therefore it elephants require larger areas of natural habitat is necessary to understand the people’s opinion than any other mammalian species in tropical about the elephant conflict and their attitudes Asia for survival, therefore are severely affected towards conservation. Evaluation of people’s by development activities (Sukumar 1989). attitude towards wild elephants is also essential in Human-elephant conflict (HEC) has been an formulating appropriate policies for conservation important issue for conservationists across the of the species (Hill 1998). world (Lee et al. 1986). Being a conservation hotspot within a thickly populated region, HEC The present study was carried out in the forest is very pronounced in the Western Ghats region. fringe regions of Nilambur North and South Forest Divisions, part of Southern Western Ghats. Elephants are among the most conflict-prone The objectives of this study was to understand wildlife species in India, causing large-scale (i) the impact of HEC on forest fringe residents damage to crops and human lives. Each year, (ii) seasonal patterns of conflict (iii) temporal nearly 400 people and 100 elephants are killed pattern of occurrence of conflict and associated
© 2016 The Authors - Open Access Manuscript Editor: Prithiviraj Fernando 20 factors (iv) people’s willingness for co-operative in the fringe areas depend on the forest for their mitigation of conflict (vi) views about ‘who is livelihood, and are involved in livestock grazing, responsible to solve the conflict’ (v) attitudes fodder and fuel wood collection. towards elephant conservation. There are three seasons in the year in the study Methods area. Summer begins from February and lasts up to the end of May. This is followed by the The Nilambur forests, which cover an area of southwest monsoon, which is the main rainy 760.29 km2 is administratively divided into season in Kerala. It begins in early June and Nilambur South and North Forest Divisions (Fig. continues till the end of September. Winter 1). These forests are part of the Nilambur Elephant season is from October to January. Reserve (Range No: 8) where the elephant population is in danger of splitting into isolated A questionnaire survey was conducted with sub-populations due to habitat fragmentation 239 residents in 17 forest fringe villages. (Sukumar & Easa 2006). Forest areas under Respondents were selected from households less Nilambur North and South Division support an than 500 m from the forest boundary. The survey elephant population of about 525 individuals was performed through interviews lasting 30–45 (Anon 2012). The Vazhikadavu corridor across minutes. The questionnaire sought information the Nilambur-Gudallur Ghat Road (Nilambur on elephant conflict, seasonality of conflict, North Division) is the only link between the trend in conflict, factors behind the increased North and South Forest Divisions. The New incidences of conflict, attitude towards elephant Amarambalam Reserve Forest (NARF), which conservation and willingness for cooperative is part of the Nilambur South Forest Division, management of conflict. forms a core area of the Nilgiri Biosphere. There are about 38 forest fringe villages within Results ~1 km distance from the forest boundary, with rapid population expansion. Retaliatory killing Problems experienced due to conflict of elephants, agitations and farmer protests following conflict, are very common in these Of the respondents, 73.6% (n = 176) mentioned areas (Rohini et al. 2015). Many people residing that the presence of elephants on roads in the
Figure 1. Map of the study area. Grids indicate the villages sampled.
21 evening restricted their movements and 39.3% (n in fringes and fruiting season of jack and mango = 94) experienced crop damage. Several villagers trees. According to 20.5% (n = 49) of the villagers cut down jack trees due to fear of elephants there was no seasonality for crop raiding and it coming near their houses and consequent crop occurred throughout the year. As plantation crops damage during the jack fruit season. Property such as coconut (Cocos nucifera) and arecanut damage by elephants was experienced by 27.6% (Areca catechu) formed a high percentage of the (n = 66). Among them, 84% mentioned damage total area under cultivation, crop raiding occurred to water pipelines within the forest as the most throughout the year. According to 11.5% (n important difficulty experienced. Other damaged = 27) of people crop raiding occurred more in property included barbed wire fences, water winter, associated with the maturity of crops and tanks, vehicles and compound walls. Incidents seasonal movement of elephants. of direct attacks or injuries caused by elephants were experienced by 3.3% (n = 8) of respondents. Attitudes towards cooperative management of conflict Trend in HEC and associated factors Of the respondents, 77.2% (n = 185) considered Of the respondents, 79.9% (n = 191) perceived the Forest Department to have the sole that conflict with elephants was much less responsibility for HEC mitigation, 19.1% (n = during the past, but has intensified significantly 45) suggested that the Forest Department and in recent times, while 15.1% (n = 36) found a people should share the responsibility and 3.7% decline in intensity of conflict compared to the (n = 8) considered it as the sole responsibility of past. According to 5.0% (n = 12) of respondents, villagers. elephant intrusions into forest fringe villages occurred in the past and continue at present. They Of the respondents 88.6% (n = 212) expressed also observed that the level of conflict was stable. willingness to participate in co-operative management of HEC with the Forest Department According to the respondents, increased incidence while 11.4% (n = 27) were unwilling. Though of conflict could be due to several factors. majority of the respondents expressed their Food scarcity in the forest and poor quality of willingness, most believed that co-operative existing forest habitat were suggested by 65% of management would be in name only and would respondents, population expansion of elephants not be effective in practice. Of the respondents and migration from adjacent forests by 19.4%, 79.9% (n = 191) were willing to pay for the human activities such as destroying bamboo and maintenance of mitigation activities and 20.1% setting forest fires by 9%, reduced retaliation due were not. to strict laws by 4.6% and attraction to palatable crops by 2.0%. The respondents who found Elephant conservation a decline in conflict stated that the mitigation methods are very effective in preventing elephant Considering respondents’ attitudes towards entry into the villages. elephant conservation in the wild, positive responses were expressed by 62.4% (n = 143). Seasonality of conflict Of those, 79% (n = 113) expressed compassion towards elephants as they had a right to live in When asked about seasonality of conflict, 38% the wild and 16% (n = 23) considered elephants a (n = 91) perceived that it was highest during the property of the forest. A few respondents (5%, n rainy season. According to their opinion, HEC = 7) regarded elephants as Gods and appreciated intensified during the rainy season due to higher their presence in the forest. According to the failure of protection methods, power failures, religious views of few respoondents, it was a sin and poor guarding and vigilance. According to to mention anything bad against elephants. The 30% of respondents (n = 72) conflict occurred interference of humans into the elephants’ life was mainly in the summer due to water availability questioned by some respondents who mentioned
22 positive attitudes towards conservation. About for damage during the rainy season could be the 36.2% (n = 83) of respondents expressed a greater failure of protection methods during negative attitude towards elephant conservation rains. For example, insufficient charging of due to fear of crop damage, restriction of free batteries powering electric fences by decreased movement, and damage caused to economically exposure of solar panels makes electric fences important trees and teak plantations. ineffective. Damage to elephant proof trenches by water logging and soil erosion due to heavy Discussion rain results in failure of ditches. Additionally, greater difficulty in crop guarding because of It was observed that the majority of residents heavy rains could contribute to higher conflict in experienced difficulties associated with the rainy season. elephants. Fear associated with the presence of elephants near their residences and restriction of A third of our respondents stated that crop raiding free movement were the most important problems was higher in the summer. Presence of perennial due to elephants mentioned by respondents. water sources in some villages abutting the forest In some villages, people depended on forest boundary, attract elephants in the summer and roads, which were the only connection between subsequently they raid crops. In other villages, the village and town areas. In such instances the presence of crops such as jack and mango they experienced difficulty to return home after the fruiting of which occurred in summer led to work, go to relatives’ places or to church, due to higher conflict. fear of the presence of elephants. Restriction of movement is a less documented form of HEC. A few respondents observed occurrence of It was mentioned as the most serious problem conflict throughout the year associated with after crop raiding in North Shimba Hills, Kenya, the presence of perennial crops. This finding is with disruption of social activities in the evening comparable to results observed in North West and children reporting to school late (Kamula Maharashtra where crop raiding occurs all year as 2003). The presence of elephants interfering plantation crops are abundant (Mehta & Kulkarni with children’s schooling was also reported in 2013). the Transmara District, adjacent to Masai Mara National Reserve in Kenya (Sitati et al. 2012). Damage to property by elephants was reported by close to one third of respondents, the majority Crop depredation by elephants has been identified of whom mentioned recurrent damage to water as the most critical HEC issue in India (Sukumar pipe lines as the most serious issue. In the study & Gadgil 1988; Ramakumar et al. 2014) and area, to provide water to residents lacking wells, Africa (Sitati et al. 2003; Stephenson 2004). In water holes were made in forest 50–500m regions with large-scale seasonal crops in forest away from villages and pipes laid from there fringes, patterns of wildlife conflict are strongly to households. Elephants mostly damage the influenced by the agricultural calendar (Wilson pipes by accident, when moving through the et al. 2013). In our study, crop damage was area. But during summer, damages to pipelines mentioned by only about half the respondents, were very frequent as the elephants used the possibly because few were doing large-scale water holes for drinking. People set up barbed cultivation, extensive crop damages were less in wire fences around the waterholes to prevent the study area. elephants from destroying their water source and contaminating the drinking water during Previous studies in Kerala have observed a summer. Though it was not expensive to repair higher incidence of crop raiding by elephants in damage to pipelines, villagers found difficulty the rainy season (Easa & Sankar 2001). In our in going into the forest several times a day for study area, one third of the residents experienced repairs. In most instances, as the men went out crop damage during the rainy season and another to work in the morning, females feared to go and third during the summer. One of the main reasons repair the pipes. Property damage is a common
23 manifestation of HEC. It was the commonest A few respondents observed a decline in conflict type of damage around Chitwan National Park incidents associated with the presence of effective and Parsa Wildlife Reserve in Nepal, were crop barriers, which are maintained regularly in a damages were found to be much less (Pant et al. few villages. The creation of barriers and other 2015). deterrents must be explored to mitigate elephant conflict. Unresolved wildlife conflicts create Very few respondents had experienced attacks negative attitudes towards both the government by elephants, but several reported accidental and wildlife related developments (Anderson & meetings and narrow escapes while collecting Pariela 2005). fuel wood or water, grazing cattle or in driving away crop raiding elephants. As injury or death People regarded the Forest Department as the sole due to elephants is publicized rapidly (Ngure stakeholder in resolving conflict, as they were 1995), it causes fear among people and local powerless and distressed by their unsuccessful support for elephant conservation is lost (Wilson attempts using traditional practices to reduce et al. 2013). During the survey, it was observed losses. People believed that expenses associated that fear persisted in a whole village after the with addressing the problem could only be death of a tribeswoman by an elephant. It was borne by the government, as they were very also noted that, following this incident, people high. However those respondents who preferred did not cooperate with the Forest Department to village-led approaches, expressed suspicion extinguish a forest fire near their village. of the Forest Department due to perceptions of officials’ corruption and lack of sincerity. People The majority of respondents observed recent also demanded that the government should intensification in conflict. This is particularly take the initiative for planning cooperative important because increasing conflict creates management of conflict. These results regarding negative attitudes towards elephants (Sarkar et co-operative management were similar to al. 2013). Habitat destruction and food scarcity findings by Ogra (2009) in Rajaji National Park, within the forest habitat were suggested as the Uttarakhand, India. major reasons for increase in conflict. Similar findings were observed in Kameng Elephant As the majority of respondents were willing to Reserve, Northeast India (Sarkar et al. 2013). This support co-operative management of conflict is probably an important factor in our study area despite the mistrust, there is still hope for a as large areas of natural forests have been cleared cooperative approach to conflict resolution for monoculture teak and rubber plantations in in our study area. Proper communication and the Nilambur region (Kakkoth 2001). One fifth appropriate implementation of strategies by a of respondents suggested population expansion cooperatively operated institution involving and migration of elephants from nearby forests forest authorities, ground level staff and people through established forested corridors that are could ensure trust on both sides (Ogra 2009). adjacent to human settlements as the reason for Such an approach would be relevant to our study increase in conflict. Overpopulation of elephants area also. has been suggested as a main reason for conflict in India (Karanth & Nepal 2012). Occurrence of When farmers feel powerless to manage conflict, conflict by elephants migrating from a protected they hold wildlife managers responsible for crop area through a corridor adjacent to human losses and expect action from them (AfESG settlements was reported within fringe villages 2000). Osborn and Parker (2003) observed of Kaziranga National Park, Assam (Di Fonzo that shifting crop protection responsibility to 2007). Similarly, migration of elephants from farmers and providing the tools they need, is Karnataka state to Kolhapur and Sindhudurg the best approach for preventing conflict with district of Maharashtra and subsequent conflict wildlife and the more responsibility given to has been reported (Mehta & Kulkarni 2013). farmers for crop protection, more effective the deterrent. Therefore, people’s participation is
24 essential for conflict management. By combining despite losses. In our study area, positive attitudes villagers’ experience in living with elephants towards elephant conservation were mostly due and abilities of forest staff, the conflict could to sympathy for their right to exist in forests. A be alleviated significantly. Moreover in practice few respondents had positive attitudes due to the it is almost impossible to depend on forest staff belief that elephants were the manifestation of during a conflict incident. Therefore, collective God. Such beliefs can have a major impact on action by villagers alone will enable successful elephant conservation (Sarkar et al. 2013). management of conflict. The ecological value of elephant conservation Community-based conservation has been was totally unknown to the respondents suggested as the most practical approach to irrespective of whether they appreciated elephant conflict management in developing countries conservation or not. This was evident as several (Mehta & Kellert 1998). Community based respondents were concerned that elephants HEC mitigation was successfully practiced caused damage to forests by destroying trees and in fringe villages of Nameri National Park losses to government as teak trees planted for and Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam commercial purposes by the Forest Department (Zimmerman et al. 2009) and Simao region of were also damaged. Environmental education Yunnan province, China (Zhang & Wang 2012). programs have been successful in encouraging Although community-based HEC mitigation better implementation of forest management does not address the root cause of conflict, it schemes (Gillingham & Lee 1999). Therefore, it helps to stabilize tolerance and thereby facilitate is necessary to improve conservation attitudes of long-term survival of elephants (Zimmerman et people by making them aware of the ecological al. 2009). importance of elephants in forest ecosystems.
A study in Laikipia, Kenya by Ellis et al. (2014) We conclude that ecological awareness, has shown that communities were willing to pay interaction among stakeholders and participatory for constructing or maintaining electric fences to maintenance of mitigation methods could reduce mitigate crop damage by elephants. The majority conflict and contribute towards coexistence of of respondents in our study as well expressed people and elephants in this human-dominated their willingness to pay for the maintenance landscape. of barriers. Only a few respondents expressed unwillingness due to financial problems. Acknowledgements
Approximately one third of respondents Funding for the study was provided by the Kerala expressed negative attitudes towards elephants State Council for Science, Technology and due to impacts of HEC. Elephant conservation Environment (KSCSTE), Thiruvananthapuram, is difficult if people consider elephants as their Govt. of Kerala. The authors extend their gratitude enemy. In some high conflict areas such as to the Principal, faculty and researchers of the Nyatana Game Park, Zimbabwe, elephants are Zoology Department of Sree Narayana College, seen as pests, which must be eradicated to reduce and MES Mampad College for their support. conflict (Taruvinga & Mushunje 2014). RCK thanks Kannur University for providing the opportunity for doing this research and all who Despite losses due to conflict in their daily life, assisted in fieldwork. We acknowledge DST, about two third of respondents expressed positive Government of India for setting up the research attitudes towards elephant conservation. Similar laboratory. We also thank the Forest Department, results were observed in Manas National Park, Nilambur North and South Forest Divisions and India (Nath et al. 2015) and in Shew-U-Daung the villagers for their support. We also thank the Wildlife Sanctuary, Myanmar (Allendorf et al. reviewers of this paper and editors of Gajah, for 2015) where people appreciated conservation their help in improving the manuscript.
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27 Research Article Gajah 45 (2016) 28-32
Influence of Elephant-Human Interactions on Agrarian Communities in the Bengaluru-Bannerghatta Landscape – A Perspective Survey
Tracy Mabeluanga1, Dilip Kumar A. V.2, Aaranya Gayathri2 and Avinash Krishnan2*
1Department of Biology, University of Namur, Namur, Belgium 2A Rocha India, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. A survey of the perceptions and attitudes of farmers towards human-elephant conflict was conducted in 17 villages abutting Bannerghatta National Park. Human- elephant conflict was found to be high with 89.68% of respondents having experienced crop damages. Human-elephant conflict impacts on the lives of people consisted of economic loss, stress and lack of food for subsistence. Economic status, gender and religion influenced their attitudes towards elephants. The majority of respondents had positive attitudes towards elephants but indicated the need for more intervention from the Forest Department in managing and mitigating human-elephant conflict.
Introduction In villages abutting Bannerghatta National Park (BNP) despite escalating HEC, 85.09% of The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is of residents felt that elephants need to be conserved cultural, religious and national reverence in (Varma et al. 2009). Nevertheless, about 2 India. However, with escalating human-elephant elephant fatalities are reported every year around conflict (HEC), on-going socio-cultural and BNP, mostly from electrocution (Gopalakrishna economic transformations, and diminishing et al. 2010). religious sentiments (Varma et al. 2009), the tolerance for elephants is drastically reducing. In this study, we gauge the level of tolerance Approaches supportive of conservation of communities abutting BNP, by conducting a attributed to religious symbolism, especially in survey of the perceptions and attitudes of farmers rural communities (Bandara & Tisdell 2003) towards HEC. We surveyed selected conflict- are frequently subdued by socio-economic prone villages abutting the Bannerghatta Wildlife issues from crop depredations (Jasmine et al. Range (BWLR) of BNP. The range was chosen 2015). Individual perception of confrontations based on: gradually eliminate public acceptance of co- existence (Barua et al. 2010). In India where 1. Presence of Bannerghatta Biological Park HEC can be primarily attributed to agriculture- within BWLR, harbouring 19 captive related conflicts, conflict mitigation favours an elephants (8♂:11♀) (pers. comm. Phalke anthropocentric approach (see Doyle et al. 2010). S) potentially attracting wild bulls during the mating period, ascertained by reports Anti-depredation measures such as electrocution suggesting seasonal movement of wild bulls and gunshots have resulted in the death of about between BNP and Savandurga State Forest 105 elephants between 2007 and 2012 in the State (12º84’–94’N, 77º27’–32’E) through the of Karnataka (KETF 2012). Comprehending northern regions of BNP (Ralph et al. 2015). underlying factors that determine people’s 2. Being the northern most range, it would be attitudes towards elephants may aid in creating influenced by Bengaluru city lying about better mitigation measures and a possibility for 20 km north, altering rural culture and co-existence (Nath et al. 2015). perceptions.
© 2016 The Authors - Open Access Manuscript Editor: Prithiviraj Fernando 28 Methods
Study area
Bannerghatta National Park (N 12°20’–50’ and E 77°27’–38’) positioned on the northern most tip of Eastern Ghats in the state of Karnataka is part of the Mysore Elephant Reserve. The 260 km2 park adjoins the North Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu) in the south-east and the Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary (Karnataka) in the south-west. It has two of the 20 identified elephant corridors in South India - the 0.3–0.4 km wide Karadikkal – Madeswara and the 1 km wide proposed Tali corridor. Figure 1. Map of Bannerghatta Wildlife Range showing locations of surveyed villages. Inset: BNP, however, has a shape index of 5.46, including Bannerghatta National Park. enclosures, exposing 280 km of the perimeter to non-forested regions (Karikalan 2013) (Fig. causes of HEC, mitigation measures being 1). There are more than 130 settlements within practiced and measures proposed to Forest 5 km from the park with half the population Department, were asked, to aid in assessing practicing subsistence agriculture. Analysis of residents’ level of tolerance towards crop- compensation claims found 8 villages (3 around raiding and probable level of threat posed to BWLR) to have experienced crop depredation the elephants. Attitudes suggesting repulsion or every year between 1999 and 2005, with the fear towards elephants were noted. Use of words intensity of depredation being more in BWLR such as ‘devil’, ‘bad’, ‘anger’ and ‘not always than in other areas (Varma et al. 2009). About good’ used in relation to elephants, was taken 37 types of crops are cultivated around BNP and to indicate repulsion. The survey also attempted all of them are damaged and/or consumed by to understand the influence of economic status elephants (Varma et al. 2009). on perception, by taking three acres of cropland owned as the dividing line between low and high Mitigation efforts from the Forest Department economic strata. Supplementary data collected included installation of elephant barriers along included demography, history of agricultural the boundary, and compensation for crop practices, religious views and knowledge on damages. During 2013-2014, crop compensation forests and elephants. amounting to USD 126,243 was paid for 2089 incidents. Analyses were performed using R-Studio (version 3.1.2) and Excel. Significance was tested Methodology using Pearson’s χ2 Test or Fisher Exact Test with P<0.05. 17 villages abutting western and eastern margins of BWLR were surveyed between 28th February Results and 23rd April 2016. In-person interviews were conducted with informed consent, by visiting The questionnaire was administered to 320 people houses and agricultural fields, using pre-framed (64.5% men and 35.5% women) comprising open and close-ended questions. The questions predominantly subsistence farmers (88.75%, n = were based on previous studies in BNP by A 284) from 17 villages. The villages were located Rocha India - a wildlife conservation NGO, and at a mean distance of 567 m (Range 85 – 1380 m, a reconnaissance survey that was conducted with SD ± 390 m) from the park boundary. The mean the local community. Questions on perceived distance between crops and park boundary was
29 0.79 km (Range 0.01 – 4 km, SD ± 0.81 km). Finger-millet (Eleusine coracana) (n = 254) and jowar (Sorghum bicolor) (n = 86) were the crops predominantly cultivated. Crop damages were experienced by 89.68% of respondents.
Majority of the respondents (71.3%) felt that crop depredations had declined in the past five years, while 8.8% stated that it had remained the same and 19.8% that it had increased (Fig. 2). Figure 3. Stated impact of HEC by the farmers.
Feelings towards elephants by respondents Majority of people claimed that they did not were mostly positive (57.4%, n = 179) while receive compensation (58.1%, n = 186). People 31.4% (n = 98) were negative and 11.2% (n = who received compensation were generally 35) ambivalent. Of the people who supported unsatisfied (90.1%) by the compensated value. protection of elephants (71.6%, n = 229), most Most people (45.9%, n = 147) considered ele- did so because of religious precepts (70.7%, phant proof barriers inefficient and preferred n = 162). Among those with negative (22.6%) active methods such as chasing elephants with and ambivalent (76.47%) responses, those who torches, fire or loud noises for mitigating HEC. were for protection of elephants, attributed it to religious significance (53.8%, 62% respectively). Of the respondents, 58.8% (n = 188) considered Of respondents who did not support protecting the Forest Department to be responsible for elephants, 41.0% (n = 32) were religious. Women HEC. The main cause of HEC highlighted by the expressed more fear (96.4%) and repulsion interviewees was the lack of resources in the park (34.5%) towards elephants than men (86.6%, for elephants (67.8%, n = 217). Suggested ways 16.9%) (Chi2 = 0.53, P = 0.47 for fear, Chi2 = of mitigating HEC better, included improving 6.03, P = 0.01 for repulsion). barrier systems (21.6%), patrolling the forest (12.5%) and providing forage and water within With regard to the influence of economic status the park (11.6%) (Fig. 4). on perception of conflict, respondents from the high economic stratum revealed more tolerance Discussion to crop depredation than those from the low economic stratum (Chi2 = 9.98, P = 0.04). Among The survey indicated that overall crop de- the impacts of HEC in their lives, most stated predations were perceived to have declined in the multiple impacts with economic loss (n = 224), past five years. This is in contrast to many studies stress (n = 207) and lack of food for subsistence of HEC such as around Manas National Park of the family, caused by crop depredation (n = (Nath et al. 2015) and, Chitwan National Park 196) (Fig. 3). and Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Nepal (Pant et al.
Figure 2. Perceived trend of HEC by farmers in Figure 4. Solutions proposed by farmers in order the last five years, by village. to mitigate HEC around BNP.
30 2016). In our study area, crop depredations may impact of socio-economic losses from elephants have actually reduced because of electric fences may be felt more by women than men. This may that were installed in many regions of BWLR not be a generality and may depend on the area since 2010 (pers. comm. Avinash K), suggesting and communities, as contrasting results have also that perception of conflict is directly proportional been reported (Nath et al. 2015). to actual conflict, in this community. Which also is different to findings in other regions (Nath et Despite economic losses being one of the al. 2015). primary concerns, especially for the lower income strata group, elephants still hold Decrease in crop depredation could be expected reverence in the minds of many, due to religious to result in increased support of elephant precepts. This is furthermore indicated by the conservation. However, compared to (Varma et finding that people with negative and ambivalent al. 2009) who found 85.1% (n = 97) of people attitudes towards elephants still suggested their around BWLR to be supportive of elephants in protection. Such beliefs support conservation of 2005, we found a somewhat lower percentage elephants universally (Santiapillai et al. 2010). of people favouring conservation of elephants. However, religious symbolism may be declining Despite HEC being perceived to have declined, in our study area, as indicated by the number of the continued occurrence of HEC in some regions ‘religious yet not protective’ responses. Such could cause high levels of stress in protecting negative attitudes may increase further with croplands and perceived fear may have gradually frequent crop depredation. reduced tolerance for elephants. The causes stated for crop depredations as lack We found the majority of the farmers to report of resources in the forests for elephants possibly crop depredations in their croplands, suggesting indicates the acknowledgement of elephants’ that all surveyed villages were within the ecological needs by the people, which may be conflict-zone around BWLR. Similarly, a study the source of their current tolerance. The farmers around Savandurga State Forest reported that all were considerably negative towards the Forest crop depredations occurred within 4 km from Department. This is in contrast to farmers around the forest boundary, marking it as a conflict Manas National Park (Nath et al. 2015). The zone (Ravindranath et al. 2014). The high level difference in our study area maybe linked to of conflict observed by us may also be because problems with the compensation scheme, non- of the widespread cultivation of finger-millet effective barriers and perceived lack of resources and jowar, both of which are very attractive to for elephants inside the park. Previous surveys elephants. As these are the predominant crops have revealed that 97% of respondents believed cultivated around BNP (Varma et al. 2009) the that there has been no involvement from NGOs results from this study may reflect the situation in BNP, but are open to getting aid in mitigating all around BNP. HEC from them (Varma et al. 2009). Therefore, the negative attitudes towards the Forest We found women to express more negative Department around BNP may be long standing. opinions about elephants, than men. A similar finding was reported by Hill (1998) in Budongo The overall impact of HEC on the agrarian Forest Reserve, Uganda, which was attributed communities around BWLR can be considered to to women having restricted exposure to be high. Addressing the issue of crop compensation ‘appropriate knowledge’, minimum education would be an important factor in mitigating HEC and low encounters with elephants preventing in the area. Advocating community leadership in personal judgement of underlying causes of HEC mitigation not only help minimizes HEC elephants’ reaction to people. The gender bias in but also instigates responsibility in people for our area could be due to the different social roles, guarding their crops (Fernando 2010). Such an where men work and women are responsible for approach with the collaboration of communities, the wellbeing of the family. Consequently the Forest Department, conservation NGOs and
31 other stakeholders may provide a platform for in a critical wildlife corridor within the Terai Arc co-existence of elephants and people in this Landscape, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 7: landscape. 6843-6852.
Acknowledgements Karikalan V (2013) Wildlife Management Plan for Bannerghatta National Park 2013-14 to We would like to thank Mahesh, Ananda, 2017-18. Karnataka Forest Department. Abilesh and Harish for volunteering to conduct the questionnaire survey. We like to extend our KETF (2012) Report of the Karnataka Elephant thanks to Prof. Suzanne Loret, Prof. Hans Van Task Force [KETF]. Submitted to Honorable Dyck, Aswath Honnavar, Rev. Prem Mitra, Hima High Court of Karnataka. Bindu and Surendra Varma for their unstinted support. We wish to sincerely thank the Forest Nath KN, Lahkar P, Dutta SK & Das JP (2015) Department of Bannerghatta National Park Human-elephant conflict around Manas National for their support during the study. We would Park, India: Local people’s attitudes, expectations especially like to extend our sincere thanks to Dr. and perceptions. Gajah 42: 15-21. Prithiviraj Fernando for his valuable comments on improving the quality of this manuscript. Pant G, Dhakal M, Pradhan NMB, Leverington F & Hockings M (2016) Nature and extent of References human–elephant Elephas maximus conflict in central Nepal. Oryx 50: 724-731. Bandara R & Tisdell C (2003) Comparison of rural and urban attitudes to the conservation of Ralph R, Misra A & Srinivasaiah N (2015) Asian elephants in Sri Lanka: Empirical evidence. Behavioural ecology and management of the Biological Conservation 110: 327-342. Asian elephant in human-dominated landscapes of Karnataka: A case study of elephants ranging Barua M, Tamuly J & Ahmed RA (2010) Mutiny long distances outside Bannerghatta National or Clear Sailing? Examining the role of the Park. In: Internat. Symposium on Ecology and Asian elephant as a flagship species. Human Health Management of Asiatic Elephant (Elephas Dimensions of Wildlife 15: 145-160. maximus), New Delhi, India. pp 127-131.
Doyle S, Groo M, Sampson C, Songer M, Jones Ravindranath N, Babu MNS & Nishanth SK M & Leimgruber P (2010) Human-elephant (2014) A status study on human-elephant conflict conflict — What can we learn from the news? in and around Savandurga State Forest. Indian Gajah 32: 14-20. Journal of Applied Research 4: 243-246.
Fernando P (2010) Whose responsibility is it? Santiapillai C, Wijeyamohan S, Bandara G, Gajah 32: 1-2. Athurupana R, Dissanayake N & Read B (2010) An assessment of the human-elephant conflict Gopalakrishna SP, Somashekar RK, Anand VD & in Sri Lanka. The Ceylon Journal of Science Varma S (2010) Asian elephant and Bannerghatta (Biological Sciences) 39: 21-33. National Park in Eastern Ghats, Southern India. Gajah 33: 47-52. Varma S, Anand VD, Gopalakrishna SP, Avinash KG & Nishant MS (2009) Ecology, Conservation Hill CM (1998) Conflicting attitudes towards and Management of the Asian Elephant in elephants around the Budongo Forest Reserve, Bannerghatta National Park, southern India. A Uganda. Environmental Conserv. 25: 244-250. Rocha India/ANCF: Asian Elephant Ecology and Conservation Reference Series No.1. A Rocha Jasmine B, Ghose D & Das SK (2015) An India and Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, attitude assessment of human-elephant conflict Bangalore.
32 Short Communication Gajah 45 (2016) 33-34
A Case Study of Wild Asian Elephant Attacks on Foreign Tourists in Sri Lanka
T. G. S. L. Prakash1,2* and K. A. U. Kumarathunga1,3
1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka 2Biodiversity Conservation and Research Circle of Sri Lanka, Wattala, Sri Lanka 3Department of Wildlife Conservation, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction Materials and methods
Over the past few decades, tourism has become Google Sri Lanka
Tourism is one of the key sectors propelling the Results economic growth of Sri Lanka. The government of Sri Lanka has introduced a program to attract Case 1 – A tourist was attacked in March 2014 2.5 million tourists annually, by year 2016 when she attempted to follow ‘Rambo’, a free – (Ministry of Economic Development 2011). ranging elephant, which frequented the electric Wildlife and nature are one of eight product fence at the Udawalawe National Park boundary, categories Sri Lanka tourism focuses on, and along the Thanamalwila road. Rambo has been elephants are one of the main wildlife products frequenting this area for many years, but was identified (Ministry of Economic Development very docile with passers-by, who even hand-fed 2011). The Department of Wildlife Conservation him through the electric fence. The tourist had Sri Lanka (DWC) has also identified elephants as first fed Rambo and had been highly fascinated a key component for promoting wildlife tourism to be at such close quarters to a wild elephant. (DWC 2016). Rambo had then walked along the fence and the tourist had crept through the fence and followed The majority of tourists visiting Sri Lanka are him, in spite of villagers warning her not to do interested in observing elephants in the wild that. When she approached Rambo he had turned (Senevirathna & Perera 2013). Therefore the around and hit her with his trunk, sending her elephant is a key component of Sri Lankan sprawling to the ground. He then kicked her, tourism industry. However, elephants can also injuring her head badly, and walked away. She pose a danger to tourists. was rushed to a hospital where she was treated and subsequently recovered. This study analyzed incidents of wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) attacks involving Case 2 – A tourist was attacked in February foreign tourists in the past three years. 2016 by an elephant, which frequented the
© 2016 The Authors - Open Access Manuscript Editor: Prithiviraj Fernando 33 Habarana – Polonnaruwa road, which runs along Most tourists may not have experienced large wild the Minneriya National Park. This particular animals in their countries of residence. Therefore elephant was used to getting food from people they may not be aware of the potential danger visiting a nearby temple. Local people commonly posed by them. During Safari trips in protected went close to the elephant but he did not show areas, tourists are accompanied by DWC officers, any aggression towards them. The tourist was travel guides or jeep drivers, who would advise attacked when he attempted to photograph the them of such danger, reducing the possibility of elephant after going close to him, and sustained incidents. However, the dangers are greater when a leg injury. tourists are on their own. Creating awareness among tourists about the risks posed by wildlife Case 3 – An elephant attacked a tourist killing could prevent such incidents. Activities such him, in May 2016 on the Habarana – Sigiriya as information display at airports and roadside road. The incident happened where the road notices on roads where wild animals could be runs across the Moragaswewa Forest Reserve. encountered would be useful in this regard. According to the DWC, the victim had attempted to take a photograph with the elephant, as pieces Acknowledgements of a broken camera were found at the site of the incident. However, his companion stated that We would like to thank the staff of Minneriya they were attacked while they were travelling on and Udawalawe National Parks, police officers the motorbike. and villagers who provided information. We are grateful to Tharaka Kusuminda for assistance Discussion in manuscript preparation and to Dr. Prithiviraj Fernando for comments on the manuscript. All three attacks occurred on or close to main roads in proximity to protected areas, where References free – ranging elephants are commonly seen. In all the cases the victims tried to approach the Durrheim DN & Leggat PA (1999) Risk to elephants, presumably without knowing the risk. tourists posed by wild mammals in South Africa. A study by Durrheim and Leggat (1999) found Journal of Travel Medicine 6: 172-179. that seven tourists were killed by wild animals in South Africa, in a period of ten years. Three DWC (2016) Top Seven Wild Sri Lanka. Dept. of of the deaths resulted from tourists approaching Wildlife Conservation, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka. lions on foot, while the management of KwaZulu- Natal Reserve was held responsible for another Ministry of Economic Development (2011) Tou- death caused by a lion. Ignorance of animal rism Development Strategy 2011-2016. Ministry behaviour and disregard of rules contributed of Economic Development, Colombo, Sri Lanka. to two fatalities involving hippos. Unusual behaviour due to illness was responsible for the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (2012) Wetland death caused by an elephant. The same study Tourism: A Great Experience. Retrieved from found 14 nonfatal attacks on tourists, including
34 Short Communication Gajah 45 (2016) 35-38
A Decade of Zero Elephant Poaching in the Cardamom Rainforest Landscape, Cambodia
Thomas N.E. Gray1*, Hort Sokun1, Eduard Lefter1, Romica Grosu1, Kong Kimsreng2, Keo Omaliss3 and Suwanna Gauntlett1
1Wildlife Alliance, Chamcamon, Phnom Penh, Cambodia 2Ministry of the Environment, Phnom Penh, Cambodia 3Forestry Administration, Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, Phnom Penh, Cambodia *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction Case study
Elephants are facing a global crisis with African The CRL was historically remote and one of elephant Loxodonta africana populations tropical Asia’s great rainforests supporting a estimated to have declined by 111,000 individuals complete megafauna including tiger Panthera in the past decade largely as a result of poaching tigris, gaur Bos gaurus and, in all likelihood, for the illegal wildlife trade (Thouless et al. 2016). rhinoceros spp. Dicerorhinus / Rhinoceros along- Similarly the Asian elephant Elephas maximus is side Asian elephants. The landscape’s forbidding now restricted to a tiny portion of the species’ topography, combined with civil unrest historic range and, alongside human elephant throughout much of the 20th century, prevented conflict and habitat loss, poaching is the biggest extensive settlement or natural resource threat to their survival and is a particular issue exploitation. However following the defeat in mainland South East Asia (Ling et al. 2016). of Democratic Kampuchea in 1979 the region Given this insidious global threat to elephant became increasingly settled by migrants from persistence, and the trend in increasing elephant lowland Cambodia, large areas were designated poaching particularly in Africa, identifying and as logging concessions, and infrastructure and replicating successful anti-poaching initiatives is road development, which accelerated from the critically important. late 1990s, was initiated.
Asian elephants are patchily distributed across The wide availability of fire-arms and extremely Cambodia’s remaining forests but viable limited rule of law, particularly regarding populations likely occur only in Mondulkiri environmental management, created conditions province, eastern Cambodia (likely population for extensive wildlife trade and poaching for ~300 individuals; Gray et al. 2014) and the high-value wildlife products. Market surveys Cardamom Rainforest Landscape (CRL) in the across Cambodia during the 1990s documented southwest. The CRL, part of the Indo-Burma a cornucopia of threatened species openly for biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al. 2000), is a sale including live wild caught tigers and tiger ridge-to-reef conservation landscape comprising skins, bones, and skulls together with elephant 18,000 km2 of largely contiguous forest cover skin, hair, teeth, bones, and both carved and raw (Fig. 1). The landscape forms a Global 200 tusks (Martin & Phipps 1996; Sun 2000). In the Ecoregion (Cardamom Mountains Rain Forests), CRL elephants were poached for both tusks and a secondary Endemic Bird Area (i.e. an area for meat. Settlers opening up the rainforest often containing at least one restricted-range endemic viewed elephants as an easy target and a good bird species), and was listed as a Level I Tiger communal meal (local resident pers. comm. Conservation Unit by Wikramanayake et al. to TNEG, 2016). The high level of poaching, (1998). combined with a lack of law enforcement, likely led to the extirpation of tiger and leopard
© 2016 The Authors - Open Access 35 Panthera pardus from the CRL – a minimum critical locations within the landscape (Fig. 1) of 29 tigers were poached from the landscape and staffed by multi-agency government law between 1999 and May 2005 (Weiler 2006) and enforcement officers with both legislative and there have been no subsequent records despite judicial authority. Until early 2016 the southern camera-trapping and surveys. During a similar portion of the CRL was under the management period (2000 to 2004) at least 38 Asian elephants of the Forestry Administration of the Cambodian were poached, in the CRL (Weiler 2006). The Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries detections of elephant poaching were obtained (MAFF). Patrol teams were therefore comprised from community informant networks set up by the of Forestry Administration officers, with Judicial Cambodia Community Wildlife Ranger Program Police authority to enforce Cambodia’s Forestry (Weiler 2006). Without strong law enforcement and Wildlife Law, and Military Police Officers and protected area management interventions it providing armed backup and the authority to was clear that elephants would also be lost from apprehend government employees (e.g. police / the landscape. army) involved in illegal activity. Between 12 and 14 (approximately 2-4 Forestry Administration In response to this poaching crisis the conservation and 10-12 Military Police) rangers, generally op- NGO, Wildlife Alliance
1. Protected area management and law enforce- Standard operating protocols for law enforcement ment patrolling and case-management were developed and relationships built with provincial judiciary Following a strategic threat assessment, 7 to ensure rapid and transparent management of ranger patrol stations were constructed at infractions and prosecutions. Patrol operations
Figure 1. Protected areas, approximate elephant distribution and ranger patrol stations in the CRL.
36 and planning were largely threat-based using As a direct result of such focused conservation intelligence and information from informants effort no Asian elephant poaching has been and communities. Patrol efforts mainly focused detected in the landscape since 2006. We are on hotspots of illegal activity and strategic confident this represents close to zero hunting access routes into the forest. The majority of mortality due to a) the extensive network of patrols were conducted on foot but motorbikes community level intelligence and informants and speedboats were also used to allow rapid which are likely to provide timely information access to certain areas. Monthly helicopter and b) no elephant carcasses attributable to aerial surveys were employed to detect land poaching have been detected during the extensive encroachment and habitat loss. Patrol and GPS- patrolling or other surveys in the landscape. track logs were collected and managed using Camera-trapping provides some evidence of a ArcGIS; there is a plan to transfer to SMART recovering population with multiple images of Conservation Software in 2017. As a result of this adults with calves (Fig. 2). Whilst population unstinting focus on effective and professional estimates and demographic data on the law enforcement patrolling, over 24,500 multi- population have yet to be collated or analysed agency law enforcement patrols have removed field data collection for a faecal DNA capture- more than 180,000 snares and sent 370 offenders mark-recapture study was conducted across the to court since 2006. landscape during the 2015/2016 dry-season by Flora and Fauna International and a population 2. Community outreach estimate is expected by early 2017.
Interventions targeted communities of largely Formal protection of the entire landscape lowland Khmer settlers, known to be heavily was confirmed in May 2016 when the Royal engaged in the illegal wildlife trade most notably Government of Cambodia declared the Southern around Chi Phat commune; a hub of wildlife trade Cardamom National Park, formally various and elephant poaching (Weiler 2006). Whilst a logging concessions, a new protected area number (<10) of other, largely ethnic minority, (Souter et al. 2016). Consequently management communities exist across the landscape Chi Phat of the landscape has moved from the Ministry was selected for targeted interventions as it was of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries to the a known hunting hotspot and forests accessed Ministry of the Environment and most Forestry by community members overlapped with Administration law enforcement officers have extensive areas of Asian elephant home-range. transferred to the Ministry of the Environment. Programs were developed to compensate for the opportunity costs of reducing illegal activity and Discussion unsustainable natural resource use most notably a highly successful Community Based Ecotourism Our experiences in the Cardamom Rainforest project (CBET;
37 wildlife, elephant poaching crises can be averted Wild Animal Trade in Cambodia. TRAFFIC and populations may start recovering. However Bulletin 16: 45-60. success requires dedicated law enforcement capacity combined with supportive governments Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, and engaged communities. Considerable Da Fonseca GA & Kent J (2000) Biodiversity conservation investment for on-the-ground law hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: enforcement is also required. Law enforcement 853-858. in the landscape costs approximately 200 US$ per km2 per year, which is similar to estimated Naidoo R, Fisher B, Manica A & Balmford A costs for effective African elephant protection (2016) Estimating economic losses to tourism (Naidoo et al. 2016). It is therefore likely that in Africa from the illegal killing of elephants. such an extensive law enforcement model, and Nature Communications 7: e13379. similar levels of funding, will be required in elephant poaching hot-spots globally (e.g. central Reimer JK & Walter P (2013) How do you know and eastern Africa) if we are to save the planet’s it when you see it? Community-based ecotourism largest land mammal. in the Cardamom Mountains of southwestern Cambodia. Tourism Management 34: 122-132. Acknowledgements Souter NJ, Simpson V, Mould A, Eames JC, We thank the Royal Government of Cambodia for Gray TNE, Sinclair R, Farrell T, Jurgens JA & support particularly the Forestry Administration Billingsley A (2016) Will the recent changes in of the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and protected area management and the creation of Fisheries, the Ministry of the Environment, and five new protected areas improve biodiversity the office of the Koh Kong provincial governor. conservation in Cambodia? Cambodian Journal Large numbers of dedicated law enforcement of Natural History 2016(1): 1-5. officers and station supervisors, living in often harsh field conditions and working 24/7, allowed Sun H (2000) Status of the Tiger and Its us to achieve Zero Poaching of elephant in the Conservation in Cambodia. MSc Thesis. landscape. Funding came from various sources University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA. including (in alphabetical order) Anderson- Rogers Foundation, Aspinall Foundation, Thouless CR, Dublin HT, Blanc JJ, Skinner DP, Barbara Delano Foundation, Critical Ecosystem Daniel TE, Taylor RD, Maisels F, Frederick HL & Partnership Fund, Tamaki Foundation, Wallace Bouche P (2016) African Elephant Status Report Research Foundation, USAID, and United States 2016: An Update from the African Elephant Fish and Wildlife Service. Database. IUCN / SSC African Elephant Specialist Group, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. References Wikramanayake ED, Dinerstein E, Robinson Gray TNE, Vidya TNC, Potdar S, Bharti DK & JG, Karanth U, Rabinowitz A, Olson D, Mathew Prum S (2014) Population size estimation of an T, Hedao P, Conner M, Hemley G & Bolze D Asian elephant population in eastern Cambodia (1998). An ecology based method for defining through non-invasive mark-recapture sampling. priorities for large mammal conservation: The Conservation Genetics 15: 803-810. tiger as case study.‐ Conservation Biology 12: 865-878. Ling LE, Arrifin M & Latifah Adb Manaf (2016) A qualitative analysis of the main threats to Asian Weiler H (2006) Cambodia Community Wildlife elephant conservation. Gajah 44: 16-22. Ranger Tiger and Elephant Conservation Pro- gram. Final Report to United States Fish and Martin EB & Phipps M (1996) A review of the Wildlife Service, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
38 Short Communication Gajah 45 (2016) 39-40
Successful Treatment of a Gunshot Injury in a Juvenile Elephant
Arindam Kishore Pachoni, Samrendra Bahadur Shing, Prasanta Boro, Samshul Ali* and Ramesh Kumar Tiwari
Sanjay Gandhi Biological Park, Patna, Bihar, India *Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]
Introduction Tetanus Toxoid 3ml IM stat, Amoxicillin and Potassium Clavulanate 7.2 g total dose twice daily There is an increase in incidences of man animal IM for 10 days along with analgesic Meloxicam conflict throughout India, with human-elephant 150 mg once daily IM. Vitamin B-Complex 15 ml conflict being a prominent example. Wild IM was given on alternate days on five occasions, elephants may suffer traumatic injuries due to Pro biotic 2 boli were given twice daily for 7 days gunshots and being pierced by spears as a result of orally and Proteolytic enzyme serratiopeptidase conflict with people and additionally in fighting 3 boli for 10 days orally. The wound was dressed among themselves (Kadirvelu et al. 2014). Here, with copious amounts of diluted potassium we report a case of gunshot injury in a juvenile permanganate for 3 consecutive days to dissolve female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and its the pyogenic membrane, followed by painting treatment. with povidone iodine solution (Fowler & Mikota 2006). Topical spray (Benzene Hexacholoride) History
A juvenile wild female elephant 5 feet in shoulder height was found alone in Madanpur near human habitation in Aurangabad with a gunshot injury on her right hind leg (Fig. 1). It was immediately captured and brought to Sanjay Gandhi Biological Park, Patna, for treatment.
On clinical examination it was found to have a deep bullet wound that penetrated through the left hind leg. The bullet entered on the lateral aspect creating a wound 1 cm diameter and exited from the medial aspect, leaving an open wound 3 cm in diameter. She was in pain, with inflammation, pyrexia and pyogenic exudation from the wound. She abstained from weight bearing on the injured leg, resulting in abnormal gait. Radiography revealed a complete fracture of the tibia (Fig. 2) due to the impact of the bullet.
Clinical management
Staphyloccus spp. were isolated from culture of the pyogenic exudate and antibiotic sensitivity tests were conducted for selection of a suitable Figure 1. Entry wound with nonbearing of antibiotic (Table 1). Treatment proceeded with weight on injured leg.
© 2016 The Authors - Open Access Manuscript Editor: Prithiviraj Fernando 39 type of wound, environment, site of wound, and nutritional status of the animal (Sukklad et al. 2006). In the present case, the treatment provided as well as the other ancillary factors provided a comparatively quick and full recovery.
References
Fowler ME & Mikota S (2006) Biology, Medicine and Surgery of Elephants. 1st Edition. Blackwell Publishing, USA.
Senthilkumar K, Senthilkumar A & Jayathangaraj MG (2014) Clinical management of chronic abscess in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research 1: 73-74.
Sukklad S, Sommanustweechai A, Pattanarang- san (2006). A retrospective study of elephant wound, wound management from Thai veter- Figure 2. Radiograph showing fracture. inarians. In: Proceedings of AZWMP. October 26-29, Bangkok, Thailand. pp 16. was used thrice daily to prevent secondary infections. The elephant recovered completely after one month of treatment (Fig. 3).
Wound healing can be prolonged in elephants due to their thick dermis. Wound healing is dependent on several factors such as wound management,
Table 1. Culture and antibiotic sensitivity test results. Antibiotic Sensitivity Levofloxacin ++++ Amikacin +++ Ciprofloxacin - Gentamicin +++ Ceftriaxone +++ Cefotaxime - Chloramphenicol ++++ Cloxacillin - Amoxicillin & Clavulanic acid ++++ Enrofloxacin ++++ Moxiflox - Cefetrixone & Salbactum - Figure 3. Healed wound and bearing of weight Cobactan ++++ after one month of treatment.
40 News and Briefs Gajah 45 (2016) 41-43
Asian Mahout Partnerships Working for Conservation
Heidi S. Riddle1* and Zaw Min Oo2
1International Elephant Foundation, Azle, Texas, USA 2Myanma Timber Enterprise, Department of Timber Extraction, MOECAF, Yangon, Myanmar *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
For a number of years the International Elephant One component of IEF’s support has been to Foundation (IEF) has been supporting Indonesian enable exchanges of field staff between the government conservation agencies to implement Indonesian Conservation Response Units from long term projects in Sumatra-Indonesia using Sumatra and Myanmar mahouts and field staff to trained camp elephants and their mahouts for develop partnerships for improved conservation direct conservation interventions. Previously outcomes. During the past few years several such neglected camp elephants and their mahouts opportunities have occurred: Sumatra field staff now actively patrol protected areas reporting on taught a course on field navigation using GPS illegal activities, providing assistance and support units in Myanmar in December 2014; field staff during wild elephant translocations and/or radio- from Myanmar participated in the 7th Indonesian collaring, and supporting local communities to Mahout Communication Forum Workshop in mitigate human-elephant conflict (HEC). February 2015 and visited several Sumatra camps to learn more about the use of trained elephants The success of these Conservation Response for patrols, for various HEC migration strategies, Units has led to additional units being established and for tourism. In November 2015, field staff by the government conservation and national from Myanmar spent time with Sumatra Elephant park agencies around Sumatra. Following on the Response Units in Way Kambas National Park accomplishment of the Sumatra work, primarily participating in and learning about the use of based on enhancing the skills and motivation of routine elephant patrols to support local farming mahouts so they are not just elephant handlers communities and mitigate conflict with wild but accomplished field conservation staff, IEF elephants. has expanded collaborations during the past few years and provided support in Myanmar to As a result of these collaborations, MTE has now develop similar units using trained elephants, set up eight Elephant Emergency Response Units their mahouts, and field staff. (EERU) around Myanmar. Each EERU consists of former logging elephants and their mahouts The Myanma Timber Enterprise (MTE) has as well as other field staff. The EERU teams are a long history of using trained elephants for a located in the Ayeyarwaddy, Rakhine, Bago East, specific purpose: logging. In recent years as Bago West, Magway, Sagaing, Nay Pyi Taw, and laws have changed and logging quotas have Mandalay regions. been drastically reduced, Myanmar is facing an increasing number of former logging elephants Every EERU team’s primary responsibility and their mahouts needing to be re-purposed for is to address and mitigate HEC in their area. other types of work. Currently MTE manages However, some teams have little experience and approximately 3000 elephants. In addition knowledge about HEC management. Therefore it there are more than 2500 elephants managed by was decided to bring together the Team Leader, private owners in Myanmar, and a small number Co-Leader, and senior mahouts from each of elephants managed by the Forest Department. EERU team and train them on best practices of
41 addressing HEC. From March 28-31, 2016, with Departments such as the Forest Department and support from IEF, MTE organized a training the General Administrative Department. The workshop for the newly established EERU teams EERU teams plan to develop and provide local from around the country. community education and awareness programs while on patrol and/or mitigating HEC. They will The first two days of the workshop were held in build local community collaborations to share Yangon, at the MTE headquarters, and addressed information about wild elephants (Fig. 1). In theoretical aspects of elephant conservation. addition, workshop participants acknowledged Resource persons from MTE, Forest Department, that as the EERU concept is new and only just senior Indonesian mahouts from Sumatra beginning in Myanmar, there is a need to ensure with proven experience working consistently good organization and cooperation among the and effectively for conservation and HEC units to allow effective HEC work. mitigation, as well as a few NGOs (IEF, Wildlife Conservation Society, Smithsonian Institution) The next two days of the workshop consisted of gave presentations about the status of elephants field training for the EERU units at the Myaing (wild and captive) in Myanmar, the present and Hay Wun elephant camp, which is under the future use of captive elephants in Myanmar, and administration of the Bago West Region. Field the utilization of camp elephants and mahouts for staff and mahouts from the successful Sumatra conservation work in Sumatra. Elephant Response Units operating in Way Kambas National Park led the practical sessions Following these presentations, each EERU team and instruction which included field navigation gave a short update about wild elephants and with GPS units and maps (Fig. 2), use of other HEC in their specific area. Each EERU team was field equipment such as digital cameras and represented by the team leader and two mahout laptop computer, recording and record-keeping staff who were either senior mahouts (Singaung) of data, and HEC conflict mitigation strategies. or mahout leaders (Sinoak). During the second day, workshop participants decided on five main The Sumatra mahouts, who are already well topics for discussion and divided up into working experienced in applying all these techniques groups to discuss the following: during patrolling and HEC mitigation work in Sumatra, had spent a week at the Myaing Hay 1. Protocol development for EERU teams Wun camp prior to the training workshop, and 2. Need for budget, supplies, and equipment worked with the camp staff as one EERU unit for the EERU teams is based there. To ensure effective field training 3. Law enforcement and involvement of other and subsequent project implementation, field Myanmar Government Departments equipment (8 GPS units, 8 digital cameras, 1 4. Administration of EERU teams 5. Education and awareness
Later in the day each working group made a brief presentation to update all participants on the result of their discussions. The working groups all agreed that the outcome of this workshop will be officially presented to the Government, and Myanmar’s wildlife laws will be reviewed to ensure they are actively enforced by the EERU teams. Participants agreed that the Government has the primary responsibility to provide the budget and basic needs for long term operation of the EERUs. They also decided to discuss law Figure 1. Local community outreach by EERU enforcement with other Myanmar Government and Sumatra mahouts.
42 field staff and mahouts. The English language class experience allowed better communication between Myanmar and Sumatra staff. IEF intends to continue providing this assistance in order to improve the ability of the Myanmar staff to effectively communicate and report on field activities with international colleagues, scientists, and potential supporters.
To date the partnerships between mahouts and other field conservation staff within Asia have provided tremendous motivation and increased the skills and professionalism of mahouts. There Figure 2. Sumatra mahouts training EERU in is now greater awareness and knowledge about GPS and field navigation. conservation issues among the mahout staff, and a better understanding of the use of trained laptop computer) was donated to the EERU units elephant and skilled mahout teams to successfully by IEF. participate in meaningful conservation activities. IEF plans to continue encouraging and supporting In addition to the training workshop assistance, these Asian mahout partnerships as an effective IEF had earlier (in June 2015) provided a one approach to help protect forests and wildlife in month long English language class to MTE Asia.
Figure 3. EERU and Sumatra mahouts group photo.
43 News and Briefs Gajah 45 (2016) 44-45
Regional Asian Elephant and Tiger Veterinary Workshop in Kerala, India
Arun Zachariah1, 2* and Heidi S. Riddle3
1Centre for Wildlife Studies, Kerala Veterinary and Animal Science University, Pookode, Wayanad, Kerala, India 2Department of Forest and Wildlife, Government of Kerala, Kerala, India 3Asian Elephant Support, St. Louis, Missouri, USA *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Elephant and tiger veterinarians from around in range countries. Asian elephants and tigers Asia participated in the Regional Asian Elephant are highly endangered and in threat of local and Tiger Veterinary Workshop held in Pookode, extinction in some range countries. Veterinary Kerala, India, from February 1-4, 2016. This expertise is important to conservation efforts, workshop was jointly hosted by the Centre for especially at the interface of wildlife, humans, Wildlife Studies, Kerala Veterinary and Animal and livestock, and for mitigating human-wildlife Science University, and the Department of conflicts. The Regional Asian Elephant and Tiger Forest and Wildlife, Government of Kerala. The Veterinary Workshop addressed wildlife health workshop was supported by the U.S. Fish and from the ecosystem perspective and discussed Wildlife Service Asian Elephant Conservation topics such as disease spill-over from humans Fund in collaboration with Asian Elephant and/or livestock to wildlife, emerging diseases Support. and/or disease prevalence, as well as reducing stressors in the environment. The Regional Asian Elephant and Tiger Veterinary Workshop continued the efforts of two earlier Evidence of emerging diseases in wildlife has regional workshops hosted in Aceh, Sumatra- already been established in Kerala. Furthermore, Indonesia in March 2012, and in Nay Pyi Taw, in the past two years, Kerala experienced more Myanmar in March 2014. These workshops build than 200 cases of elephant and tiger conflict local and regional capacity in elephant veterinary incidents causing loss to human life, property, care, which improves the expertise needed for and agriculture; 44 of these incidents required effective wildlife conservation in Asia. health and veterinary expertise. Wildlife health studies have been ongoing in this region, and this The Kerala workshop included tiger health workshop served as a catalyst for networking issues to broaden the scope of wildlife health with the wider regional communities of wildlife and strengthen the capacity of field veterinarians health experts in Asia.
44 Presentations covered not only veterinary issues but also broader topics of human-wildlife conflicts, Asian elephant and tiger ecology and behaviour, and also introduced Siberian tiger These regional veterinary workshops underscore health issues. The Regional Asian Elephant and the importance of veterinary science for wild Tiger Veterinary Workshop hosted almost 70 and captive elephant and for tiger conservation participants, including representatives from many in Asian range countries. As a result of these of the Asian elephant and tiger range countries three workshops, there is better communication such as India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, amongst wildlife veterinarians in Asia, and Nepal, Russia, Thailand, as well as veterinarians the sharing of information and experiences from Great Britain, and U.S. has increased. Additionally several field course initiatives to continue practical training The workshop offered a field visit to a nearby opportunities for wildlife veterinarians in Asia protected area, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, which have resulted from these workshops. has wild populations of elephants and tigers. Additionally a Forest Department elephant camp is located in the reserve. Participants were able to view wild elephants during a drive through the Reserve. At the elephant camp, Forest Department staff discussed the camp elephant management and feeding strategies, as well as elephant health issues. This visit was a unique opportunity for participants to see the traditional use of Forest Department elephants in a protected area in India, and discuss the comprehensive veterinary program that the Department has in place for these working elephants.
45 News and Briefs Gajah 45 (2016) 46-47
15th International Elephant & Rhino Conservation and Research Symposium
Sarah Conley
International Elephant Foundation, Azle, Texas, USA Author’s e-mail: [email protected]
As 2016 came to a close, the world’s top Long-time IEF Advisor and founder of Riddle’s elephant and rhino researchers, conservationists, Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Heidi Riddle, keepers, and experts met up at the Singapore gave a fascinating keynote address about the Zoo for the 15th International Elephant & Rhino relationship between captive elephants and Conservation and Research Symposium on conservation efforts. Given the centuries long November 14th through the 18th. For the fourth history of elephants and humans living and time, the International Rhino Foundation (IRF) working together, it was clear that one cannot joined the International Elephant Foundation’s be removed from the other and that solutions (IEF) in producing this prestigious bi-annual moving forward must take this into account to event. Hosted by Wildlife Reserves Singapore be successful and effective. IRF Board Member Group, attendees and presenters enjoyed the Terri Roth delivered the “State of the Rhino” beautiful facilities at the Singapore Zoo with a address, painting a dismaying picture of rhino special visit to the Night Safari park. populations around the globe, but peppered with glimmers of hope. The symposium featured over 90 talks in just four days. Presentations fit into a With over 20 presentations given per day, the number of categories, including habitat highlights are too numerous to cover completely. management, veterinary management, elephant Dr. Imke Lueders presented a cutting edge endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV), captive technique for bronchoscopy, bronchial lavage management, reproduction, human-elephant and gastric fluid sampling in elephants to be used conflict mitigation, behaviour, nutrition, popu- when wild status or lack of reliable training makes lation management and protection, genetics, and the standard trunk wash testing inaccessible. Dr. education. Attendees came from nearly every Gary Hayward of Johns Hopkins University corner of the globe, with a strong representation discussed his detailed research on genetic from Asian range countries, as this was the first variation of EEHV stains, which has been used time the symposium has returned to Asia since as the foundation for much of the work done in 2008. EEHV, including the potential development of
46 a vaccine by Dr. Paul Ling, who presented his promising work.
Dr. Alfred Roca discussed speciation and hybridization in African elephants, making a strong case for considering the African savannah elephant and the African forest elephant as separate species. Also in genetics, the latest research into the expression of elephant p53, the cancer-fighting gene, and its implications for increasing cell death in human cancer cells was presented by Dr. Lisa Abegglen. Her research makes a powerful argument for the developing and preserving the symbiotic relationship the Elephant Response Unit (ERU) teams between humans and elephants, as it can be from Myanmar and Sumatra, Indonesia. These beneficial to both. mahouts and wildlife officers gave a first-hand account of what it is like being on the front Mitigating human-elephant conflict (HEC) lines of conservation, the challenges they face, and turning it into human-elephant coexistence and how taking a job caring for elephants has (HECx) was a huge theme of the event, with 15 morphed into a passion for conservation. Their papers devoted to all aspects of the topic. While presentations and the presentations of others strategies like deterrent crops, beehive fences, underlined the many aspects and needs in the alternate transportation methods, corridors, and conservation of habitat and wildlife and the more were discussed, the overarching conclusion importance of listening to all perspectives to find was that HEC mitigation methods are incredibly lasting solutions. dependent on location and the needs of the community as well as habituation of the elephant Thank you to everyone who attended, presented, population. No “one size fits all” solution was listened, and supported the great effort to make found, but the most successful methods nearly the symposium possible. More information about always included an element of community the symposium presentations will be posted on outreach and education as it is those actually our website at www.elephantconservation.org. sharing their land with elephants, who will ultimately make the difference in their survival. The International Elephant Foundation is honoured to work in such a strong community of Among the internationally recognized experts committed professionals and we look forward to were also new faces, including members of our next symposium in Africa in 2018!
47 News and Briefs Gajah 45 (2016) 48-72
Recent Publications on Asian Elephants
Compiled by Jennifer Pastorini
Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland Centre for Conservation and Research, Tissamaharama, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]
If you need additional information on any of the and a significantly greater number of attacks articles, please feel free to contact me. You can occurred in human settlements. Attacks by one- also let me know about new (2017) publications horned rhinoceros and tigers were higher in the on Asian elephants. winter, mainly in forests inside protected areas; similarly, attacks by bears occurred mostly K.P. Acharya, P.K. Paudel, P.R. Neupane & M. within protected areas. We found that human Köhl settlements are increasingly becoming conflict Human-wildlife conflicts in Nepal: Patterns of hotspots, with burgeoning incidents involving human fatalities and injuries caused by large elephants and leopards. We conclude that species- mammals specific conservation strategies are urgently PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0161717 needed, particularly for leopards and elephants. Abstract. Injury and death from wildlife attacks The implications of our findings for minimizing often result in people feeling violent resentment conflicts and conserving these imperiled species and hostility against the wildlife involved are discussed. © 2016 The Authors. and, therefore, may undermine public support for conservation. Although Nepal, with rich A.S.M.L. Ahasan, M.A. Quasem, M.L. Rahman, biodiversity, is doing well in its conservation R.B. Hasan, A.S.M.G. Kibria & S.K. Shil efforts, human-wildlife conflicts have been a Macroanatomy of the bones of thoracic limb major challenge in recent years. The lack of of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) detailed information on the spatial and temporal International Journal of Morphology 34 (2016) patterns of human-wildlife conflicts at the 909-917 national level impedes the development of Abstract. Bones of forelimb were studied from effective conflict mitigation plans. We examined a prepared skeleton of an adult female Asian patterns of human injury and death caused by elephant (Elephas maximus) in Anatomy Museum large mammals using data from attack events of Chittagong Veterinary and Animal Sciences and their spatiotemporal dimensions collected University to understand the morphological form from a national survey of data available in and structure of Asian elephant forelimb. The angle Nepal over five years (2010–2014). Data were was approximately 123o between caudal border analyzed using logistic regression and chi-square of scapula and caudal border of humerus. The or Fisher’s exact tests. The results show that scapula, humerus and bones of the antebrachium Asiatic elephants and common leopards are most (particularly the ulna) were massive bones. The commonly involved in attacks on people in terms bones of manus were the short and relatively of attack frequency and fatalities. Although small. The dorsal border of scapula extended one-horned rhinoceros and bears had a higher from the level of proximal extremity of first rib to frequency of attacks than Bengal tigers, tigers the middle of the 6th rib. Ventral angle of scapula caused more fatalities than each of these two articulated with humerus by elongated shaped species. Attacks by elephants peaked in winter glenoid cavity (cavitas glenoidalis) of scapula and most frequently occurred outside protected and head of humerus (caput humeri). The major areas in human settlements. Leopard attacks tubercle (tuberculum majus) of humerus was occurred almost entirely outside protected areas, situated laterally to the head, which had smaller
48 cranial part with large caudal part and extended Y. Bi, A. Roy, D. Bhavsar, J. Xu, M. Wang, T. cranially to the head. The crest of minor tubercle Wang & X. Yang (tuberculum minus) was present as the rough line Kamala tree as an indicator of the presence of on the mediocaudal surface of humerus that ends Asian elephants during the dry season in the in a slight depressed or elevated area, known as Shivalik landscape of northwestern India teres major tuberosity (tuberositas teres major). Ecological Indicators 71 (2016) 239-247 The lateral supracondyler crest (crista supra Abstract. The availability of forage resources condylaris lateralis) at the caudal surface of the during the dry season is often a critical factor shaft limit the musculo-spiral groove in body of in determining the distribution and movement humerus. The radius and ulna are twin bones of of large herbivores. It has long been suspected forearm and the attachment between ulna and that the Kamala tree (Mallotus philippinensis) radius occurs in such a way, the radius articulates can serve as an indicator of the distribution craniomedially with the ulna in the proximal for Asian elephants during the dry season in part. But the shaft spirals laterally over the northwestern India. However, there is little cranial surface of the ulna to articulate distally direct evidence in support of this speculation, with the medial aspect of the ulna. There were especially at a large landscape scale. Here, we 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpal bones and 5 digits. predicted the distribution of Kamala trees in the The comparative size of the proximal and distal Shivalik landscape of northwestern India based raw of carpal bones were ulnar carpal > radial on topographic and bioclimatic variables, as > intermediate > accessory carpal and IV > III well as satellite-derived vegetation indices and > II > I respectively. The gradual lengths of the forest canopy height data using a presence-only metacarpal bones were III > IV > II > V > I. ecological niche model. We used the area under Digits I and V were vertical and digit II, III and the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) IV were horizontal. and true skill statistic (TSS) to validate the model. We then examined the relationship between the L.Y. Andaya occurrence probability of Kamala trees and the The social value of elephant tusks and bronze presence of Asian elephants with data collected drums among certain societies in eastern during dry seasons between 2010 and 2014 using Indonesia logistic regression models. Our results showed Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of that the probability of occurrence of Kamala trees Southeast Asia 172 (2016) 66-89 was predicted with good accuracy (AUC = 0.88 Abstract. This study seeks to explain how and and TSS = 0.51). The logistic regression models why elephant tusks and bronze kettledrums came showed that the presence of Asian elephants to occupy such an important social and ritual can be adequately predicted by the occurrence position in certain societies in eastern Indonesia. probability of Kamala trees. This result suggests It argues that these two objects were selected that the distribution of Kamala trees is a good because they came to be associated with ideas of indicator of the presence of Asian elephants authority and rain/fertility. In making this claim, during the dry season in the Shivalik landscape. this study suggests that the ideas and symbolism These findings may have major implications for associated with elephants and bronze drums in the conservation of Asian elephants, especially both India and Southeast Asia found relevance in designing wildlife corridors and mitigating in, and were thus adopted by, specific societies human-elephant conflicts. © 2016 Reprinted in eastern Indonesia. Contemporary Dutch East with permission from Elsevier. India Company accounts and local traditions provide evidence of the role of the Javanese K. Buddhachat, C. Thitaram, J.L. Brown, S. kingdom of Majapahit and the Makassarese Klinhom, P. Bansiddhi, K. Penchart, K. Ouitavon, kingdom of Gowa as the principal transmitters K. Sriaksorn, C. Pa-in, B. Kanchanasaka, C. of these ideas through an extensive international Somgird & K. Nganvongpanit trade in the highly coveted spices of eastern Use of handheld X-ray fluorescence as a non- Indonesia. © 2016 The Author. invasive method to distinguish between Asian
49 and African elephant tusks septicaemia in all other vital organs. In seven Scientific Reports 6 (2016) e24845 elephant carcasses where fresh samples were not Abstract. We describe the use of handheld available, bone marrow samples of femur bones X-ray fluorescence, for elephant tusk species were aseptically collected. Heart blood and identification. Asian (n = 72) and African (n = spleen samples collected at postmortem and two 85) elephant tusks were scanned and we utilized out of seven bone marrow samples yielded the the species differences in elemental composition growth of P. multocida. The isolates were typed to develop a functional model differentiating as P. multocida type B. The phylogenetic analysis between species with high precision. Spatially, the of the isolates was carried out by 16S ribosomal majority of measured elements (n = 26) exhibited RNA (rRNA) gene-based PCR and sequencing a homogeneous distribution in cross-section, but of 1.3 Kbp nucleotides on the 16S rRNA gene a more heterologous pattern in the longitudinal of the isolates. The isolates showed highest direction. Twenty-one of 24 elements differed sequence identity with P. multocida isolates of between Asian and African samples. Data were bovine and caprine origin. This is the first report subjected to hierarchical cluster analysis followed of molecular study on P. multocida from Asiatic by a stepwise discriminant analysis, which elephants. © 2016 Springer Verlag. identified elements for the functional equation. The best equation consisted of ratios of Si, S, Cl, Y. Chen, J. Marino, Y. Chen, Q. Tao, C.D. Ti, Mn, Ag, Sb and W, with Zr as the denominator. Sullivan, K. Shi & D.W. Macdonald Next, Bayesian binary regression model analysis Predicting hotspots of human-elephant was conducted to predict the probability that a conflict to inform mitigation strategies in tusk would be of African origin. A cut-off value Xishuangbanna, Southwest China was established to improve discrimination. This PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0162035 Bayesian hybrid classification model was then Abstract. Research on the spatial patterns validated by scanning an additional 30 Asian and of human-wildlife conflict is fundamental to 41 African tusks, which showed high accuracy understanding the mechanisms underlying it and (94%) and precision (95%) rates. We conclude to identifying opportunities for mitigation. In that handheld XRF is an accurate, non-invasive the state of Xishuangbanna, containing China’s method to discriminate origin of elephant tusks largest tropical forest, an imbalance between provides rapid results applicable to use in the nature conservation and economic development field. has led to increasing conflicts between humans and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), as both B.M. Chandranaik, B.P. Shivashankar, P. Giridhar elephant numbers and conversion of habitable & D.N. Nagaraju land to rubber plantations have increased over the Molecular characterisation and serotyping last several decades. We analyzed government of Pasteurella multocida isolates from Asiatic data on the compensation costs of elephant- elephants (Elephas maximus) caused damage in Xishuangbanna between European Journal of Wildlife Research 62 (2016) 2008 and 2012 to understand the spatial and 681-685 temporal patterns of conflict, in terms of their Abstract. We report the cultural and molecular occurrence, frequency and distribution. More characterisation of Pasteurella multocida isolates than 18,261 incidents were reported, including recovered from Asiatic elephants at Bandipur episodes involving damage to rubber trees (n = tiger reserve forest in Karnataka state, India. 10,999), damage to crops such as paddy, upland The forest had witnessed consecutive droughts rice, corn, bananas and sugarcane (n = 11,020), from 2010 to 2012 and sudden heavy monsoon property loss (n = 689) and attacks on humans (n rains in 2013. Twenty-three elephants died = 19). The conflict data reconfirmed the presence during this period of heavy rains between May of elephants in areas which have lacked records and July 2013. Postmortem conducted on a fresh since the late 1990s. Zero Altered Negative elephant carcass revealed hemorrhagic tracheitis, Binomial models revealed that the risk of damage haemorrhages on heart and lesions of acute to crops and plantations increased with proximity
50 to protected areas, increasing distance from the FCV metabolite, could be detected in the roads, and lower settlement density. The patterns blood at assumed therapeutic levels. The early were constant across seasons and types of crop indicators for clinical disease were a marked damaged. Damage to rubber trees was essentially absolute and relative drop in white blood cells, incidental as elephants searched for crops to eat. particularly monocytes prior to the detection of A predictive map of risks revealed hotspots of viraemia. The most prognostic haematological conflict within and around protected areas, the parameter at later stages of the disease was last refuges for elephants in the region, and along the platelet count showing a continuous sharp habitat corridors connecting them. Additionally, decline throughout, followed by a dramatic drop we analyzed how mitigation efforts can best at the time of death. The EEHV-1A viraemic diminish the risk of conflict while minimizing animals investigated here further highlight the financial costs and adverse biological impacts. ongoing threat posed by these viruses to juvenile Our analytical approach can be adopted, adjusted Asian elephants. The findings call into question and expanded to other areas with historical the efficacy of rectal FCV in clinical cases records of human-wildlife conflict. and direct towards the use of alternative anti- herpesvirus drugs and complementary treatments A. Dastjerdi, K. Seilern-Moy, K. Darpel, F. such as plasma infusions if no improvement in Steinbach & F. Molenaar either viral load or the above-mentioned blood Surviving and fatal elephant endotheliotropic parameters are observed in the initial days of herpesvirus-1A infections in juvenile Asian viraemia despite anti-herpesvirus therapy. © elephants – lessons learned and recommend- 2016 The Authors. ations on anti-herpesviral therapy BMC Veterinary Research 12 (2016) e178 C. Duer, T. Tomasi & C.I. Abramson Abstract. Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpes- Reproductive endocrinology and musth ind- viruses (EEHVs) can cause acute haemorrhagic icators in a captive Asian elephant (Elephas disease in young Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) maximus) and clinical EEHV infections account Psychological Reports 119 (2016) 839-860 for the majority of their fatalities. The anti- Abstract. Even in the best situations, the artificial herpesviral drug famciclovir (FCV) has been social constructs of captivity alter natural elephant used routinely to treat viraemic at-risk elephants, behavior and unfortunately create distress. Asian but thus far without proven efficacy. This paper elephants are powerful and intelligent animals presents clinical and virological investigations that require consideration for their well-being of two EEHV-1A infected elephants treated with and prudent management. The males present FCV, and discusses anti-herpesvirus therapies of particular difficulties due to a temporary state of viraemic elephants. Two 1.5 year old male Asian heightened aggressive behavior unique to male elephants at a zoological collection in the UK elephants called “musth.” When he is in this state, developed clinical EEHV-1A infections. Case 1 the danger the elephant poses to other animals showed signs of myalgia for the duration of 24 and the people around him is considerable. In hours before returning back to normal. EEHV-1A addition to antagonistic behavior, musth is also DNAemia was confirmed on the day of clinical characterized by temporal gland secretion and signs and continued to be present for 18 days in urine dribbling. In previous studies, musth has total. Trunk shedding of the virus commenced been attributed to elevated testosterone levels. 10 days after detection of initial DNAemia. Case This study attempted to enhance the knowledge 2 tested positive for EEHV-1A DNAemia in a base concerning these phenomena by examining routine blood screening sample in the absence hormone concentrations (n = 357) in Onyx, a male of clinical signs. The blood viral load increased Asian elephant housed at Dickerson Park Zoo, exponentially leading up to fatal clinical disease with intermittent access to females (n = 1–5) over seven days after initial detection of DNAemia. a 12-year period. Behavior and signs of musth Both calves were treated with 15 mg/kg FCV per also were recorded daily by elephant department rectum on detection of DNAemia and penciclovir, staff. Musth indicators (temporal gland secretion,
51 aggression, urine dribbling) increased with species and their responses to anthropogenic musth but not prior to it. We confirmed that activity. Consequently, conservation policy often temporal gland secretion was a better indicator of focuses on protecting habitat used by a few behavioral musth than urine dribbling. Hormones flagship, indicator or umbrella species like tigers concentrations increased as musth approached, Panthera tigris and Asian elephants Elephas and presumably initiated musth indicators, but maximus, which potentially leaves out species variability was high. Therefore, these hormones that do not share these habitat preferences. We cannot be used to predict the onset of musth in demonstrate an empirical approach that clustered this individual. Rather, the free/total testosterone 14 mammals into surrogate groups that reflect ratio was a good indication of the 60-day pre- their unique conservation needs. We surveyed a musth period. In addition, testosterone production 787 km2 multiple-use area in the Shencottah Gap and musth indicators increased in intensity when of the Western Ghats, India, using foot surveys a young bull at the zoo started entering musth. © and camera-trap surveys. Using ecological 2016 The Authors. niche factor analysis, we generated indices of species prevalence (marginality and tolerance) E.F. Egelund, R. Isaza, A. Alsultan & C.A. and habitat preferences (factor correlations to Peloquin marginality axis). We then clustered species Isoniazid and rifampin pharmacokinetics by both of the above index types to reveal four in two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) clusters based on prevalence and four clusters infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis based on habitat preference. Most clusters Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 47 (2016) contained at least one threatened species. 868-871 Low-prevalence lion-tailed macaques Macaca Abstract. This report describes the pharma- silenus and tigers were strongly associated with cokinetic profiles of chronically administered closed forests and low human disturbance. But oral isoniazid and rifampin in one adult male elephants, sloth bears Melursus ursinus and gaur and one adult female Asian elephant (Elephas Bos gaurus were more tolerant of anthropogenic maximus) that were asymptomatically infected impact, and sloth bears and gaur preferred open with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Rifampin’s forests and grasslands. Dhole Cuon alpinus and half-life was reduced when compared to sambar Rusa unicolor were associated with previous single-dose pharmacokinetic profiles highly anthropogenic habitat (farmland, cash of healthy uninfected Asian elephants. Both crop and forestry plantations) with high human elephants experienced delayed absorption of use. Thus, reliance on flagship species for isoniazid and rifampin as compared to previous conservation planning can both underestimate pharmacokinetic studies in this species. The and overestimate the ability of other species to altered pharmacokinetics of both drugs in persist in multiple-use landscapes; protecting repeated-dosing clinical situations underscores flagship species would only protect species with the need for individual therapeutic drug similar habitat preferences. For species that monitoring for tuberculosis treatment. © 2016 avoid human impacts more than the flagship American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. species, core habitat must be protected from human disturbance. For more tolerant species, A. Gangadharan, S. Vaidyanathan & C.C. St. conservation in anthropogenic habitat may hinge Clair on policies that bolster coexistence with humans. Categorizing species by niche characteristics © 2016 The Zoological Society of London. can clarify conservation planning in rapidly- developing landscapes R. Ghosh, R.K. Sehgal, P. Srivastava, U.K. Animal Conservation 19 (2016) 451-461 Shukla, A.C. Nanda & D.S. Singh Abstract. In biodiversity-rich landscapes that Discovery of Elephas cf. namadicus from the are developing rapidly, it is generally impossible late Pleistocene strata of Marginal Ganga to delineate land use and prioritize conservation Plain actions in relation to the full variability of Journal of the Geological Society of India 88
52 (2016) 559-568 was a significant risk factor in both models, with Abstract. We describe an elephant skull Asian elephants at greater risk (daytime: p<0.001, recovered from a cliff section of Dhasan river of Risk Ratio = 4.087; nighttime: p<0.001, Risk Marginal Ganga Plain. The dental morphology Ratio = 8.015). For both species, spending time and cranial features of the skull have been housed separately (p<0.001, Risk Ratio = 1.009), compared with the known species of Elephas and having experienced inter-zoo transfers from the Indian subcontinent. Although it shows (p<0.001, Risk Ratio = 1.175), increased the very near resemblance to Elephas namadicus, risk of performing higher rates of stereotypy but being an isolated specimen its specific during the day, while spending more time with identity cannot be proclaimed with certainty. juvenile elephants (p<0.001, Risk Ratio = As such, the specimen is provisionally referred 0.985), and engaging with zoo staff reduced this as E. cf. namadicus. The Optically Stimulated risk (p = 0.018, Risk Ratio = 0.988). At night, Luminescence ages place this find at ~56 ka BP. spending more time in environments with both This is the first chronologically well constrained indoor and outdoor areas (p = 0.013, Risk Ratio report of E. cf. namadicus from the Ganga = 0.987) and in larger social groups (p = 0.039, Plain. © 2016 Geological Society of India. With Risk Ratio = 0.752) corresponded with reduced permission from Springer. risk of performing higher rates of stereotypy, while having experienced inter-zoo transfers (p B.J. Greco, C.L. Meehan, J.N. Hogan, K.A. = 0.033, Risk Ratio = 1.115) increased this risk. Leighty, J. Mellen, G.J. Mason & J.A. Mench Overall, our results indicate that factors related The days and nights of zoo elephants: Using to the social environment are most influential in epidemiology to better understand stereotypic predicting elephant stereotypic behavior rates. © behavior of African elephants (Loxodonta 2016 The Authors. africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in North American zoos B.J. Greco, C.L. Meehan, L.J. Miller, D.J. PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0144276 Shepherdson, K.A. Morfeld, J. Andrews, A.M. Abstract. Stereotypic behavior is an important Baker, K. Carlstead & J.A. Mench indicator of compromised welfare. Zoo elephants Elephant management in North American are documented to perform stereotypic behavior, zoos: Environmental enrichment, feeding, but the factors that contribute to performance exercise, and training have not been systematically assessed. We PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0152490 collected behavioral data on 89 elephants Abstract. The management of African (Loxo- (47 African [Loxodonta africana], 42 Asian donta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) [Elephas maximus]) at 39 North American zoos elephants in zoos involves a range of practices during the summer and winter. Elephants were including feeding, exercise, training, and videoed for a median of 12 daytime hours per environmental enrichment. These practices are season. A subset of 32 elephants (19 African, necessary to meet the elephants’ nutritional, 13 Asian) was also observed live for a median healthcare, and husbandry needs. However, these of 10.5 nighttime hours. Percentages of visible practices are not standardized, resulting in likely behavior scans were calculated from five minute variation among zoos as well as differences in the instantaneous samples. Stereotypic behavior way they are applied to individual elephants within was the second most commonly performed a zoo. To characterize elephant management behavior (after feeding), making up 15.5% of in North America, we collected survey data observations during the daytime and 24.8% at from zoos accredited by the Association of nighttime. Negative binomial regression models Zoos and Aquariums, developed 26 variables, fitted with generalized estimating equations generated population level descriptive statistics, were used to determine which social, housing, and analyzed them to identify differences management, life history, and demographic attributable to sex and species. Sixty-seven zoos variables were associated with daytime and submitted surveys describing the management nighttime stereotypic behavior rates. Species of 224 elephants and the training experiences
53 of 227 elephants. Asian elephants spent more g., n. sp., was described. This new species has time managed (defined as interacting directly two short truncated terminal projections, with with staff) than Africans (mean time managed: two longitudinally lined bands located between Asians = 56.9%; Africans = 48.6%; p<0.001), the two projections, near the convex surface of the and managed time increased by 20.2% for cell. Short rod-like tentacles are in two fascicles every year of age for both species. Enrichment, near each base of terminal projections on the feeding, and exercise programs were evaluated flattened surface of the body. Ciliate densities in using diversity indices, with mean scores across the two fecal samples were 4.5 × 104/ml and 10 × zoos in the midrange for these measures. There 104/ml. © 2016 Reprinted with permission from were an average of 7.2 feedings every 24-hour Elsevier. period, with only 1.2 occurring during the nighttime. Feeding schedules were predictable Matt Hartley at 47.5% of zoos. We also calculated the relative Assessing risk factors for reproductive failure use of rewarding and aversive techniques and associated welfare impacts in elephants in employed during training interactions. The European zoos population median was seven on a scale from Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4 (2016) one (representing only aversive stimuli) to nine 127-138 (representing only rewarding stimuli). The results Abstract. Reproductive failure in elephants is of our study provide essential information for thought to be caused or influenced by a range understanding management variation that could of factors such as obesity, infectious disease, be relevant to welfare. Furthermore, the variables husbandry, facilities, stress, behaviour, maternal we created have been used in subsequent elephant experience, herd size and social grouping. Due welfare analyses. © 2016 The Authors. to the low reproductive activity of the small zoo elephant population, scientific study into the Michael Gross relative importance of these factors is limited. The plight of the pachyderms This study takes an epidemiological approach Current Biology 26 (2016) R865–R881 using risk analysis methodologies to collate Abstract. All three surviving elephant species information from expert opinion, data set analysis are facing dramatic declines. Poaching driven and a targeted questionnaire to identify and assess by consumer demand for ivory in Asia is an a range of physical, behavioural and husbandry important driver of their demise especially in based risk factors, which may affect reproductive Africa, making their plight a global issue, which success in elephants housed in European Zoos. has to be addressed by international policy. © Much of our knowledge on reproduction in 2016 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. zoo elephant populations originates from North America where there are significant differences Gözde Gürelli in herd structure, management practices, climate Intestinal ciliate fauna of the Asian elephant and mean age. By combining multiple sources of from Gaziantep, Turkey and the description evidence including a large survey of reproduction of Brevitentaculum antebum n. g., n. sp. in the European elephant population and eliciting European J. of Protistology 56 (2016) 26-31 expert opinion from scientists, zoo managers, Abstract. The aims of this investigation were to veterinarians and keepers working with European identify and quantify ciliates inhabiting the large zoo elephants in a structured, transparent and intestine of Asian elephants living in Gaziantep scientifically recognised process it has been Zoo, Turkey, and to describe a new suctorian possible to identify the most important causes genus and species. Species composition and of reproductive failure and assess the influence distribution of intestinal ciliates voided in the of a range of potential confounding factors. feces of two Asian elephants were examined. Important causes of reproductive failure included Fifteen species of intestinal ciliates, representing lack of access to a compatible bull, herd stability seven genera, were identified. One new suctorian and compatibility, allomothering or maternal genus and species, Brevitentaculum antebum n. experience, management practices at parturition
54 and the impact of Elephant Endotheliotropic Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpes virus was Herpes Virus. This work is to be used in the confirmed as the biggest cause of calf mortality. development of evidence-based elephant This work provides evidence to support changes management and welfare recommendations and to elephant management in European zoos highlights priority areas for further research. in order to encourage development of social and affiliative herd behaviours and improve M. Hartley & C. Stanley reproductive success. Survey of reproduction and calf rearing in Asian and African elephants in Europe L.E. Highfill, J.M. Spencer, O. Fad & A.M. Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4 (2016) Arnold 139-146 Performance on a means end task by Asian Abstract. Acyclicity, conception failure, elephants (Elephas maximus) in a positive abortion, stillbirth, dystocia, infanticide and reinforcement-based protected contact setting neonatal mortality have all been reported as causes International Journal of Comparative Psychology of reproductive failure in zoo elephants. These 29 (2016) events are often reported as single case reports or Abstract. The current study tested six Asian in specific studies focused on a particular stage elephants (Elephas maximus) on a means-end in the reproductive process. In North America behavioral task of pulling a support to retrieve a wider surveys of reproduction in the zoo elephant distant object; a systematic replication of the Irie- population have been completed and repeated to Sugimoto, Kobayashi, Sato, and Hasegawa (2008) provide data over a number of years. This study study. The paradigm was somewhat modified is the largest and most comprehensive study from the original research to accommodate of reproduction in the European zoo elephant a protected-contact setting, reduce the total population to date. Two questionnaires collected number of trials, and one condition was excluded. data from throughout the reproductive process Each elephant was tested on three conditions of from assessing cyclicity to independence of the increasing difficulty. Specifically, subjects were calf at 5 years old. Information was collected asked to select from a choice of two trays where regarding 189 birth events. Many causative and one intact tray was baited with a highly-valued contributing factors such as obesity, infectious produce item and the other was A) empty, B) disease, husbandry, facilities, stress, behaviour, baited adjacent to the tray, and C) baited on the herd size and social grouping have been proposed. far side of a break in the tray. Results indicated The importance of these was assessed and where that the elephants met or exceeded the criteria possible association identified using statistical established for conditions A and B, but performed analysis. In African elephants, this study found at chance levels on condition C. These data are that age, obesity, reproductive pathology and contrasted with those of the original study where dominance, identified as important risk factors for one elephant met criteria for all three conditions. failure to conceive in the American zoo elephant We discuss potentially relevant variables population were of low importance. The most affecting performance including differences in significant cause in Europe was lack of access to a visual access to the trays, motivation levels, and compatible bull. In Asian elephants reproductive training style. © 2016 The Authors. failure was much less common but when it did occur age and reproductive pathologies were M.R. Holdgate, C.L. Meehan, J.N. Hogan, L.J. significant factors as found in previous studies. Miller, J. Rushen, A.M. de Passillé, J. Soltis, J. Previous studies have found that age, obesity and Andrews & D.J. Shepherdson infanticide were considered as the most important Recumbence behavior in zoo elephants: risk factors in the period from birth to rearing. Determination of patterns and frequency of In this survey it was found that herd stability recumbent rest and associated environmental and compatibility, allomothering or maternal and social factors experience and management at parturition can PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0153301 significantly influence reproductive success. Abstract. Resting behaviors are an essential
55 component of animal welfare but have received Abstract. Research with humans and other little attention in zoological research. African animals suggests that walking benefits physical savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) and health. Perhaps because these links have been Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) rest in- demonstrated in other species, it has been cludes recumbent postures, but no large-scale suggested that walking is important to elephant investigation of African and Asian zoo elephant welfare, and that zoo elephant exhibits should be recumbence has been previously conducted. We designed to allow for more walking. Our study used anklets equipped with accelerometers to is the first to address this suggestion empirically measure recumbence in 72 adult female African by measuring the mean daily walking distance of (n = 44) and Asian (n = 28) elephants housed in elephants in North American zoos, determining 40 North American zoos. We collected 344 days the factors that are associated with variations in of data and determined associations between walking distance, and testing for associations recumbence and social, housing, management, between walking and welfare indicators. We and demographic factors. African elephants were used anklets equipped with GPS data loggers to recumbent less (2.1 hours/day, S.D. = 1.1) than measure outdoor daily walking distance in 56 Asian elephants (3.2 hours/day, S.D. = 1.5; P < adult female African (n = 33) and Asian (n = 23) 0.001). Nearly one-third of elephants were non- elephants housed in 30 North American zoos. recumbent on at least one night, suggesting this We collected 259 days of data and determined is a common behavior. Multi-variable regression associations between distance walked and social, models for each species showed that substrate, housing, management, and demographic factors. space, and social variables had the strongest Elephants walked an average of 5.3 km/day with associations with recumbence. In the African no significant difference between species. In model, elephants who spent any amount of time our multivariable model, more diverse feeding housed on all-hard substrate were recumbent regimens were correlated with increased walking, 0.6 hours less per day than those who were and elephants who were fed on a temporally never on all-hard substrate, and elephants who unpredictable feeding schedule walked 1.29 km/ experienced an additional acre of outdoor space day more than elephants fed on a predictable at night increased their recumbence by 0.48 schedule. Distance walked was also positively hours per day. In the Asian model, elephants correlated with an increase in the number of social who spent any amount of time housed on all-soft groupings and negatively correlated with age. We substrate were recumbent 1.1 hours more per found a small but significant negative correlation day more than those who were never on all-soft between distance walked and nighttime Space substrate, and elephants who spent any amount Experience, but no other associations between of time housed alone were recumbent 0.77 walking distances and exhibit size were found. hours more per day than elephants who were Finally, distance walked was not related to health never housed alone. Our results draw attention or behavioral outcomes including foot health, to the significant interspecific difference in the joint health, body condition, and the performance amount of recumbent rest and in the factors of stereotypic behavior, suggesting that more affecting recumbence; however, in both species, research is necessary to determine explicitly the influence of flooring substrate is notably how differences in walking may impact elephant important to recumbent rest, and by extension, welfare. © 2016 The Authors. zoo elephant welfare. © 2016 The Authors. Ritesh Joshi M.R. Holdgate, C.L. Meehan, J.N. Hogan, L.J. Mammalian fauna of Rajaji National Park, Miller, J. Soltis, J. Andrews & D.J. Shepherdson India: A review on ecological observations and Walking behavior of zoo elephants: Asso- checklist ciations between GPS-measured daily walking Check List 12 (2016) e1892 distances and environmental factors, social Abstract. Rajaji National Park, in the Gangetic factors, and welfare indicators Plains biogeographic zone, has a diverse and PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0150331 biogeographically important mammalian
56 assemblage. In the recent past, several studies Kingdom and Ireland (1995-2013) on the herbivores, large carnivores and mega- Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 47 (2016) herbivores have been carried out, but limited 405-418 work has been done on the distribution of Abstract. Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus mammals in the park. This study illustrates (EEHV) is one of the most devastating infections the ecological observations and review of the and causes of mortality in captive Asian elephant mammals of the Rajaji National Park, based on (Elephas maximus) populations. Eight confirmed field surveys, carried out during 2006–2008, fatal EEHV cases have occurred since 1995 within using direct and indirect sampling methods. A the captive Asian elephant population of the total of 44 mammal species, belonging to nine United Kingdom and Ireland. This report aims to orders and 20 families were recorded, which review the impact of EEHV on the captive Asian included one insectivore, six chiropterans, two elephant population in the United Kingdom and primates, one pholidotan, 16 carnivores, one Ireland, document and compare fatal cases, and proboscidean, six artiodactylians, one lagomorph recommend a framework of monitoring within and 10 rodents. Of these, seven are classified as the United Kingdom and Ireland to increase Endangered/Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of the success of treatment of EEHV hemorrhagic Threatened Species; however, three species are disease (EEHV HD) in the future. Six zoologic Near Threatened, a lower risk category. © 2016 institutions (which include zoos, safari parks, Check List and Author. and wildlife parks) that currently house or have previously housed a captive Asian elephant group S. Kaye, N. Abou-Madi & D.J. Fletcher were included in this report. Medical records and Effect of ε-aminocaproic acid on fibrinolysis in postmortem results were collected from four of plasma of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) these institutions for each confirmed fatal case. J. of Zoo and Wildlife Med. 47 (2016) 397-404 EEHV HD was found to be responsible for 29.6% Abstract. ε-Aminocaproic acid (EACA) is a of fatalities in Asian elephants born in captivity lysine analogue antifibrinolytic drug used to in the United Kingdom and Ireland between 1995 treat bleeding disorders in humans and domestic and 2013. Following a review of all the cases, animals. Use in zoological medicine is rare it is shown that although clinical signs may be and dose recommendations are anecdotal, but associated with specific EEHV species, the EACA may be a valuable therapeutic option for swiftness of disease progression means that most bleeding disorders in exotic species, including body tissues are impacted 1–6 days following Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). This study the presentation of visible clinical signs and used an in vitro model of hyperfibrinolysis and treatment is less likely to succeed. Therefore, a thromboelastograph-based assay to estimate EEHV monitoring should consist of conducting the therapeutic plasma concentration of EACA regular polymerase chain reaction analysis of in Asian elephants (61.5 µg/ml, 95% CI 1⁄4 whole blood samples from at-risk, young Asian 34.6–88.5 µg/ml). Substantial but incomplete elephants aged 1–8 yr in order for subclinical inhibition of lysis was seen at relatively low viremia to be identified early and treatment to be concentrations of EACA (40 µg/ml). Asian started before the appearance of visible clinical elephants appear sensitive to EACA-mediated signs. © 2016 American Association of Zoo inhibition of hyperfibrinolysis. Doses published Veterinarians. for domestic animals, targeting higher plasma concentrations, may be inappropriate in this T. Kitpipit, P. Thanakiatkrai, K. Penchart, K. species. © 2016 American Association of Zoo Ouithavon, C. Satasook & A. Linacre Veterinarians. Ivory species identification using electro- phoresis-based techniques R. Kendall, L. Howard, N. Masters & R. Grant Electrophoresis 37 (2016) 3068-3075 The impact of elephant endotheliotropic Abstract. Despite continuous conservation herpesvirus on the captive Asian elephant efforts by national and international organizations, (Elephas maximus) population of the United the populations of the three extant elephant
57 species are still dramatically declining due to seven species of plants in 28 families were the illegal trade in ivory leading to the killing of found to be eaten by Asian elephants, including elephants. A requirement to aid investigations 13 species of grasses, five shrubs, two climbers, and prosecutions is the accurate identification one herb and 36 species of trees. The species of the elephant species from which the ivory that contributed the greatest proportion of the was removed. We report on the development elephant’s diet were Spatholobus parviflorus of the first fully validated multiplex PCR- (20.2%), Saccharum spontaneum (7.1%), electrophoresis assay for ivory DNA analysis Shorea robusta (6.3), Mallotus philippensis that can be used as a screening or confirmatory (5.7%), Garuga pinnata (4.3%). Saccharum test. SNPs from the NADH dehydrogenase 5 and bengalensis (4.2%), Cymbopogan spp (3.7%), cytochrome b gene loci were identified and used Litsea monopetala (3.6) and Phoenix humilis in the development of the assay. The three extant (2.9%). The preference index (PI) showed that elephant species could be identified based on browsed species were preferred during the dry three peaks/bands. Elephas maximus exhibited season, while browsed species and grasses were two distinct PCR fragments at approximate 129 both important food sources during the rainy and 381 bp; Loxodonta cyclotis showed two season. Elephants targeted leaves and twigs PCR fragments at 89 and 129 bp; and Loxodonta more than other parts of plants (P < 0.05). This africana showed a single fragment of 129 bp. study presents useful information on foraging The assay correctly identified the elephant patterns and baseline data for elephant habitat species using all 113 ivory and blood samples management in the PWR and CNP in the south used in this report. We also report on the high central region of Nepal. © 2016 The Authors. sensitivity and specificity of the assay. All single- blinded samples were correctly classified, which Helen Kopnina demonstrated the assay’s ability to be used for Wild animals and justice: The case of the dead real casework. In addition, the assay could be elephant in the room used in conjunction with the technique of direct Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy amplification. We propose that the test will 19 (2016) 219-235 benefit wildlife forensic laboratories and aid in Abstract. none. the transition to the criminal justice system. © 2016 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. N. Kraiwong, P. Sanyathitiseree, K. Boonprasert, P. Diskul, P. Charoenphan, W. Pintawong & A. R.K. Koirala, D. Raubenheimer, A. Aryal, M.L. Thayananuphat Pathak & W. Ji Anterior ocular abnormalities of captive Feeding preferences of the Asian elephant Asian elephants (Elephas maximus indicus) in (Elephas maximus) in Nepal Thailand BMC Ecology 16 (2016) e54 Veterinary Ophthalmology 19 (2016) 269-274 Abstract. Nepal provides habitat for approxi- Abstract. Objective: To survey and classify mately 100–125 wild Asian elephants (Elephas anterior ocular abnormalities in 1478 captive maximus). Although a small proportion of the Asian elephants (Elephas maximus indicus) in world population of this species, this group is six regions of Thailand. Methods: Anterior ocular important for maintaining the genetic diversity of examination was performed in both eyes (n = elephants and conservation of biodiversity in this 2956) of 1478 elephants selected from the annual region. Knowledge of foraging patterns of these health check program involving 2958 animals animals, which is important for understanding within six regions of Thailand from January to their habitat requirements and for assessing their November 2013. Lesions were described and habitat condition, is lacking for the main areas compared between age and gender. Results: populated by elephants in Nepal. This study A total of 17.83% (527/2956) of examined investigates the feeding preferences of the Asian eyes from 24.97% (369/1478) of examined elephant in Parsa Wildlife Reserve (PWR) and elephants had anterior ocular abnormalities. The Chitwan National Park (CNP), Nepal. Fifty- most common lesions in these examined eyes
58 were frothy ocular discharge (5.85%), corneal P.D. Ling, S.Y. Long, A. Fuery, R.-S. Peng, S.Y. edema (5.31%), and conjunctivitis (5.18%). Heaggans, X. Qin, K.C. Worley, S. Dugan & In addition, epiphora, phthisis bulbi, other G.S. Hayward corneal abnormalities, anterior uveitis, and lens Complete genome sequence of elephant endo- abnormalities were noted. Almost all lesions theliotropic herpesvirus 4, the first example of increased in frequency with age (P < 0.01). a GC-rich branch proboscivirus Conclusions: Regular ophthalmic examination mSphere 1 (2016) e00081-15 in elephants should be included in their annual Abstract. A novel group of mammalian health check program. Early detection and DNA viruses called elephant endotheliotropic treatment of any ocular abnormality may avoid herpesviruses (EEHVs) belonging to the the development of subsequent irreversible Proboscivirus genus has been associated ocular pathology. © 2015 American College of with nearly 100 cases of highly lethal acute Veterinary Ophthalmologists. hemorrhagic disease in young Asian elephants worldwide. The complete 180-kb genomes of M. Lahdenperä, K.U. Mar & V. Lummaa prototype strains from three AT-rich branch Nearby grandmother enhances calf survival viruses, EEHV1A, EEHV1B, and EEHV5, have and reproduction in Asian elephants been published. However, less than 6 kb of DNA Scientific Report 6 (2016) e27213 sequence each from EEHV3, EEHV4, and EEHV7 Abstract. Usually animals reproduce into old age, showed them to be a hugely diverged second but a few species such as humans and killer whales major branch with GC-rich characteristics. Here, can live decades after their last reproduction. The we determined the complete 206-kb genome of grandmother hypothesis proposes that such life- EEHV4(Baylor) directly from trunk wash DNA history evolved through older females switching by next-generation sequencing and de novo to invest in their existing (grand)offspring, assembly procedures. Among a total of 119 genes thereby increasing their inclusive fitness with an overall colinear organization similar to and selection for post-reproductive lifespan. those of the AT-rich EEHVs, major features of However, positive grandmother effects are also EEHV4 include a family of 26 paralogous 7xTM found in non-menopausal taxa, but evidence of and vGPCR-like genes plus 25 novel or missing their associated fitness effects is rare and only a genes. The genome also contains an unusual few tests of the hypothesis in such species exist. distribution of tracts of 5 to 11 successive A or Here we investigate the grandmother effects T nucleotides in intergenic domains between the in Asian elephants. Using a multigenerational mostly much higher GC content protein coding demographic dataset on semi-captive elephants regions. Furthermore, an extremely high GC- in Myanmar, we found that grandcalves from rich bias in the third wobble position of codons young mothers (<20 years) had 8 times lower clearly delineates the coding regions for many mortality risk if the grandmother resided with but not all proteins. There are also two novel her grandcalf compared to grandmothers captured cellular genes, including a C-type lectin residing elsewhere. Resident grandmothers also (vECTL) and an O-linked acetylglucosamine decreased their daughters’ inter-birth intervals transferase (vOGT), as well as an unusually large by one year. In contrast to the hypothesis and complex Ori-Lyt dyad symmetry domain. predictions, the grandmother’s own reproductive Finally, 30 kb from a second strain proved to status did not modify such grandmother benefits. include three small chimeric domains, indicating That elephant grandmothers increased their the existence of distinct EEHV4A and EEHV4B inclusive fitness by enhancing their daughter’s subtypes. © 2016 The Authors. reproductive rate and success irrespective of their own reproductive status suggests that fitness- C. Lowe & U. Münster enhancing grandmaternal effects are widespread, The viral creep. Elephants and herpes in times and challenge the view that grandmother effects of extinction alone select for menopause coupled with long Environmental Humanities 8 (2016) 118-142 post-reproductive lifespan. Abstract. Across the world, elephant endo-
59 theliotropic herpesvirus is increasingly killing the carnivores and herbivores in Mettupalayam elephant calves and threatening the long-term Forest Range especially in the three elephant survival of the Asian elephant, a species that is corridors, The Jaccanari-Vedar Colony corridor, currently facing extinction. This article presents Kallar-Jaccanari corridor, Kallar-Nellithurai three open-ended stories of elephant care in times corridor. Hence, considering the potentiality of of death and loss: at places of confinement and long term conservation value and existing and elephant suffering like the zoos in Seattle and growing human population in the Mettupalayam Zürich as well as in the conflict-ridden landscapes Forest Range it is essential to know the status of South India, where the country’s last free- and distribution pattern of herbivores for ranging elephants live. Our stories of deadly conservation management. The aim of this paper viral-elephant-human becomings remind us that was to identify the major herbivore population in neither human care, love, and attentiveness nor the elephant corridors so as to get the overview techniques of control and creative management of the bearing effect of these species, the co- are sufficient to fully secure elephant survival. existing interactions and its habitat utilization. © The article introduces the concept of “viral creep” 2016 The Authors. to explore the ability of a creeping, only partially knowable virus to rearrange relations among C.L. Meehan, J.N. Hogan, M.K. Bonaparte- people, animals, and objects despite multiple Saller & J.A. Mench experimental human regimes of elephant care, Housing and social environments of African governance, and organization. The viral creep (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas exceeds the physical and intellectual contexts maximus) elephants in North American zoos of human interpretation and control. It reminds PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0146703 us that uncertainty and modes of imaging are Abstract. We evaluated 255 African (Loxodonta always involved when we make sense of the africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants world around us. © 2016 The Authors. living in 68 North American zoos over one year to quantify housing and social variables. All K. Manoj, R. Raghavan & B. Allwin parameters were quantified for the both the day Assessment of the distribution of herbivores in and the night and comparisons were made across the elephant corridors, Mettupalayam Forest these time periods as well as by species and Range, Tamil Nadu, India sex. To assess housing, we evaluated not only Poultry, Fisheries & Wildlife Sciences 4 (2016) total exhibit size, but also individual animals’ e165 experiences based on the time they spent in the Abstract. Mettupalayam is located at 11.3000°N unique environments into which the exhibits 76.9500°E. It has an average elevation of 314 were subdivided. Variables developed to assess metres (MSL). Mettupalayam is situated on the housing included measurements of area as a bank of Bhavani River at the foot of the Nilgiri function of time (Total Space Experience), mountains. Population density, distribution pattern environment type (Indoor, Outdoor, In/Out of herbivores is very important for conservation Choice) and time spent on hard and soft flooring. as the presence of herbivore population represents Over the year, Total Space Experience values the carnivores’ activity of that particular habitat. ranged from 1,273 square feet to 169,692 square Both herbivores and carnivore population density feet, with Day values significantly greater than are important for management and conserving a Night values (p<0.001). Elephants spent an particular habitat especially the biodiversity hot average of 55.1% of their time outdoors, 28.9% spots that sustain the existence of wild animals indoors, and 16% in areas with a choice between having a qualified and balanced habitat meeting being in or out. Time spent on hard flooring out the pyramidal quotients that are required for substrate ranged from 0% to 66.7%, with Night the effective functioning of the bio-system and values significantly greater than Day (p<0.001). the flow of energy between the tiers. The line Social factors included number of animals transects and distance sampling methodology functionally housed together (Social Experience) was used to estimate population densities of both and social group characteristics such as time
60 spent with juveniles and in mixed-sex groups. summary of the findings of the nine papers in the Overall Social Experience scores ranged from collection titled: Epidemiological Investigations 1 to 11.2 and were significantly greater during of North American Zoo Elephant Welfare with the Day than at Night (p<0.001). There were a focus on the life history, social, housing, and few significant social or housing differences management factors found to be associated with between African (N = 138) and Asian (N = 117) particular aspects of elephant welfare, including species or between males (N = 54) and females the performance of abnormal behavior, foot (N = 201). The most notable exception was and joint problems, recumbence, walking rates, Total Space Experience, with African and male and reproductive health issues. Social and elephants having larger Total Space Experience management factors were found to be important than Asian and female elephants, respectively for multiple indicators of welfare, while exhibit (P-value<0.05). The housing and social variables space was found to be less influential than evaluated herein have been used in a series of expected. This body of work results from the subsequent epidemiological analyses relating to largest prospective zoo-based animal welfare various elephant welfare outcomes. © 2016 The study conducted to date and sets in motion Authors. the process of using science-based welfare benchmarks to optimize care of zoo elephants. © C.L. Meehan, J.A. Mench, K. Carlstead & J.N. 2016 The Authors. Hogan Determining connections between the daily M.A. Miller, J.N. Hogan & C.L. Meehan lives of zoo elephants and their welfare: An Housing and demographic risk factors epidemiological approach impacting foot and musculoskeletal health in PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0158124 African elephants [Loxodonta africana] and Abstract. Concerns about animal welfare Asian elephants [Elephas maximus] in North increasingly shape people’s views about the American zoos acceptability of keeping animals for food PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0155223 production, biomedical research, and in zoos. Abstract. For more than three decades, foot The field of animal welfare science has developed and musculoskeletal conditions have been over the past 50 years as a method of investigating documented among both Asian (Elephas these concerns via research that assesses how maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) living in human-controlled environments elephants in zoos. Although environmental influences the behavior, health and affective states factors have been hypothesized to play a of animals. Initially, animal welfare research contributing role in the development of foot and focused on animals in agricultural settings, but musculoskeletal pathology, there is a paucity the field has expanded to zoos because good of evidence-based research assessing risk. We animal welfare is essential to zoos’ mission of investigated the associations between foot promoting connections between animals and and musculoskeletal health conditions with visitors and raising awareness of conservation demographic characteristics, space, flooring, issues. A particular challenge for zoos is ensuring exercise, enrichment, and body condition for good animal welfare for long-lived, highly elephants housed in North American zoos social species like elephants. Our main goal in during 2012. Clinical examinations and medical conducting an epidemiological study of African records were used to assess health indicators and (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas provide scores to quantitate conditions. Using maximus) elephant welfare in 68 accredited multivariable regression models, associations North American zoos was to understand the were found between foot health and age (P value prevalence of welfare indicators in the population = 0.076; Odds Ratio = 1.018), time spent on hard and determine the aspects of an elephant’s zoo substrates (P value = 0.022; Odds Ratio = 1.014), environment, social life and management that are space experienced during the night (P value = most important to prevent and reduce a variety of 0.041; Odds Ratio = 1.008), and percent of time welfare problems. In this overview, we provide a spent in indoor/outdoor exhibits during the day (P
61 value < 0.001; Odds Ratio = 1.003). Similarly, the improvements in welfare of zoo elephants. © main risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders 2016 The Authors. included time on hard substrate (P value = 0.002; Odds Ratio = 1.050) and space experienced in A.M. Moßbrucker, C.H. Fleming, M.A. Imron, indoor/outdoor exhibits (P value = 0.039; Odds S. Pudyatmoko & Sumardi
Ratio = 1.037). These results suggest that facility AKDEC home range size and habitat selection and management changes that decrease time of Sumatran elephants spent on hard substrates will improve elephant Wildlife Research 43 (2016) 566-575 welfare through better foot and musculoskeletal Abstract. Context. Understanding ranging beha- health. © 2016 The Authors. viour and habitat selection of threatened species is crucial for the development of conservation K.A. Morfeld, C.L. Meehan, J.N. Hogan & J.L. strategies and the design of conservation areas. Brown Our understanding of the actual needs of the Assessment of body condition in African critically endangered Sumatran elephant in this (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas context is insufficient. Aims. Provide reliable maximus) elephants in North American zoos subspecies-specific information on home range and management practices associated with size and habitat selection of Sumatran elephants. high body condition scores Methods. Using both the new area-corrected
PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0155146 autocorrelated kernel density estimation (AKDEC) Abstract. Obesity has a negative effect on and two commonly applied conventional health and welfare of many species, and has been methods, the home range sizes of nine Sumatran speculated to be a problem for zoo elephants. elephants were estimated. Elephant habitat To address this concern, we assessed the body selection was studied using Manly’s selection condition of 240 elephants housed in North ratios. Key results. AKDEC home ranges of adults American zoos based on a set of standardized ranged from 275 km2 to 1352 km2. Estimates photographs using a 5-point Body Condition obtained using conventional KDE and minimum Score index (1 = thinnest; 5 = fattest). A multi- convex polygon (MCP) ranged between 156 variable regression analysis was then used to km2 and 997 km2. Overall habitat selection was determine how demographic, management, significant for both slope and land-cover type, housing, and social factors were associated with whereas individual preferences varied to some an elevated body condition score in 132 African extent. On the basis of global selection ratios, (Loxodonta africana) and 108 Asian (Elephas we found natural forest, pulpwood plantations maximus) elephants. The highest BCS of 5, and gentle slopes (≤4º) to be significantly suggestive of obesity, was observed in 34% of selected, whereas most areas affected by human zoo elephants. In both species, the majority of activities and steeper slopes were avoided by elephants had elevated BCS, with 74% in the the majority of animals included in the study.
BCS 4 (40%) and 5 (34%) categories. Only Conclusions. As expected, AKDEC estimates 22% of elephants had BCS 3, and less than 5% were much larger than those obtained using of the population was assigned the lowest BCS conventional methods because conventional categories (BCS 1 and 2). The strongest multi- methods have a tendency to underestimate home variable model demonstrated that staff-directed range size when confronted with autocorrelated walking exercise of 14 hours or more per week movement data and produce estimates that refer and highly unpredictable feeding schedules were to the limited study period only, whereas AKDEC associated with decreased risk of BCS 4 or 5, estimates include the predicted animal’s long- while increased diversity in feeding methods and term space use. The extremely large AKDEC being female was associated with increased risk estimate obtained for a subadult male most likely of BCS 4 or 5. Our data suggest that high body represents a combination of population dispersal condition is prevalent among North American range and temporary home range rather than its zoo elephants, and management strategies that final adult home range. Regardless, it appears help prevent and mitigate obesity may lead to that Sumatran elephants roam over much larger
62 areas than previously assumed. Natural forests Park, Sumatra, Indonesia and relatively flat areas are of great importance Tropical Conservation Science 9 (2016) 565-583 for Sumatran elephants. The observed intensive Abstract. Forests in Indonesia are disappearing use of pulpwood plantations by one individual is at an alarming rate, because the large population likely because of limited availability of alternative of poor rural people require land for agriculture. suitable habitats. Implications. A landscape-wide In Indonesia, forest fire is used to clear land and approach to elephant conservation that takes for protest, indirectly increasing opportunities large home ranges into account, is required, and for human-elephant interaction. Human-elephant should include forest protection and restoration conflict is a problem for elephant conservation and elephant friendly management of existing and human wellbeing in all areas where elephants pulpwood concessions, with special focus on and humans compete for space, and is most areas with relatively gentle slopes. © 2016 With severe in Asia. This paper presents a case study permission from CSIRO Publishing. of poor rural people living near Way Kambas National Park, on the island of Sumatra. The A.M. Moßbrucker, M.A. Imron, S. Pudyatmoko, park is valued for its critically endangered and P.-H. Pratje & Sumardi endangered mega-fauna, but is a hotspot for both Modeling the fate of Sumatran elephants in forest arson and human-elephant conflict. We Bukit Tigapuluh Indonesia: Research needs describe the multifactorial conflict happening in & implications for population management the park, which involves arson, poaching, police Jurnal Ilmu Kehutanan 10 (2016) 5-18 brutality, and violation of elephants. Workshops Abstract. The critically endangered Sumatran with villagers and park stakeholders reveal elephant persists in mainly small and isolated villager-park interaction, and expose multiple populations that may require intensive levels of resentment and vicious retribution. management to be viable in the long term. Villagers resent the park for a multitude of Population Viability Analysis (PVA) provides the reasons and take direct action, burning the park opportunity to evaluate conservation strategies and killing elephants. We conclude that saving and objectives prior to implementation, which can Way Kambas National Park will ultimately be very valuable for site managers by supporting require construction of a barrier preventing their decision making process. This study applies human and elephant movement in and out of the PVA to a local population of Sumatran elephants park. However in the immediate term, successful roaming the Bukit Tigapuluh landscape, Sumatra, conservation must understand and address with the main goal to explore the impact of pre- villager-park conflict, respond to threats of arson, selected conservation measures and population and help villagers protect farms from elephants. scenarios on both population growth rate © 2016 The Authors. and extinction probability. Sensitivity testing revealed considerable parameter uncertainties S. Paudel, M.A. Villanueva, S.K. Mikota, C. that should be addressed by targeted research Nakajima, K.P. Gairhe, S. Subedi, N. Rayamajhi, projects in order to improve the predictive power M. Sashika, M. Shimozuru, T. Matsuba, Y. of the baseline population model. Given that Suzuki & T. Tsubota further habitat destruction can be prevented, Development and evaluation of an interferon-γ containing illegal killings appears to be of highest release assay in Asian elephants (Elephas priority among the tested conservation measures maximus) and represents a mandatory pre-condition for Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 78 (2016) activities addressing inbreeding depression such 1117-1121 as elephant translocation or the establishment of Abstract. We developed an interferon-γ release a conservation corridor. assay (IGRA) specific for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Whole blood collected from C.M.-C. Oelrichs, D.J. Lloyd & L. Christidis forty captive Asian elephants was stimulated with Strategies for mitigating forest arson and three different mitogens i.e., phytohemagglutinin elephant conflict in Way Kambas National (PHA), pokweed mitogen (PWM) and phorbol
63 myristate aceteate/ionomycin (PMA/I). A sand- N.A. Prado-Oviedo, M.K. Bonaparte-Saller, E.J. wich ELISA that was able to recognize the Malloy, C.L. Meehan, J.A. Mench, K. Carlstead recombinant elephant interferon-γ (rEIFN-γ) & J.L. Brown as well as native interferon-γ from the Asian Evaluation of demographics and social life elephants was performed using anti-elephant events of Asian (Elephas maximus) and IFN-γ rabbit polyclonal antibodies as capture African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in antibodies and biotinylated anti-elephant North American zoos IFN-γ rabbit polyclonal antibodies as detection PLoS ONE 11 (2016) e0154750 antibodies. PMA/I was the best mitogen to use as a Abstract. This study quantified social life events positive control for an Asian elephant IGRA. The hypothesized to affect the welfare of zoo African development of an Asian elephant-specific IGRA and Asian elephants, focusing on animals that that detects native IFN-γ in elephant whole blood were part of a large multi-disciplinary, multi- provides promising results for its application as institutional elephant welfare study in North a potential diagnostic tool for diseases, such as America. Age was calculated based on recorded tuberculosis (TB) in Asian elephants. © 2016 birth dates and an age-based account of life event Japanese Society of Veterinary Science. data for each elephant was compiled. These event histories included facility transfers, births and D.M. Powell & C. Vitale deaths of offspring, and births and deaths of non- Behavioral changes in female Asian elephants offspring herd mates. Each event was evaluated when given access to an outdoor yard overnight as a total number of events per elephant, lifetime Zoo Biology 35 (2016) 298–303 rate of event exposure, and age at first event Abstract. A study was conducted at the Bronx exposure. These were then compared across three Zoo to determine whether providing elephants categories: species (African vs. Asian); sex (male with access to an outdoor corral at night had any vs. female); and origin (imported vs. captive- significant effects on behavior, use of space, and born). Mean age distributions differed (p<0.05) use of a sand corral. Activity budgets for three between the categories: African elephants were 6 female Asian elephants were compared when years younger than Asian elephants, males were the subjects were housed indoors overnight 12 years younger than females, and captive-born and when they were given access to an outdoor elephants were 20 years younger than imported yard overnight. Observations were recorded via elephants. Overall, the number of transfers ranged infrared video cameras between the hours of 1900 from 0 to 10, with a 33% higher age-adjusted and 0700 during the months of July–September. transfer rate for imported African than imported Two of the three elephants showed a significant Asian elephants, and 37% lower rate for imported preference for spending time outdoors, whereas, females than males (p<0.05). Other differences the third elephant spent most of her time indoors. (p<0.05) included a 96% higher rate of offspring Standing and play behavior increased when births for captive-born females than those the elephants had outdoor access while lying imported from range countries, a 159% higher down and feeding behavior decreased. Swaying rate of birthing event exposures for captive-born behavior decreased significantly when the males than for their imported counterparts, and elephants had access to the outdoor yard. The Asian elephant females being 4 years younger elephants made very little use of a sand-floor than African females when they produced their stall regardless of whether or not they had access first calf. In summarizing demographic and to outdoors. The results of this study, suggest social life events of elephants in North American that having access to alternate areas overnight zoos, we found both qualitative and quantitative can promote well-being by reducing repetitive differences in the early lives of imported versus behavior and allowing animals to express their captive-born elephants that could have long-term preferences for different locations. The relative welfare implications. © 2016 The Authors. importance of choice alone vs. the behavioral opportunities provided by choice options for zoo T. Pursell, J. Tan, R.S. Peng & P.D. Ling animals is discussed. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals. Generation and validation of new quantitative
64 real time PCR assays to detect elephant intervals (IBI) of 4.9 ± 0.3, 4.8 ± 0.5, 7.9 ± 1.9 endotheliotropic herpesviruses 1A, 1B, and 4 and 5.7 ± 0.5 years, respectively. Females giving J. of Virological Methods 237 (2016) 138-142 birth to males (5.7 ± 2.2 years) had longer IBIs Abstract. Elephant endotheliotropic herpes- compared to birthing female calves (4.7 ± 1.1 viruses (EEHVs) can cause fatal hemorrhagic years). The average gestation for 18 pregnancies disease in Asian and African elephants. There with known conception dates was 667 ± 11 days. are quantitative real time PCR (qPCR) tests The average birth weight was similar for male that can detect seven known EEHVs (1A, 1B, (83.1 ± 4.6 kg; n = 14) and female (82.8 ± 8.4 2–6) in mucosal secretions, tissue isolates, and kg; n = 6) calves. Sex ratio for live births was blood samples. However, current qPCR tests are 36 male : 29 female and not different from 1:1; unable to distinguish between EEHV 1A and 1B however, more males (10/14) were born after a or 3 and 4. To address these inadequacies, new second parity. Calf mortality and stillbirth rates qPCR assays were generated and validated to were low: 7.6% and 4.4%, respectively. This specifically detect EEHV 1A, 1B, and 4. Each study highlights the successful breeding program assay demonstrated robust efficiency, a broad at the PEO, providing baseline reproductive linear range, and low intra- and inter-assay data that can aid in improving breeding of other variability. Each also proved to be specific for its elephants managed under captive conditions. © EEHV target when tested against known banked 2016 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. samples from past EEHV cases. The EEHV1A and 1B assays were then used to characterize J.-P. Puyravaud & P. Davidar an eight-week, low level EEHV1 viremic event Culling of Asian elephants and overextension in a young Asian elephant. These new tests will of population modelling allow veterinarians and researchers to pinpoint Biological Conservation 201 (2016) 423 the specific species causing infection more Abstract. none. rapidly. They will also allow veterinarians and elephant keepers to better characterize the EEHV X. Qiao, J. Hu, D. Wu, L. Wei, Y. Yang, J. Chen, status of each animal within their herd leading to B. Mi & S.Q. Yang more informed management strategies. © 2016 Isolation and identification of Microsporum Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. canis from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in the Chongqing Zoo, China P.G.A. Pushpakumara, R.C. Rajapakse, B.M.A.O. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 47 (2016) Perera & J.L. Brown 844-845 Reproductive performance of the largest Abstract. Skin diseases affect millions of captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) people and animals worldwide, including Asian population in Sri Lanka elephants. This study sought to determine the Animal Reproduction Science 174 (2016) 93-99 pathogen of skin diseases that occurred in Abstract. The Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage Asian elephants in Chongqing Zoo, China. The (PEO) in Sri Lanka maintains one of the largest isolated fungus was identified through its cultural captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus characteristics, morphology, and polymerase maximus) populations in the world, with a total of chain reaction (PCR) amplification. The PCR 79 animals (45 females and 34 males) at present. amplification using common fungal primers It was established in 1975 as an orphanage for (ITS1 and ITS4) determined that the pathogen rescued wild calves, and commenced natural was 99.7% homologous to Microsporum canis. breeding under controlled conditions when they This is the first report on elephants infected with reached breeding age. This study summarizes Microsporum canis in China. © 2016 American reproductive data of 65 live births from 38 years Association of Zoo Veterinarians. of records at PEO. The age at first calving (n = 31) was 14.6 ± 0.7 years, and the numbers of females R.M.W. Rathnayake giving birth two, three, four and five times were Pricing the enjoyment of ‘elephant watching’ 21, 8, 4 and 2, with corresponding inter-birth at the Minneriya National Park in Sri Lanka:
65 An analysis using CVM C.K. Rohini, T. Aravindan, P.A. Vinayan, M. Tourism Management Perspectives 18 (2016) Ashokkumar & K.S. Anoop Das 26-33 An assessment of human-elephant conflict Abstract. The Minneriya National Park (MNP) and associated ecological and demographic is noted among elephant conservation areas in factors in Nilambur, Western Ghats of Kerala, Sri Lanka for the excellent elephant (Elephas southern India maximus) viewing opportunities that it provides Journal of Threatened Taxa 8 (2016) 8970-8976 to both domestic and foreign tourists. Given its Abstract. Elephant conservation carries cost high reputation, the present study estimates the in the form of human-elephant conflict and optimum entrance fee that could be charged from affects the wellbeing of people living near visitors for ‘observing elephants’ at the Park. The ecologically important areas. Conflicts impart Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) was used serious challenges towards the survival of to determine the appropriate entrance fee. The Asian Elephants, which are categorized as study interviewed 407 visitors to MNP, using a Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened closed-ended questionnaire. The estimated mean Species. Issues of wildlife conservation are least willingness to pay (WTP) per domestic visitor addressed in areas with less restricted categories was SLR 172.00 (USD 1.30). If this park fee of protection. Hence an attempt was made to is implemented, the revenue of the Park would evaluate the intensity of elephant conflict and increase up to SLR 6.81 million per year, which factors associated with its occurrence in villages would be a 49% increase in revenue and a 48% with forest fringes of North and South Forest decrease in visitors compared to current values. Divisions of Nilambur, Kerala, southern India. It The study recommends introducing a pricing was hypothesized that variables such as number policy for observing elephants at the Park. © of houses, area of village, livestock population, 2016 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. forest frontage, and presence of water source along the forest boundary abutting the village D.J. Richmond, M.-H.S. Sinding & M.T.P. to be the underlying correlates of conflict. Gilbert Field studies were conducted fortnightly from The potential and pitfalls of de-extinction June 2014 to May 2015, by visiting farms and Zoologica Scripta 45 (2016) 22-36 households of 17 selected forest fringe villages. Abstract. ‘De-extinction’ is the nascent Observational methods, questionnaire surveys discipline that aims to one day literally revive and secondary data collection were employed now-extinct species from the dead. Although we for this purpose. A total of 277 incidents of crop have yet to see any successful attempts to truly depredation, 12 incidents of property damage, resurrect an extinct species, several technologies three human injuries, and one human death due are now in place that might one day provide a to conflict were recorded during this period. plausible solution. Thus, the area is receiving Crop raiding was highest during post monsoon increased attention from both scientists and the season and it was low during pre-monsoon and general public. However, how far does present monsoon seasons. Multiple linear regression technology place us from the ultimate goal? We results suggest that forest frontage and livestock address the state of the art of several prominent population were significant predictors of conflict de-extinction methods: back-breeding, cloning, incidence. Information regarding the prime synthetic genomics and genome editing, and causes of conflict will be helpful for planning discuss some of the major outstanding challenges strategies for the establishment of appropriate for each. We also discuss some of the wider mitigation methods. The present study serves as challenges facing de-extinction, including both baseline information which will be helpful for what might constitute the definition of success formulating prospective management plans. © and what might be needed to successfully take 2016 The Authors. a recreated animal and confer on it the ability to establish itself back in the wild. © 2016 The K. Seilern-Moy, M.F. Bertelsen, P.S. Leifsson, Authors. K.L. Perrin, J. Haycock & A. Dastjerdi
66 Fatal elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus-1 Fragmentation of elephant populations is also a and 4 co-infection in a juvenile Asian elephant major driver of decline. Increases in forest cover in Europe increased elephant presence, while increases JMM Case Reports (2015) in edge and human population had the reverse Abstract. Introduction: Elephant Endothelio- effect. Deforestation and fragmentation lead tropic Herpesvirus-1 (EEHV-1) is one of the major to increased human-elephant conflict in some causes of fatality in juvenile Asian elephants areas, sometimes concluding with the capture (Elephas maximus). On occasions, other EEHV of elephants for timber operations and further genotypes, EEHV-3, 4 and 5 have also been draining wild populations. A national elephant reported as the cause of Asian elephant deaths. action plan that includes monitoring of elephant In this case report we describe the investigation status and threats is urgently needed and critical into a juvenile Asian elephant fatality in a for Myanmar’s wild elephants, particularly as European zoo. Case Presentation: A fatal case more than 50 years of political isolation are of haemorrhagic disease in a juvenile Asian rapidly ending and pressure on the country’s elephant from a European zoo was diagnosed natural resources is increasing exponentially. © with co-infection of EEHV-1 and 4. EEHV-4 had 2016 The Authors. a wider organ distribution and a higher viral load; both viruses presented the highest load in the S. Sripiboon, B. Jackson, W. Ditcham, C. mesenteric lymph nodes. Conclusion: Detection Holyoake, I. Robertson, C. Thitaram, P. Tankaew, of EEHV-4 in this fatal case in Europe underlines P. Letwatcharasarakul & K. Warren the importance of inclusion of all known Asian Molecular characterisation and genetic vari- elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses in ation of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus routine blood monitoring to facilitate early infection in captive young Asian elephants in therapeutic intervention. © 2016 The Authors. Thailand Infection, Genetics and Evol. 44 (2016) 487-494 M. Songer, M. Aung, T.D. Allendorf, J.M. Abstract. Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Calabrese & P. Leimgruber (EEHV) is emerging as a new threat for elephant Drivers of change in Myanmar’s wild elephant conservation, since being identified as the cause distribution of severe, often fatal, haemorrhagic disease in Tropical Conservation Science (2016) Oct-Dec young Asian elephants. To describe positive cases Abstract. Myanmar is considered as a strong- and the molecular relatedness of virus detected hold for wild elephants, though past estimates in elephants in Thailand, we re-examined all varied widely from 3000 to 10,000. Results available of EEHV samples occurring in young of a 2004 expert workshop showed estimates elephants in Thailand between 2006 and 2014 (n between 1430 and 2065. Building on surveys = 24). Results indicated 75% (18/24) of suspected from 1990 to 1992, we conducted new expert cases were positive for EEHV by semi-nested interviews in townships throughout the range, PCR. Further gene analysis identified these with questions focusing on numbers of elephants positive cases as EEHV1A (72%, 13/18 cases), living in townships and threats to and from EEHV1B (11%, 2/18) and EEHV4 (17%, 3/18). elephants. We used general linear models to This study is the first to phylogenetically analyse analyze characteristics of townships with and and provide an overview of most of the known without elephants and to understand factors EEHV cases that have occurred in Thailand. influencing changes in elephant presence. Our Positive individuals ranged in age from one to results show a major decrease in the geographic nine years, with no sex association detected, distribution of wild elephants in Myanmar and occurred across geographical locations between 1992 and 2006 with deforestation being throughout the country. All individuals, except the major driver. While forest cover is important one, were captive-born. No history of direct for elephant presence, continuity with other contact among the cases was recorded, and elephant populations had a stronger influence this together with the fact that various subtype on elephant persistence between surveys. clusters of virus were found, implied that none
67 of the positive cases were epidemiologically Raman Sukumar related. These results concur with the hypothesis Iconic fauna of heritage significance in India that EEHV1 is likely to be an ancient endogenous Indian Journal of History of Science 51 (2016) pathogen in Asian elephants. It is recommended 369-379 that active surveillance and routine monitoring Abstract. There are many reasons why an for EEHV should be undertaken in all elephant animal becomes iconic in human cultures – range countries, to gain a better understanding of admiration for certain qualities of the animal, the epidemiology, transmission and prevention of its mere presence in or association with our this disease. © 2016 Reprinted with permission environment, its utility to our endeavours, and from Elsevier. fear of the creature that may even result in its worship. Given the equal status to all forms of R. Srivastava & R. Tyagi life in ancient Indian religions, it is not surprising Wildlife corridors in India: Viable legal tools that “iconic fauna of heritage significance” in the for species conservation? country include not just the largest or fiercest Environmental Law Review 18 (2016) 205-223 animals (elephant, tiger and lion), but also a Abstract. Wildlife corridors, used by various number of birds (peacock, eagle, vulture, sarus species to migrate, breed and feed, are increasingly crane) and even insects (ant, honey bee, praying becoming relevant as essential tools for wildlife mantis). This essay traces the possible reasons conservation. Rapid increase in industrial and for the iconic status and heritage significance of infrastructural development, especially around a representative set of mammals, birds, reptiles, forests, has resulted in widespread habitat fish, and insects. As this volume is devoted to a fragmentation and isolation. Added to this, genomic view of India’s heritage species, I also the growing development (for tourism, linear provide a brief introduction to the evolutionary infrastructure etc.) around protected areas, and history and phylogenetics of most of these faunal the altered de facto boundaries of these, have taxa described here.© 2016 Indian National exacerbated this need. There is, however, no Science Academy. ‘hard’ statutory recognition afforded in India to wildlife corridors in spite of their established M. Sulak, L. Fong, K. Mika, S. Chigurupati, L. relevance in ecological conservation. Nor is Yon, N.P. Mongan, R.D. Emes & V.J. Lynch there a strict prohibition on development within, TP53 copy number expansion is associated and around important corridors in India. Even so, with the evolution of increased body size wildlife corridors have found passing mention in and an enhanced DNA damage response in certain conservation law and guidelines framed elephants thereunder, which seek to protect wildlife habitat eLife 5 (2016) e11994 and reduce human-wildlife conflict. These extant Abstract. A major constraint on the evolution of legal spaces have largely proved ineffective in large body sizes in animals is an increased risk the protection and conservation of corridors, and of developing cancer. There is no correlation, corridor protection and management continues however, between body size and cancer risk. This to be a dormant legal space in India. This paper lack of correlation is often referred to as ’Peto’s seeks to analyse the various barriers to corridor Paradox’. Here, we show that the elephant genome conservation and management, and whether encodes 20 copies of the tumor suppressor gene the existing legal measures are underutilised in TP53 and that the increase in TP53 copy number providing legal protection to wildlife corridors, occurred coincident with the evolution of large without the need of a parallel institutional frame- body sizes, the evolution of extreme sensitivity work. Through an understanding of the criticality to genotoxic stress, and a hyperactive TP53 of corridors to wildlife conservation, the adequacy signaling pathway in the elephant (Proboscidean) of existing legal structures has been examined lineage. Furthermore, we show that several of the by the authors, and recommendations made for TP53 retrogenes (TP53RTGs) are transcribed and augmenting the current legal framework with likely translated. While TP53RTGs do not appear more concrete strategies. © 2016 The Authors. to directly function as transcription factors, they
68 do contribute to the enhanced sensitivity of Abstract. Animals in captivity are often confined elephant cells to DNA damage and the induction in small barren enclosures, preventing adequate of apoptosis by regulating activity of the TP53 exercise, and socialization with conspecifics. signaling pathway. These results suggest that an Captivity is also known for depriving young increase in the copy number of TP53 may have individuals’ association with maternal relatives played a direct role in the evolution of very large by weaning away from their mothers’ earlier body sizes and the resolution of Peto’s paradox in than what their peers experience in free-living Proboscideans. © 2016 The Authors. populations. Such husbandry practices often lead to various welfare problems among captive N. Thongtip, B. Lorsunyaluck, M. Sukmak, S. animals. In India, Asian elephants are managed Chaichanathong, & P. Sunyathitiseree in captivity under various systems, for various Urethral rupture and leakage following purposes. To understand the effect of husbandry prolonged surgical removal of urethral and practices on the welfare of elephants, this study bladder stones by episiotomy and urethrotomy first time from a range country examined the in female Asian elephant (Elephas Maximus): prevalence of stereotypies and its possible causes A case report among 144 captive Asian elephants managed Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 46 (2016) under three captive systems—Private, Hindu 325-329 Temple and Forest Department—in southern A 46-year-old female Asian elephant (Elephas India. Occurrence of stereotypies and its possible maximus) with an abnormal ballottement mass influences by factors like age, sex, housing type in the perineal area was presented. The elephant and its size, duration of chaining and access to was unable to urinate via the normal tract. conspecific socialization were obtained by direct Previously, this elephant was treated for urethral observations on each elephant and from registers and bladder obstruction caused by stones by maintained at each facility. Among the systems, episiotomy and urethrotomy. Eight months later, the number of elephants with stereotypies was post-operative care was completed. At this point, the highest in temple system (49%) followed the incision wound completely closed and the by private (25%) and the lowest in the forest elephant could urinate through the normal tract. department (7%). None of the elephants that born However, the elephant was then mated with in or brought from the wild and managed only an adult male elephant. Three weeks later, the at the timber camps was stereotyped. But those female showed signs of the perineal ballottement transferred from the timber camps to the temple, mass and was unable to urinate. Episiotomy private and zoo and from the zoo to the timber and urethrotomy were performed following the camps showed stereotypies. Consistent with previous incision line. After resectioning through the prevalence of stereotypies among the three the urethra, urine from the urinary bladder flowed systems, number of elephants managed only at through the incision wound and urine scalding the indoor enclosure and duration of chaining was found. Then, daily wound cleaning was were the highest in temple followed by private conducted for two months. Finally, the surgical and the least in forest department system. The wound completely closed and a new urinated proportion of elephants displaying stereotypies tract behind the vulva opening was completely and the proportion of time spent on stereotypies formed. © 2016 The Thai Journal of Veterinary decreased significantly with age, indicating a Medicine. greater vulnerability of young individuals to stereotypies. Further, logistic regression on V. Varadharajan, T. Krishnamoorthy & B. prevalence of stereotypies with demographic and Nagarajan welfare parameters revealed that stereotypies Prevalence of stereotypies and its possible decreased significantly with age and free access causes among captive Asian elephants to conspecific association until juvenile stage, (Elephas maximus) in Tamil Nadu, India indicating again the juveniles without conspecific Applied Animal Behaviour Science 174 (2016) association are more susceptible to develop 137-146 stereotypies. Multiple regression on extent of
69 stereotypies and various daily routines revealed Geoffrey Wandesforde-Smith that the extent increased significantly with daily Looking for law in all the wrong places? Dying rituals, resting, and marginally with feeding elephants, evolving treaties, and empty threats implying that prolonged daily rituals and resting Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy promote its extent. It is argued that deprivation of 19 (2016) 365-381 association with maternal relatives and isolation Abstract. none from conspecifics result in the appearance of stereotypies among elephants in captivity, with K.A. Weston-Ford, M.L. Moseley, L.J. Hall, N.P. younger individuals being more susceptible, Marsh, R.M. Morgan & L.P. Barron perhaps the most active phase of their life being The retrieval of fingerprint friction ridge confined by chaining. detail from elephant ivory using reduced- scale magnetic and non-magnetic powdering T.N.C. Vidya materials Evolutionary history and population genetic Science & Justice 56 (2016) 1-8 structure of Asian elephants in India Abstract. An evaluation of reduced-size Indian J. of History of Science 51 (2016) 391-405 particle powdering methods for the recovery Abstract. The Asian elephant (Elephas of usable fingermark ridge detail from elephant maximus), which has shared a long and rich ivory is presented herein for the first time as cultural relationship with humans in India, is a practical and cost-effective tool in forensic endangered in the country today, largely because analysis. Of two reduced-size powder material of habitat loss. There are an estimated 41,400- types tested, powders with particle sizes ≤ 40 52,300 Asian elephants worldwide, of which μm offered better chances of recovering ridge over half range in India. I describe studies that detail from unpolished ivory in comparison to examined the evolutionary history of the Asian a conventional powder material. The quality of elephant, uncovering a surprising coexistence of developed ridge detail of these powders was also divergent clades of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) assessed for comparison and automated search within the species, often within populations. suitability. Powder materials and the enhanced Several hypotheses were proposed to explain this ridge detail on ivory were analysed by scanning coexistence of divergent clades, but it required electron microscopy and energy dispersive extensive sampling of elephants from India X-ray spectroscopy and interactions between (because of its large populations of elephants), their constituents and the ivory discussed. The along with samples from other countries, effect of ageing on the quality of ridge detail to gain an understanding of Asian elephant recovered showed that the best quality was phylogeography, which was found to be largely obtained within 1 week. However, some ridge shaped by Pleistocene climatic oscillations. I detail could still be developed up to 28 days after also describe studies of the genetic variability deposition. Cyanoacrylate and fluorescently- of the Indian populations based on mtDNA and labelled cyanoacrylate fuming of ridge detail nuclear microsatellite DNA and discuss reasons on ivory was explored and was less effective for the patterns seen. Examination of population than reduced-scale powdering in general. This genetic structure within India, and the geographic research contributes to the understanding and barriers that gave rise to such structuring are potential application of smaller scale powdering also described. I end with possibilities for future materials for the development of ridge detail on research, such as addressing the possibility hard, semi-porous biological material typically of subspecies within the Asian elephant, seized in wildlife-related crimes. © 2015 understanding the low levels of genetic diversity The Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences. in southern India, and explaining patterns of Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. population genetic differentiation and breaks in gene flow in elephants and other animals in M.P.B. Wijayagunawardane, R.V. Short, T.S. southern and northeastern India. © 2016 Indian Samarakone, K.B.M. Nishany, H. Harrington, National Science Academy. B.V.P. Perera, R. Rassool & E.P. Bittner
70 The use of audio playback to deter crop- treatments (wet–shade, dry–shade, wet–sun raiding Asian elephants and dry–sun) and repeatedly subsampled from Wildlife Society Bulletin 40 (2016) 375-379 the time of defecation through to 2 days post- Abstract. Human–elephant conflict (HEC) and defecation (n = 685 faecal subsamples). Overall, poaching are the foremost threats to the survival the mean concentration of fGCMs was stable in of elephants (African, Loxodonta africana; samples of up to 8 h old from defecation time, Asian, Elephas maximus) in their natural regardless of environmental treatment (water environments. Reducing HEC has the potential or direct sunlight); thereafter, the overall mean to save hundreds of elephant and human lives fGCM concentrations increased, peaking 1 annually across Asia and Africa. Lone adult male day after defecation (31.8% higher than at elephants are the principal crop raiders; therefore, defecation time), and subsequently decreased we investigated the effectiveness of a variety of (reaching values 9.2% below defecation time on audio playbacks at deterring 22 wild adult male the second day). Overall, the treatment of sun Asian elephants from food sources in a wildlife exposure resulted in higher fGCM concentration reserve in southern Sri Lanka in January, 2011. compared with shade, whereas water exposure Food was provided ad libitum, and the reactions (compared with no water exposure) had no of the elephants in response to various stimuli impact on fGCM concentrations. Hence, in field were recorded and analyzed. Vocalizations from studies we recommend collecting dung samples a wild Asian elephant matriarchal group resulted <8 h old and recording shade conditions (e.g. in a flight response in 65% of trials conducted, sun vs. shade) as a covariate for the subsequent in contrast to a control sound, a chainsaw, which interpretation of fGCM measurements. This produced no flight responses from any adult study has helped to identify the optimal window male. We demonstrated that audio playbacks for sampling in which we can have a higher could be used as a short-term deterrent to wild confidence in interpreting the results as being a adult male Asian elephants from crop raiding; genuine reflection of glucocorticoid status in the thus, providing a simple, natural, cost-effective, elephant. © 2016 The Authors. and humane way of mitigating HEC. © 2016 The Wildlife Society. Y. Yakubu, B.L. Ong, Z. Zakaria, L. Hassan, A.R. Mutalib, Y.F. Ngeow, K. Verasahib & M.F.A.A. E.P. Wong, L. Yon, R. Purcell, S.L. Walker, N. Razak Othman, S. Saaban & A. Campos-Arceiz Evidence and potential risk factors of Concentrations of faecal glucocorticoid tuberculosis among captive Asian elephants metabolites in Asian elephant’s dung are and wildlife staff in Peninsular Malaysia stable for up to 8 h in a tropical environment Preventive Veterinary Medicine 125 (2016) 147- Conservation Physiology 4 (2016) cow070 153 Abstract. The use of faecal glucocorticoid Abstract. Elephant tuberculosis (TB) caused metabolites (fGCMs) has facilitated the by Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an important development of non-invasive methods to study re-emerging zoonosis with considerable physiological conditions of endangered wildlife conservation and public health risk. We conducted populations. One limitation is that fGCM prospective cohort and cross-sectional studies concentrations are known to change over time in elephants and wildlife staff respectively in and to vary according to different environmental order to identify potential risk factors associated conditions. The aim of this study was to perform a with TB in captive Asian elephants and their controlled dung decay experiment to understand handlers in Peninsular Malaysia. Sixty elephants the impact of time (since defecation) and two in six different facilities were screened for TB common environmental variables (exposure to longitudinally using the ElephantTB STAT- water and direct sunlight) on fGCM concentrations PAK and DPP VetTB assays from February of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Eighty 2012 to May 2014, and 149 wildlife staff were dung piles from 10 Malaysian elephants were examined for tuberculosis infection using the randomly exposed to a 2 × 2 combination of QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-tube (QFT) assay
71 from January to April, 2012. Information on Those in the logged forest were similar; non- potential risk factors associated with infection grass monocotyledonous leaves accounted for in both elephants and staff were collected using 33%, woody debris for 24%, and fiber for 26%. questionnaires and facility records. The overall At the roadside, elephant dung was dominated seroprevalence of TB amongst the elephants by grasses (47%). We conclude that by the road was 23.3% (95% CI: 13.8–36.3) and the risk of elephants shift their diet into grasses, suggesting seroconversion was significantly higher among that the road acts like a large forest gap, elephants with assigned mahouts [p = 0.022, OR promoting the availability of grasses and other = 4.9 (95% CI: 1.3–18.2)]. The percentage of early succession plants. Elephant feeding by the QFT responders among wildlife staff was 24.8% road poses potential conservation conflicts by (95% CI: 18.3–32.7) and the risk of infection means of road accidents and increased contact was observed to be significantly associated with people. © 2016 Mammal Society of Japan. with being a zoo employee [p = 0.018, OR = 2.7 (95% CI: 1.2–6.3)] or elephant handler [p A. Zlot, J. Vines, L. Nystrom, L. Lane, H. = 0.035, OR = 4.1 (95% CI: 1.1–15.5)]. These Behm, J. Denny, M. Finnegan, T. Hostetler, G. findings revealed a potential risk of TB infection Matthews, T. Storms & E. DeBess in captive elephants and handlers in Malaysia, Diagnosis of tuberculosis in three zoo ele- and emphasize the need for TB screening of phants and a human contact – Oregon, 2013 newly acquired elephants, isolating sero-positive Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64 (2016) elephants and performing further diagnostic tests 1398-1402 to determine their infection status, and screening Abstract. In North America, approximately elephant handlers for TB, pre- and post- 5% of captive Asian elephants are infected employment. © 2016 Reprinted with permission with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Bidirectional from Elsevier. spread of M. tuberculosis between elephants and humans has been documented. Investigation S. Yamamoto-Ebina, S. Saaban, A. Campos- of a tuberculosis (TB) outbreak among three Arceiz & S. Takatsuki elephants at an Oregon zoo identified multiple Food habits of Asian elephants Elephas close, casual, and spectator contacts. One maximus in a rainforest of Northern Penin- hundred and eighteen contacts were identified, sular Malaysia 96 of these contacts were screened, and seven Mammal Study 41 (2016) 155-161 close contacts (six recent conversions and one Abstract. Little is known about the food habits earlier positive test) were found to have latent, of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in tropical noninfectious TB. Whole-genome sequencing rainforests of Southeast Asia. In Peninsular revealed that one elephant’s M. tuberculosis Malaysia, elephant habitat has been extensively isolate identically matched the isolate of a person modified by human intervention in the past few with pleural TB who attended a zoo orientation in decades. Most of the primary forest has been 2012. The lack of guidance about how to manage logged or given way to plantations, infrastructure, captive, TB-infected elephants complicated and human inhabitation. Here we compare the the decision-making process for protection of food habits of wild elephants in three habitats zoo contacts, other animals at the zoo, and the of Belum-Temengor Forest Complex (BTFC): general public. Collaboration between public (1) primary forest, (2) selectively-logged forest, health, veterinary medicine, and occupational and (3) by the side of a road that bisects the health experts could lead to better understanding forest complex. We used microhistological fecal about associated risks, and could help prevent analysis to describe elephants’ diet. Elephant zoonotic transmission of M. tuberculosis. The dung in the primary forest was mainly composed development of improved TB screening methods of non-grass monocotyledonous leaves (22%), for elephants is needed to prevent exposure to woody debris (32%), and woody fiber (20%). humans with close and prolonged contact.
72 News and Briefs Gajah 45 (2016) 73-80
News Briefs
Compiled by Jayantha Jayewardene
Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust, Rajagiriya, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]
1. Assam expert team to visit Bangladesh to 3. Snared elephant dies of wounds in bring back the elephant washed away by the Cambodia Brahmaputra (India) Gulf Today - 25.7.2016 Times of India - 20.7.2016 An endangered Asian elephant died in eastern Assam forest department has constituted a Cambodia after sustaining a severe foot wound three-member experts team to bring back a caused by a snare trap, officials said on Monday. wild elephant which was washed away by the “The young male-elephant died on Sunday, a Brahmaputra last month and reached a sandbar day after he was rescued from the gory snare in Bangladesh’s Kurigram district. Kurigram in the jungle,” Xinhua news agency quoted Sin is the nearest district in Bangladesh from Vannavuth, Governor of Mondolkiri province’s Dhubri in Assam. Till last week, information Keo Seima district, as saying. from Bangladesh said, the elephant was found on sandbars in Chikajani union in Jamalpur The elephant was trapped inside the Keo Seima district, after the female elephant swam through Wildlife Sanctuary for days before he was found Brahmaputra (known as Jamuna in Bangladesh) by locals, he said. “The elephant died of serious from Kurigram’s Chilmari sub-divisional area. injury on his front, left foot and no food and water when he had been in trap for days,” the District forest officials in Bangladesh, who are governor said. He said that hunters set snare in touch with their Assam counterparts, have traps with aims to kill smaller wild animals, but also informed that the elephant became weak unfortunately caught the wild Asian elephant. and significantly stressed as locals drove the jumbo away from their cropland on the sandbars. Cambodia is home to over 500 wild elephants, “Bangladesh has already informed us about the according to the Forestry Administration. presence of our elephant in that country. We are waiting for the permission from the state 3. Human-elephant conflict threatens wild government for the expert team to travel to elephant population (Myanmar) Bangladesh and bring the elephant back,” Assam principal chief conservator of forest (wildlife) The Irrawaddy - 15.7.2016 Bikash Brahma said. Dr. Myo Min Aung, veterinarian and head of Brahma said that the ministry of environment, the Myanmar Timber Enterprise’s (MTE) Emer- forest and climate change’s project elephant gency Elephant Response Unit in Irrawaddy has also been informed after the elephant from Division, says Burma is home to 4000–5000 the state crossed over to Bangladesh. Elephant wild Asian elephants and has the world’s expert and veterinarian, K. K. Sarma, who is also largest captive elephant population with nearly part of the three-member expert team, said that 5000, according to the UK-based EleAid Asian it would be one of the most challenging wildlife Elephant Conservation. The country’s wild ele- rescue operations. phant population has been in dramatic decline throughout the past few decades, due to loss
73 of habitat and illegal poaching and trading of the animal, the loco pilot informed officials at the elephant body parts, EleAid said. Palakkad railway division.
Human-elephant conflicts happen when wild I Anwardeen, conservator of forests, Coimbatore elephants come close to villages where there circle, A Periyasamy, district forest officer (in could be paddy fields, in search of food because charge), Coimbatore forest division and other of the loss of their original habitat he added. officials rushed to the spot. Forest department “When wild elephants come close to humans, officials alleged that railway authorities had not people shoo them away or capture them,” taken any steps to reduce speed limits between he said. “Our plan is to find ways that could Walayar and Madukkarai section. “The railway minimize harm for both parties, in areas where authorities have installed sign boards indicating the possibility of frequent conflict between the elephant movement areas near the tracks between two sides exists.” He explained that the conflict Madukkarai and Walayar. The loco pilots were will not cease completely. But when working asked to blow horns while crossing the section. toward conservation efforts, people who live in But most drivers don’t follow the instructions. communities near elephant habitats need to be educated in order to adapt their behaviors during Now, we have lost another female elephant,” said such conflicts, he added. Periyasamy. “Both Tamil Nadu and Kerala forest department had asked the railway authorities to Burma started designing the Myanmar Elephant operate the train at a speed of 30 km/h on the Conservation Action Plan (MECAP) last year in stretch between Madukkarai and Walayar. But coordination with international environmental the railway department has not made any attempt conservation groups and the draft is almost to reduce the speed limit,” said conservator of complete, according to WWF-Myanmar. forests, Anwardeen. “We have registered a case against the loco pilot under the wildlife protection It is necessary to implement effective control act and further investigation is on,” said DFO of illegal hunting and limit access to forests Periyasamy. in order to reduce conflicts, said Khin Maung Win, chairman of Save Elephant Foundation- 5. De-worming drive for wild elephants Myanmar. Under Burma’s wildlife and natural commences (India) area protection laws, violators can face impris- onment from three to seven years. Times of India - 3.8.2016
4. In a first, train pilot booked after speeding The Forest Department has started a de-worming train kills elephant (India) drive for wild elephants from last weekend. The drive has started in the Mettupalayam and Times of India - 30.7.2016 Sirumugai Range with personnel placing salt licks and de-worming pellets near 19 water bodies For the first time in Coimbatore forest division, where jumbos drink water regularly. Camera traps forest officials have registered a case against a are used to monitor the elephants consuming the loco pilot under the Wild Life Protection Act pellets. This is an initiative to prevent elephant 1972 on Friday for killing a wild elephant by a deaths due to worms in the intestine. In the last speeding train near Navakkarai here. A female 40 days the district lost seven elephants. While elephant aged about 15 years, tried to cross the the cause of death varied, one of the factors was railway track near Puthuppathi area, at 5:50 am identified as ill health as a result of worms in the on Friday. The West Coast express, heading intestine. This was revealed in the post-mortem towards Chennai from Mangalore, hit the female report of two elephants. elephant that sustained severe injuries on its ribs and back. The animal was found dead 20 feet While salt licks build immunity, the de-worming away from the railway track. After the train hit pellets that are mixed with minor millets and
74 jaggery (a treat for elephants) wash away the saber-toothed tiger. The department’s assistant worms from the intestine. Stating that it would be director Dr. Sen Nathan said the team found the sufficient even if the elephants consumed a little elephant while translocating a herd from Felda quantity of the salt licks and de-worming pellets Umas in Tawau to a new area. “This is a rare find, a couple of times, department personnel said but all elephants are unique on its own,” he said. that it will not harm the animal if the intake was The elephants will be released in an undisclosed more. Herbivores such as deer and bison are also protected forest. Bornean Pygmy elephants are directly benefited in the de-worming drive for listed as endangered species under the Inter- elephants, as they too suffer from worms in the national Union for Conservation of Nature and intestine and the mixture helps them. Stocks of Natural Resources or IUCN. salt licks and de-worming pellets are placed in a visible place near water sources and are replaced Check out this link for a photo: < http://www. every day. They have been placed at 15 places nst.com.my/news/2016/08/164799/rare-saber- in the forest in Mettupalayam range including toothed-elephant-found-sabah> seven natural water sources for wild animals and the rest are artificially created water sources. 8. Elephant preservation week launched in Quang Nam (Vietnam) 6. ‘Hurdling’ jumbo captured following five day operation (Sri Lanka) Vietnam Net Bridge - 3.8.2016
Ceylon Daily News - 4.8.2016 A week on elephant protection was launched in Nong Son district, the central province of Quang Wildlife officials yesterday succeeded in Nam on August 3 with myriad activities. As part capturing the wild elephant, which stormed of a project to urgently conserve elephants and into Morantenna, Nildandahinna by jumping restrict ivory trading in Vietnam by 2020, the over the electric fence around the Victoria event will feature competitions and workshops and Randenigala forest reserve, following an that seek solutions to forest and elephant preser- operation spanning nearly five days. The wild vation, and ecotourism development in Nong elephant had killed more than six villages and Son. caused extensive damage to their harvest during the past several months. The week, to run until August 5, aims to raise public awareness of elephant protection and help People living in Morantenna, Theripehe and local authorities with economic development Kalanwatta who feared this wild elephant, in forests and elephant-inhabited areas. Latest were confined to their houses after dusk. N.M. statistics show that Que Lam and Phuoc Ninh Walahena, in charge of the electric fence told communes in Nong Son district are now home to the Daily News that there are hundreds of wild four to six elephants. elephants living in the forest reserve and they do not enter the villages as they fear the electric Elephants have been listed in the Convention on fence. “Only this wild elephant had got used to International Trade in Endangered Species of jump over the electric fence,” he said. Wild Fauna and Flora. Vietnam has banned the trade in ivory since 1992. 7. Rare ‘saber-toothed’ elephant found in Sabah (Malaysia) 9. Four elephants killed by Sri Lankan train
New Straits Times - 11.8.2016 Agence France-Presse - 17.8.2016
The Sabah Wildlife Department has made an A passenger train hit and killed an elephant and unusual discovery - an elephant with turned down three calves in northern Sri Lanka on Wednesday, tusks, almost resembling that of a prehistoric the latest deadly accident involving the venerated
75 animals. The herd was walking across a newly “The herds enter Bahundangi at late evening upgraded railway line that runs through a jungle for grazing and go back across the border into area when the accident occurred at Cheddikulam, India before early morning,” said Siddhartha about 260 km north of Colombo. “One of the Bajracharya, director at National Trust for baby elephants was dragged about 300 m along Nature Conservation (NTNC), the implementing the track after being hit,” a local police official agency of the project. “They enter as tourists, go told AFP, adding that it was thought to be Sri on rampage causing damage to houses, crops and Lanka’s worst accident involving the animals. even injure or kill people. It had been Nepal’s No passengers were injured in the collision. problem for almost four decades, but it has now shifted to India,” he said. Although elephants are considered sacred in Sri Lanka and are legally protected, nearly 200 Indian media reported last month that the West are killed every year, many by farmers after Bengal government raised serious objection over the animals stray onto their land. Marauding the erection of fence saying that it had blocked elephants also claim the lives of about 50 the natural movement of the elephants. The West people annually, mostly by trampling through Bengal government has written to the centre villages built near their habitats. In 2011, three to raise this issue with the Nepal government. baby elephants were killed by a passenger train However, Nepali authorities claim, the fencing along the same track in a forest area about 150 was put to shield away the tuskers that wander kilometres north of Colombo. In May this year, through the settlement areas, but not to break four elephants including two calves were killed the corridor movement along the forests. “The by lightning in the country’s north. elephants went on rampage, destroying crops for nutritious food. We have not blocked the 10. Solar fencing: Nepali villages relieved, but traditional route,” said Subedi. He further said more tusker terror on Indian side that the Nepali authorities will discuss the transboundary issues with Indian counterparts The Kathmandu Post - 4.8.2016 to mitigate the problems related with human- elephant conflict. The solar fencing erected last November from Jhiramale in Ilam district to Mechi River along More than 21 people lost their lives and 24 were the Nepal-India border has helped communities injured in Jhapa in the last four years due to the in Jhapa to keep the wild elephants at bay. But it conflict with elephants. The government has has not bode well for those living on the other side released Rs 7.5 million in the same period as of the border, with Indian villages complaining compensation for the affected families from the about the rise in tusker terror in recent months. elephant conflict.
“No movement of wild tuskers from the Indian 11. Seven jumbos die in mud pool (Sabah, side into the villages in Nepal has been reported Malaysia) since the installation of the fence. This has significantly reduced the damage to crops and Daily Express - 15.9.2016 related human-elephant conflict during that period,” said Bodh Raj Subedi, district forest Seven pygmy elephants died after being stuck officer, Jhapa. inside an abandoned quarry pit for over a week near a timber camp in Rinukut, Tawau. The seven The human-elephant conflict in Jhapa has been elephants were part of a herd of nine, which could reported for almost four decades. During the not come out of the nine to eleven foot deep mud initial days, the number of elephants entering the pool. Wildlife rangers were only able to rescue villages in Nepal was reported to be around 30 two of the elephants as five were already dead and 40 individuals, but the number exceeded 120 when they arrived and two others had to be put in the areas, according to locals. down.
76 Sabah Wildlife Department Director Augustine helicopters to lay a path of sandbags for the Tuuga said they received a report from an elephants to walk out of the reservoir. A second individual passing the route on Sept. 10 on nine would use helicopters to chase away the elephants elephants being unable to get out of a deep mud gathered on the bank, allowing rescuers to dig pool near Berkat Saga Timber Camp, there. out a path from the side of the reservoir using excavators. If the helicopters could not be used, “Unfortunately when our team managed to rescuers would have to drive away the elephant reach the location, five (2 adult, 1 juvenile and onlookers on foot to make way for excavators. 2 newborn) of the nine trapped elephants were already dead. “With the use of heavy machinery Amid the deafening sound of helicopters and from the timber camp, two of the stronger adult firecrackers, excavators finished digging out a elephants were pulled out to safety, and instantly, “life channel” from the side of the reservoir at ran back into the forest,” he said. Tuuga pointed 3:40 pm. Protected by the two adult elephants, the out two others had to be euthanised as they were baby elephant finally walked out of the reservoir too weak, dehydrated and blind. “The elephants via the path. probably went in the mud pool to cool themselves and bathe. “Unfortunately they probably under- 13. Can drone technology save the Sumatran estimated the depth and thickness of the mud elephant? which could have caused them to become trapped inside the pit,” said Tuuga. Phys.org - 29.11.2016
12. Helicopters and excavators help rescue Fauna & Flora International has acquired two elephants from reservoir (China) quadcopter drones to help reduce incidents of conflict between humans and wild elephants CRIENLGLISH.com - 12.10.2016 in Sumatra, Indonesia. The acquisition of two quadcopter drones is helping Fauna & Flora A southwest China reservoir became the site of International’s (FFI) Aceh team to monitor a harrowing mission to save three wild Asian the location of Sumatran elephants in Aceh, elephants that were trapped there for more Indonesia, and respond quickly when elephants than two days. The forestry department of are approaching community farms to minimise Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture in potential conflicts. Yunnan Province received a call at 10:40 am Monday, saying three elephants, two adults and A quadcopter is a type of remotely controlled a baby, were trapped in a reservoir in a nearby drone (unmanned aerial vehicle) that has four village. Staff from the department speculated rotors each with its own motor and propeller. that the baby elephant might have fallen into the One of the main advantages of using drone reservoir, while the two adult elephants were technology is that it allows field staff to easily trapped after trying to rescue the baby. reach inaccessible areas. As well as monitoring elephants, FFI’s Aceh team is also using the A dozen more wild elephants began to surround quadcopters to support forest patrols and produce the reservoir, attempting to pull their companions detailed ground maps of community forest areas. out by the nose. After several failed attempts, they became agitated. Li said there are about 70 FFI has been working to protect both elephants wild Asian elephants in the area. Villagers were and local communities in Ulu Masen since organized immediately to observe the trapped 1998 including establishing three Conservation elephants’ vital signs and keep an eye on the Response Units in conflict hotspots. These teams elephants that had gathered at the scene. help respond to calls from community members and drive elephants away from community farms. Meanwhile, rescuers worked out three potential The use of new drone technology will allow FFI plans to save the elephants. The first would use to build on these efforts and make the response
77 process more effective by monitoring where Buddhists in Sri Lanka. The animals are also the elephants move to, to ensure they have not legally protected but are often subjected to cruel just transferred the problem to other community treatment by some owners. residences. Under the new regulations seen by AFP, owners 14. Electronic fence installed to protect are banned from using working elephants below elephants (Vietnam) the age of 10 years while those under five years cannot be used in parades, even at religious Viet Nam News - 11.11.2016 festivals. There are 41 new conditions aimed at ensuring minimum standards of care, including The Natural and Cultural Reserve in the Central the daily diet that should include fresh fruit in Highlands Province of Dak Lak has completed addition to leaves and vegetables. building an electronic fence around the reserve campus to protect the habitat of elephants. The new laws come into force as the authorities Huynh Trung Luan, director of the reserve, said investigate allegations that over 40 baby elephants an electronic fence was set up within 14 days had been stolen from national wildlife parks over with the support of technical staff of Viet Nam- the last decade and are being kept as pets. Asian based Animals Asia. The electronic fence, with elephant expert Jayantha Jayewardene said the capacity of between 6.4 kW and 8.4 kW, will new rules were welcome. “The regulations are a cover an area of some 6000 m2 of the reserve, step in the right direction, but it will be difficult releasing the elephants from an iron leash and to enforce things like the quality and the quantity helping them integrate into nature. of food that should be given to each animal,” Jayawardene told AFP. The fence has a length of 1320 m, including five iron pillars and had four electronic lines, Many rich Sri Lankans keep elephants as pets with 220 V power lines and two large capacity to show off their wealth, but there have been batteries backup, which could cause panic for the numerous complaints of ill treatment and cruelty. elephants but not threaten their lives. Luan said the electronic fence had been used effectively at 16. Kraal to train unruly wild elephant (India) many animal reserves around the world and would help the animals move freely and comfortably. The Hindu - 18.11.2016 Currently, there are two wild elephants in the reserve. In February 2014, a five-year-old male After around two decades, the Forest and Wildlife elephant was found trapped in a forest in the Department is preparing to train a wild elephant at province. Its left foot was seriously injured and the Muthanga kraal under the Wayanad Wildlife ivory was nearly fractured. The animal, named Sanctuary (WSS). “The work on a temporary Jun, was treated and raised by the reserve. kraal at Muthanga, at a cost of Rs. 1.4 lakh, has been completed to train an unruly tusker which 15. Sri Lanka bans use of young elephants for has been posing a serious threat to public at Kallur work and Muthanga in the district,” P. Dhaneshkumar, Warden, WSS, told The Hindu. The animal had Agence France-Presse - 23.11.2016 attacked a farmer on Tuesday, following which Forest Minister K. Raju directed the officials to Sri Lanka unveiled tougher laws Wednesday, catch the elephant and shift it to the new kraal. including a ban on using young elephants for logging and other physical work, as part of a The kraal is constructed with eucalyptus wood crackdown on cruelty to domesticated wild under the supervision of experts from the animals. The cabinet approved new regulations adjacent Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR) in imposing tough conditions on owners of Tamil Nadu. The department has also asked elephants, which are considered sacred by the MTR authorities to provide the services of
78 trained mahouts and ‘kumki’ (trained) elephants morning,” park coordinator and spokesman Uday to train the newcomer. Goswami said.
When the animal started to create panic among 18. Captive elephants help save wild cousins villagers in the area two years ago, the Forest on forest frontline (Indonesia) personnel attached a radio collar on it but, it got lost apparently in a fight between elephants, he Agence France-Presse - 7.12.2016 said. They tranquilised the elephant and attached a new radio collar a few weeks ago. Later, the It was the middle of the night when the villagers officials tried to drive it back to forest with the sounded the alarm: a huge Sumatran elephant help of ‘kumki’ (trained) elephants, but in vain. was raiding their rice fields, and they needed urgent help to drive it back to the forest. Dodot “We are planning to shift the animal to the kraal – a veteran Indonesian elephant keeper trained to after capturing it by applying tranquiliser dart,” handle such emergencies – rushed to the scene. says Arun Zachariah, a veterinary expert leading ”It was the king,” Dodot said of the hungry bull the tracking operation. A similar operation was male that had strayed from the forest in southeast carried out at Muthanga in 1994 to shift an unruly Sumatra in search of food. ”He’s not afraid of elephant to the kraal, but it was a failure. humans, or weapons. He owns the territory.” It was the third such intrusion in a month. 17. Three wild elephants fall into pit at Herbal & Food Park (India) Confrontations between elephants and humans can quickly turn violent in Sumatra, where Press Trust of India - 23.11.2016 competition for space has intensified as the island’s forests have been rapidly cleared for Three wild elephants, including one calf, have timber and farming. Nearly 70% of the Sumatran been injured after they fell into a pit dug at the elephants habitat has been destroyed in a single construction site of a Herbal and Food Park in generation, says conservation group WWF, Assam’s Sonitpur district today. A calf came driving them into ever-closer contact with out of a herd and ran towards the construction humans. Villagers have been trampled and killed site with the mother and another male elephant by stampeding herds, but it’s the elephants that rushing after it when they fell into the pit dug for have suffered most as their habitats have shrunk. laying the foundation of a building. In 25 years, half of Sumatra’s wild elephants The male elephant managed to come out while have been wiped out. The species was upgraded the calf was rescued by forest employees and to critically endangered in 2012, with experts translocated to Kaziranga National Park after blaming the twin drivers of deforestation and being provided treatment. The mother elephant is conflict with humans. Ivory poachers have long still stuck in the pit with veterinarians attending hunted bulls for their tusks but many elephants to it. “The vets suspect that one of the rear legs of are killed simply for trespassing on land. the elephant may be fractured and her condition is being closely monitored,” Barooah said. 19. Bangladesh-India agreement on ‘elephant corridor’ soon (Bangladesh) The forest department has made adequate arrangement for continuing treatment during the Dhaka Tribune - 14.12.2016 night by installing floodlight and providing other facilities, he added. “Our people along with the A border fence erected by India has been forest department personnel regularly guard the blocking the elephants’ natural routes, triggering site against elephant depredation during the night deadly confrontations as the animals often and the herd was not there for the last couple of veer into human settlements. Bangladesh and days but suddenly appeared near the site this India are in the final stages of an agreement to
79 allow wild elephant’s free passage through their One of the biggest threats to the elephants is the shared border, in a move aimed at reducing fatal sale of souvenirs made from elephant parts that confrontations between the animals and humans. are available all over Dak Lak and at Buon Me Thuot Airport, just 40 km from the park. The Seven cross-border routes used by elephants items are believed to bring good luck or act as a have been identified in the Indian states of status symbol. Assam, Tripura and Mizoram. “Elephants will not harm anyone if they are left alone.” At least “The action plan is the last chance to save 226 people and 62 elephants have been killed in Vietnam’s wild elephants,” Thinh said. “Or they such conflicts in the country in the last 13 years. will end up like the Javan rhino which became extinct in 2010, or the tigers that have shown no On January 26, the New Indian Express reported signs of reproduction in the wild in recent years.” that the Indian home ministry had agreed to sign an agreement with Bangladesh to open the 21. Anthrax major reason for jumbo’s death: borders to form a cross-border natural elephant forest officials (India) corridor, after receiving the approval of the forestry department. In Bangladesh, the forestry Press Trust of India - 24.12.2016 ministry then contacted the Home Ministry for collaboration with the law enforcement agencies, A tusker found dead in the Madukkarai Forest especially the Border Guard Bangladesh, range was suffering from Anthrax besides regarding the corridor. having serious injuries on its back as per the post-mortem done on the carcass, officials 20. Vietnam launches last ditch effort to save said Saturday. The post-mortem carried out its wild elephants by veterinarian Manoharan revealed that the 20-year-old pachyderm was suffering from VnExpress International - 14.12.2016 Anthrax, which was the major reason for its death, forest department officials said. It was The giant mammals will disappear from the found dead near a dry stream in Madukkarai country forever unless poaching is stopped and Forest range yesterday, they said. their habitat is preserved. International conser- vationists and Vietnamese forest management The jumbo had also serious injuries on its back officials on Wednesday kicked off an urgent due to a fight with other elephants a few days action plan to protect the country’s last wild ago, officials said, adding, the skin and intestine elephants that involves better monitoring and law was affected by Anthrax, an infection caused by enforcement. Around 60 elephants in Yok Don bacteria. Efforts are on to sanitise the area and National Park, some of the last left in the wild also administer preventive injection to cattle in in Vietnam, face constant threats from poaching the surrounding areas, they said. and deforestation.
The Central Highlands is home to around 70% of Vietnam’s wild elephants. This big herd is the last chance of saving the animals in a country that has repeatedly failed to implement a ban on the trade of ivory and other elephant parts. According to figures from the Vietnam Forestry Administration, the country’s wild elephant population has shrunk by 95% since 1975. At least 23 wild elephants have died over the past seven years, and nearly 75% of them were less Elephants in Jiangcheng County, Pu’er City, than a year old. Yunnan, China (Photo by Patrick Giraudoux)
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Olivier RCD (1978) On the Ecology of the Asian Elephant. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
Rajapaksha RC, Mendis GUSP & Wijesinghe CG (2004) Management of Pinnawela elephants in musth period. In: Endangered Elephants, Past Present and Future. Jayewardene J (ed) Biodiversity & Elephant Conservation Trust, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 182-183.
Sukumar R (1989) The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
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GAJAHJournal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Contents Gajah 45 (2016)
Editorial 1 Notes from the Chair IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 2-3
Peer-Reviewed Research Article
Farmers’ perceptions and attitudes towards government-constructed electric fences in Peninsular Malaysia V. Ponnusamy, P. Chackrapani, T. Wyn Lim, S. Saaban & A. Campos-Arceiz 4-11
Research Articles
Elephants, border fences and human-elephant conflict in northern Bangladesh: 12-19 Implications for bilateral collaboration towards elephant conservation Md. Abdul Aziz, M. Shamsuddoha, Md. Maniruddin, H. M. Morshed, R. Sarker & Md. A. Islam
Human-elephant conflict around North and South Forest Divisions of Nilambur, Kerala, India 20-27 C. K. Rohini, T. Aravindan, K. S. Anoop Das & P. A. Vinayan
Influence of elephant-human interactions on agrarian communities in the Bengaluru-Bannerghatta 28-32 landscape – A perspective survey T. Mabeluanga, Dilip Kumar A. V., A. Gayathri & A. Krishnan
Short Communications
A case study of wild Asian elephant attacks on foreign tourists in Sri Lanka 33-34 T. G. S. L. Prakash & K. A. U. Kumarathunga
A decade of zero elephant poaching in the Cardamom rainforest landscape, Cambodia 35-38 T. N. E. Gray, H. Sokun, E. Lefter, R. Grosu, K. Kimsreng, K. Omaliss & S. Gauntlett
Successful treatment of a gunshot injury in a juvenile elephant 39-40 A. K. Pachoni, S. B. Shing, P. Boro, S. Ali & R. K. Tiwari
News and Briefs
Asian mahout partnerships working for conservation 41-43 Heidi S. Riddle & Zaw Min Oo
Regional Asian Elephant and Tiger Veterinary Workshop in Kerala, India 44-45 Arun Zachariah & Heidi S. Riddle
15th International Elephant & Rhino Conservation and Research Symposium 46-47 Sarah Conley
Recent publications on Asian elephants 48-72 News briefs 73-80