Article
Leviathan: Interdisciplinary Journal in English No. 3, 66-118 How Wonderful is © The Journal Editors 2018 Reprints and permissions: https://tidsskrift.dk/lev Wonderland? DOI: 10.7146/lev.v0i3.108013 Recommendation: Mathias Clasen Negative Emotions in ([email protected].dk) Children’s Literature
from an Evolutionary
Perspective
Nathalie Keighley Kristensen
ABSTRACT
This MA thesis seeks to investigate negative emotions and their function in children’s literature from an evolutionary standpoint. Insights from evolutionary biology and evolutionary psychology are used to build an evolutionary framework that is then used in a literary analysis that shows how negative emotions are evoked in literature, and what adaptive purpose(s) they have. The main argument is that we feel strong emotions when engaging in story because storytelling has an adaptive function, and that this function is to provide us with low-risk, vicarious input that can be employed as a future guide for behaviour. This argument explains not only the human proclivity for producing and consuming art, but also why we generally feel pleasure and satisfaction when engaging in stories, no matter the form they take.
Keywords: literary Darwinism; children’s literature; storytelling; vicarious experience; negative emotions
Corresponding author: Nathalie Keighley Kristensen ([email protected]) Department of English, Aarhus University
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Analysis 3.2.2 Contempt 3.2.3 Sadness 3.2.4 Fear 3.2.5 Disgust 3.1.1 Negative Emotions 3.1.1 Negative 3.2.1 Anger 2.3.1 Children’s 2.3.1 Children’s Literature 2.1.2 Behavioural Systems 2.1.2 Behavioural Mind 2.1.3 The Arts Adaptive Functions of the 2.1.4 The 2.1.1 Human Nature and and Nature Evolution2.1.1 Human
5.1 Conclusion 3.3 Vicarious 3.3 Vicarious 4.1 Discussion 3.1 Emotions and Human Nature 3.1 Emotions and Human 3.2 2.3 Childhood 2.2 Storytelling 1.1 Introduction Evolutiona 2.1 The
Works Cited Chapter 5 Chapter Chapter 4 Chapter Chapter 3 Chapter Chapter 2 Chapter Chapter 1 Chapter
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e – 68
gative’. is not gative’. Fear we we are not just driven towards ionally, they even seem unsure even ionally, they . ‘Of course’. It seems to Lewis Lewis to seems It course’. ‘Of .
persuade persuade me that [a frightening –
o say that we, as a species, take ied to make it a little scarier, but very but scarier, little a it make to ied
ence. ence. What made me interested in the topic of (“On Three Ways” 48) Ways” Three (“On Chapter 1 Chapter literary literary Darwinism argues that storytelling (and the arts in e e that drives us towards stories that may scare us or make us one. one. I racked my brain and I think I came up with a somewhat scary
ably ably give us pleasure through the depiction of good outcomes for nice scary or at least what I thought they might find scary. After a (very) short while, theywhile, short (very) After a scary. find might they thought I what least or at
– thout saying, that we all know it to be true. Perhaps we do. We know that children e frightened, but in a safe setting: the kindergarten, surrounded by other children and children other by surrounded kindergarten, the setting: safe a in but frightened, e something innat
are are aware of it or not, we surround ourselves with story. Stories come in the shape of
– t had to be a causes causes an ordinary child any kind or degree of fear beyond what it wants, and needs, to feel. The The still relatively new field of And it seems that children have the same experi
producing producing and consuming art and stories evolved through natural selection to serve an adaptiv general) is an evolved part of human nature. Literary Darwinists posit that the human disposition for part Darwinists evolved human disposition posit the that is an human nature. for of general) Literary uncomfortable. uncomfortable. seemsIt that there is something about experiencing even negative emotions through that be? may a Why that brings pleasure. sort of storytelling storytelling: storytelling: fictitious experience. And the want and the need Lewis mentions are two sides of the same coin expressions of fear and thrill when they are caught by Occas adult. an caught by are they thrill when and expressions of fear about whether they should truly be afraid or laugh it off. Pretend play is in the same category as delight in games of tag or other forms of chasing, and most of us have probably witnessed their hybrid hybrid their witnessed probably have us of most and chasing, of forms other or tag of games in delight For, of course, it wants to be a little frightened’ frightened’ little a be to wants it course, of For, that this goes wi from from an essay by the children’s author C.S. Lewis: ‘Nothing will story] they wanted to b to wanted they with a trusted adult telling a story they instinctively know is not true. It brings to mind a quotation soon they made the same complaint again. I do not think I ever managed to make it scary enough. What they wanted was clearly that intense feeling that is both scary and thrilling at the same time story about a witch a about story tr I enough. scary not was it that complained and me interrupted of children had gathered around me because they wanted me to tell them a story. But not just any story, no, i this was hadpaper an experience I while working as a substitute One day, at a a kindergarten. group we wallow in intense feelings of sadness when reading a story with a tragic story a reading ending. feelings when of sadness in intense wallow we of the emotions we we emotions of the feel ones would in engaging are as story we when ‘ne classify a positive feeling, nor is disgust or anger. Yet, we pickhappily up suchgenres as horror fiction, and happy happy stories, which presum characters, but unpleasant and scary stories, too. In fact, stories are rarely ‘just’ happy. A large part pleasure pleasure in stories, that we are somehow driven storytelling provides us. But this towards ‘pleasure’ can be tricky to define the vicarious experience with which films, TV series, books, news stories, documentaries and so on. Even most popular music has story traits such as identifiable characters, events, and plot. It is safe t 1.1 Introduction Introduction 1.1 Whether we
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 The The anger,
– the main (1997) (1997) by n general.
tone rious input, which (1964) by Roald Dahl, Roald by (1964)
(1911) by J.M. Barrie, Barrie, J.M. by (1911)
risk, vica - sic negative emotions emotions negative sic Peter Pan Peter tions, in particular, in this evolutionary this in particular, in tions, n? In n?relation to In are this, why we particularly Harry Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s S Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Chocolate the and Charlie but the goal is not to locate a literary meaning or quality in
(1865) by Lewis Carroll, Carroll, Lewis by (1865) to illustrate this point, and to show how and why we react with react we why and how show to and point, this illustrate to
– might might contribute directly to chances of survival and reproduction.
ur attention towards that which has adaptive value to us. Consequently, us. to value adaptive has which that towards attention ur what what can it provide us with, that ‘true’ stories cannot? And, perhaps most focused.
s in Wonderland Wonderland in s - (1955) by C.S. Lewis, Lewis, C.S. by (1955) –
ifference between adults and children in this respect, and that children’s books are (1995) by (1995) Philipby Pullman, and
Nephew song, song, or a novel? Using insights from the natural sciences and evolutionary psychology,
than analysis
-
I I will argue that the human species evolved motivational systems (manifested as emotions) The purpose of this paper is to investigate negative emo negative investigate to is paperthis of purpose The Alice’s Adventure Alice’s
Inherent in this argument, and central to this paper, is that this is just as true for children as for adults, for as children for true as just is this that is paper, this to central and argument, this in Inherent Therefore, Therefore, I further argue that experiencing particularly negative emotions through storytelling is essential, and indeed, because of this, that negative emotions are prevalent in stories i behaviour behaviour in similar situations. Arguably, gaining experience with negative emotions and situations is of great importance, as this is stored in our cognitive adaptations as actual experience to serve as a guide for future responses and responses future for guide a as serve to experience actual as adaptations cognitive our in stored is the main argument will be that we feel strong emotions when engaging in story because storytelling adaptive function, that this is an to function and has with low us provide whose purpose it is to guide o guide to is it purpose whose argument, argument, as well as the analysis and following discussion, making the project necessarily theory more the chosen works, it is rather to show how we feel and exercise negative emotions in (children’s) literature. The nature of the project also requires a substantial amount of theory to support children’s children’s classics, and thus are representative of what children and their parents have read and are reading. It is therefore a literary project, Northern Lights J.K. Rowling. They were chosen mainly because they are generally regarded as current or future are are Magician’s certain emotions to certain situations from an evolutionary perspective. The children’s books chosen The books chosen perspective. children’s emotions an evolutionary to situations from certain certain representative children’s books and series according to Ekman’s five ba five Ekman’s to according series and books children’s representative disgust and fear, sadness, contempt, that there is no d in fact fraught with passages that describe and evoke negative emotions. I will analyse a number of framework: framework: their importance for our survival and, most point the make will importantly, I storytelling. through vicariously how emotions negative experience to and value adaptive why it may have effort. of a film, a these are the questions that literary Darwinists set out to answer. Here, I am attempting to join that attracted attracted to fiction important of all, why do we feel such strong emotions when engaging in story, whether in the form engaging in story engaging in and story what is its exact functio adaptive purpose. In other words, that whatever we gain from engaging in stories enhances our chances of survival and reproduction. If we assume that this is correct, then what exactly is it that we gain by 69
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70 Origin Origin of (Boyd, (Boyd, rsals’ that ‘derive ‘derive that rsals’ and this in spite of
–
. One such is universal t we call human nature. nature. callt human we culture culture of the five basic negative and
. Literature is one of the last eoretical eoretical presentations of the human
. In other words, what in our genetic makeup makeup genetic our in what words, other In .
not yet ‘become part of the normal discourse for for discourse normal the of part ‘become yet not
Chapter 2 Chapter pproach pproach takes full note of biology
(Gottschall, (Gottschall, “Quantitative Literary Study” xvii) (Joseph (Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutionary Paradigm” 105) e very much present in children’s literature. Lastly follows a discussion (“An Evolutionary Paradigm” 103) Paradigm” Evolutionary (“An
. The evolutionary approach to literature is not strictly biological, but rather what what rather but biological, strictly not is literature to approach evolutionary The . (Gottschall, (Gottschall, “Quantitative Literary Study” xvii) ant ant to humanity that does not have an expanding interest in the application of an human mbitious literary Darwinists ‘regard evolutionary biology as the pivotal discipline uniting the the uniting discipline pivotal the as biology evolutionary ‘regard Darwinists literary mbitious An outline of childhood and children’s literature is also presented at the end of the . Culture plays an important part, as our genetically mediated dispositions interact with
depth depth account of what an evolutionary approach entails. I will discuss the term ‘human - f the human species’ species’ human the f 25) will start with a brief introduction to literary Darwinism and its history, then move on to a
The most a most The I The Evolutionary Approach The Evolutionary hard sciences with the social sciences and the humanities’, an idea first proposed by Edward O. Wilson in particular. from from regularities in nature’ human in stories consuming and producing for and art, consuming and producing for disposition abovementioned the Stories unive ‘human is approach biocultural the of focus primary the but conditions, environmental makes us specifically specifically us makes Carroll and others call ‘biocultural’. This a is exactly ‘human nature’, which, in Carroll’s terms, can be described as ‘genetically mediated characteristics characteristics mediated ‘genetically as can be described terms, in Carroll’s which, nature’, ‘human is exactly o typical the fact that, it could be argued, literature (and the arts in general) are essential to wha to essential are in general) the (and arts literature be argued, could itthat, the fact with themselves concern studies literary evolutionary and science social evolutionary that concept central The territory in recent years, but the evolutionary perspective has perspective evolutionary the but years, recent in territory the field of literary studies as a whole’ remaining remaining subjects relev evolutionary Several perspective. evolutionists and literary scholars have become interested in exploring this The The aim of literary Darwinism is, among other evolutionary things, perspective to understand the nature of literature from an 2.1 that touches upon the limitations of this approach, as well as the benefits, and continues on to argue the insights this in can use paper in practice. how we gained meant to illustrate the theory and show how we feel and exercise negative emotions through vicarious through emotions negative exercise and feel we how show and theory the illustrate to meant experience, and how they ar and and their evolved functions, and combine the theory with an is book, each from examples analysis concise through analysis, This books. children’s chosen the in emotions that inform it. theory section, as a segue to the analysis. In the analysis section, I elaborate on negative emotions mind and the arts, also within an evolutionary framework. I then focus on storytelling, in particular, and present the main argument, a proposed adaptive function of literature, and the primary theories more more in nature’ and what it signifies in evolutionary terms, as well as th from negative negative experiences. from beliefs that cultural is ‘different’ child the despite adult the shouldfrom ‘protected’and be generally
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 length length - century century (Joseph (Joseph the idea
Literary Literary
st –
152) out out thinking of
(Joseph (Joseph Carroll, plicit theory of human human of theory plicit . Mapping human nature is
. ramework ramework must still rely on a was one of the first full first the of one was (1859) (1859) was recently voted the ong logic ong to the the argument:
127)
driven driven criticism has presupposed - in 1975, which was the first widely widely first the was which 1975, in
Literary Literary Darwinism oped his ideas further in a folk understanding or the natural
. Wilson had stirred the waters even – 90s. He devel - aradigm” aradigm” 105) . there Indeed, is a str Literary Literary Darwinism (Joseph Carroll, at most academics and intellectuals in the 21 the in intellectuals and academics most at ( On On the Origin of Species and while it was perhaps originally merely a highly logical logical highly a merely originally perhaps was it while and , t informs those ideas Evolution and Literary Theory Literary and Evolution
ies ies in the of understanding the human mind, and for that insight, towards his goal of ‘producing a comprehensive model of human human of model comprehensive a ‘producing of goal his towards
the the idea that there is individual variation in all species, and that –
(Flood) – Sociobiology: The New Synthesis New The Sociobiology:
of of human nature’ , and it would seem th seem would it and , . This implicit of theory human is nature what we apply to as literature well. x)
20) (Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutionary Paradigm” 109) Paradigm” “An Evolutionary Carroll, (Joseph - and continues continues and is what informs all evolutionary approaches in various fields. Indeed, according to to according Indeed, fields. various in approaches evolutionary all informs what is
. Carroll’s own book book own Carroll’s .
– 19 – nd nd behaviour, prepared the ground for evolutionary literary study
39)
(Joseph (Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutionary P offspring offspring (1998) (1998) culture culture was all there was, this would be impossible. Accepting the idea of human nature and
and continued continued and
f the natural sciences? The empirical findings in these fields, regarding the psychological, cognitive, cognitive, psychological, the regarding fields, these in findings empirical The sciences? natural the f (Gottschall, “Quantitative Literary Study” (Gottschall, Literary “Quantitative viii) if
Origin Origin of Stories Reading Human Nature Human Reading – ( We cannot begin to think about evolution, or a human nature derived from it, with The key to the success of that model l
most influential academic book in history history in book academic influential most Carroll, agree about the theory’s importance: Darwin’s book inherited by the by inherited adaptationist thinking, ‘all things human are contained within the scope of biological evolution’ Darwin. Darwin. His theory of natural selection be to reproduction and survival of chances organism’s certain a enhance that variations the ‘selects’ evolution accepting evolution’s power to explain it, however, are two very different things. different very two are however, it, explain to power evolution’s accepting It explains how and why we can understand the meaning and the purpose of a translated work from a different different a from work translated a of purpose the and meaning the understand can we why and how explains It culture argues, ‘even on an everyday level we could not engage with other humans without an im an without humans other with engage not could we level everyday an on ‘even argues, nature’ ideas ideas about human nature. The question is wha Boyd as because, imagine, might we than truth the to closer much actually is understanding folk The sciences. 2.1.1 Human Nature and Evolution Nature Human 2.1.1 Human nature is central to literary criticism and always has been. Theory certain amount of informed speculation. informed of amount certain the first step towards creating the such first towards buta step creating complete while continues to framework, headway be is much made, still in the dark and will likely continue to be so for some time yet. Thus, the f and emotional organisation of individual organisms, can, in the words of Carroll, provide a ‘framework for the the for ‘framework a provide Carroll, of words the in can, organisms, individual of organisation emotional and critical analysis of literary depictions understanding understanding of the mind, so how would we propose to understand why the mind creates art, without the o inclusion inform inform us mind creates art, and the natural sciences have built an (although not at all exhaustive, then at least rough) we necessarily need, among other fields, neuroscience, evolutionary biology, and evolutionary psychology to psychology and evolutionary biology, evolutionary other fields, neuroscience, need, among we necessarily Darwinism meaning’ literary and nature Reading Human Nature Human Reading books on literary Darwinism and appeared in the mid other way around. This evolutionary approach to social science, by combining adaptationist thinking with the with the thinking adaptationist combining by science, social to approach This evolutionary around. way other study of human society a recognised recognised challenge to the theory of cultural autonomy the of instead same the nature,and influences human the evolved from separate own, on its exists culture that Consilience of publication the with however, earlier, 71
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ed ed 72 ted ted Reading Reading we we it break
. tion, because tion, because , as see we in , a key argument argument key , a 197)
114) tific explanation it - 84) century century when it was -
th (Joseph Carroll, Carroll, (Joseph , which, , when which,
ture” 80 ture” radigm” 112 radigm” , ‘animals make sense as integra as sense make ‘animals , behaviour familial familial genes. The crucial idea is that
Reading Human Nature Human Reading . What this means, is that our life particular 83)
er there is parental care involved, and what form form what and involved, care parental is there er (Joseph Carroll, “Human Na “Human Carroll, (Joseph (Joseph Carroll, Carroll, (Joseph Reading Human Nature Human Reading the theory of natural selection is that this selection can only work work only can selection this that is selection natural of theory the
(Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutionary Pa “An (Joseph Evolutionary Carroll, mentioned mentioned life history is what entails these motive dispositions and - Reading Reading Nature Human typical characteristics. Essential to a full evolutionary account of human theory, theory, the abovementioned motives and emotions have been shaped by - that pattern: rather, they agree with the notion of individuality, created from from created of individuality, with the agree notion they rather, pattern: that
ies arroll, arroll, . As Carroll argues in in argues Carroll As . only care. In short, our behaviour is directed by motives and emotions towards that which which that towards emotions and motives by directed is behaviour our short, care.In - ldhood ldhood development. I will return to the importance of this characteristic in a later . Literary Darwinists do not disregard variation. They do not believe that all humans act act that humans believe all do not They variation. disregard do not Darwinists . Literary (Joseph (Joseph C . They . started out as small that variations were passed on, selected by evolu (68) and these same characteristics are part of what we call human nature nature human call we what of part are characteristics same these and
110) –
(Carroll et al. 212) al. et (Carroll
The elementary logic in adaptation and adaptation in logic elementary The According According to the theory of inclusive fitness, which has become the ultimate regulative of principle life What What constitutes human nature is then what we call would human Our human nature is the compilation of all the variations that have been ‘selected’ for in our evolutionary evolutionary our in for ‘selected’ been have that variations the all of compilation the is nature human Our
ion to the human condition for that exact purpose, and thus are not only enormously complex, deeply after a universal pattern and and pattern after a universal the individuals of a species … will tend to the preservation of such individuals, and will generally be inherit be generally will and individuals, such of preservation the to tend will … species a of individuals the the offspring’ by variation above another, there will be no adaptation adaptation no be will there another, above variation to profitable degree any in be they if slight, however ‘variations, life’: for struggle ‘the of concept Darwin’s to on variation: you need individual differences for a selection to take place. Without the selection of some integrated integrated with our behavioural dispositions, and a crucial part of human nature, but also have an adaptive function. will enhance not only our survival, but also our reproduction. These motives and emotions evolved in adaptive adaptive in evolved emotions and motives These reproduction. our also but survival, our only not enhance will relat the organism’s behavioural dispositions dispositions thebehavioural organism’s offspring of example the on earth in modern evolutionary shaped further has which genes’, its propagate will organism an that chances the maximize ‘to selection natural (202). interactive interactive functional wholes … because they have evolved in an adaptive relation to the conditions of their existence’ ensure ensure that they become fully functional adults that can pass on the there is a total systemic organisation in human nature, where all the parts of the system are functionally emotional emotional responses history necessitates certain motives and emotions, such as the motive of caring for offspring long enough to down, can be considered as a set of motives and emotions derived from an adaptive evolutionary process that that process evolutionary an adaptive from derived and emotions as a set considered down, of motives can be is specific to our species. The above section, and what it means for our particularly human disposition for storytelling. for disposition human particularly our for it means what and section, species. One of the more important characteristics specific to humans, and of relevance to the subject of this paper, is extended chi Human Human Nature fixed trait of as our a general becoming before and then accumulated or reproduction, survival they enhanced species, such as length of life and forms of mating, and wheth and mating, of forms and life of length as such species, take might this past and have turned into spec nature, then, is the concept of ‘life history’. Life history refers to basic biological characteristics in a given needed to explain the issue of variation inheritance inheritance of variation issue the explain to needed hypothesis, based on selected findings and examples, it was cemented in the early 20 integrated with Mendelian genetics in the ‘Modern Synthesis’, giving the theory the scien
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. f – . This (“Human (“Human Origin Origin of (28) . And these these And . unity. unity. We will h organises our h organises our Reading Reading Human (Boyd, (Boyd, rve rve them related efforts. And at (“Human (“Human Nature” 88) - in. in. We have evolved to typical characteristics. typical As characteristics. - (“Human Nature” 91) Nature” (“Human (Joseph (Joseph Carroll, (Joseph (Joseph Carroll, “Human Nature” human human culture and behaviour that can be
ur ur emotions are designed to guide us towards ut ut if the desire for forreproduction, example, was . are Life and vice and goals versa, are ‘they motives, . In short, emotions mediate our behaviour, and they are are they and behaviour, our mediate emotions short, In . s s elaborated on above 83) - 87) - eproduction, eproduction, exactly as it is with any other species
.
44)
s (“Human Nature” 78 (“Human (“Human Nature” 85 Nature” (“Human ultural ultural conditioning and individual experiences rchy, Carroll suggests that above our specific goals and motives, we have ‘a generalized generalized ‘a have we motives, and goals specific our above that suggests Carroll rchy, ically ically as the “basic” emotions identified by Ekman and others as universal motivating ive behavioural systems’ and presents the definition as being ‘coordinated suites of behavior behavior of suites ‘coordinated being as definition the presents and systems’ behavioural ive Origin of Storie of Origin pyramid pyramid we find inclusive fitness, which the underlying behavioural systems impinge on in
. In short, Carroll argues that humans have a number of these behavioural systems (a number that that (a number systems of behavioural these a number have humans that short, argues Carroll . In . Behavioural systems that motivate us towards entering in social relationships or choosing a mate, mate, a choosing or relationships social in entering towards us motivate that systems Behavioural . . But how? What exactly is the brain for? In relation to human behaviour, Carroll introduces the (Boyd, (Boyd, 89) 157)
Carroll believes the motivational structure of human nature to be hierarchical, and in his presentation of of presentation his in and hierarchical, be to nature human of structure motivational the believes Carroll . But they do believe that underlying our individual behaviour are cognitive behavioural systems specific
the top of this Nature” 88) Nature” for example, will help, directly or indirectly, to further our reproductive and survival not a characteristic of the species as a whole, it is likely we would be extinct in a very short time. Beneath the the Beneath time. short very a in would be extinct we likely is it a whole, as species the of characteristic not a abovementioned desires, he further argues, are the various behavioural systems that subse but distinct desire to acquire resources and also to achieve successful reproduction’ Again, individual might variation cause different desires, b a diagram of that hiera that of diagram a example, example, but rather reproducing, or entering in valuable social relationships within the comm us. for value adaptive an has this how and later, and motivation emotions between link important the to return triggered triggered by the behavioural system’s ‘goal’. In other words, o to a lifea job’, lifethat goal sense is ‘getting is for innecessary It perhaps the specify not goals. evolutionary themselves themselves psycholog psychology’ human in forces behaviour. The goal is a regulatory principle, rather than a direct and active motive. Rather, it triggers several several triggers it Rather, motive. active and a direct than rather principle, regulatory is a The goal behaviour. related mechanisms that mediate the behavioural system in question, and these mediating forces ‘manifest Nature is a that which consistcomplexes have ofstill setwhic debated) ‘goal’, a motive motivational subserving specific life subserving goals’ the chief organizing principle in human behavior’, a Stories ‘cognit of concept including including storytelling. One of our most noticeably human features is our large bra occupy the cognitive niche, and thus we gain most of our advantages from our intelligence humans humans should be centred upon survival and r implies that all our behavioural dispositions should be considered in relation to survival and reproduction David David S. Wilson makes a valid point when of study the that he indicating game’, same the playing argues are we but respects, some that in species other than differently ‘we might be playing the reproduction game Systems Behavioural 2.1.2 features features have been underadapted different theselection pressures, most intense of which occur in relation to survival Carroll Carroll emphasises, ‘human universals … are merely behavioral patterns so firmly grounded in the logic o cultures’ known all of features characteristic are they that history life human to the species, human which result in human universals: features of found in all known and peoples must therefore be necessarily a part of our species individual temperaments, c 76) 73
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. 1) 74 . In In . . In
6) , thus
108)
elf elf from a . An example example An . 5)
or hers
- osmides osmides 22) minds and is also called called also is and minds
ychology Literary Darwinism Literary specific specific domains or adaptive Evolutionary Evolutionary Psychology
. This characteristic is of vital Evolutionary Evolutionary Psychology (Tooby (Tooby and C 107) - 106
Evolutionary Ps Evolutionary . In the view of evolutionary psychology, psychology, evolutionary of view the In . . This vision is the alternative view to the the to view alternative the is vision This .
) a vision which includes ‘the most distinctive distinctive most ‘the includes which vision a 13
(Joseph Carroll, Carroll, (Joseph – , enabling the organism to perceive visual cues cues visual perceive to organism the enabling , ve ve principle and thus is above all else, while (Cosmides (Cosmides and Tooby, (Cosmides (Cosmides and Tooby, . These modules are not behavioural systems but can be 104) Literary Literary Darwinism - “Human Nature” 81) Nature” “Human purely purely sensory modules and the concept of a language module. . . It is more commonly known as evolutionary (EP) psychology (Cosmides and Tooby, Tooby, and (Cosmides
for for instance, the cognitive module for vision would be activated oduced’ oduced’ 103
– Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary gatherer gatherer ancestors’ processing machines that were designed by natural selection to solve adaptive adaptive solve to selection natural by designed were that machines processing - - (Joseph Carroll, Carroll, (Joseph (Joseph (Joseph Carroll, of individual organisms … however indirect the causal chain may be, and however however and be, may chain causal the indirect however … organisms individual of (Joseph Carroll, “Human Nature” 88) Nature” “Human Carroll, (Joseph Literary Literary Darwinism hman hman and Mineka 484)
(Ö (Cosmides and Tooby, Tooby, and (Cosmides century, a new vision of the human mind emerged emerged mind human the of vision new a century,
reproduction reproduction th igh igh risk of pathogens in, say, feces or vomit, being in contact with either would increase the survival system system survival (Joseph (Joseph Carroll, Within Within this conceptualisation of behavioural systems is a further one, conceptualised by evolutionary ptive problems ptive are inproblems that conditions recurrently occurred thehistory ofevolutionary a species given and probability probability of contracting a disease. We can easily imagine that contracting a disease could be fatal in that have have been the need to avoid possible (aspathogens will be specified later in the emotions section), and since there is a h the environment to a certain kind of behaviour behaviour of kind certain a to environment the could be the evolution of disgust in relation to bodily products: the problem that needed to be solved would small small the effect on number of offspring pr practical terms, this means that the neural circuits of these ‘machines’ are designed to link certain stimuli in Ada ‘the affected ‘the mind is a set of information of set a is mind ‘the problems faced by our hunter and is an approach to psychology, rather than a separate field, which applies adaptationist logic to the study of of study the to logic adaptationist applies which field, separate a than rather psychology, to approach an is and mind human the functions functions and that processes are evolutionary helpful in explaining the of characteristics human and behavior human mental life’ ideas, ideas, as well as emotion programs, and other psychological programs’ applying evolutionary theory to psychology. This premise assumes that ‘behavior serves biologically useful adapt to shifting environments environments shifting to adapt innate … of stock large a evolution from inherits mind human ‘the that hypothesises and slate, blank a as mind In the late 20 late the In quickly to us enables which intelligence, general our flexible namely mind’, human specifically the of feature Mind The 2.1.3 the ‘theory of mind’ module species. human the of social nature particularly the to importance There is also widespread agreement on three main cognitive domains: physics, biology, and psychology, where psychology, and biology, physics, domains: cognitive main three on agreement widespread also is There other in thoughts and feelings of recognition the in consists domain psychological the of any danger. There is a fair degree of consensus about some of the main categories that these modules should should modules these that categories main the of some about consensus of degree fair a is There danger. any of be grouped into; a starting point has been the activated activated by and within a relevant system the within psychology, psychology, of ‘evolved psychological structures as “modules” dedicated to tasks’ dangerous situation rather than staying to help other group members. group other tohelp staying than rather situation dangerous simultaneously simultaneously being affected by all the behavioural systems beneath it. Thus, for instance, survival of an individual happen may at the cost of inclusive fitness, if an individual chooses to save him direct most the being reproduction and survival degrees, various other words, inclusive fitness is the ultimate regulati
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. sensitive sensitive - d make d us make . This purpose purpose This . ship are needed needed are ship Origin of Stories of Origin ( (86) mpossible mpossible to inherit ct ct persons’ (ibid.). Both are g g chains of inference for what a transmission we call ‘culture’
– sexual sexual relationships are so complex the the workings of human nature can - . In this, he is backed up by, or is backing 107)
genetic genetic ways - , a complexity which is i ofits from the selected change’ change’ selected the from ofits (Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutionary Paradigm” 115) Paradigm” Evolutionary “An Carroll, (Joseph 92)
be crippling enough that no further offspring could be . Another is what is called Theory of Mind (ToM),
, allowing us to navigate the highly complex social world of a capacity that gave a vast adaptive advantage in our evolutionary evolutionary our in advantage adaptive vast a gave that capacity a 49)
– rovide rovide us with some general guidelines for action, ‘but for some Literary Literary Darwinism ( Origin Origin of Stories ( ly ly social animals, because our socio this grows our ability to conjure up entire imaginary stories. As Dutton
ry ry Paradigm” 114) awareness awareness ‘and for an awareness of others as distin s, as it were - Origin Origin of Stories cost experimentation in actual practice’ and for ‘makin - of course, as emphasised earlier, variation does occur, and some may be more fascinated fascinated be more may some and occur, does variation earlier, emphasised as course, of (Boyd, (Boyd, tuned choices and wider ranges of options that can be deployed at short and context - . Our ability to run scenarios that will test possible courses of action is also what we would call would call is what we also action of courses possible test that will to run scenarios ability . Our . In Boyd’s words, ‘minds generate future’ and are ‘bundles of expectations’ that anticipate what s next, and if that is done well, we will respond more appropriately to a given situation situation given a to appropriately more respond will we well, done is that if and next, s According to Carroll, our brains have been shaped by natural selection to benefit the entire community the entire to community natural selection benefit been shaped toby have our brains According Carroll, to infer the intentions of others around us, without ever having encountered a certain expression or a (184) . He further argues that anticipatory skills have been the main driver of the evolution of our intelligence
to to promote inclusive fitnes
notice make a decisive difference’ exactly’. exactly’. As Boyd notes, evolution may p behaviors fine how ‘not is answer short The skills? social with equipped fully world the into come we Do before? intention certain reasonably be posited as an evolved and adaptive capacity’ capacity’ adaptive and evolved an as posited be reasonably expressions, facial read to how knowing world the into come we Do insight? intuitive this with born we are But and highly developed, those skills are important contributions to survival and to successful reproduction. And And reproduction. successful to and survival to contributions important are skills those developed, and highly this, Carroll suggests, is the reason ‘having an intuitive insight into 330) (ibid.). Because humans are intense past past happen problems problems without high be’ to come might what or been have might our ability to ‘imagine’, and from argues, imagination ‘allows for intellectual simulations and forecasting, the working out of solutions to reaction reaction of others’ sapiens Homo made possible by our large brains. ToM gives us the ability to infer the beliefs, desires, and not least intentions intentions least not and desires, beliefs, the infer to ability the us gives ToM brains. large our by possible made of others, and to ‘run scenarios in which we can test our own possible courses of action against the possible mentioned mentioned briefly above, which is ‘the ability to attribute mental states essentially the basis to for self one’s self and others’ and is social manoeuvring easier and it conveys information in non (Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutiona to be mediated by something other than belonging to the same group; some factors beyond kin beyond factors some group; same the to belonging than other something by mediated be to for the complexity we find in modern human social environments. One is language. Communication makes for the benefit of the whole community; if the community pr community the if community; whole the of benefit the for need relationships Such relationships. social highly things, other among in, resulted has intelligence general of – individual each of structure the adapt will selection] [natural animals social ‘in that theorised who Darwin, up, than disgusted by bodily products). bodily by than disgusted time by evolution, because it enhanced the fitness of the individuals with those particular circuits and thus their their thus and circuits particular those with individuals the of fitness the enhanced it because evolution, by time ( propagation genetic contamination contamination sources and are thus better at thatsolving particular than problem circuits that woul curious to approach or touch bodily products, for example. In this way, disgust has been ‘selected for’ over environment, and thus hinder reproduction, or could produced. The neural circuits that generate the emotion of disgust steer us away from such possible 75
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. 76 19) in other other in
– t about the the about t . Traits that that Traits . ith storytelling storytelling ith 17)
(Joseph Carroll, Carroll, (Joseph Origin of Stories of Origin . The reason that ( (Joseph (Joseph Carroll, “Human products that do nothing more - driven activities are enormously - product, product, that it does nothing more - our our social skills and thus improving
passionate arguments against the notion notion the against arguments passionate
Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary – ( (Tooby (Tooby and Cosmides 7) at at helped us to survive and reproduce in honing esthetically an adaptive function of the arts. And, as Tooby Tooby as And, arts. the of function adaptive an cidental cidental by we feel pleasure when engaging w engaging when pleasure feel we
and still are are still and
why
– , and secondly, regarding Miller’s argument, Boyd suggests suggests Boyd argument, Miller’s regarding secondly, and , . Thus, Thus, . (8) , and what those might be, if they do (ibid.). Indeed, according to not not that the mind is a blank slate, nor that it consists exclusively of
. However, this does not mean that all cognitive adaptations must be . There have been have There . , and this even though such a (7) ry Paradigm” 127) Paradigm” ry vel as seeing or hearing, and the circuits are different for each purpose purpose each for different are circuits the and hearing, or seeing as vel pective’ pective’ there is more to human evolution than genetic adaptation to ancestral environments. isthere to evolutionto than environments. more human ancestral genetic adaptation (Wilson (Wilson 27) adaptive adaptive functions
– elative elative consensus model of human nature, one element remains partially outside this specialised to be smart, there would be no blind variation to be selected for if it turned out out turned it if for selected be to variation blind no be would there smart, be to specialised
(Boyd, (Boyd, “Evolutionary Theories” 150; Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutionary Paradigm” 1
. were
84) to to be smart -
selection selection Several Several of the literary Darwinists introduce the notion of
. But there are even more convincing arguments in favour of favour in arguments convincing more even are there But . step, not the last, in the chain of explanation’ explanation’ of chain the in last, the not step, be asked. to needs that the question is arts other and the 84) and Cosmides also note, ‘the idea that people listen to stories because they find them interesting is the first (Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutiona “An Carroll, (Joseph once at theory selection sexual the falsify should etc. music, stories, in delight child’s a that Firstly, Firstly, regarding Pinker’s argument, a concept of the arts as evolutionary by than activate pleasurable fantasies does not entirely explain fictional narratives that evoke painful emotions than hitting our ‘pleasure buttons’, and Miller has argued that it is a product not of natural selection but of sexual that that they should have adaptive functions. A few of the more lasting arguments are the ones made by Steven Pinker and George Miller. Pinker has argued that art is a coin Cosmides Cosmides and Tooby, ‘almost all of the that phenomena are central to the humanities are puzzling anomalies pers evolutionary an from this element has not yet been fully integrated into the model is that there is widespread disagreemen widespread is there that is model the into integrated fully been yet not has element this notion that the arts have “An Evolutionary Paradigm” 103) widespread in all cultures and of high significance in ordinary life While While there is now a r arts’ other and the literature and consuming producing for ‘disposition is and that model, our Arts of the Functions Adaptive The 2.1.4 specifically specifically evolved cognitive modules, but a middle ground between the 80 Nature” two Indeed, if they they if Indeed, to enhance fitness. Thus, the solution is ancestral ancestral environments’ specialised words, words, they are specialised cognitive adaptations, designed for particular purposes, and they run into ‘the hundreds and thousands, covering all the important behaviors th are are not as obviously required for survival and reproduction, such as social interactions, require an elaborate le same the on circuitry innate ‘learn’ and acquire skills throughout life in various areas. And, as Cosmides and Tooby emphasise, ‘the brain brain ‘the emphasise, Tooby and as Cosmides areas. And, in various life throughout skills and acquire ‘learn’ all’ at anything learn to you for structure of kind certain a have must our ability to navigate in our socially complex reality (and imagination). Indeed, we can all agree that we genetically. But we might be born with the basic neural circuitry for these skills that can experience. through then be ‘wired’
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 , - what we (“Human (“Human Origin Origin of
injurious’ injurious’ – (Joseph Carroll, (Joseph Carroll, (Boyd, (Boyd, . If the arts have a vital ow much time and energy energy and time much ow On On the Origin of Species by by a cognitive behavioural driven driven behaviour, ‘the goal is roduction roduction and consumption of -
te psychical one: to appeal to attention attention to appeal to one: psychical te . We can arguably . inferWe can that ‘ arguably 84) . The fact that it has not, is an in argument s would be rigidly destroyed’ and that, - develops develops reliably in all normally developing
e well spent. spent. e well (82 (“Human (“Human Nature” 86) – . Yet another argument in favour is the complex s hasthat in system of a first resulted consists reward
. is . It may be hard to imagine how this could be fitness naturally think of it, as acquiring an additional skill or improving improving or skill an additional acquiring as it, of think naturally , and the fact that art stirs strong emotions supports this argument, argument, this supports emotions strong stirs art that fact the and , from from that which gives it an advantage, such as we might imagine
108)
away arying arying in quality and skill . An important point to make in relation to this, is h is this, to relation in make to point important An . the way we we way the
enhancing enhancing adaptive change. Why should this not be true for other psychical – - . To give an example, learning is a continuous organisation of the mind, and we 83; 119) “An Paradigm” Evolutionary
(16) however however v . The arts themselves may not be regarded as being either useful or damaging, but can can but damaging, or useful either being as regarded be not may themselves arts The .
– arroll, among others, arroll, among that emphasise isnatural selection ruthless and that a cost without a Literary Darwinism Literary and we would, Carroll proposes, feel satisfaction in fulfilling this formulation is a fitness
– – . Our biological . theneed above for biological thing Our (Boyd, (Boyd, “Evolutionary Theories” 164) would would motivate us towards the ‘fabrication of aesthetic and imaginative artifacts’ 87) - . The most significant problem facing literary Darwinism, then, is not necessarily whether art has Origin Origin of Stories ( (Joseph (Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutionary Paradigm” 119) 69) to make adaptive changes to the immense and subtle internal world of the mind and brain’, rather than than rather brain’, and mind the of world internal subtle and immense the to changes adaptive make to
Beyond Beyond this, there are two other aspects of the arts that are ‘characteristic, defining features of The interesting aspect, and likely the reason scholars are hesitant to accept an adaptive function for the likely for the scholars are the reason to adaptive an and function aspect, The accept hesitant interesting es (Joseph Carroll, Carroll, (Joseph
an adaptive function, but what that adaptive function function adaptive that what but function, an adaptive since since emotions are evolved indicators that something matters, biologically, to an organism Stori functional functional organisation of the cognitive mechanisms that are involved in the p art consume consume forms of art humans adaptations’: adaptations’: firstly, they are universally found in human culture, and secondly, the ability to produce and be viewed as indirectly damaging be viewed asdamaging when the considering we indirectly energy spend on Unless,them. of thecourse, arts ar and energy time the case which in function, an adaptive have variation variation that takes time and energy do literature and arts the those that are bad, preserving and those that adding up are that all bad, preserving are good’ in this case is a variation that gives the individual a disadvantage in survival or reproduction, or, perhaps, a is convinced that ‘any rejecting variations; slightest the … variation scrutinising hourly and daily is selection in ‘natural speaking, metaphorically the least degree injuriou long long ago favour of the adaptive functions of literature and the other arts. Darwin himself, in matter: matter: Boyd and C selection natural by out’ ‘weeded been have likely most would resources, precious of waste seeming a benefit, the average human spends on producing or consuming art. This time could be spent instead on something that that something on instead spent be could time This art. consuming or producing on spends human average the would more overtly enhance our survival and reproduction chances. In fact, this problem is the crux of the the desire for the thing and second of the pleasure and satisfaction when fulfilling that that desire fulfilling when satisfaction the and second thing and for of the the pleasure desire 128) Paradigm” Evolutionary “An know know as stories Nature” 86 adaptive adaptive function, then the need them to would and produce be consume as real as the need for food, sex etc. and this need functions? functions? Carroll suggests that the desire to create and consume art is aroused system, in order to create conceptual and imaginative order can easily accept that learning learning that accept can easily an existing one instead have an external impact and emotion’ enhancing in any way, but Tooby and Cosmides argue that for much aesthetic immedia an only but function physical immediate no has ‘art that is arts, 77
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78 . He . He (Joseph (Joseph the mind mind the
ience: The ience: The xiv, 8) xiv,
all all think of story Consil ething ething that relating . Carroll’s own, more more own, . Carroll’s som
– , and Dutton has dubbed this (“An Evolutionary Paradigm” Paradigm” Evolutionary (“An . In other words, we live in the xiv)
. Most likely, we The Storytelling Animal The Storytelling ( that our disposition for creating art 273) 4)
- iated iated by images and beliefs, dreams and us, us, in one orform another. isstory But not
it is essentially a basis on which can be built can a basis be built which on is it essentially
to – lling Animal as as a device of ‘behavioral orientation’
a gap
of the arts. If we assume that Wilson is correct, then is (“An Evolutionary Paradigm” 127) Paradigm” Evolutionary (“An The The Storyte (
The The Storytelling Animal Reading Reading Human Nature , and we (unconsciously) use art to organise the motivational and and something we tell ourselves, unconsciously, too. Carroll in
live tood’, tood’, and indeed, it is not just a question of story’s existence, which, as (Gottschall, (Gottschall, that that the arts serve to fill the gap between animal instinct and the incredible
– (Joseph (Joseph Carroll, igh igh intelligence (69). Of course, ‘fill the gap’ is too vague to be a convincing . Tooby and Cosmides pull the question of survival in relation to our fiction What What Wilson argued was the precursor to what Carroll himself theorises in his a fitting description, as ‘will’ has very little to do with what grabs our attention or or attention our grabs what with do to little very has ‘will’ as description, fitting a
too –
, 129)
that that we use story to make sense of the world around us; like other animals, we have
(1998).
(187)
d an adaptive problem that, like art itself, is unique for the human species: organizing the physical world surrounding us is always ‘med
– or night about dream encompasses allencompasses the toways tell a no story, and matter the medium, that this the includes forms
-
. In other words, art’s adaptive function is to serve gathering system, and we would assume that such a system would nurture an appetite for true stories stories true for appetite an nurture would a system such that assume and we would system, gathering - out hypothesis argues that the arts produce ‘cognitive order’ - A central issue in explaining story is our predisposition for the fictional kind. In Boyd’s words, Boyd’s In kind. fictional the for predisposition our is story explaining in issue central A We are surrounded by story. We are so deeply immersed in story that we do not even notice it. It is such such is It it. notice even not do we that story in immersed deeply so are We story. by surrounded are We One of the first to theorise an adaptive function for the arts was Edward O. Wilson in Wilson O. Edward arts was for the function an adaptive to One the theorise first of Origin Origin of Stories Literary Darwinism ( 2 Storytelling arge part of our existence that we take it for granted, we do not think about its importance, and consequently consequently and importance, its about think not do we granted, for it take we that existence our of part arge only only is a data is a fantasies, fantasies, ghosts and demons’ imagination. physical physical needs and are prompted by our instincts, but unlike other animals, we ‘create imagined worlds and live in them’ simply simply external, it is something we particular emphasises what we day as we something hear, or external,watch, read. told Something argues argues that we, as a species, are addicted to story ‘instinct’ fiction our condition condition is so incompletely unders of story’s centrality especially but enough’, strange ‘isit, puts Gottschall a l a we do not fully understand why exactly it is so. In the words of Gottschall, ‘nothing so central to the human of storytelling used in our ancestral environment. ancestral in our used of storytelling paper, paper, it will now be narrowed down to focus on storytelling in particular. I note that my use ‘storytelling’ of the term 2. Until now, the focus has been broad and included the other arts as well as literature. For the purposes of this behavioural systems that subserve our basic instincts. But what exactly is meant by ‘organising’? by is meant exactly But what instincts. basic our that subserve systems behavioural 122, 126) Carroll, “An Evolutionary Paradigm” 128) ‘would have solve of instinct’ promptings the immediate from disconnected systems motivational practically useful information alone will not achieve achieve not will alone information useful practically fleshed the vital adaptive function the arts fulfil is the bringing together of ‘the forces at work in the environment and and environment in the work at forces ‘the of together bringing the is fulfil arts the function adaptive the vital inside the mind’ into what Carroll describes as emotionally meaningful relations hypothesis, but it brings attention to there that to the fact but attention it hypothesis, brings the detailed design of a theory of the adaptive function book book possibilities that come with h Unity of Knowledge
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 , , just tschall tschall 109)
olutionary olutionary (Gottschall, (Gottschall, product, has Ev - Carroll argues argues Carroll
, such as simply (Gottschall and Wilson and Wilson (Gottschall Literary Literary Darwinism pon pon by both literary analysis as ‘evolutionary theory would theory … have ‘evolutionary
(Cosmides (Cosmides and Tooby, at they were affected by them (ibid.). in other words, in ways where you would
– elves elves in vicarious, orchestrated, imagined, or . The most frequent and important themes and (Joseph (Joseph Carroll, 108)
(“An Evolutionary Paradigm” 121) learn from fiction, though not in the sense that Pinker
. Furthermore, it is not just part of our particularly human human particularly our of part just not is it Furthermore, . and and Carroll argues that the creation of cognitive order is
do But it is important to note that most of that most it isto note in is on what But important going
– . 153) and next time, it will stay far away from the hedgehog. Humans the Humans from it hedgehog. far stay time, will away and next
. Indeed, . Dutton Indeed, that argues
– (12) the stories themselves are also steeped in human nature. human in steeped also are themselves stories the
– Literary Literary Darwinism ( chall chall argues that Pinker’s suggestion is unlikely, because storing specific . . The structural components that make up this grammar are universal, as is narrative narrative and the rules that combine them have been grouped under the term hen suggesting that ‘if survival depended only on accurate information, then . Gotts g Human Nature g Human (Tooby and Cosmides 23) Cosmides and (Tooby 64)
and tries to play with it. Chances are it will get hurt by the spikes. Not necessarily
Readin ( (Sugiyama (Sugiyama 180)
. Thus, the psychological function a psychological effect fulfils when engaging in stories does . But it is not. Pinker, though generally believing art to be an evolutionary by 7)
(186) The The units that constitute Carroll’s Carroll’s argument, and my own, is that we
ming ming the individual how to behave and what the consequences could be if they did not follow those .
evident from e.g. translated literature, and have been identified and agreed u well as research in cognitive psychology. According to this story grammar, narrative requires ‘at least one story story grammar have minds and should dominate the stories of the one species that speaks and writes’ and writes’ that speaks species one the of stories the dominate and should minds have xxv) as individual identity, sexual romance, and family are central to human existence. In the words of Got and David Sloan Wilson, ‘the problems of survival and reproduction are “on the minds” of all species that principles principles of literary representation’ plots concern individual identity, sexual romance, and family nature to produce and consume stories consume and produce to nature and and concerns the organizing themotives that structure of human between parallel is there a ‘fundamental are not limited by actual experience, but can immerse thems instead experience fictional curious, curious, goes up to it the away cat to scare but enough seriously, believes. All animals learn from experience. A cat might come across a hedgehog for the first time, and, being being and, time, first the for hedgehog a across come might cat A experience. from learn animals All believes. not have to be consciously recognised by readers unconscious indeed passed passed on by thousands and thousands of specialized mechanisms’ Psychology consciously recognise and learn from information. from and learn recognise consciously our isminds hidden from us, and that ‘the only things you become aware of are a few high level conclusions infor directions, or by telling true stories rather than fictional ones Carroll has the same view, and believes that while the idea has some merits, the same could be achieved in more efficient ways than through fictional storytelling information and lessons relies on explicit memory, and chances are that the majority do not remember the plots plots the remember not do majority the that are chances and memory, explicit on relies lessons and information of films and books from years ago in detail, even if they remember th lessons in lessons orthat conduct are action toand away stored memorised be situations used in relevant The Storytelling Animal reality reality conceded that storytelling might fulfil an adaptive function in that it works as a source of information or of information information to their rewarding’ children no difficulty in attributing adaptive utility’ to humans only taking pleasure in true narratives, if that was the ‘instinct’ into the picture, w children should pay attention only to factual broadcasts, and parents should only find providing accurate 79
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. so so ter ter 80 The The The The 49)
( s of a a of s Origin Origin ( possible possible to
(Gottschall, (Gottschall, ife ife events, as we will l - The Storytelling Animal Storytelling The ( The Storytelling Animal Storytelling The oriented oriented action, and resolution’ uch the same way, our minds take take minds our way, same the uch - processing processing and thus less time and - le in fiction’ fiction’ in le are a large part of our experiences with with experiences our of part large a are (Gottschall, (Gottschall, ognise ognise patterns. According to Gottschall, ‘the life experiences. In the following section on emotions, section thelife emotions, on In experiences. following ertain patterns and recognise what they indicate. What - . The . of notion isas storytelling escapism a one problematic as in fact, we would find it boring. As Gottschall puts it, ‘there is a
– unless it is in the safe confines of a theater or between the cover the between or theater a of confines safe the in is it unless lled and we want to be happy. Yet if fiction was nothing but a pleasurable pleasurable a but nothing was fiction if Yet happy. be to want we and lled Those facial expressions are cues that form a meaningful pattern which
risk environments that fiction provides) will become clear. become will provides) fiction that environments risk - nce nce with social situations, so that we will be able to speed up ‘our capacity to . Boyd also emphasises pattern recognition and its significance; patterns of s of struggle and stress and mortal woe’ woe’ mortal and stress and struggle of s xxi, xxi, my emphasis)
105) . Those meaningful patterns may help us predict a certain outcome or make bet - 104 103)
, because we have experience with c . imal 90) - 87
a 181) in imaginary world imaginary in
Emotions Emotions Revealed – ( Furthermore, Furthermore, encountering certain patterns several times results in our knowing them and their Relevant Relevant for story and its function is our ability to rec Related Related to the structure of story, Gottschall puts particular emphasis on our appetite not only for the up to a climactic conclusion. The same is true for patterns and inference of real ’ - , and he is thus in with agreement who Ekman, also emphasises that ‘most of us don’t want to experience storytelling; storytelling; giving us experie respond respond to them in ways that demand less of our conscious information energy, leaving more time and energy to process novel situations. Boyd suggests that this is one function of consequences consequences better. When experience makes certain situations more familiar to us, it becomes build emotions. to negative relation in later see of Stories this means in practice is that a certain pattern of events may lead us to infer where the plot is going, e.g. a Storytelling Storytelling An story a of outcome and development the for expectations certain up set etc. action of patterns character, a pattern of events and turn them into a story, e.g. from information we receive. Studies show that we take even random, unpatterned information and almost compulsively weave it into a story informs you of the situation, and that pattern could help guide consequent behaviour, perhaps by prompting an an prompting by perhaps behaviour, consequent guide help could pattern that and situation, the of you informs m In wrongdoing. any for up make to approach, altruistic more a or apology situation. situation. For instance, angry facial expressions directed at from theyou people around you might signal that you have done something wrong. Storytelling Storytelling Animal choices that enhance our chances of survival. They register in our minds like cues that might signal a certain human human mind is tuned to detect patterns’ in order to ‘perceive meaningful patterns in our environments’ prevalent prevalent in our lives, compared to more positive low the (in them emotions, with experience and, hopefully, the importance of gaining narrative and they narrative are anlarge part equally of our real I will elaborate on the adaptive function of negative emotions in particular, and why they seem to be What What purpose would this attraction have, if not an adaptive emotions Negative inadequate. is buttons pleasure our about one? argument Surely, as mentioned earlier, Pinker’s well, as ‘fiction may temporarily free us from our [own] troubles, but it does so by ensnaring us in new sets of of sets new in us ensnaring by so does it but troubles, [own] our from us free temporarily may ‘fiction as well, trouble fear, anger, disgust, sadness, or anguish anguish or sadness, disgust, anger, fear, novel yawning canyon between what is desirable in life … and what is desirab is what and … life in desirable is what between canyon yawning 48) experiences. We want our wishes fulfi wishes our want We experiences. fantasy, we would not bother reading it fictional, fictional, but for the unpleasant or downright scary. In life, it is assumed, we want pleasant and joyful character, setting, states and events, sequence, causal connections, goal (Sugiyam
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 - in in
being . In other other In . ssing ssing social identify identify any
152)
. The hypothesis . It makes literature literature makes It . 49) . In the same way as as way same the In . much the same way, same the much
xxi)
the intensely social nature nature social intensely the as if they had encountered as they if had encountered
a simulator. And, according according And, a simulator.
. It works like learning to ride a (Dunbar 186) (Dunbar 49)
Reading Human Nature Human Reading Literary Darwinism Literary f Stories Reading Reading Human Nature ( Origin Origin o ( (Joseph Carroll, Carroll, (Joseph psyche psyche designed to assimilate such images and use them is for primate sociality’ sociality’ primate for is akes place in outer space or in a supernatural world, which which world, supernatural a in or space outer in place akes (Joseph Carroll, Carroll, (Joseph ement of ement however, iffitness clearer, becomes we compare it fi, fantasy, dystopias, and apocalyptic narratives would not have not have would narratives and apocalyptic dystopias, fi, fantasy, - the competition situation might not happen often enough to build up
– ituation as though we were there, in person. And the emotional response is crucial, as I will will I as crucial, is response emotional the And person. in there, were we though as ituation sion of what Carroll, and later also Tooby and Cosmides, argue to be the adaptive function function adaptive the be to argue Cosmides, and Tooby also later and Carroll, what of sion is essential; otherwise sci is essential; otherwise s, s, and Dunbar argues that maintaining relationships ‘of sufficient depth that they can be
seek the experiences of various types of art just for the pleasure of it. of pleasure the for just of art types various of experiences the seek
risk, but that will give the reader or listener or watcher experience risk, but that will the experience or or reader give listener watcher - to the s the to s at an actual competition experience So, how does this work? How do we get experience from reading about an experience? One chief
by vicarious experience seems a good and logical alternative. It can be likened to can be likened It alternative. and logical a good seems experience vicarious by structure in primate groups and is thus a ‘crucial bas ‘crucial a thus is and groups primate in structure learning so trouble, serious into you get also can situations social in doing by learning then, examples above the social social relationship social is of isthe under the at core attack’ one of them when support mutual unstinting to provide relied upon of the human species means that our social navigation is just reproduction as, as say, avoidance crucial of to predators. our Social skills chances are of of fundamental survival importance when and managing to an with a If encounter neededyou topredator. how learn to cope with such a actually by situation Now, indeed. small are life your with escape will you that chances the situation, the sufficient sufficient experience, and the situation itself is more dangerous and might have a bad outcome the very first time encounteryou it. The relation to the enhanc tools tools and resources to make sure you are safe while you build on your experience, compared to practicing gymnastic energy and energy low other and coach a with gym, the at gymnastics practicing to it liken perhaps could You life. real in situation the motives, passions, behaviours etc., even if the plot t plot the if even etc., behaviours passions, motives, in a one isthat becomes story loweven relatable. Engaging makes unrealistic vicarious stories participation, human human human embody characters the same; the is experience human environment, the matter no short, In appeal. any emotionally emotionally of simulation the but order, cognitive to important not are situation and exact environment The later. to return emotionally, as they respond to people in everyday life’ life’ everyday in people to respond they as emotionally, words, while we do not experience the exact situation ourselves, we simulate it imaginatively and respond working hypothesis is that ‘when people respond to characters in novels, they respond in respond they novels, in characters to respond people ‘when that is hypothesis working a means to an end, instead of an end in itself. But the idea of cognitive order makes literature the end and we why explains that that fiction only conveys adaptively important information, as e.g. Pinker literature suggests, or art does to specific not is that function adaptive that that it ‘provides emotionally saturated images for a for evaluative, affective, and ultimately behavioral orientation’ less convincing ver convincing less of storytelling, but the basic idea is the same. What Carroll means by literature providing cognitive order, is information patterns becomes just as easy and automatic as riding a bike, we will be able to react more easily just and automatic as riding a bike, as will becomes easy towe easily be patterns more able react information areas in some and complete, less is a Boyd’s fitness. our enhance likely will which clues, certain toand faster bike, bike, or practicing other similar skills, like karate, playing an instrument etc.; with every practice, the action requires less conscious thought, it becomes easier and practically automatic. When e.g. proce process patterns of social information, to inferences make from other minds and from situations fraught with difficult or subtle choices or to run complex scenarios’ 81
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
’ 82 , i.e. point 16) veloped veloped - the the brain’s ties in with (15
must recognise recognise must
. They argue that . This . And the adaptive adaptive the And . 20) readying 61) -
made, made, fully de 164)
- . We all (19
(188) evolved evolved function
real. real.
. This cognition we decoupled means were 10) - we make we sense make of it over time, throughout experiences. It suggests that there is a a is there that suggests It experiences. Literary Darwinism Literary
(9 . His basis for this is the still relatively new – The Storytelling Animal hall argues that mirror neurons may be hall that may argues neurons themirror key 59)
ions ions enhancing. enhancing. It is exactly this, 192; 192; -
aptations, aptations, to enhance our chances of survival and . Gottsc information information we need to get through external input, and (Joseph Carroll, Carroll, (Joseph . That is Origin Origin of Stories ( nd a functional mode. The organisational mode is where the adaptive in particular, fiction engages emotion systems but disengages action enhancing enhancing functions, that Tooby and Cosmides argue to be a ‘vastly
The The Storytelling Animal 60, my emphasis) 60, my -
( – . Our cognitive inheritance comes . cognitive equipped Our comes inheritance practical with many functions, ment, ment, greatly lessening the risk of misapplying it (14) y, giving us the full emotional experience while making sure our action systems do systems action our sure making while experience fullemotional the us giving y, Carroll’s cognitive order, it is, simply put, an adaptive need to make ‘sense’ of the world in in world the of ‘sense’ make to need adaptive an put, simply is, it order, cognitive Carroll’s
(Tooby (Tooby and Cosmides 23) The Storytelling Animal The Storytelling . This selectivit This . and and also when we observe someone else performing an action or experiencing an emotion d adaptive problem’ d adaptive problem’ (8) ts believe, that ‘we have neural networks that activate when we perform an action or experience an To return to return To that that we are not born with theory of mind, and that we are not born with our acute sensitivity to the actions, according to Sugiyama, this information is of great importance, as ‘a deep and broad understanding of human of human understanding and broad ‘a deep as importance, of great is this information Sugiyama, to according prospects’ reproduction and an survival improve individual’s can nature greatly but ‘does not supply very much information about [humans themselves], or how they interrelate to each other other each to interrelate they how or themselves], [humans about information much very supply not but ‘does or to the world’ adaptations adaptations to perform their fitness underrate adaptations’, adaptations’, and the functional mode is where the adaptation is its performing helping us to react to situations in a way that is fitness adaptations: adaptations: an organisational mode a ‘developmental termed the they help through have of what and isorganised constructed, being brain circuitry cognitive cognitive adaptations; rather, the brain’s adaptations need to be matured by the input they receive, input that Tooby and Cosmides argue is in the shape of emotional experience. They propose two modes for these reproduction. reproduction. We are not born with an innate sense of the world our lives. Tooby and Cosmides argue that this is because we are not born with ready ‘emotionally and imaginatively meaningful ways’ ways’ meaningful imaginatively and ‘emotionally function of cognitive order is, like other evolved ad through the various emotions evoked by the fictional experience as if it it if as experience the fictional by evoked emotions various the through that that there is a benefit in particular able being to fict entertain going while simultaneously safe, feel we and therefore real, not of are a story that dangers potential know the our knowledge about our environ implies this that and information fictional from corruption data prevent to designed is adaptation decoupling the ‘decoupling’, the protection of our knowledge stores from false information derived from fictional stories. We We stories. fictional from derived information false from stores knowledge our of protection the ‘decoupling’, from representation and information that separate to and ‘true’ not is story a when recognise to ability the have in differentiating between the two systems, which further suggests functional design rather than accident. a Another happy feature that suggests functional design is the issue of what Tooby and Cosmides call not make us flee from the screen when seeing e.g. a predator on TV, suggests that there is adaptive value in vicarious in engaging when other the not and system one engaging real, real, while others reliably do not’ systems physically physically by stories, and Boyd agrees Tooby and Cosmides’ statement that ‘some psychological subsystems reliably react to [fiction] as if it were (Gottschall, (Gottschall, to our ability to run fictional in simulations our minds, and the reason that we are affected both and mentally scientis emotion, to Gottschall, ‘to simulate is to do’ field of research concerned with mirror neurons. Nothing is proven yet, but research suggests, and many
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 actic actic . They They . (16) ive ive function . But it can be be can it But . tive organisational organisational tive . The mind is never never is mind The . component, component, and this . It is, in fact, the very very the fact, is, in . It that focus on ‘directing ‘directing on focus that
40)
. He does not believe in the continuously . Thus, when something holds our 14) - (13 Origin of Stories of Origin
( (“Evolutionary Theories” 169) Theories” (“Evolutionary input. input. It is the same argument that goes for and and social attention is an important human
– and vice versa. In fact, they may be may closely they more fact, In versa. and vice
– rganisational’, or else he has misunderstood the mind. mind. the misunderstood has he else or rganisational’, . He argues that we have evolved to learn from and share share and from learn to evolved have we that argues He . te te where look, others only humans track eye gaze as well (“Evolutionary (“Evolutionary Theories” 152) rience and pretend play under ‘aesthetic activities’ activities’ ‘aesthetic under play pretend and rience attention . And we do it for the rest of our lives. Elsewhere, Boyd argues that . This allows . This the faculty allows and language ‘to complex adaptations other 97)
. In opposition to Boyd, I further argue that a theory that stresses attention attention stresses that theory a that argue further I Boyd, to opposition In . (Pinker) an argument that, Tooby and Cosmides suggest, can solve the puzzle of how
– order to guide our attention towards relevant external input, Tooby and Cosmides Cosmides and Tooby input, external relevant towards attention our guide to order
. In In . . born with, are specialised neurocognitive systems thatsystems be and can with,developed neurocognitive born become are specialised
to to pay attention to our surroundings omplex systems to produce ‘pointless’ behaviour (ibid.). Darwin, too, makes a point of of point a makes too, Darwin, (ibid.). behaviour ‘pointless’ produce to systems omplex e
– (17) ar Origin Origin of Stories ( adult (usually the mother) holding its attention its the holding mother) (usually adult
al al mode they propose would that mean the interest in the arts should wear off when the mind
ther Carroll or Boyd believes. A hypothesis could be that our motivational systems, designed to designed systems, could ourbe that believes. or A ther Boyd motivational hypothesis Carroll (Tooby and Cosmides 25) Cosmides and (Tooby Tooby and Cosmides group fictional expe fictional group Cosmides and Tooby The systems guide motivational abovementioned our attention. Boyd’s theory of the adapt
natural selection built c built selection natural aesthetic aesthetic component is what drives our behaviour towards a goal of making adaptive changes in the internal world of the mind and brain are behaviours that may seem purposeless, but which are in fact being driven by adaptations operating in their their in operating adaptations by driven being fact in are which but purposeless, seem may that behaviours are organisational mode. The organisational mode of each adaptation has an aesthetic cognitive order. cognitive linked thanlinked ei make us focus on what is adaptively valuable, guides our attention toward experiences that will provide machines machines order of theory cognitive the exclude does not necessarily As Tooby and Cosmides state, we use external input to create cognitive order order cognitive create to input external use we state, Cosmides and Tooby As cogni our through put be to needs that input new receive constantly we organised, being done has been organised, which he assumes happens at a certain point point certain a at happens assumes he which organised, been has ‘o word the of use the misunderstood has he that argued theory of cognitive order, or the organisational modes Tooby and Cosmides suggest, however. He argues that that argues He however. suggest, and Cosmides Tooby modes the organisational order, or of cognitive theory the organisation the development of our particular social attention led to the development of behaviours of development the to led attention social particular our of development the attention and engaging emotion for its own sake’ characteristic. characteristic. Boyd states that even though apes no as head movement expressions of the of expressions first thing we learn of literature and the arts stresses exactly that: exactly stresses arts the and literature of attention, and that we come into the world prepared especially for this, as when children imitate the facial organisational mode mode organisational and experiences that would have been adaptive for our ancestors’ attention, and we experience related emotions, they argue that it is our adaptations working in their (Tooby and Cosmides 15) Cosmides and (Tooby actions of kinds the rewarding find to designed are that systems motivational evolved have ‘humans that expect rules rules of that particular language genome’ the by supplied be to had information necessary the all if managed be could than elaborate more far be language language and Universal Grammar; that we are born with an innate faculty for language, but that it can only synt according to the circuitry language the organise will which input, to external exposed when develop even even more finely tuned with time and experience. What Tooby and Cosmides’ theory suggests, is that the circuitry itself is innate, but that it is ‘wired’ through external reactions, and intentions of the people around us. Instead, our of understanding the world around us matures with What time. we 83
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84 inues inues telling telling
t is the riddle . When pretend The Story The play appears toappears be play
186) . Children begin to
ves ves as time where they pretend of stories tha (Gottschall, (Gottschall,
– brained offspring needs to be honing honing is through play. More - Stories Stories give us joy, but it is not - . and and our emotions are very much
. As their theory of mind cont mind of theory their As . ther, ther, a greatly extended period of – (16) Origin Origin of Stories 329) - . Our motivational systems, our emotions, emotions, our systems, motivational Our . 328
1, 1, emphasis in original) (Boyd, (Boyd, 362)
r r words, they develop and employ successfully , and this is ofwhere the security relative being 18 . Consequently, there is protracted parental care
es, ‘natural selection … seduces you into devoting devoting into you seduces … selection ‘natural es, might be just such an essential feature. an essential just such be might
in in othe
or rather, the emotions –
. The successful care of offspring will result in children
– 15)
Origin of Stories of Origin 162)
ure Origin of Stories of Origin , and the exact thatsame might prove that indeedstorytelling has . Storytelling Origin Origin of Stories ( (Boyd, (Boyd, t to be too big, and potentially kill the mother, human infants have to to have infants human the mother, kill t and to potentially be too big, 24) this this long period of childhood development ser - (84)
imitation or representation through play, like the exaggerations of mock mock of exaggerations the like play, through representation or imitation (Boyd, (Boyd,
– 23
; in the human case, both mother and father are involved in caring for the for the in caring involved father are and the case, ; both human in mother as 91)
Origin Origin of Stories imaginary scenarios, and they do this without training, both alone and in company. company. in and alone both training, without this do they and scenarios, imaginary In the words of Tooby and Cosmid and Tooby of words the In Reading Reading Human Nat (“An (“An Evolutionary Paradigm” 112)
(Boyd, (Boyd, give give us joy. So it is the joy
on directs attention attention directs on boo’ - a arents arents becomes important. One way they achieve this skill Origin of Stories Origin - should The Storytelling The Animal Storytelling (Joseph (Joseph Carroll (Boyd, (Boyd, So, what does motivate us? What does it mean that the motivational systems find certain behaviour (Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutionary Paradigm” 112, (JosephParadigm” “An 114) Evolutionary Carroll, nts nts that children’s pretend play is some sort of random accident of human evolution’ evolution’ human of accident random of sort some is play pretend children’s that chase chase and peek what Tooby and Cosmides termed ‘decoupling’. What is essential to note here, is that ‘almost no one thinks playing, children construct construct children playing, imitation understand to ‘begin They to develop, they ‘learn subtler ways of extending and linking events by incorporating aims and intentions, then then intentions, and aims incorporating by events linking and extending of ways subtler ‘learn they develop, to feelings, then even beliefs … into their play, their own stories’ understand understand the rudiments of social relationships in roughly their second year. By four or five years old, they Mind of Theory human a developed have specifically, pretend play. As Boyd notes, ‘play is widespread among animals, but among As notes, is Boyd ‘play widespread pretend play. specifically, an almost exclusively human acitivity’ them them cared for by p and caring for children of their own’ from requires species human the of environment social complex the that skills social the hone and develop can maturity maturity of members that, functioning a adult when are pair grown, community, of capable ‘forming bonds, becoming pare young. Scientifically speaking, the period of childhood development is the period previous to reproductive childhood childhood development’ in our species, which further means that there is a relative security for offspring in being in the presence of be born at a stage in their development where they are virtually helpless. They are therefore ‘heavily dependent dependent ‘heavily therefore are They helpless. virtually are they where development their in stage a at born be on parental care for much longer than other animals, and they have, fur posture posture resulted in a narrowed birth canal, through which our equally large the head for no order In pushed through. 2.3 Childhood 2.3 Childhood upright Our primates. other to compared size, to body brains proportional large with very but bipedal, We are an adaptive function. an adaptive obvious obvious they (Gottschall, driving us toward stories. toward us driving your free time to these activities improving by them making gratifying’ importantly, emoti importantly, drive our attention and behaviour towards that which has adaptive value rewarding? rewarding? Emotions is the short answer. Emotions indicate that something is important, and, most arguing that what we, as humans, may regard as a feature of trifling importance (in any species), is perhaps species that of survival the to essential
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 The The ( (Hunt (Hunt Origin Origin ( and their and their
apacity to to apacity – 324, emphasis emphasis 324,
ficult ficult enough in ldren ldren to be able to something, as well? Related to to as well? Related something, Origin of Stories of Origin ( for
. Because of this difference in experience, preloaded’ preloaded’
something, exactly as something, all our body different
(9) for urocognitive urocognitive adaptations are less developed and en. en. But how do we then the define books that are ter ter of indifference degree and not in kind risk situations, through the cognitive play of art’ of play cognitive the through situations, risk - and what it is for, is forpracticing adult life by building social
– cultures, cultures, from family to family, and it changes over time. It is, in
. In short, they are relatively safe to gain experience, and therefore that that therefore and experience, gain to safe relatively are they short, In . in
tal pretend play, is it not likely that is it is it likely not play, tal pretend (17) . In short, children instinctively play at story. Gottschall goes as far as saying saying as far as goes Gottschall story. at play instinctively children short, In .
something something
, as mentioned in the Storytelling section. section. Storytelling the in mentioned , as for (193) notion notion is a version of condensed what Tooby and state Cosmides as well: that the terature terature requires, to some extent, a basic understanding of what exactly that term 324)
flexible behaviors, they cannot come fully come cannot they behaviors, flexible
f play and art, it is a problem that arises from our minds having evolved in a way that . His . His ence (ibid.). ence 7)
learn s words, be ‘that children are people whose minds and bodies have not yet matured in various in various matured not yet have bodies and minds whose people are ‘that children be s words, . By new problem, Boyd means a problem that arises from the creation of a solution to another to another of the a solution creation that from a problem arises means Boyd new problem, . By . If storytelling is men storytelling . If , and Boyd suggests that art solves a similar problem, in that most of our advantages as a species , , on the contrary, most experts believe that play is 325)
Origin of Stories of Origin (10) ( 41)
Dutton emphasises that our attraction to story emerges spontaneously in all normally developing Boyd Boyd argues that art derives from play. Tooby and Cosmides agree, noting that ‘from a cognitive … . What it comes really down to, is our of concept which and ‘children’ is ‘childhood’, dif
terms of innate capacities’ capacities’ innate of terms 5)
- understand them understand them (ibid.), leading to a ofform that literature is largely defined as a genre for children, and that literature, literature, too, should be different in degree, rather than kind expressions of complex ideas need to be simpler, in both language and form, for most chi definable definable ways’ (5). Lukens makes the same point, and argues that children ‘are different experience, but not in species’, and therefore it from is a mat adults in modern times, especially associated with innocence and a lack of responsibility, but the most useful definition definition useful most the but responsibility, of lack a and innocence with associated especially times, modern in Hunt’ would, 4 itself: it differs between cultures and children’s literature children’s is literature books written for, and read by, childr ‘adult’, supposedly also but are read children, by are orbooks that the also ‘children’s’ read adults? by Working Working with children’s li entails. So, what exactly is children’s literature? It seems at first sight to be a simple enough definition: Literature Children’s 2.3.1 competing opportunities are lower are opportunities competing possible. as do, as much they is what payoff of engaging payoff inof engaging activities aesthetic such as and storytelling play should be even more earlier rewarding in the lifecycle (that is, in childhood), because the child’s ne that that ‘story is so central to the lives of young children that it comes close to defining their existence’ Storytelling Animal children in ways ‘that are already so logically complex even in children’s play that they require an explanation explanation an require they that play children’s in even complex logically so already are ‘that ways in children in patterns patterns problem. problem. In the case o us makes capable ofbetter making for choices future on predicting by theactions, primarily basis of relevant process information patterns in flexible ways, in low in ways, flexible in patterns information process of Stories in original) c their maximizing of problem new the solve minds ‘our thus and intelligence, our in found be to are the input argument in the storytelling section, Boyd’s argument is that ‘play solves the new problem that if to need organisms point point of view, [pretend play and adult involvement in fictional worlds] seem to be fundamentally the same activity’ and emotional intellig and emotional Animal parts and behaviours are also 85
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- 86 at at ‘the , but despite despite but , adults to ban ban to adults . Indeed, they they Indeed, . . In this period, 153) - (15)
them them a disservice if . I argue that these (152 (Hunt 58) struggle between pleasing between struggle pleasing brow’ and is still today mostly mostly today still is and brow’ - (Hunt (Hunt 12) . The current picture of the field,
. nineteenth century, it was something something was it century, nineteenth - to the metafictional’ metafictional’ the to nsider nsider this ‘work’ but a part of their particular intent intent being a second priority to entertainment, . The second half of the twentieth century, from
nineteenth century, literacy grew, and the industry industry the and grew, literacy century, nineteenth (Hunt 127, 134) - t t the books all share’ the children of the lower classes had to work to sustain the the to sustain had to work classes the lower of children the
– (Mickenberg and Vallone 7) Vallone and (Mickenberg . From the mid the From . (Hunt 104, 106) hen books began to be made with a child audience in mind (and to 47, 50) 47, - ‘children’s ‘children’s literature established as a major commercial area of publishing’,
(Hunt 46 (Hunt
. oth oth modern and ancient). You would probably not be surprised, or even indignant, if the d upper classes could ‘afford’ ‘afford’ could classes d upper aper. aper. But an overview gives us a good idea of the general attitude towards children and (Hunt 176) (Hunt erature’, erature’, and the scene was being set for what has been termed the ‘golden age’ of children’s . The period between the wars was a period of contrasts, but it was also in those years th anthologies of national literatures literatures national of anthologies let let them gain experience with negative emotions of any kind. Furthermore, childhood itself as a
61) - not It is usually obvious to most people when a book is a children’s book, and thus ‘it seems equally obvious obvious equally seems ‘it thus and book, children’s a is book a when people most to obvious usually is It In In the early nineteenth century, w The idea of childhood innocence is a modern phenomenon. Mickenberg and Vallone emphasise that that that there must be some textual characteristics tha childhood. been plenty of exceptions throughout the history of children’s literature, of course, not least some of the books books the of some least not course, of literature, children’s of history the throughout exceptions of plenty been chosen for this p innocence and ‘appropriate’ material, giving rise to e.g. movements by parents and other worried worried other and parents by movements e.g. to rise giving material, ‘appropriate’ and innocence There have reasons. various for school curriculums from or libraries at sections children’s from books certain writes Hunt in 1994, shows a ‘spectacular range, from the formulaic formulaic the from range, ‘spectacular a shows 1994, in Hunt writes with association its by haunted still is book children’s the success, commercial its by possible made range, this World World War II and onwards, saw and there was, once again, a strong trend towards fantasy tone of voice, the mode of telling, and the narrative contract between narrator and implied child reader … that that … reader child implied and narrator between contract narrative the and telling, of mode the voice, of tone we recognize today were fully established’ families families became smaller and more stable, and fantasy, mystery, and imagination entered children’s books (Hunt 59 literature, literature, generally regarded as being the period between 1860 and World War I children’s books became more complex, with any didactic of popular literature expanded. ‘Writers were responding to a distinctive lit redefined childhood, one that required a rather than as they were. The change thisfrom slow, and was there was an evident children pleasing and adults some some extent their they parents), were steeped and in conservatism often showed children as they ‘should’ be, family, family, and thus there was no particular ‘split’ between the development adult and the child, but more of a gradual concept is also a fairly new one. When it came into being, around the mid the around being, into came it When one. new fairly a also is concept an the middle only realities realities of their existence. Indeed, the argument of this paper implies that we are doing we do with with them, too. The difference, perhaps, is that we do not co unpleasant any from shielded not were and are societies these in children that is point crucial the But lifestyle. gatherer gatherer societies (b children worked with the adults to prepare food, or make tools, or improve the camp, or, when able, hunted were expected to work and add to the family income as soon as they were able (ibid.), something that might hunter in children imagining when cruel even or place of out so seem not may but now, us to outrageous seem ‘until relatively recently, most children were not shielded from sex, death, or other realities’ other or death, sex, from shielded not were children most recently, relatively ‘until ‘low and unimportant considered been simplicity, this of consequence a as has, by ignored
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 , o o survive (Cosmides (Cosmides they play they in . You could
Evolutionary Evolutionary Evolutionary Evolutionary ( 608) - n terms of ‘maturity’. (607 es of a book will imply imply will book a of es enhancement enhancement consists of - ain situations or encounters in order in order encounters or situations ain (Cosmides and Tooby, Tooby, and (Cosmides
Zisowitz notes, thinking Zisowitz innotes, thinking terms Darwinian of - are are an essential part of our human nature. What is (Cosmides and Tooby, “Evolutionary Psychology” 91) Psychology” “Evolutionary Tooby, and (Cosmides that is, in terms of experience of life and books they have have they and books life of of experience terms in is, that
– : emotions are telling you that it is important to pay attention attention pay to important is it that you telling are emotions : e mechanisms e that mechanisms are adapted to their particular life stage … Chapter 3 Chapter enhancing enhancing emotions, and that fitness -
. What this means, in practical terms, is that an emotion will entrain entrain will emotion an that is terms, practical in means, this What . readers readers emotions are, they believe, such superordinate programs programs superordinate such believe, they are, emotions
– ehaviour is needed, and what that response or behaviour should be. In In be. should behaviour or response that what and needed, is ehaviour t time time t . This poses an adaptive problem, according to Tooby and Cosmides, and adaptive As adaptive behaviour. Barr developing developing . Indeed, from the standpoint of evolutionary psychology, Cosmides and Tooby Tooby and Cosmides psychology, evolutionary of the standpoint from Indeed, . xxi)
ry. ry.
. So, when talking about the implied child reader in the analysis, I talk i . 17) 22) (Boyd, “Evolutionary Theories” 161) Theories” “Evolutionary (Boyd,
Emotions Revealed A A rich theory of emotions is provided by evolutionary psychology. As mentioned earlier in the paper, ached the theoretical plateau upon which mature readers can be said to operate in mutual understanding’ understanding’ mutual in operate to said be can readers mature which upon plateau theoretical the ached
and Tooby, “Evolutionary Psychology” 92) Psychology” “Evolutionary Tooby, and they they argue that there must be ‘superordinate programs’ that coordinate the different components, so they are righ the at deactivated or activated fundamental fundamental motives of the human (or rather, the animal) condition: hunger, sex, and the (Ekman, will t and there is widespread agreement that our emotions the powerful more considered what has been can is override they that about emotions, interesting particularly evolutionary psychology aims to ‘map’ human nature human ‘map’ to aims psychology evolutionary short, ‘an emotion is the mode of operation of the entire cognitive system’ system’ cognitive entire the of operation of mode the is emotion ‘an short, Psychology importance importance b or response a that and situation, this to of survival and reproduction? Well, by having adaptive mechanisms that can motivate us to behave or respond respond or behave to us motivate can that mechanisms adaptive having by Well, reproduction? and survival of in the favourable way. Emotions do that. As Boyd emphasises, emotion is evolution’s way of indicating think of it this way: we need to behave or respond in a certain way to cert way certain in a or to respond behave need we way: of this think it chances our enhances response or behaviour that that ensure we do how and favour, our in out fall to them for driving driving the towards organism an the function of emotions is that they enable and motivate us ‘to respond adaptively’ human human nature. Emotions are a part of human nature, in the sense that they selection. Evolution have has evolved selected through for natural fitness In In the evolutionary context of this paper, it is not enough to list the emotions and what may trigger them (in real life and in need We stories). tofunction to their evolved understand the also part understand 3.1 Emotions and Human Nature Human and 3.1 Emotions
understanding, understanding, and consequently, what degree of complexity the reader is sto with a given engaging expected to understand when Psychology It is thus not necessarily a question of age but rather of maturity, in terms of theoretical and emotional argue argue that one would expect ‘organisms to hav after all, the adaptive problems an infant faces are different from those an adult faces’ not re not original) in emphasis (Hunt 5, the reader’s knowledge or maturation level (ibid.). What he means to say is that, from a literary viewpoint, ‘we ‘we viewpoint, literary a from that, is say to means he What (ibid.). level maturation or knowledge reader’s the as children distinguish to need and language of and ideas of simplicity certain a as to refer would Hunt what up to add usually characteristics featur the or tone the that states also Hunt this, to relation In above. mentioned as form, 87
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– 88 (“Basic (“Basic (“Basic ganismic ganismic (Cosmides (Cosmides or - e universality universality e (Cosmides and and (Cosmides r input or learning argument of this paper. paper. this of argument (Ekman “Basic Emotions” Emotions” “Basic (Ekman that is, something can be inserted inserted be can something is, that
the emotion program will respond respond will program emotion the
– espond or behave adaptively to a specific specific a to adaptively behave or espond an automatic appraisal mechanism that attends to ssing, ssing, behaviour, and the body adaptively through otions evolved for their adaptive value in dealing with with dealing in value adaptive their for evolved otions is called open and closed genetic programs. In open
instance, instance, drove natural selection to build an emotion program . This becomes a bit technical, but in practical terms it means that that means it terms practical in but technical, bit a becomes This . , while closed ones are exactly that: closed fo . If a given situation then exhibits a structure, if you will, that is repeated repeated is that will, you if structure, a exhibits then situation given a If . experience . . Ekman’s presumption is that emotions evolved to deal with inter . The proposed language program . The is program language proposed an example of an open When program. saying them from each other. These characteristics, among others, are: distinctive universal universal distinctive others, are: among characteristics, eachThese other. from them . They describe the central mechanism that directs emotional behaviour as an ‘affect
’, fundamental life tasks being universal human predicaments predicaments human universal being tasks life fundamental ’,
. (366) . That is, they are not just versions of the same emotion that vary in intensity, such as sadness 56) - re a number of separate emotions, that differ one from another in important ways’ build an emotion program whose detailed design features are tailored for that situation’ situation’ that for tailored are features design detailed whose program emotion an build an and Cordaro argue, reflect both ‘what has been adaptive in our evolutionary past, and our own The automatic appraisal mechanism is worth a closer look in relation to the main main the to relation in look closer a worth is mechanism appraisal automatic The The psychologist Paul Ekman has done extensive studies on emotional expressions and th and expressions emotional on studies extensive done has Ekman Paul psychologist The Repeated Repeated encounters with a certain situation (say, predator attacks) in hominid evolutionary history (Ekman (Ekman and Cordaro 367) programs, input is ‘allowed’ during the life span of that particular organism organism particular that of span life the during ‘allowed’ is input programs, into the behavioural system by personal history’ program’, and they further distinguish between what be stored, in a sense, in these mechanisms instructions for the guidance of response and behaviour, instructions instructions behaviour, and response of guidance the for instructions mechanisms these in sense, a in stored, be that, Ekm In In order for the central mechanisms that guide our emotions to automatically appraise a situation, there must stimuli that will occasion one or other emotion; and universal incommonalities emotion antecedents 47 Emotions” signs signs that will inform conspecifics of what is physiological occurring; changes that prepare the organism for different responses relevant to different emotional states; encounters. He argues that certain characteristics not only show this function, but also define which emotions emotions which also define but show this function, only not characteristics certain that He argues encounters. and distinguish are basic 46, emphasis in original) encounters, and that their function primary is to and prepare tothe mobilise organism deal withquickly such and anguish. The second meaning of the term is that ‘em that is term the of meaning second The anguish. and tasks life fundamental ‘that there a Emotions” 45) of emotions, and he argues that there are some emotions that are ‘basic’. His list of basic emotions consists of of consists emotions basic of list His ‘basic’. are that emotions some are there that argues he and of emotions, indicates things, other among ‘basic’, term The sadness. and disgust, contempt, anger, fear, surprise, joy, seven: respond appropriately. respond claws, as they are cues that signal the presence of a predator. In other words, other In predator. a of presence the signal that cues are they as claws, to certain cues or triggers in the that environment signal a certain situation and will the motivate to organism recurrent recurrent encounters with large predators, for sharp long, or teeth canine large to respond and recognise to tailored is that instance) in this program fear (the selection to to selection 101) Psychology” “Evolutionary Tooby, and Tooby, “Evolutionary Psychology” 92) Psychology” “Evolutionary Tooby, over evolutionary time, then the statistical properties of this situation ‘will be used as the basis for natural the clusters of conditions, demands, and contingencies that characterized that particular class of situation’ emotions is, that programs, superordinate abovementioned the being adaptations selected those ‘selected ‘selected for adaptations that guided the information proce r to organism the for order in programs adaptive other orchestrate and emotion. particular that triggered has that situation
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
. 25)
emotions emotions
responses it it happens
– thrill thrill seekers latter latter responses a set of stimuli’ a set of stimuli’ ence. As Clasen Clasen As ence.
negative tral environments would would environments tral Why Why Horror Seduces . But practice through fiction, . Indeed, the thing to note about . the thing Indeed, to note about because, because, in the words of Clasen, 23)
– (Clasen, (Clasen, 24)
is is that ‘very few die individuals from sheer
– do list. And if we assume that the argument of - . It is important to note that emotional . to is that It important note emotional . In relation to learning from input, Cosmides and Cosmides input, from learning to relation . In dule, and which tell us that there is no real danger 111)
having having emotional that responses are linked to our own it makes good sense to practice our negative emotional emotional negative our practice to sense good makes it
Why Why Horror Seduces ( o Why Horror Seduces Why ( als energy, energy, and even to enjoyable. According Clasen, the negative tect tect organisms from harm, and thus have been more directly - the emotions themselves are not. That is what lies in the notion of day day and ones ancestral
- – risk, risk, low it may enhance our chances not only of survival, but also of reproduction. of also but survival, of only not chances our enhance may it -
– (Ekman and Cordaro 368) and Cordaro (Ekman
will argue, however, that these feelings of enjoyment of negative emotions are
(“Evolutionary Psychology” (“Evolutionary both both modern are learned
. . I – ur ur with images of a certain situation over time, may be that the mind is replaying the 158) . And when there is no real danger, ‘fear blends with fascination’ (ibid.). Ekman himself himself Ekman (ibid.). fascination’ with ‘fear blends no real danger, is there when . And dangers, dangers, is low am is an open one, allowing useful input continuously. This means that we have emotional emotional have we that means This continuously. input useful allowing one, open an is am
behaviours ather ather from diseases, accidents, and violence and predation gatherer gatherer societies Related to this is the earlier mentioned fact that humans are not limited by actual experi actual by limited not are humans that fact mentioned earlier the is this to Related -
Emotions Emotions Revealed examples examples of hybrids or of the slower, cognitive appraisal of a situation rather than pure emotions. Of course, contempt towards someone else, contempt towards someone and that forthey reason this perhaps not be should called ( mentions mentions that there are instances of enjoyment in relation to negative emotions, for example walking on a line between buildings or jumping out of airplanes, or perhaps the pride you may feel in your are are younger, evolutionarily speaking, than e.g. the fear mo 42) Monsters” (“Evil including imaginary including imaginary that functions higher by cognitive modulated are in fictional representations engaging when feel we emotions notes, ‘a paradoxical aspect of our big brains and our uniquely developed imaginations is that we face not only only not face we that is imaginations developed uniquely our and brains big our of aspect paradoxical ‘a notes, real and plausible dangers, but also imaginary ones’ responses, even from an early age age early an from even responses, Avoiding Avoiding these things was, and is, at the top of the human to correct, is behaviours and responses emotional learned hunter old age’, but r given that the ancestral environments teemed with danger, ‘a fearless hominin in ances in hominin fearless ‘a danger, with teemed environments ancestral the that given soon be a inenvironments’ ancestral dead hominin this this is that negative emotions evolved to pro important to our survival. That is the reason we are such fearful creatures Looking Looking at the list of Ekman’s basic emotions, it is clear that there are more negative of emotions than positive ones. what Even surprise can we be argued to would be somewhat of consider a mix. The reason for Emotions Negative 3.1.1 them to arebeing a them responses basic: and universal, they thusnature, of ‘prewired part human 369) and Cordaro (Ekman learns from the experience from learns the experience and emotional cases cases last longer, or rec continuously or recalibrates it as procedures’, inference and rules decision various through it ‘running situation, Ekman terms ‘learned responses’ responses’ ‘learned terms Ekman Tooby argue that emotions are a part of a recalibration of subsequent choices: the reason emotions in some personal environment, personal such environment, as being afraid if a gun or another weapon modern is pointed at you just as involuntarily and without thought as the ones linked to our evolutionary past. These responses linked to our evolutionary past, such as being afraid of snakes (even if you live in a country with no no with country a in live you if (even snakes of afraid being as such past, evolutionary our to linked responses snakes, or with snakes are that not while deadly), Ekman history, personal own our in adaptive been have that instructions of consists also program affect the that progr this that argues 89
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
- – r. r. 90 analysis, as as analysis,
feeling feeling is perhaps back back in ‘our’ world,
Harry Harry Potter and the eries, as are three of the ones ones the ofthree as are eries, , is as dangerous as any other: other: any as dangerous as is ,
uding uding the challenged emotions of ing ing for children, with suitable and not not to mention that
id succession of each other. But the pure – panserbjørne happy places. Many of us probably think of think Many of us probably places. happy
just lands as happy places where children go to find - from from 1865 and ending with
more more mature children’s books do not get happier. is Narnia
ovide a convenient base for an analysis. Thus, for the sake of the of the sake the forThus, analysis. for an base a convenient ovide children’s children’s classics, and thus represent, albeit a fraction of, what
essential to the argument that basic to are the argument they in essential ofthe having sense – msical msical and silly, certainly, but generally curiously interesting and is hole. hole. The closest we get to a somewhat happy d are still reading. I further aimed to include books from different time time different from books include to aimed further I reading. still are d - , with its dæmons and witches and witches and dæmons its with , Alice’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
, published in 1997. A number of children’s books are also s also are books children’s of number 1997. A in , published ent that the negative ent emotions basic the that felt are negative at inall, the sense they that are distinguishably Northern Lights Northern
in those cases, I have focused on the first book, due to space constraints, and because the first
e e genuine and frightening. Charlie’s chocolate factory is not as happy as it seems, either: the – or or are on the brink to become
– Classic Classic children’s books are, in a way, the ones that have received a ‘stamp of approval’ from parents in the series, in order to include a specific example related to sadness. sadness. to related example specific a to include in order series, in the
happy happy things. The issame true for Peter Pan’s Neverland: children die, pirates die, faeries die, and battles - world of Lyra in Lyra of world eats eats from the forbidden tree and will take over the land eventually the character’s mother main suffers a from terminal illness that thehaunts throughout theboy first The story. punishments punishments befitting their ‘crimes’. The slightly a wonderful and magnificent place, but an evil witch (who has killed her entire own world) has entered and and hunts ar children disappear, due to their bad behaviour, and while they come back in the end, it is in altered forms puzzlement. Otherwise she is either anxious, afraid, angry, irritated, indignant, disgusted, and many other not other many and disgusted, indignant, irritated, angry, afraid, anxious, either is she Otherwise puzzlement. so perfect perfect for joyful exploration. But if we look a experiences little while closer, down Alice in does the not, rabbit in fact, have many happy adventure. The truth is, however, that these worlds are rarely rarely are worlds these that truth is, The however, adventure. Wonderland as a wonderful place. Whi entertaining and instructive both, and most important of all, they are not seen as disturbing to the child reade child the to disturbing as seen notare they all, of important most and both, instructive and entertaining Adults think of Wonderland or Neverland or all the other and arecritics alike. They regarded andlargely as suitable read appropriate appropriate elements. They are also largely regarded as delightful reads that spark children’s imagination, book chosen here book illustrates my point as well as the rest of the series would have done. Only once do I draw on another periods, periods, starting with Stone Philosopher’s they they are an read have parents) their (and children 3.2 Analysis The children’s books used in my analysis were chosen based on the general and widespread agreement that contempt and sadness. and contempt following analysis of negative emotions in children’s literature, the five negative emotions identified by Ekman Ekman by identified emotions negative five the literature, children’s in emotions negative of analysis following as basic and distinguishably different will be considered as such here, incl different from other emotions (though it other (though emotions different from pr they but value), adaptive for their evolved determine which emotions are basic, however, or to review the literature in the field. Indeed, it is not essential essential not is it Indeed, field. the in literature the review to or however, basic, are emotions which determine to the argum main briefly account for the evolutionary function of the five negative emotions that will be used in the in be used will that emotions negative five the of function evolutionary the for account briefly well as the stimuli that trigger them and the behaviour elicited by them. The purpose of this paper is not to what we feel are often hybrids, because emotions can occur in rap will I Below, enjoyable. not is predator, a with face to face standing when perhaps example, for fear, of feeling
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
. . As Carroll enhancing. Sell Sell enhancing. - . But we do not argument argument of this (Sell (Sell et al. 15073) (15073) them, and them, so on, but (364) for for Reading Reading Human Nature t is placed on the welfare welfare the on placed is t ( fore they are the ones we tions, tions, but things that are done atural selection . Sociality, cooperation, and inclusive 18)
them, them, our anger is
.
for (15073) associate associate with magic and marvels, is fraught with . Indeed, Cosmides and Tooby argue that ‘in categorizing that argue categorizing ‘in Tooby and Cosmides . Indeed, that that will trigger certain emo
us
thus, thus, our fear is
– sequences sequences humans can have on each other: helping or hurting, e e generally condemn and punish selfish behaviour. Consequently, nflict. Sell et al. hypothesise that bargaining tactics employed by the by employed tactics bargaining that al. hypothesise et Sell nflict. Evolutionary Evolutionary Psychology ( (Sell et 15074) al. (Sell off ratio. It is a term that signifies how much weigh much how signifies that term a is It ratio. off -
is is integral to the whole Darwinian conception of natural relations’
. Protagonists are generally portrayed as being prosocial, and there kidnapped kidnapped and experimented on, people are killed on their way to rescue them, and Lyra’s own
motions for the sake of simplicity, and an example of each emotion has been chosen from each book book each from chosen been has emotion each of example an and simplicity, of sake the for motions ypical ypical neural In basis. short, it is part of ‘the basic of biology the human species’ during than most other species, and therefore ‘traditional models of animal conflict must … integrate conflict models of integrate animal … must than‘traditional therefore and during species, other most t . William Flesch talks of ‘volunteering affect’ for a character, in this regard - Before beginning the analysis, I will emphasise, once again, that fiction serves as vicarious experience. experience. vicarious as serves fiction that again, once will emphasise, I the analysis, beginning Before weight he or she puts on the welfare of that individual individual that of the welfare on puts she he or weight , but so is cooperation. The cooperative relationships of humans are more numerous, more intense, and
et al. argue that anger orchestrates behaviour in the angry individual that will motivate the target to increase the fitness entail WTR: welfare trade welfare WTR: entail fitness fitness course, of is, oneself towards WTR others’ Increasing self. the to compared other the of social interactions, there are two basic con bestowing benefits or inflicting costs’ more en more dimension’ cooperative a parallel notes, notes, ‘conflict 46) ‘anger program’ are used ‘to resolve conflicts of interest in favor of the angry individual’, and that the emotion emotion the that and individual’, angry the of favor in interest of conflicts resolve ‘to used are program’ ‘anger is produced by a neurocognitive program that has been engineered by n But why do we feel angry? What is the evolved purpose of anger? One theory is that it evolved as a tool to co of social in situations behaviour guide Anger Anger is one of the earliest appearing emotions. It appears spontaneously in infancy, is universal, and has a species Anger 3.2.1 negative e negative theory. the to illustrate sympathise with. It is perhaps important to note that altruistic behaviour not only means behaving generously, generously, behaving means only not behaviour altruistic that note to important perhaps is It with. sympathise but also punishing those who defect from altruism (ibid.). The analysis has been divided into the five basic in fiction we also ‘like characters who engage in effective altruistic behavior and we dislike their opposites’ (Flesch 361) ‘volunteer affect’ for just any character: because of the prosocial disposition of the human species, we approve approve we species, human the of disposition prosocial the of because character: any just for affect’ ‘volunteer of and reward altruistic behaviour while w in us will correspond with the one shown in the we character empathise with, but it is equally possible that it will not to, or happen for, the in characters the story evoked is that emotion the Sometimes life. real in it experienced we if as same the is it intensity and feeling in This means that it is not things that are done to To sum up, a children’s book is not necessarily always a happy place and embedded in the be. not should it indeed that notion the is paper wizarding wizarding world, a place modern children (and adults) Voldemort. villain, great its of threat the course of and secrets, sinister professors, bullying impostors, dangers, children are parents cause terrible things to happen to her and others for a ‘greater good’. And finally, Harry Potter’s 91
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
. r e 92 we we
Harry Harry ed ed to him, , in a scen his possession, his possession, (Sell et(Sell al. 15074) . Harry is portrayed as a ‘are all variations on the
ways: ways: it can either deploy – 31) - , and thus Harry fails to negotiate him be most beneficial. If an If anger be beneficial. most actor’s . In . other In look the will words, individual (Rowling (Rowling 30 quently quently a behaviour that will, hopefully, ”‘
comes suspicious and tells his father. Vernon, Vernon, father. his tells and suspicious comes Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland mine cter. cter. Harry uses his anger and the argument of his enhancing enhancing for - (Sell et al. 15074) . It could be put this way: what you are intent on doing, your 110)
, making short remarks, and contradicting her, while also posing new, posing also while her, contradicting and remarks, short making , wishes wishes for the chara
where where Harry receives his very first letter from Hogwarts. Because he has her her WTR towards the same, it is expected that ‘the target’s motivational
enhancing enhancing for yourself. with this Interference shows goal that the other has - their he protagonist, and the one the reader feels for. The interference here is very clear; clear; very is here interference The for. feels reader the one the and protagonist, he
ions ions Revealed with with can evoke anger in the reader. A good example of this is the scene in in in short, all the things that provoke may your own anger
– Emot ( A A different version of the interference theme is seen in When engaging in story, certain actions by characters or certain events interfering with the goals of the the of goals with the interfering events or certain characters by certain actions in story, When engaging What this means, is that when the anger program detects that another individual is not placing sufficient sufficient placing not is individual another that detects program anger the when that is means, this What puzzling puzzling questions, and we feel Alice’s anger starting to rise as the narrator tells us ‘she had never been so questions, questions, while also trying to explain her predicament and confusion as answers her disregarding to keeps however, who she is. The Caterpillar, where Alice talks to a caterpillar on a mushroom. She is attempting to be polite and answer the Caterpillar’s but it clashes with Vernon’s own idea of what is fitness favour. in his the situation ownership of the letter as negotiating tactics, but Vernon is clearly stronger and has motives of his own. Harry Harry own. his of motives has and stronger clearly is Vernon but tactics, negotiating as letter the of ownership back him give so that he will Harry, towards WTR his to increase Vernon want reader and the Harry wants to read his letter, Vernon refuses to let him. The reader, who is rooting for Harry, becomes angry, angry, becomes Harry, for rooting is who reader, The him. let to refuses Vernon letter, his read to wants Harry too, as Vernon interferes with prosocial prosocial character throughout the story, while the Dursleys are portrayed as very selfish characters. t This Harry makes automatically though though not realising exactly what Vernon has taken from him beyond that it is a becomes angry, and letter shouts that he wants the address letter, ‘“as it’s never received a letter before, his cousin, Dudley, immediately be immediately Dudley, cousin, his before, letter a received never Harry, back. it give to refuses and him from letter the snatches identity, Harry’s of secret the keeping on intent characters characters we empathise Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone natural selection to favour the evolution of the emotion of anger. the emotion of evolution the favour to selection natural increase increase that person’s WTR towards you. Hopefully that will lead to less or no interference, in order for you to continue pursuing what enhances your own fitness. In view of this theory, it would make good sense fo goal, goal, so to speak, is likely fitness a low WTR toward you, which will trigger your anger and conse another another person’s anger interference theme’ actor instead. Ekman states that one of the most frequent causes of anger is ‘someone interfering with what with interfering ‘someone is anger of causes frequent most the of one that states Ekman instead. actor rejection, a harm, of threat a people, as well as objects with frustration that argues he and doing’, on intent are to enhance to its and enhance fitness, to own in appears will a that behave manner leads to the individual being hurt, for example, it might be more beneficial to increase the WTR towards the than it would be to increase his or should WTR its system toward increase the actor’ In In other words, the point is to communicate to the target that they will be worse off if they continue of anger the the actor’s to itconsequences costly for more When the behaviour. experience individual be will their the negotiating tactic of inflicting costs (aggression) or it can withdraw or thedownregulate target’s benefits (i.e. the that benefits the target receives being by in a valuable with the actor)relationship weight on the welfare of the actor, it triggers anger. The program can react in two
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 . to to
46) - to bring her a
er father. She has The Chronicles of of Chronicles The ation, ation, so our affect for r) in r) (Lewis (Lewis Carroll 42 , reflects an unconscious intentions intentions of staying safe in
. The uncle’s WTR towards the the towards WTR uncle’s The . wing Tink’s that wing WTR towards when Lyra finally reaches Lord Lord reaches finally Lyra when
own Nephew
her her temper’ ” 23) ”
Nephew
existent), existent), sho Magician’s and somewhat on Peter’s side, as well, though though well, as side, Peter’s on somewhat and -
– as does Peter’s. He reacts by telling her: ‘“I am Northern Lights Northern
though though it is notclear whether isentirely this just
– sponse sponse to this, in this case a negotiation tactic to The . Peter is angry, because Tinker Bell has interfered interfered has Bell Tinker because angry, is Peter . to end her life (which, it can be argued, is a strong a strong is argued, canit be life (which, herto end – , the first book (in reading orde reading (in book first the , rt is an interference with the bond of a friendship, and and a friendship, the of bond with rt an interference is ther ther person are also variations of interference and can and Magician’s , when Wendy and her brothers have flown to Neverland Neverland to flown have brothers her and Wendy when , nd nd she comes up with a plan to get rid of her. As readers, The The (Barrie 99) (Barrie Nephew
im im and the Lost Boys. We, the readers, are angry, because the Peter Pan Peter . This first . This first pa (Lewis, “ (Lewis, 22) - Magician’s etting etting his help all after ” ” 21 The existent. Our anger here, like in Nephew -
, we are at first horrified. But when it becomes clear that Wendy survived, and Tink o punch your head!”‘ head!”‘ your punch o ear right in front of their eyes. He proceeds to explain to Digory how the ring has sent her to to has her sent ring the how Digory to explain to proceeds He their eyes. of front in right ear Magician’s (Barrie (Barrie 92) ause ause she is not dead, our turns horror to anger come upon a similar situation in situation similar a upon come The The , is a more serious interference. The boy Digory and his friend Polly have been shut in the study of his been of his study in have the shut Polly and his friend Digory The boy serious interference. a more , is As As Ekman says, rejection or frustration with ano We The third example, from from example, third The
Asriel, Asriel, a man who she has always known as her uncle but has recently learned is actually h trigger anger. We see a form of rejection that sparks anger in anger sparks that of rejection form a see We anger. trigger Wendy Wendy is practically non future. the in behaviour her change to and remorse to feel Tink for wish intention was to interfere with her reaching Neverland Neverland reaching her with to interfere was intention form of in interference itself, as her ‘fitness’ then would be non your friend no more. Begone from me for ever”‘ ever”‘ for me from Begone more. no friend your with his plan to keep Wendy as a mother for h the Wendy”‘ is crying bec those those sides sometimes clash. Peter is both prosocial and selfish, dependent on the situ to shoot you ‘“Peter and wants says calls to Boys the Tink Lost when So too. situation, every varies with him extremely extremely jealous of Peter’s fascination with her, a protagonist prosocial a is who side, Wendy’s on wholly are we with Peter Pan, but have been separated in the air. Tinker Bell is supposed to be guiding Wendy, but she is increase increase the WTR in order for the uncle to at least feel remorse, him. if ‘beneath’ those of considerate to be more behaviour future his change to and it happened, is not possible to reverse what has two two children is obviously very low: he ‘sacrifices’ them to serve his own needs, and his hopes that they will return are not for their sake but his own. Our anger is a re his own world. Digory’s reaction likely mirrors that of the reader: ‘“By gum,” said Digory, “don’t justsaid of that likely I mirrors the ‘“By gum,” Digory, reaction reader: his wish Digory’s own world. t enough big was I cause. cause. Uncle Andrew then explains that Polly can come back, if Digory goes where she went magical ring to return by, and thus the second interference is with Digory’s (Lewis, (Lewis, “ the reader is as angry as Digory that the uncle has done this to his friend and to himself to further his own makes her disapp makes another world, and Digory first gets angry that he has sent her somewhere she cannot get back from herself Narnia Uncle Andrew, by and with the uncle himself. Uncle Andrew tricks Polly into touching a magical ring that because the Caterpillar felt like it, or because Alice manages to increase the WTR towards her. her. towards WTR the increase to manages Alice because or it, like felt the Caterpillar because which which might result in his help. But she keeps her anger somewhat in check and rather argues with a slight irritation instead, and she ends up g It isIt is towards notclear Alice WTR high; the that Caterpillar’s shevery what says seems to no have value him at all. Alice’s, and the reader’s, anger is likely a response to a wish to increase his WTR towards her, much contradicted in all her life before, and she felt that she was losing Indeed, the reader likely feels their own anger stirring, as Alice’s intentions to explain herself are prevented. 93
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94 . As 2) - ‘bloody ‘bloody a basic emotion emotion basic a , where valuable valuable where , . Feeling for and is (13) 366)
the person rejecting her her rejecting person the that!” … “Leave the kid kid the “Leave … that!”
wouldn’t wouldn’t treat me like that”
(Gervais (Gervais and Fessler 1 does not seem to be any conclusive conclusive any be to seem not does enough of enough
father at interference with achieving a goal;
Northern Northern Lights quite . . My attempt father (Pullman, (Pullman, y . They expect that, in a social species like the human, human, the like species social a in that, expect They . towards towards her. His responses indicate that he does not
ave ave entered in a relationship with can confer benefits on mpt can vary greatly, in that it can be an enduring feeling feeling enduring an be can it that in greatly, vary can mpt (11) . . Here, it is not Charlie himself that embodies the likely we we experience an
ut ut it, eh? And I’ll give you a new bicycle as well. Okay?”‘ says one a distinguishable basic emotion (yet)
– . Asriel continues his cold indifference, saying that if she is going to be , and Lyra bursts out, close to tears: ‘“I brought you the bloody alethiometer, or is not 366)
366) –
rather, it is the shopkeeper. The strangers’ WTR towards Charlie is very low, and they they and low, very is Charlie towards WTR strangers’ The shopkeeper. the is it rather,
– ewed as an absence of respect respect of absence as an ewed
answers: answers: ‘“I don’t think I want to be interrogated and condemned by an insolent child”‘
ittle contempt literature, and most of this assumes contempt as a basic emotion and focuses focuses and emotion basic a as contempt assumes this of most and literature, contempt ittle
(Dahl (Dahl 65, emphasis in original) a wish that is perhaps even higher than it would normally be, because be, because normally would it than higher even is perhaps that a wish
. A woman offers him two hundred pounds. Charlie seems much too overwhelmed to respond –
Northern Northern Lights Northern Lights nsider nsider their own welfare to be of a higher The priority. reader’s consequent anger at this treatment, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory From From an evolutionary perspective, Gervais and Fessler argue that ‘respect’ largely defines ‘contempt’, In In
(Dahl 65) just opened a chocolate bar containing a golden ticket. Soon crowds gather around to see, and before very very before and to see, around gather crowds Soon ticket. a golden containing bar chocolate a opened just o the main argument. Therefore, for the sake of the analysis, we assume here that contempt contempt that here assume we analysis, the of sake the for Therefore, argument. main the o is understood in the sense that the conspecific you h as contempt can be vi be can as contempt relationships’ valuable of maintenance and establishment the facilitate to evolved ‘respect and treat it as such. as it and treat mentioned, however, the purpose of this paper is not to determine which emotions are basic, nor is it essential essential it is nor basic, are emotions which determine to not is paper this of purpose the however, mentioned, t curl that Ekman identified in his studies of facial expressions. In short, there there short, In expressions. facial of studies his in identified Ekman that curl evidence that contempt is a blend of disgust and anger. The properties of conte of properties The anger. and disgust of blend a lip unilateral besides the expressions and behavioural of a range facial with itor associated a brief is one, and There is relatively l relatively is There is it that argued and it emotions other grouped with studies have Some details. methodological e.g. instead on Contempt 3.2.2 which is born from our knowing and rooting for Charlie, reflects a wish to increase the strangers’ WTR towards towards WTR strangers’ the increase to wish a reflects Charlie, for rooting and knowing our from born is which him. emotions of the reader reader the of emotions clearly co to any of this, but the shopkeeper then interferes and shouts: ‘“That’s ‘“That’s shouts: and interferes then shopkeeper the but this, of any to alone, will you!”‘ you. you. I’ll give you fifty pounds. How abo man has long, some individuals start to offer Charlie things and money in exchange for the ticket: ‘“I’ll buy it from Charlie’s goal of getting a golden ticket and visiting Mr. Wonka’s Chocolate Factory. Charlie is in a shop and and shop a in is Charlie Factory. Chocolate Wonka’s Mr. visiting and ticket golden a getting of goal Charlie’s consideration consideration is father. her with Lyra, we are equally angry at Asriel’s behaviour this increase to wish a reflects anger reader’s, the and Lyra’s, and priority, high a of be to welfare her consider sentimental, sentimental, he will not waste his time talking to her, and Lyra finally states that he can alethiometer’ and take she will go his back with the armoured bear didn’t didn’t I?”‘ and continues her angry outburst: “You en’t m (Pullman, known. known. Lord Asriel (Pullman, him, ‘scolds’ Lyra Roger. friend, her and him rescue to wish her of because journey dangerous a through gone and says that he should have told her, that it was cruel, and asks what it difference would have made had she
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 - by - Harry is is Harry relational relational - attitude state state attitude
and Fessler also , which serves to to serves which , rvais rvais and Fessler is is an . This feeling leads This leads . feeling (Ge 181)
Gervais Gervais
– contempt contempt (Barrie 202) (Barrie , when Wendy, her brothers, and and brothers, her Wendy, when , blooded’ blooded’ treatment of the target, - confer confer benefits on you, you may feel
ter Pan ter . , which means that these emotions may , when Harry meets Draco Malfoy for the for the Draco Malfoy meets Harry , when Pe gentlemen’”‘ gentlemen’”‘
13) Emotions Emotions Revealed (12) - cannot cannot called culture contamination, or e.g. stigma e.g. or contamination, culture called (11 - t are not the self can also lose them respect. An dividual. dividual. A possible cost could be ‘contamination’ (Ekman, (Ekman, of caring of caring
son son absence absence relational relational standards include some form of exchange of benefits . All of these signs indicate to Wendy that the pirates are beneath beneath are pirates the that Wendy to indicate signs these of All . - it can be the value of verbal support, the value of inspiring others, others, inspiring of value the support, verbal of value the be can it
–
. When a conspecific . Social (11) er contemptuous of them, too. The pirates are no ‘gentlemen’, and thus they they thus and ‘gentlemen’, no are pirates Thetoo. them, of contemptuous er (Barrie 202) (Barrie Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone Philosopher’s and the Potter Harry on on on disgust). Thus, the stimuli that trigger the emotion of contempt are related to rly pleasant character. He exhibits highly selfish behaviour and thus not the prosocial prosocial the not thus and behaviour selfish highly exhibits He character. pleasant rly connected, and so on, that an individual automatically shares with its surroundings. It connected, shares its It and so with surroundings. that on, automatically an individual - n toorder the make valuable relationship for both. Thus, be may contempt felt towards instead of the other way around. way other of the instead
them ranking ranking conspecifics that cannot deliver benefits upwards and therefore do not earn respect, but - (11, (11, emphasis in original) The The behaviour of an individual towards others tha So, as mentioned, respect is typically lost (or never gained) when a person fails to provide another with with another provide to fails a person when gained) never (or lost typically is respect mentioned, So, as ces that Hook’s ruff is soiled soiled is ruff Hook’s that ces . Furthermore, and Gervais contempt . that is Fessler emphasise notFurthermore, be hatred. Hatred might considered the
he he keeps talking to him and his small remarks here and there about bullying his father into buying him a
characteristics we look for and approve of in a ‘good’ character. When Hagrid shows up, Draco goes on to call call to on goes Draco up, shows Hagrid When character. ‘good’ a in of approve and for look we characteristics broomstick, and that it would be a crime if he was not picked to play for his house Quidditch team, let us know know us let team, Quidditch house his for play to picked not was he if crime a be would it that and broomstick, particula a not is this that first time and not They infirst measured, Draco does their robes who time are yet getting know Diagon Alley. – example of this is seen in seen of is this example further further emphasise the distance and the between difference boys and the pirates, and show how the pirates are beneath really lose Wendy’s and the reader’s respect. Wendy says to the boys: ‘“I feel that I have a message to you from your your from you to message a have I that feel ‘“I boys: the to says Wendy respect. reader’s the and Wendy’s lose English like die will sons our hope ‘We this: is it and mothers, real her, even if she and the boys are all in danger of being killed by them. The emphasis on these details in the readthe makes story the of telling Wendy Wendy sees nothing but the untidiness of the ship and the grimy glass in its portholes, and she in particular noti can also be the value of looking and being respectable, as we see in see we as respectable, being and looking of value the be also can the Lost Boys have been captured by the wicked Captain Hook. The boys admire the pirate ‘calling’, but need to be viewed as a very broad concept broad very a as viewed be to need the of value well being any any benefits or when a person imposes costs on another, and contempt takes its place. Benefits in this sense 11) an rather is contempt while of caring, opposite to indifference, intolerance, and exploitation and most often results in ‘cold because ‘their welfare is not valuable, [so] empathy and compassion are not engaged’ people and their actions, and there is an element of condescension in it: you feel superior to the target, usually usually target, the to superior feel you it: in condescension of element an is there and actions, their and people of per that a attribute or regarding morally particular overlap overlap in some instances, perhaps especially when ‘moral’ disgust is involved (a distinction that will elaborated on in be the secti association, association, that would lead to the exclusion of the self from social relationships mention disgust as an avoidance tendency in relation to this also also on those that impose actual or costs potential on an in so contempt, target the earned that behaviour and practices of between individuals, i between individuals, those lower that that represent others’ low intrinsic value to self, due standards’ to their inefficacy in adhering to social you, whatever form they may take contempt towards the other. Gervais and Fessler’s hypothesis is that ‘the core of 95
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
96 The The Alice a and
Lewis, Lewis, “ ( n his robes are . There is a fine and and Harry’s. The
– . Their actions and Digory Digory in particular, for ” 19)
– his relationship with Jadis
(Rowling (Rowling 61) ad ad respect for Coulter but has Nephew . As mentioned, contempt has an
says, says, ‘“Men like me, who possess he he not just one emotion in its pure form is
Nephew
behaviour, behaviour, and thus any beginning respect Magician’s The The se se Hagrid has been established as a prosocial and this justification to exploit those around them. Jadis them. around those exploit to justification this
Magician’s . Becau The and, and, in short, everyone else that Jadis and Uncle Andrew
(Lewis, (Lewis, “ – . This shows clearly how Lyra once h a children’s book, is intended for a more mature reader than, say, say, than, reader mature more a for intended is book, children’s a
ly ly superior to them. The same is true for Polly (and Digory, to some (Rowling (Rowling 60) ng ng with hidden anger at Coulter’s lies and disgust at her behaviour, the blooded’ treatment Gervais and Fessler mentions, as she attempts to leave leave to attempts she as mentions, Fessler and Gervais treatment blooded’ - 284) mmon mmon rules”‘
disgust disgust can asyou, ‘revolt’ we will see in isa contempt later clearly example, more . Uncle Andrew has experimented on guinea pigs, and has sent Polly and Digory to , while still being still while , sion sion in it, a feeling of being superior to another individual in some way. Now, two between place. place. between ” 42) - Northern Northern Lights Nephew
(Pullman, (Pullman, Northern Lights Northern A A somewhat similar situation takes place in oing oing to rescue Polly at the risk of his own life and hatred for the woman has grown right alongside Lyra’s. The value the reader and Lyra initially took from from took initially and Lyra reader the value The Lyra’s. alongside right has grown woman the for and hatred clever’ clever’ contempt whose reader, the for true is same The person. true her uncovered has she as contempt with it replaced lying lying about all she knows and reacti narrator tells us that ‘Lyra wondered how she had ever, ever, ever found tothis woman be so and fascinating Pantalaimon Pantalaimon from being ‘cut’ from each other. Lyra knows the truth about Coulter’s identity and her role in kidnapping children but must pretend to be ignorant. After having listened to Coulter explaining away and felt, rather, the emotions are often hybrids, perhaps with one being a bit stronger than the other(s). An example example An other(s). the than stronger bit a being one with perhaps hybrids, often are emotions the rather, felt, is a mix of contempt with both anger and disgust, in the scene where Mrs. Coulter has just saved Lyr is. Consequently, there is a higher complexity to its tone and form of telling, and thus also to its ideas and the the and thus and to also ideas its of telling, and form totone its a complexity higher is there is. Consequently, emotions it evokes. This complexity often leads to situations where Jadis to die in the in the in die to Jadis Andrew Andrew instead, making us feel moral ‘cold of sort the in resulting extent), g Uncle and Jadis at directed and around turned is contempt the reader the in that means which inferior, consider very valuable). But the reader does not feel for these particular characters, because of their outrageously selfish selfish outrageously their of because characters, particular these for feel not does reader the But valuable). very The behaviour. feels reader for Digory and Polly, who exhibit prosocial behaviour obvious obvious disregard for others’ lives are excellent examples of contempt and its behaviour: they do not in any way consider with relationships others valuable Uncle (except Andrew, who finds the Other World instead of him, to test whether it was safe, because, as hidden wisdom, are freed from co wrong wrong for you or for any of the common people is not wrong in a Magician’s great Queen such as I”‘ in their view, everyone else is beneath them, and they use they and them, beneath is else everyone view, their in has killed an entire world inand everyone it, to her further as sheown because, cause, ‘“what says: be would element element of condescen characters: other all to way every in superior feel Andrew, Uncle and Jadis Empress the story, this in characters (perhaps due to Draco’s knowledge of the wizarding world) is quickly quenched during their talk. their during quenched quickly is world) the wizarding of knowledge to Draco’s due (perhaps defined defined as a lack of respect, which I argue is what we see happening in this scene. Harry sees no value in establishing a relationship with Draco, because of his selfish line line here between contempt and moral disgust, as contempt can also make you feel morally superior to the other, but moral whereas narrator narrator tells us that ‘[Harry] was liking him less and less every second’ (ibid.), and that whe done being measured, he is ‘not sorry for an excuse to stop talking to the boy’ him a ‘sort of servant’ and a ‘savage’ therefore likable character, as well as a friend to Harry, Draco is now losing our respect
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 a is is that that , but take the nonsense nonsense the take
Zisowitz Zisowitz 607) - (Barr and is in turn grabbed by
– . The squirrels then proceed to . Her behaviour in the first place place first the in behaviour Her . t of a reasonable questioning, or like like the harming of Lyra’s friend,
. One example is One . inexample the Room, Nut ential ential costs. Consequently, we feel – (Dahl (Dahl 142) (Dahl 143) (Dahl , , there is nonsense and confusion all around. Of Zisowitz argues that sadness and anger have many many have anger and sadness that argues Zisowitz -
fact, Barr fact,
, morality plays a large part. And while this is connected to moral moral to connected is this while And part. large a plays morality ,
e in the trial one way up as the other”‘ (Lewis Carroll 110). This sounded quite hollow”‘ hollow”‘ quite sounded s for you?” … “You’re nothing but a pack of cards!”‘, before she
studied as some of the other emotions. There is vast literature on depression depression on literature vast is There emotions. other the of some as studied - le attachment for her. for attachment le as much us
Alice’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland quite there is no in value a relationship with her, possible because herindicates selfishness
–
n though these emotions are related to sadness, they are not sadness. Furthermore, as with us that she considers the whole trial ridiculous, and she has no respect for the ceremony at all: after a after all: at ceremony the for respect no has she and ridiculous, trial whole the considers she that us Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Chocolate the and Charlie squirrels, squirrels, who start ‘tapping’ her to test if she is a ‘bad nut’ In In the trial scene in In In
relationship has disappeared: we see no benefits in being lied to or considered ignorant, nor in the fact that that fact the in nor ignorant, considered or to lied being in benefits no see we disappeared: has relationship atures’. atures’. The reader feels more and more contemptuous and superior to their follies as the silliness of the
likenesses, likenesses, and proposes that the concept of ‘distress’ can be used to apply to both contempt, there is no clear biological evidence yet that sadness is indeed a basic emotion in the sense that it is is it that sense the in emotion a basic indeed is sadness that yet evidence biological clear no is there contempt, In emotions. other from different distinguishably Sadness, like disgust, is not as well as not is disgust, like Sadness, and grief, but eve Sadness 3.2.3 proclaiming proclaiming contemptuously: ‘“Who care 115). Carroll (Lewis her dream from wakes ‘cre entire situation escalates, a feeling we share with Alice. And, of course, the whole spectacle ends with Alice any any other fact, benefit. costs In they asimpose possible on everyone, persondiscernable any be can suddenly condemned based on absolutely nothing. We feel absolutely no value in entering in a relationship with these exclamation exclamation themirrors reader’s feelings. The cards and creatures that make up the people at the trial do not provide Alice or anyone else with the benefit of fair hearings, nor the benefi jurymember jurymember has been placed head down on his seat and she is asked to put him right, she says to herself: ‘“I should think it would be but absolutely but ridiculous, absolutely because especially the tarts are right there in the room with them. Alice’s reactions to reveal recognising nonsense by this point. What at last gets to us and to Alice is the fact that they all they that fact the is Alice to and us to gets last at What point. this by nonsense recognising unfair only not seems This tarts. Queen’s the stealing for Knave the sentence to evidence as it use and seriously course, course, this is true for the entire book, but Alice (and the reader) seems to have gained some confidence in bad nut, and that her head is apparently ‘hollow’, only confirms and approves this emotion and the feeling feeling the and emotion this approves and confirms only ‘hollow’, apparently is head her that and nut, bad to us. be valuable not would relationship the that that she will not confer any benefits but will likely impose plenty of pot indifferent to her fate and are not guilty about hersending down the Thatchute. the squirrels find her to be a bad nut after all,” … “Her head must have must head “Her … all,” after nut bad our triggers contempt all all the drag her towards the rubbish chute in the middle of the floor, and Wonka exclaims: ‘“My goodness, she where Veruca Salt throws a tantrum because she wants one of Wonka’s trained squirrels. When Wonka says they are not for sale, Veruca opens the door and goes in to grab a squirrel herself disgust, as we shall see later, it also has an element of contempt. The four other children who visit the factory, factory, the visit who children other four The contempt. of element an has also it later, see shall we as disgust, as is a contemptuous that portrayed embody all besides behaviour Charlie, Roger, and thus a loss of a valuab a of loss a and thus Roger, that Coulter prioritises ‘the greater good’, which could lead to imposed costs 97
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
is is in in
98 – The The – thus, it it thus,
and and that (Ekman, (Ekman, –
that that is, the
– Zisowitz, Zisowitz, for
(Lewis, (Lewis, “ - (618) em. em. Barr Zisowitz 609) Zisowitz
note note about sadness, and - Zisowitz Zisowitz 608) .
- especially especially to our kin
– 84)
ack of his mind. Towards the the Towards mind. his of ack (Barr (Barr he he acceptance of this outcome tention to the pursuit of goals goals of pursuit the to tention
important important to
is or herself’ - esteem after failure, loss of admiration or praise praise or admiration of loss failure, after esteem Emotions Revealed Emotions - ( emotion, because the focus is on the self and what what and self the on is focus the because emotion, -
while while sadness would be a kind of resigned acceptance
st kinds of losses: the potential loss of a parent. Digory’s Digory’s parent. a of loss potential the losses: of kinds st focus in sadness provides the individual ‘with feedback on on feedback ‘with individual the provides sadness in focus - , and that the decreased outward attention serves to save energy, energy, save to serves attention outward decreased the that and , the self the . . Ekman further suggests that there are two distinct sides to a sad related emotion in the same sense that anger is. The types of loss that that loss of types The is. anger that sense same the in emotion related -
. he thatknew the Lion what and knew would happened, that have there
, it is one of the wor the of one is it , ” 100) emotion rather than an ‘it’ an than rather emotion 609) Zisowitz - - Zisowitz Zisowitz 608) (Barr - Nephew Nephew
. It also fits with Ekman’s proposed distinction between agony and sadness: agony (Barr 83)
oss of health, loss of body part or function, and, for some, loss of a treasured object object treasured a of loss some, for and, function, orpart body of loss health, of oss that is, agony is active and sadness is passive is passive and sadness is active agony is, that
– Magician’s Digory Digory could say nothing, for tears choked him and he gave up all hopes of his saving mother’s life; but at the same time might be things more terrible even than losing Magician’s someone you love by death racterised as a ‘me’ a as racterised adness adness and agony. Agony involves a sort of protest, where sadness is closer to resignation and The
In In Research Research seems to indicate that ‘sadness impairs attention to tasks’ would not have brought any of them joy. In response, response, joy. In of them any brought have not would
what may trigger this kind of intense sadness, in the reader as well as the character. As mentioned, we feel for for feel we mentioned, As character. the as well as reader the in sadness, intense of kind this trigger may what It It is a rather emotional but still passive response. The hopelessness characterises the and feeling as sadness t rather than agony. Our drive for attachment tells him that if he had stolen one of the fruits to cure his mother’s illness, as he had briefly considered doing, doing, considered briefly as heillness, had mother’s his cure to fruits one of the that had stolen if he tells him it knows it, too, and throughout the story his worry for his mother is always at the b the at always is mother his for worry his story the throughout and too, it, knows end of the story, Digory has brought an apple, the forbidden fruit, back to Aslan from the garden, and Aslan mother mother is very ill. Though we are never told exactly what it is, we get the feeling that it is terminal. Digory example, example, mentions that sadness is also related to frustration of the drive for attachment or sadness. agony causes the attachment losing and goal, the is attachment of the loss. However, it may not entirely explain the sadness we feel at the loss of a loved one, unless we count count we unless one, loved a of loss the at feel we sadness the explain entirely not may it However, loss. the of the valuable relationship in question as a goal. And doing so is not as odd as it may se Emotions Emotions Revealed would be a felt protest of the goal lost or not attained, trigger sadness support this view, such as rejection, loss of self of loss rejection, as such view, this support sadness trigger l superior, a from the the function of sadness concur that ‘characteristically, sadness is seen as a goal response a is it sense, this to In (ibid.). attained’ a goal lost or not so the self can focus on solving the problem at hand and to motivate more at more motivate to and hand at problem the solving on focus can self the so other words, to enhance its chances of survival and reproduction. Indeed, all psychological studies related to might explain this behaviour proposes that that proposes behaviour this explain might going’ are things well how has been cha been has the self has not rather achieved, than on an cause external or frustration (ibid.). that compelling A hypothesis attention is focused inward rather than outward (though the opposite is also known to occur), and there seems seems there and to occur), known also is opposite the (though outward than rather inward focused is attention the on him person focuses ‘sadness that agreement to be widespread hopelessness hopelessness already already taken place emotion: s again, this issue is not relevant for the purposes of this paper. What what distinguishes it from most, if not all, of the other emotions, is that it is a response to an event that has
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 . She She . (Lewis (Lewis through through the
(Lewis Carroll 13) Carroll (Lewis hen discovers that she has has she that discovers hen much much too tall for the door
– related experience of sadness. - ions ions related to the loss of them iscovers iscovers them in their bed, and arry is surrounded by his family family his by is surrounded arry to a family is an example of prosocial prosocial of example an is family a to and parent
- . Peter is, as a mentioned, character we feel generally mpler reason (though for a child, this may be for (though sad mpler a child, reason very may this through through the door and go into the garden beyond. She is
is also related to the above. The Darling children have finally , too, gives us a kin might evoke somewhat simpler emotions than some of the more more the of some than emotions simpler somewhat evoke might
er is such a strong motive in us, this drive for attachment, especially especially attachment, for drive this us, in motive strong a such is
(Barrie (Barrie 235) . They are there, and he can see them for the first time, but he will Alice o ever gain it. This sadness and longing keeps coming back to Harry at at Harry to back coming keeps longing and sadness This it. gain ever o Peter Peter Pan Harry Harry Pott (Rowling (Rowling 153)
is also for what might seem is a seem for also what might si
ioned elsewhere how how elsewhere ioned Alice fourths into the story, Harry has discovered the Mirror of Erised, which shows the deepest desires desires deepest the shows which Erised, of Mirror the discovered has Harry story, the into fourths - . Alice’s very simple goal is to get which which he must be forever barred’
scovers scovers a small cake and eats it, now finding herself growing much taller I have ment have I An An experience of sadness in r be able to have a relationship with them. As with Digory, Harry is our prosocial protagonist, and the ory ory because of his particularly prosocial behaviour, and thus we sympathise with him and his struggles.
door and see the garden behind it, and thus feels atAlice’s sadness being continually stuck and unable to see situation. her out of a way continuously continuously barred from obtaining this goal, which prompts her rather teary sadness. The implied reader sympathises with the prosocial Alice and wants her equally as much to obtain this goal of going once again, and ‘to get through was more hopeless than ever: she sat down and began to cry again’ Carroll 16) response to her futile attempts to get up there, ‘the poor little thing sat down and cried’ cried’ and down sat thing little poor ‘the there, up get to attempts futile her to response then di hole after the rabbit. Here, she first drinks from a bottle that makes her shrink, and t and shrink, her makes that a bottle from drinks first she Here, rabbit. the after hole left the key to the small door she means to go through on the table that is much too high for her now. In we inwe experience indeed). Alice feels very sorry for herself and is at a complete loss several times when she first goes into the complex children’s books, in order for the child reader to be able to understand the story. Therefore, the sadness sadness the Therefore, story. the understand to able be to reader child the for order in books, children’s complex behaviour in itself, warming us to the character, even if he might have been formerly selfish. The silver lining lining silver The selfish. formerly been have might he if even character, the us to warming itself, in behaviour moment. that in he feels longing the forgets soon so he and forgetful, is very Peter is that to our kin, that any who might be in this situation would likely get our sympathy. The reason for this could be be could this for reason The sympathy. our get likely would situation this in be might who any that kin, to our belong to wanting of and alone being about sadness of exhibition the that for, alongside Wendy. But even even if Wendy. their But say, it for, if, did alongside we not, outside even who experience had Hook this was it because triggered, is sadness our window, ecstasies innumerable ecstasies that innumerable other children can never but know; he looking was through the window at the one joy from made made their way home to their parents from Neverland, and as their mother d their father comes in to share in the happiness, Peter Pan stands outside the window looking in: ‘He had had are experienced in both of the above examples. above the of in both are experienced various points throughout the entire series. Parental guidance and a valuable attachment are both goals that we we that goals both are attachment valuable a and guidance Parental series. entire the throughout points various would have been adapted to be motivated towards maintaining, and the emot above scene likely evokes the emotion of sadness in the reader, as the reader sympathises with the loss of this this of loss the with sympathises reader the as reader, the in sadness of the emotion evokes likely scene above t inability the and attachment important joy, joy, half terrible sadness’ neve of whoever is standing in front of it. While Ron sees himself gaining glory, H glory, gaining himself sees Ron While it. front of in standing is of whoever in the mirror, the family he has never met or known, and ‘he ha[s] a powerful kind of ache inside him, half heightens heightens the feeling of sadness. three About Dig The reader is also aware that Digory is still a child, and thus still dependent on parental guidance, which 99
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
100 there there
– he does he does told are
– –
ess acceptance. ess acceptance. 89) 4 The Amber Spyglass Spyglass Amber The
atened atened to disrupt the
, indicating a hopel , indicating Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Chocolate the and Charlie trilogy by Pullman, Pullman, by trilogy
The Amber Spyglass The Amber pointed if he does not get a ticket a ticket get does not if he pointed (Dahl 45) who are from two different worlds two different worlds arewho from
and
– (Pullman, (Pullman, characters, to find a way around this unfair fate for a a for fate unfair this around a way find to characters,
aware of cues of danger in our environment. Survival is - no …” no
His Dark Materials Dark His – no
. A dead animal cannot reproduce. What this required was firstly, firstly, was required this What reproduce. cannot animal dead A . – r behavioural systems, so it makes sense that protecting ourselves wise. According to Öhman and Mineka, ‘mammalian evolution has - (483)
because because he is our protagonist, the prosocial character we root for, but even uld die of her grief there and then. She flung herself into his arms and sobbed, and sobbed, arms his into herself flung She then. and there grief her of die uld studied of the emotions. As already mentioned in the introduction to negative
- mber, Ekman argues to be a felt (or expressed) protest of a goal lost or not attained. attained. not or lost goal a of protest expressed) (or felt a be to argues Ekman mber, has been feeling their growing relationship as much as the characters themselves. Both Both themselves. characters the as much as relationship growing their feeling been has priority, priority, adaptation - e later in the story). the in e later
He thought she wo she thought He into neck, his face and her back her his into nails shoulders, pressing to his passionately clinging “No was, hear could and all he this this luck, and thus we are just as sad as he is when he does not find the ticket (right away
As As mentioned, Ekman distinguishes between two forms of the same emotion: sadness and agony. For In much the same way, Charlie Bucket has a relatively simple goal in goal simple relatively a has Bucket Charlie way, same the much In getting a golden ticket to Mr. Wonka’s Chocolate Factory. Charlie’s family is very poor and can only afford afford only can and poor very is family Charlie’s Factory. Chocolate Wonka’s Mr. to ticket golden a getting
a perceptual system that would identify threats, and secondly, an automatically wired motor system that would would that system motor wired automatically an secondly, and threats, identify would that system perceptual a required required the successful development of defense systems to cope with dangers that thre generations’ between genes of transport one of the strongest motives underlying ou from danger is a top Fear is one of the most well emotions, we are biologically designed to be hyper Fear 3.2.4 couple of pages, but must finally admit defeat. The agony then becomes the resigned acceptance of sadness as as sadness of acceptance resigned the becomes then agony The defeat. admit finally must but pages, of couple final goodbyes. their say they Lyra and the reader are protesting the permanent and unwilling loss of this valuable and strong attachment: the the attachment: strong and valuable this of loss unwilling and permanent the protesting are reader the and Lyra the with along trying, is and agony same the feels reader ‘no’ over and over, in a of denial what isThe reader happening. has been on Lyra’s, and then Will’s, side for and books, whole three There is a refusal to accept this loss in her reaction: clinging to Will as if not wanting to let him go, exclaiming exclaiming go, him let to wanting not if as Will to clinging reaction: her in loss this accept to refusal a is There that every window between all the worlds must be closed for Dust not to leak out. They realise what this means means this what realise They out. leak to not Dust for closed be must worlds the all between window every that reaction: protesting has a violent, Lyra and particularly relationship their for At At the end of this final book, Will and Lyra, friends since the beginning of the second love fallen in and newly hardships, book, of a multitude through companions an example of agony, I turn to the third book in the in book third the to turn I agony, of example an reme you if Agony, (2000). of course find on find of course The reader feels this sadness too, as we want him to obtain his goal of going to the factory. We feel he truly deserves are very few tickets, and there are so many chocolate bars around the world. Still, as he opens the bar and finds finds and bar the opens he as Still, world. the around bars chocolate many so are there and tickets, few very are that there is no ticket, ‘ahe smiles small sad smile’ his at family more so because he is a suffering protagonist, whose suffering we also feel, and who deserves some luck. His His luck. some deserves who and feel, also we suffering whose protagonist, suffering a is he so because more too disap not be must that to he tell him try grandparents parents and one chocolate bar for every Charlie year on his This birthday. fact adds a layer of complexity to his goal: the reader wants tohim get the ticket of
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 . . As 152)
that that is,
yet they they yet
– –
. attention ’, ’, the former . In relation to
termed phylogenetic phylogenetic termed
– (485) nk nk about anything else ant reactions to fear are are fear to reactions ant Emotions Revealed Emotions (Öhman 574) (Öhman ( y further emphasise that ‘it is is ‘it that emphasise further y , a bias that has resulted in us us in resulted has that bias a , . The relev The . it it might be important to raise the
. Here, . . As more sophisticated nervous systems (Öhman 577) (Öhman which which would then influence the reaction, for
(575) – ons ons and fear is anxiety that they capture by cues in the environment and the contingency between contingency and the environment in the cues by
(Öhman and Mineka 483) Mineka and (Öhman e preferential access to Mineka and Öhman’s proposed fear . Öhman and Mineka’s theoretical structure of the fear module is criticism etc. They may not at first seem particularly threatening but but threatening particularly seem first at not may They etc. criticism
(Öhman (Öhman and Mineka 483) (484) hat hat are assumed to be shaped by evolutionary contingencies: selectivity . . Indeed, we are designed to pay close attention to anything that matters to that that is, the emotion of fear
–
157)
seem seem in particular to hav
– (or (or to hide, which can be argued to be a variation of fleeing). According to Ekman, what or other biologically important situations, are also cues we pay close attention to in fictional fictional in to attention close pay we cues also are situations, important biologically other or
fear triggers is the threat of harm, whether physical or psychological psychological or physical whether harm, of threat the is triggers fear
threatening threatening situations nism nism away from danger - erience, erience, we can quicker and better respond automatically to future situations. In other words, Emotions Emotions Revealed Another important Another important to make point about the emoti Potentially dangerous events signalled can be events dangerous Potentially Öhman Öhman and Mineka argue for an evolved fear module and propose it to be a ‘relatively independent relevant stimuli (Öhman (Öhman 574) tions tions to threatening stimuli. The difference, Öhman argues, is that anxiety is often ‘prestimulus’, or
- ehavioral, mental, and neural system’ in and system’ ehavioral, themental, itself, purpose neural of is related which to to problems adaptive solve fear patterns of danger danger of patterns past evolutionary our in events dangerous signal to proven have that Cues environments. (Ekman, (Ekman, our fitness. And the cues we have evolved to pay close attention to in our environment, in order to detect mentioned in the beginning, we are designed to pay close attention to cues of danger. A threat of harm ‘focuses ‘focuses harm of threat A danger. of cues to attention close pay to designed are we beginning, the in mentioned our attention, mobilizing us to cope with the danger’, and it can be hard to feel or thi anticipatory, while fear is ‘poststimulus’, that is, it is elicited by defined fear stimuli fear defined by elicited it is is, that ‘poststimulus’, is fear while anticipatory, are grouped and considered together, because they are indeed two sides of reac the same coin: they are both notes, notes, they are ‘situations of relevance for human evolution’ fear and anxiety between difference a is there that agree to seems Research well. as anxiety of issue nature, such as fears of rejection, conflict, rejection, of fears as such nature, also Öhman As earlier. Dunbar by emphasised as reproduction, and survival of chances our to essential all are characterises all characterises social our to related events and situations are harm psychological for potential the by encapsulated Particularly escape and avoidance, which are associated with both somatic and autonomic bodily changes, preparing us to us to preparing changes, bodily and autonomic somatic both with associated are which avoidance, and escape flee the cues and such events can condition this motive the this state can such and of events condition fear cues motive to the that the cue, itself such can cue ‘recruit event]’ the [of anticipation in responses defensive Öhman and Mineka seem to agree with Tooby and Cosmides’ input and organisation theory. and organisation input and Cosmides’ Tooby to with agree seem and Mineka Öhman architecture’ architecture’ (ibid.). Shaping neural architecture through experience helps the automaticity system through exp automaticity, and in relation to the open program argument discussed earlier, the earlier, discussed argument program open the to relation in and automaticity, important to realize that evolution frequently uses extensive experience as a means of shaping neural comprised comprised of four characteristics t regarding input; automaticity; encapsulation; and a specialised neural circuitry b potentially life being rather fearful creatures. fearful rather being discovering discovering threat, because false negatives ‘are more evolutionarily costly than false positives energy in wasted resulting merely latter the deadly, being possibly the stimulus and the response towards biased likely are furthermore, systems, Perceptual (ibid.). attack or escape, freeze, to whether instance, move the orga could be a system inserting state by of between this expanded motive the perceptual developed, effectiveness 101
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
- 102
, the children are , the children are is not a ‘normal’
lights and Nana to tell Iorek for the first time: first the for Iorek
- that the children see and and see children thethat , as the Darling children is is that she and we are still
– believe: the island starts to feel feel to starts island the believe: us that ‘in the old days at home home at days old the ‘in that us
- Peter Peter Pan panserbjørn Loompas Loompas can be heard singing fearsome - a meets the meets a
n something they should not have. Mr. Wonka keeps keeps Wonka Mr. have. not should they something n Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Charlie the and Chocolate . But at home there were night
, when Lyr when , .
relevant relevant stimuli is seen in
- 179)
now, now, the children are truly in Neverland, and there are no night
(Barrie (Barrie 69) – to get very afraid of the island. Darkness us makes uneasy, because and and what the reader will likely feel as well
Northern Lights Northern – that these features are cues of danger and a reason to run far away. away. far run to reason and a danger of cues are features these that link fence about forty yards from him, and link from she him, thought he could fence yards forty clear the how about -
an characterises all fear triggers as (potential) threats of harm: that is, we perceive perceive we is, that harm: of threats (potential) as triggers fear all characterises an Northern Lights Northern similar to reading a story in a safe environment, and to what the potential reader is is reader what the potential and to in environment, a story a safe reading similar to
bound or two and sweep the wire aside like a cobweb, and she almost turned and ran ran and turned almost she and cobweb, a like aside wire the sweep and two or bound
–
wly the wheels go round and round, round go the wheels wly Until we’re absolutely sure absolutely we’re Until gall the all and greed the That all Slo pound; and to grind begin cogs The slice, slice; slice, go knives hundred A and spice; cream, sugar, some We add more for a minute him We boil (Pullman, (Pullman, believe - . That is why we, even having never met a bear, for example, are instinctively afraid of it because because it of afraid instinctively are example, for bear, a met never having even we, why is That . away away She felt a bolt of cold fear strike her, because he was so massive and so alien. She was gazing thethrough chain a in distance but but the interesting thing
(498)
As already stated, Ekm stated, already As was was make Another Another example of evolutionarily fear
We see an example of this in in this of example an see We things every time someone disappears, such as this excerpt from the song about Augustus Gloop: Augustus about the song from excerpt this as such disappears, someone time every things one by one disappearing into the factory, after having eate having after factory, the into disappearing one by one assuring everyone that the children will be all right, but the Oompa cues of things that might harm us cues in harm of that things might In our environment. hear. The reader feels it too, as the narrator points out that it is no longer make longer no is it that out points narrator the as too, it feels reader The hear. dark. the in them happen to may what and the children fear for and we threatening, truly we we do not see well in it. Noises and movements that we cannot identify and cannot know to be roars and shadows the moving the such as safe danger, of potential cues into turn quickly from experiencing experiencing when reading this story, too lights and no Nana, and they are starting move move about and beasts of prey would roar it you arrive and fly over Neverland just as it is starting to get dark. The narrator tells narrator The dark. get to starting is it as just Neverland over fly and arrive would shadows black where bedtime’, by threatening and dark little a look to begun always had Neverland the in our nature, our fear module, module, fear our nature, in our and will, ingrained isit so because is), that leap Lyra, (at at us suddenly it might that scared still predator, this afraid of polar bear, but he has the same predatory features: size, strength and muscle, claws and teeth for tearing. Lyra tearing. for teeth and claws muscle, and strength size, features: predatory same the has he but bear, polar language and intelligence with creature, thinking a is bear the story, this in because away, run and turn not does Here we also see the relevant reaction of flight in response to fear. It being fantasy, Iorek module cues. predatory its register we
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
s
(Öhman (Öhman behaviour behaviour
, and she starts starts she and , , when Professor Professor when , s the match drew another cue that seems seems that cue another
, as well. Alice has by –
. Loompas Loompas and of course the - (Lewis Carroll 77) Carroll (Lewis avoid it, nor prevent it in any other other any in it prevent nor it, avoid
Loompas Loompas really joking, Grandpa?”‘ . . He furthermore keeps accidentally, - him Harry and make him fall off his broom. broom. his off fall him make and Harry
mper and keeps ordering beheadings. As beheadings. ordering and keeps mper The Philosopher’s Stone Philosopher’s The
. (Rowling (Rowling 162) this this is significant after the events at the first match,
– so so the ofreader likely approves their fates. But this also (Rowling 159) (Rowling
– ks: ks: ‘“Are the Oompa (Dahl 105, italics in original) in italics 105, (Dahl Alice’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
an explain her way out of a possible sentence. sentence. a possible out of way her an explain for once and all all and once for
felt variation of fear is anxiety. As mentioned, anxiety is anticipatory, and it kind of trigger for anxiety is found in found is anxiety for trigger of kind - break your leg,’ said Ron Ron said leg,’ your break
o hurt Harry. A potentially dangerous event is waiting ahead for Harry and the reader reader the and Harry for ahead waiting is event dangerous potentially A Harry. hurt o he fear of bodily harm in Really ‘Pretend to break your leg,’ Hermione suggested. Hermione leg,’ your to break ‘Pretend ‘ ‘Don’t play,’ said Hermione at once. Hermione said play,’ ‘Don’t Ron. said ill,’ you’re ‘Say Is boiled away Is known known and often - . We might feel that the other children deserve it to some extent. For one, contempt furthers
A A well We experience t
. An example of the second second the of example An .
eader shares in her growing fear, as the Queen seems rather unbalanced and we can see no reason she would and fear,can rather unbalanced we see she would reason asno the seems in shares Queen her eader growing is as anxious as he is, because we cannot avoid it, and we cannot make make cannot we and it, avoid cannot we because is, he as anxious as is happen. for to it patiently wait but must way, or by Snape’s design, running into Snape, who seems to want to catch him on his own own his on him catch to want to seems who Snape, into running design, Snape’s by or t intends he that signal to But Harry cannot back out, cannot avoid the match, and thus his fear turns into anxiety: ‘A nearer, however, Harry became more and more nervous’ All three are now convinced not only that he will make Gryffindor lose, but that he will try to harm Harry once once Harry harm to try will he that but lose, Gryffindor make will he that only not convinced now are three All exchange: this in Ron and Hermione with agreeing likely is belief, and the same is of reader The again. Snape asks to referee Harry’s next Quidditch match jinx to trying Snape saw supposedly Hermione and Ron, Harry, where (that is, you are not ‘allowed’ to avoid the thing you fear) and is a more conscious form of anxiety 588) can be triggered in two ways: one is as an undirected alarm, where you have avoidance’ unconsciously perceived clue with ‘interference is other the (yet); is it what know not do you but wrong, is something you tell that reason, so we cannot expect that she c that expect cannot so we reason, r to to listen seem Alice surrounding the creatures of none that, Beyond too. Alice, fault with find not suddenly Alice notes to herself: ‘“They’re dreadfully fond of beheading people here”‘ here”‘ people beheading of fond dreadfully ‘“They’re herself: to notes Alice to look around her for a way to escape, before the Queen can decide to order Alice’s own beheading. The accident accident landed herself in the Queen’s garden and is participating in a game of croquet. She becomes more in quite a te seems Queen, who with the afraid of a dispute and more heightens the fear that the same might happen to our protagonist, and the factory starts to feel more threatening. threatening. more feel to starts factory the and protagonist, our to happen might same the that fear the heightens indifferent indifferent feelings towards them, but as mentioned in the introduction to the analysis, prosocial also the includes of punishment selfish individuals of it, and neither does it to Charlie, because he as (Dahl 105) The The cues are the conflicting end the at piece one in be will Augustus if as sound not remarks does this reader, the To children. the of disappearance made by Wonka and the Oompa
103
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
. - k ss 104 (71) disgust, an an disgust,
looking looking out of
ogen – all all the emotions,
path to disgust to will disgust have to . Pathogens move from move Pathogens . the rubble, the quiet, the
– (68) s that they leave. Something Something leave. they that s or something blue sky. blue and sky. Digory Polly are
- . Morality itself is a complicated complicated a is itself Morality . – 73) -
. ) and a black in this case, one that will recognise cues of
causing organisms organisms causing , and Polly suggest Polly and , - – . Their proposed explanation for moral disgust ” 31) t that people also ‘report and display disgust toward toward disgust display and ‘report also people that t ” 32) ” (Tybur et al. 72 al. et (Tybur (74) . Therefore, psychological mechanisms are needed to to are needed mechanisms psychological . Therefore, (Tybur et al. 68) al. et (Tybur ng somewhere else. They land in a place with dull, red red dull, with place a in land They else. somewhere ng ting, ting, never having sex etc. would be counterproductive Nephew
Nephew
(Tybur et al. et 68) (Tybur Magician’s Magician’s n no definite cues to confirm this. Yet, we are anxious, and so are the The The , we find an example of the other kind of anxiety trigger: the unconscious The The domain domain is of higher importance to the issue at hand: morality and disgust. One
(Lewis, (Lewis, “ Nephew
(Lewis, “ (Lewis, e rule on the endorser’s fitness’ . Sexual disgust, they argue, evolved to prompt the avoidance of potentially fitne m that initiates avoidance responses responses avoidance initiates that m he anus, and the genitals. The counteradaptations humans need to prevent transmission must must transmission prevent to need humans counteradaptations The genitals. the and anus, he
gician’s (67) Ma The
Apart from pathogen disgust, Tybur et al. propose two other distinct domains of disgust: sexual and In In yet maximum yet pathogen maximum avoidance, that is, never ea
unrelated unrelated to pathogen or sexual encounters, then, is the selection pressure of ‘condemnation coordination’, Tybur et al. argue that whether individuals are endorsing or opposing certain expected rules impact is of ‘influenced th by the issue issue take that up would spacetotoo much so relevance, here its relation its compared do. In the social groups of the human species, violations of moral rules are condemned and punished, and or taboos about food, but a more interesting aspect is the fac the is aspect interesting more a but food, about taboos or sexuality’ or threats pathogen to unrelated acts moralized mechanisms mechanisms here. The third as paedophilia disgust, such or sexual pathogen elicit otherwise that of actions the of aspect is moralising this jeopardizing jeopardizing sexual partners, and that this was a particular modification of the pathogen disgust system As this isdomain relevant for willliterature, not I particularly children’s not further elaborate on the detailed moral moral disgust pathogen pathogen presence in the along environment, with processes that computational influence the ofintensity the syste and a disgust estimate estimate the risk and weigh it against the possible benefits. Just as with fear (and, indeed, positive as well as negative), a perceptual system is needed – and reproduction survival to enhancing mouth, the skin, t skin, the mouth, points these leave that substances the and individuals other of points exit avoid and points entry key the defend The type of disgust we are probably most familiar with is the one Tybur et al. defines as as al. is Tybur et defines the with one familiar most probably of are disgust we type The disease of avoidance the prompt to evolved argue they emotion the are pathogens for points entry and exit useful Particularly contact. of points through hosts future to current 3.2.5 Disgust 3.2.5 instead. those windows at them’ them’ at windows those into fear turning our bad anxiety awaken the this happen Witch, does in indeed accidentally place, they when will happen, though there have bee children: they keep turning around, because ‘they [are] afraid of somebody sky sky and a red light would create this sense. Further cues register as they move on black, empty windows, the cold. We are almost sure now that this is a sinister place and that something bad not sure why, but they talk in whispers and keep holding hands. They have perceived cues in this odd world that make them uneasy, and, through the narrator, so have we, though we cannot explain exactly why a dar the Worlds and they decide to try one of the pools leadi pools the of one try to decide they and Worlds the light at(‘not all cheerful’ between Wood the to gone have Polly and Digory right. quite not is something you tell that cues of perception
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 athogen athogen in other
– This This is related
. Iorek Iorek Byrnison has, . Harry, Ron, Neville, Neville, Ron, Harry, .
. rather, it can be argued that (75)
, children’s books meant for in what triggers disgust: for –
(Tybur (Tybur et al. 70) panserbjørn panserbjørn ights in other words, you can be revolted revolted be can you words, other in e e disgust of eating/drinking from a
. . A final, important point to make is – The
. but such physiological reactions are not are reactions not physiological but such
–
other other through facial, behavioural, or vocal Northern Northern L et al. 76) The Philosopher’s Stone Philosopher’s The (70) disturbing disturbing in element itself, but then after Iofur even even the thought of repulsive something brings
. What marks the difference between sexual and sexual the between What difference . marks – , because of their possible relation to pathogens. An An pathogens. to relation possible their of because , 173) (Tybur
Nothern Nothern Lights 174)
eople, or even ideas ideas even or eople, he unicorn, dead, in a clearing, and they are about to approach when when approach to about are they and clearing, a in dead, unicorn, he . Tybur et al. stress that a smell or sight or touch that elicits p elicits that touch or sight or smell a that stress al. et Tybur . reader’s reader’s disgust is perhaps more clearly felt than Harry’s seems to be, Emotions Revealed Emotions ( Emotions Revealed Emotions . As pointed out in relation to rson on the street should illustrate this point clearly enough. It is possible that that possible is It enough. clearly point this illustrate should street the on rson (Tybur et al. 76) al. et (Tybur somewhat similar somewhat example in (Ekman, (Ekman,
kman, kman, disgust is a feeling of aversion , , providing us with a ghastly image that combines th (Rowling (Rowling 187)
We come across a (Rowling (Rowling 187) There are variations in different cultures, but there are also universals According According to E
t know that the figure is Voldemort, so that is not where his fear stems from xample of experiencing such pathogen disgust can be found in in found be can disgust pathogen such experiencing of xample was killed, killed, was through Lyra’s cunning, managed to challenge the king, Iofur Raknison. Iorek tricks Iofur, and in one blow he he blow one in and Iofur, tricks Iorek Raknison. Iofur king, the challenge to managed cunning, Lyra’s through tears the lower part of jaw Iofur’s clean This off. is a slightly key entry points for pathogens that we have evolved to protect through the emotion of disgust. emotion the through protect to evolved have we that pathogens for points entry key front’ front’ dead animal and of letting bodily products (in this case blood) come into contact with the mouth, one of the might might be dangerous to be around. The especially as the narrator tells us how, when the figure lifted its head, ‘unicorn blood was dribbling down its ye thing a such do would who One fear. that informs wound a from blood drink someone seeing at felt disgust the more mature readers are often more complex in the ways they evoke emotions. The same is the case here: there there here: case the is same The emotions. evoke they ways the in complex more often are readers mature more is also an element of fear in this scene, and that seems to be the primary feeling Harry has, too. He does not a hooded figure crawls towards the unicorn. It ‘lowered its head over the wound in the animal’s side, and began began and side, animal’s the in wound the over head its ‘lowered It unicorn. the towards crawls figure hooded a to drink its blood’ and Malfoy are serving detention with Hagrid, and they are tasked with looking for a wounded unicorn in The The in unicorn wounded a for looking with tasked are they and Hagrid, with detention serving are Malfoy and t find Malfoy and Harry Forest. Forbidden as feces, vomit, or blood blood or vomit, feces, as e pathogen disgust it is e.g. bodily products that seem to be the most potent and the most universal triggers, such such triggers, universal most the and potent most the be to seem that products bodily e.g. is it disgust pathogen to inclusive fitness: caring for the sick family member to ensure that shared genes survive is almost if not as avoidance. by survival own one’s ensuring as important that that kin elicit less significantly disgust than strangers, which means that cues to should kinship have a say in the regulation of our disgust response to a sick family member, for example rejection rejection in relation to moral disgust is a form of punishment rather than an avoidance response words, social distancing rather than physical distancing present in moral disgust. Comparing how you would feel if you had to eat a rotten apple to how you would pe blind a robbed someone if feel accompany moral disgust disgust moral accompany us appetite our us lose and make queasy feel disgust can make by what by a instance does, for person pathogen disgust and moral disgust seems to be the ‘do not touch’ motivation, which does not seem to out strong disgust. Disgust can be felt in relation to taste, smell, touch, thought, sight, or sound, but also, as p of appearance and actions to relation in mentioned, example, reducing the risk of further conflict between endorsers and condemners condemners and endorsers between conflict of further risk the reducing example, which means that individuals signal their condemnation to each expressions, and detect the same from others in return. This has a group benefit as well as a cost benefit: for 105
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
106 Mad Mad
, when iven to us us to iven (Pullman, (Pullman,
how he bought bought he how Nephew
g this emotion to to emotion this g
” , though not quite as — Magician’s The s projected onto our imagined idea of the the of idea imagined our onto projected s
ers our moral disgust, particularly as we are are we as particularly disgust, moral our ers party party consisting of the Dormouse, the - not not just a bear, but a talking and thinking bear,
and therefore his actions more disturbing. more actions his therefore and
. The image of a ground strewn with mangled feathers feathers mangled with strewn ground a of image The .
–
Alice’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland humans humans cook and roast their meat to avoid any possible
, and that trigg that and , – ” 21) ” . We hardly helpthecan guinea imagining tiny pigs exploding ” 21) Nephew
. Nephew
ever saw a drawing of a muchness: of a drawing saw ever
thing thing that would likely include the spreading of bodily products in a violent 196, addition in original) in addition 196,
352) looking] looking] craft foul to the hull, every beam in her detestable, like ground strewn
- Magician’s is is eating the insides raw
(Barrie The The Magician’s , a trigger for pathogen disgust is actually used to describe something that is meant to be
The The (Lewis, “ (Lewis, “Really, now you ask me,” said Alice, very much confused, “I don’t think don’t “I confused, much very said me,” Alice, ask you now “Really, the said Hatter. talk,” shouldn’t you “Then plucked out Iofur’s heart, red and steaming, and ate it there in front of Iofur’s subjects subjects Iofur’s and ate inthere it front of and steaming, red heart, out Iofur’s plucked Lights Northern Iorek Iorek sliced open the dead king’s unprotected chest, peeling the fur back to expose the narrow white and red ribs like the timbers of an upturned boat. Into the ribcage Iorek reached, and he looking looking [speedy - Peter Pan (Lewis, (Lewis, “ in particular, when the heart is described as ‘red and steaming’. A part of this disgust can be argued to to argued be can disgust this of part A and steaming’. ‘red as is described heart the when particular, in
There is also an experience of moral disgust in An An example of a mix between pathogen and moral disgust is seen in In In
– usting, but perhaps is not exactly so in itself: the pirate ship, Jolly Roger. The narrator tells us that the ship ship the that us tells narrator The Roger. Jolly ship, pirate the itself: in so exactly not is perhaps but usting, and Alice is alternately puzzled and angry about what is said. The final straw comes when the Dormouse, while while Dormouse, the when comes straw final The said. is what about angry and puzzled alternately is Alice and she if Alice asks a story, telling serious as the one above, when Alice has come across the tea there, and here remarks confusing very some with conversation long a have They Hare. March the and Hatter, and coordinating it with the reader. reader. the with it and coordinating told that Digory once had a guinea pig, which brings the idea of the guinea pig as a lovable pet into the equation. equation. the into pet lovable a as pig guinea the of idea the brings which pig, guinea a had once Digory that told signallin is narrator the case this in and wrong, as morally the act condemning isHe verbally burst, burst, and thus that image triggers our pathogen disgust. But, as Digory also points out, ‘“It was a jolly cruel do”‘ to thing instead when reading this scene, some Uncle Andrew tells of how he made and experimented with the magic rings. He tells Digory of Digory tells He rings. magic the with experimented and made he how of tells Andrew Uncle guinea pigs to use the rings on, and how, while some of them ‘only’ died, ‘some exploded like little bombs’ (though implicitly it is also the view of the characters). the of the view also is it implicitly (though ship, which consequently becomes disgusting and something to be avoided. It is also an example of not seeing seeing not of example an also is It avoided. be to something and disgusting becomes consequently which ship, g only is information the because reader, as a it feeling but characters, the in disgust of told or being triggers triggers disgust in the reader, because it indicates a dead animal, and a dead animal is a possible source of i image This touch. to want do not we something thus and pathogens is ‘a rakish feathers’ mangled with disg but the extra dimension in this scene is the fact that Iorek is minds in character our a like human him much making be due to the fact that he food, their cook not do bears that know course of We us. to revolting seem can meat raw eating and pathogens Our pathogen disgust is triggered here, at the peeling back of the fur, the exposing of the ribs, the eating of the the of eating the ribs, the of exposing the fur, the of back peeling the at here, triggered is disgust pathogen Our heart
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 . . Violet . Veruca (Dahl (Dahl 51)
ect for these these for ect (Dahl 41) (Dahl (Dahl 37) and our ability to Gloop Gloop
behaviour. Being rude might might rude Being behaviour.
that that is, how they work as
– their ating it with, the reader, as well. reader, the it with, ating the information we get about the various the about get we information the , Mike Teavee, watches TV all day long and has a a has and long day all TV watches Teavee, Mike , girl”‘ girl”‘ and Grandma Georgina exclaims that she is emotions emotions through the depictions of a low WTR
beastly beastly evolved , moral disgust plays a big role in our perception and opinion of . The fourth child fourth The . that that she is a ‘“
. den tickets to Wonka’s factory, besides Charlie. Augustus Gloop is a very
her ling ling engages emotion systems but disengages action systems. Thus, we may rsion rsion towards something. The ‘good’ characters are with coordinating each other their
ther rude girl who chews gum every waking hour and does not have a care for other people. people. other for care a have not does and hour waking every gum chews who girl rude ther (Lewis Carroll 69) Carroll (Lewis mature mature readers, it might be easier to understand disgust at rudeness rather than at more serious This This piece of rudeness was more than Alice could bear: she got up in great disgust, and walked off (Dahl 49, emphasis in original) in emphasis 49, (Dahl duction duction to the analysis, we sympathise with, and ‘volunteer affect’ for, the characters that Charlie and the Chocolate Factory In In
xperience’. Literature evokes strong, and for less
in angry behaviour against the character. This is of course related to decoupling Cosmides: that storytel engage do not to be increased, but we character a wish for towards WTR and felt the ratio angry feel characters characters and events is what may evoke certain emotions beyond what the character seems or is described to feel. It is important to keep in mind here what was emphasised earlier by Tooby and exhibit prosocial behaviour. Thus, the emotions evoked in us are very much an author choice. The and character, the to not reader, the to story the tells narrator cares cares about, or something that would signal the presence of pathogens and so on. As mentioned in the intro towards the character we feel for, for example, or a loss of something the character we are rooting for rooting are we character the something of loss a or example, for for, feel we character the towards emotions emotions when engaging with story, and what they are a reaction to ‘e 3.3 Vicarious Experience 3.3 Vicarious above analysisThe shows how and why biologically psychologically the we and feel negative given narrator is communicating this condemnation to, and thus coordin thus and to, condemnation this is communicating narrator of feeling a strong ave condemnation of the behaviour of these other, ‘bad’ characters through their verbal exclamations, and the children children and their parents due to their exceedingly selfish behaviour. But the moral disgust is evident from some of the word choices, such as ‘revolting’ and ‘beastly’, both words that speak to the emotion of disgust, particular particular love for violent shows. The two grandmothers agree that they cannot bear to listen to it resp of amount any lose we as earlier, mentioned as this, in contempt of element an be may There Grandma Grandma Josephine says about despicable Georgina’s Georgina’s response to the Salt family is that Veruca ‘“needs a really good spanking”‘ ra a is Beauregarde the paper, Grandma Josephine exclaims: ‘“What a revolting woman”‘ about Mrs. Salt is a very spoiled girl, who gets everything she wants if she screams and cries loudly enough. Grandma the four other children that get gol fat boy, whose mother lets him eat anything he wants anytime he likes. When they read about the Gloops in morally wrong acts. wrong morally seem a seem guinea pigs, small to butmatter exploding compared there with emotions all inare differences degree – Her walking off is a behavioural expression that signals the condemnation of of condemnation the signals that expression behavioural a is off walking Her
107
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108 . They (23) that, for example, ‘we
real situations encountered encountered situations real
know planning, and empathy’ n to horror fiction are also relevant for
response to vicarious experience is the key to key the is experience vicarious to response topic topic is that work has scholarly no been done
d’ by its emotions to deal with the vicarious
ve ve adaptive value to us. weIf recall, Ekman presumes emotional cues, unlocking [the relevant] responses, and making this making and responses, relevant] [the unlocking cues, is ‘prepare
-
. Chapter 4 Chapter – (361) es’ es’
finds itself inside the scope of the conditions where such information applies’ applies’ information such where conditions the of scope the inside itself finds that is, the reader
–
time and the vicarious ones encountered through fictional storytelling, like the ones - rgue that the fictional information input we gain from simulated or imagined experiences experiences imagined or simulated from gain inputwe information the fictionalthat rgue
As mentioned in an earlier section, the section, earlier an in mentioned As organismic encounters. When engaging in stories, we respond emotionally as we would in a real real a in would we as emotionally respond we stories, in engaging When encounters. organismic - . In other words, cue and response experience is ‘stored’ as instructions for the future guidance uation, uation, but as emphasised earlier, these particular emotional responses are modulated by higher negative negative emotions in general. Indeed, the appeal of an evolutionary approach based on a model of Especially Especially some of the points made by Clasen in relatio used, and that have previously been applied to several other literary here just applicable are literary other as to several areas, been applied that have previously and used, and are highly relevant for how we understand the evolutionary aspect of children’s literature. related to literary Darwinism and children’s literature yet. In this respect, I am on new ground, which ground, new on am I respect, this In yet. literature children’s and Darwinism literary to related have I will that the insights argue But I process. the in some point at poses difficulties always almost literature, literature, and then I will dedicate some space to what we can use the insights gained above for, in terms. practical A particular limitation for relevant my 4.1 Discussion In this section, I will first discuss the strengths and limitations of an evolutionary approach to shown in the analysis above. analysis shown in the of actual response and behaviour. That stored experience includes both the both includes experience stored That behaviour. and response actual of during a life whenever the organism organism the whenever (20) believe that our minds preserve large amounts of information ‘whose truth is suspended, in decoupled decoupled in suspended, is truth ‘whose information of amounts large preserve minds our that believe form, ready to be tapped to make inferences (such as about what others think) or regulate behavior value value information available to systems that produce foresight, Cosmides a Cosmides situation of constellations various ‘presents encounters, encounters, but its higher cognitive functions let it know that there is no reason to physically ‘deal’ with the fictional situation. The preparation, however, is what counts as experience. Tooby and cognitive cognitive functions that assure us that there is no real danger, no real violence, no real injustice etc. Thus, the organism inter sit they they guide it towards information that may ha that the primary function of emotions is to prepare and mobilise the organism to deal quickly with the adaptive function of storytelling. Emotions guide our attention, and in the case of storytelling, ourselves can’t reward or punish the character we want to see rewarded or punished, but we can cheer cheer can we but punished, or rewarded see to want we character the punish or reward can’t ourselves do who character on the altruistic recognise the situation as fictitious. theIn words of William Flesch, we
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 , 159)
for for e.g.
nal study nal l research and to Reading Reading Human ( (“Human Nature” (“Human explanation appen appen nse to think of the human the of think to nse Literary Darwinism . In short, the appeal of this hat literary Darwinism is a , and while its model of human of model its while and , the unity of the sciences and the
– (Joseph Carroll, “An Evolutionary s thereof. To put it the briefly, goal . Furthermore, the aim is to ‘reduce 84)
(Joseph Carroll, perspective. Quite the opposite: evolutionary
to the extraordinary phenomenon is art. that extraordinary to the
the individuality of literary style. The traditio The style. of literary the individuality
adds history, survival and reproduction, with nuances such as - and Literary Darwinism re. This approach can help us examine how literary conventions us examine how literary help can approach This re. (Joseph Carroll, “Human Nature” 78) terms terms like these and provide a sociobiological
(Joseph Carroll, “Human Nature” 103) Nature” “Human Carroll, (Joseph still rather speculative. Consequently, the evolutionary approach is currently currently is approach evolutionary the Consequently, speculative. rather still thesising of knowledge from different specialised fields. There is a sound (Joseph Carroll, incorporate . In other words, to reduce the various themes, terms, and techniques in literature to more magical that there may be an evolutionary purpose to it; art helping us to survive survive to us helping art it; to purpose evolutionary an be may there that magical more
There There is also an appeal to backing up a literary analysis with empirica tes, ‘if Darwinism gives a true account of the human mind, and if the human minds plicity plicity of surface phenomena to underlying regularities’ . That being said, ‘Darwinian literary criticism is grounded in the large facts of human )
. The main limitation of this approach in general is, of course, t theme theme or style in a literary work representations representations of our underlying human nature and the variation is to connect the primary goals of our life the multi Paradigm” 128) techniques techniques of narrative ‘comedy’ ‘comedy’ etc., are not redundant to the evolutionary literary study must of literature is not meant to become obsolete. Methods like techniques analysis in of the formal studies and of historical genre and period, and terms such as ‘realism’, ‘symbolism’, ‘tragedy’, function ‘within the economy function of‘within the our economy needs and impulses’ past our evolutionary into account taking of view. Empirical evidence can be used to construct a stable framework that can be applied in various in applied be can that framework stable a construct to used be can evidence Empirical view. of single work of literatu to every ways be be able to show exactly why your argument is sound from an objective rather than subjective point It makes it that it makes It this anything, hypothesis reproduce. If and being an split whole,as than being rather evolved being a shell in its two, its mind. spiritual and biological do I not believe this insight diminishes the will,if ‘magic’, of fact,art. you In believe the opposite. I to define as ‘art’. With the vast evidence of the natural sciences, it makes se makes it sciences, natural the of evidence vast the With ‘art’. as define to humanities, humanities, and the syn logic to the notion that everything we do is based in our evolved nature, even something as difficult nature nature is not comprehensive yet, there are many aspects that are hard to argue foremost, against. there is a certain appeal First to the concept of ‘consilience’ and Nature biology’ human and evolution on a level with other literary approaches, rather than being firmly on its way to encompass the entire rather on its approaches, than firmly literary way with being other level on a literary field, like Carroll not only hopes but believes will eventually h headway headway in the field depends on breakthroughs in those fields first, and therefore, much work is in criticism evolutionary 79) any that means also sciences natural the on reliance its that, from Apart still. field new comparatively produces all literary texts, all literary texts are susceptible to a Darwinian analysis’ analysis’ Darwinian a to susceptible are texts literary all texts, literary all produces As genres. all of and periods time all from works, literary all to applied be can it that is nature human Carroll sta 109
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
110 or, to
which
– – their ect ‘appropriate’ igin of Stories of igin Or , and this is done by (Boyd, (Boyd, 323)
what they can exp can they what
–
oach provides a convincing k in the trilogy was, for example, as as it is attracted to ‘consciousness’
– rather it is a narrative that emphasises that narrative a is it rather
– Origin of Stories strong strong feelings are usually involved when
(Boyd, (Boyd, of what we, as adults, might imagine them to do or say
in particular is relevant for this discussion. The series ‘dismantles series The discussion. this for relevant is particular in , instead
hat hat they were designed to guide our attention towards what is whether parents, teachers, or librarians or teachers, parents, whether
– (165) , but to evoke a certain emotion in the reader. The author’s goal is to
including its very prominent proclivity for prominent art. its proclivity very including
–
words, words, the accumulation of experience those exact purposes and the exact design of the emotion systems are still
– His Dark Materials Dark His we get the best of both worlds, while (hopefully, eventually) providing an exhaustive an providing eventually) (hopefully, while worlds, both of best the get we
w you are innocent, now you are not’ moment moment not’ are you now innocent, are you w The The evolutionary approach thus also provides a model that links the long term of Pullman’s
Emotions are integral to human experience, and they are, we can all hopefully agree, integral ive purposes . In relation to emotions, we can explain why the author has included this or that detail, why it is it why detail, that or this included has author the why explain can we emotions, to relation . In our enjoyment of storytelling and the other arts. In my opinion, the evolutionary approach is highly highly is approach evolutionary the opinion, my In arts. other the and storytelling of enjoyment our
put it in more familiar the first children’s book to win the Whitbread Book of the Year Award in 2002 (539). Pullman’s turns out to of Dust with the organisational well image of correspond maturation adaptations that with experience comes certain knowledge. Its popularity is perhaps a testament to the appeal of such a story, for children and adults alike. The third and final boo the Romantic myth of childhood innocence and erects in its place a narrative about experience’ (540). experience’ about narrative a place its in erects and innocence childhood of myth Romantic the ‘no no is There on this issue, and inform adults adults inform and issue, this on story. a from to ‘get’ child are are actually doing and saying’ light a shed help would books children’s to approach evolutionary an that believe I reader. child the to for for children to read, Hunt notes books what perceive to ability an and perspective ofsense a ‘is literature of children’s understanding that what is lacking from that particular discourse and the ‘secure ‘secure and maximize [the] audience’s attention’ evoking emotions. In relation to my next point of discussion, regarding what may be written written in this or that tone, why an action or a characteristic is described in this or that way is not just to inform the plot evolution to the short term of an author making choices about certain details certain about choices making author an of term short the to evolution 322) emotions emotions into account, it is clear t important. biologically explanation for why we feel such strong emotions when engaging in stories, and why they continue to hold our attention even when the emotions are unpleasant. When taking the purpose of evolved debated, but it seems highly relevant to consult evolutionary psychology when investigating emotions investigating when psychology evolutionary consult to relevant highly seems it but debated, in any way. Combined with insights from EP, the evolutionary appr this is the case. is It pretty much fact that we evolved emotions through natural selection for various adapt in general. As mentioned already in the introduction, engaging in storytelling, regardless of its form, and this, at least, should prompt curiosity as to why to artsthe and instorytelling engaging when feel we emotions the toinvestigate wanting when relevant model of human nature nature human model of that is approach
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 , . (15) , and thus shows thus and , rld reaches a new a reaches rld ng ng children’ article focusing on
. ‘But what is more
. (“Imaginary (“Imaginary Friends” 310) (Usborne)
unt 16) Independent (H ok in question will have on them. A Lolita . There have also been many examples many been also have There . this is no less true for children’s books
– (“Imaginary Friends” 309) Friends” (“Imaginary ‘intensity of feeling is what both fuels and (Hunt 4) (Hunt blower memoirs, or perhaps something deemed something perhaps or memoirs, blower - way. way. As I pointed out in the storytelling section, a a a narrative
be think about banned books, we might think about something
this input in the same
making instructions, whistle instructions, making . Pullman goes on to claim that the experiences he had with fiction built - for influences that other literatures escape’ escape’ literatures other that influences
ve ve understanding of human nature that Carroll argues to be particularly present in authors are are incidents … in which parents take exception to something found in a book their child
ing to Mickenberg and Vallone, ‘the idea of innocence as a defining feature of modern Inherent in the main argument of this paper is the fact that children and adults ‘work’ the same same adults the and ‘work’ children that is the fact argument this in of paper the main Inherent It It may be a useful argument in the debate surrounding children’s literature and censorship. Pullman’s idea of Dust, I can almost say with certainty, did not originate in studies like the one one the like studies in originate not did certainty, with say almost can I Dust, of idea Pullman’s
luded, so that children can understand the story according to their maturity level. Hunt cites the inc narrative narrative needs certain elements in order to than adults’. What makes them different is the simplicity of the writing style and the elements way: way: they are equipped with the same adaptations from nature’s side, they receive input in the same way, and are designed of changed content in children’s books, e.g. when translated from other languages and cultures, to from or sex such taboos children subjects death ‘protect’ about as also also as important to their overall education, and thus it is ‘prey to a whole area of educational and psychological to protect their children from the supposed bad influence the bo further issue in relation to this is that children’s literature is not only viewed as entertainment, but common has procured from school, and immediately try to it get withdrawn from circulation’ (ibid.), in order along the lines of bomb of lines the along taboo and inappropriate even for adults, such as Nabokov’s libraries libraries and schools by local or state legislatures. As it says in an Banned Books Week in 2017, when we censorship, censorship, which has historically been undertaken under the guise of protecti Censorship of children’s books is evidentparticularly in the and challenging banning of books from childhood childhood forms a basis for innumerable programs and policies affecting children, including Accord which which ties in surprisingly well with what has been argued in this paper. In practical terms, what can for? such insight use an we (“Human (“Human Nature” 103) ‘patterns of behaviour and expectation into [his] moral understanding’ and depths of feeling it would be hard to reach otherwise’ otherwise’ reach to hard be would it feeling of depths and the intuiti present present in many of us. Pullman states in an essay that rewards childhood play and alike’ reading and that, play through and ‘we reading, discover … areas I am engaging in. There is an underlying logic in the argument I have made here, which is intuitively intuitively is which here, made have I argument the in logic underlying isan There in. engaging am I complexity. and collects around children when they reach puberty and continues to accumulate around them in wo the with experience and of knowledge their arguably, where, period a adulthood, 111
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
d and 112 d as . An 32)
the adult is to is adult the human nature human nature
, and this is an – . If children’s play children’s . If (52) , and he believed that earlier, earlier, they were not
(543) –
. Humanity . Humanity it is simply not acceptable
– like everything else, comes from comes else, everything like (542)
The The Storytelling Animal ( ods are punctuated by innocent acts of their their mind takes care of the business (“Sometimes” 58)
– essarily essarily learn, but let them experience, and of being cruel, but ‘cruel nonetheless’ but (544). ‘cruel cruel, of being
childho
In fact, Wood argues that ‘innocence is “a kin is “a Wood that ‘innocence argues fact, In
– , puts particular emphasis on what is also the focus offocus the also is what on emphasis particular puts , be? That their pretend play involves the darker aspects darker the involves play pretend their That be? rd ‘play’ indicates fun and a lack of seriousness, it can it seriousness, of lack a and fun indicates ‘play’ rd
intention (Mickenberg (Mickenberg and Vallone 15)
Atlantic
The The he he idea of childhood innocence is a recent invention and is not al al beings’ (545). Recall that children and adults are different in degree, not in hind. We do not see adults behaving in this manner which makes it an important activity. it important an makes which
w, ‘an obligation to feel can freeze feelings’ – the emotional experience of children’s books. He notes that librarians and teachers reject reject teachers and librarians that notes He books. children’s of experience emotional the
– Paul Ringel, in an article for article for an in Ringel, Paul As mentioned earlier, t is not ‘innocent’. There is no such thing in adaptationist terms. Wood also makes a note of
works that can be ‘emotionally inappropriate’ for children, and that the general wish of wish general the that and children, for inappropriate’ ‘emotionally be can that works this paper paper this behaviour, behaviour, and they would be condemned for it by their social group, because they know maturity) do not. certain a (of Children better. playing with right out of their hands, proclaiming ‘it is mine!’, and stalk off with it, leaving the other the leaving it, with stalkoff and mine!’, is proclaiming ‘it hands, of out their with right playing child crying be experience. experience. It is not uncommon to see a child walk over to another child and take whatever they are kind. Children are not bearers of a moral value that is lost when adulthood is reached. In fact, their it, as adults, of that than developed less be to argued be can morality This desire to keep children innocent might in fact keep therefore ‘fully them mor from becoming ‘conscious’ and distinguishing distinguishing between innocence and moral virtue is no they there innocent, are because cruelty: of social death” because it denies children a part of their humanity’ humanity’ their of part a children it denies because death” of social – of the human condition indicates that practicing it is innate, meaning there might be an to it function adaptive amnesia) about children’s naked pursuit of power and prestige through play’ through prestige and power of pursuit naked children’s about amnesia) literature children’s should why escapist, not is Wood further argues, ‘adults’ construal of children’s play as “innocent” betray their ignorance (or in fact be viewed as the exact opposite. Gottschall argues that ‘children’s play is not escapist’, rather, escapist’, not is play ‘children’s that argues Gottschall opposite. exact the as viewed be fact in ‘it confronts the problems of the human condition head on’ fact a natural part of what we term ‘childhood’. Pretend play, for example, is a large part what we of part Pretend for a natural whatexample, is a large play, ‘childhood’. of term fact we wo the while and behaviour, child as recognise shielded shielded from the (sometimes harsh) realities of life, such as sex and death. Contrary to modern popular belief, some characteristics of child behaviour may indicate that these harsh realities are in ‘something ‘something inherent to the child’s being’ stories (in his case, fairy stories) can steal past those inhibitions and say ‘what’s to be said’ better (ibid.). telling it directly than anyone unconsciously, unconsciously, all on its own. Author C.S. Lewis also discusses the inhibitions ‘being told’ brought him: in his vie important important point: tell them directly, and they do not nec they just might, because abstract reason is not needed author Heinrich Hoffman as saying that ‘the child does not reason abstractedly’
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
f do ‘for ‘for
otherwise it
– . This view seems to give the child those filled period of life, just anxious about what will - . This response arguably be re they would not handle that be be about pimples). But even for (Ringel) only h experience they have h and they thus experience what not (“On Three Ways” 47) e e saw in the analysis, it is not so in children’s ] biggest worry to be about friendships, summer summer friendships, about be to worry biggest ] . The truth is that we have no such control, and sic (169) the children to worry about, rather than what they olds [ olds
erefore inappropriate - tly tly challenged and banned. Concerned adults’ intentions are . An evolutionary insight related to negative emotions is year - wants free environment like the one fiction provides, we are arguably - fed children in happy families, there will be worries beyond the - (Ringel) us to make sense of our environment, of our place in it, and of the people because, because, as have noted I earlier, we are hardwired to
handy parents in life. kind would of the above their later protect children Ideally, –
for, for, healthy, and well will be -
C.S. Lewis especially distinguishes between two meanings behind the notion of not wanting to wanting not notionof the behind two meanings between distinguishes especially C.S. Lewis Ringel Ringel includes a very relevant example a in where librarian his contacted article, an author of cared -
tage tage in their development they may know it’ haunting, haunting, disabling, pathological fears … in fact, phobias’ frighten frighten children. The first meaning is that we must not ‘do anything likely will be impossible for us. around practice practice and experience that will gradually widen and accumulate during our lifetime We just spring the realities of life on them out of the blue? Chances a in, world live realities of the on, with the we from practice very and early We experience, need well. that might come in come that might from this knowledge and these realities completely, until they are of a certain age. But what then? exactly they are anxious about. Books that engage negative emotions do not necessarily make us more more us make necessarily not do emotions negative engage that Books about. anxious are they exactly anxious: rather, they could be argued to reflect the anxiety we already feel and give us experience come next. This will not change just because we read nothing but happy stories. There is no difference no is There stories. happy but nothing read we because just change not will This next. come adults between and children in this in except respect, how muc ones ones listed above. Childhood is, with these banned books or not, an anxiety as the rest Their Their worries will likely not be about pimples (or perhaps well s that there will be children somewhere in the world who do have siblings grappling with addictions. worry about. As Hunt states, ‘we want to select what the children may or may not know, and at which at and know, not may or may children the what select to want ‘we states, Hunt As about. worry mature mature for her readers, too serious, and th reflects what this particular librarian now ... [she] just need[s] the 10 and 11 and 10 the need[s] just [she] ... now emotionally too was addiction of topic the that indicating two’, or pimple first their maybe and camps, a a children’s book whose protagonist had an older sibling with an addiction, and told him that we we might imagine or remember ourselves (and, as w books, either). life, life, particularly in a secure and risk doing them a Whatdisservice. forget, we as is may adults that fairylandis childhood not dreamy the good, but perhaps misguided. We want to protect our children from all that is not positive and happy. and positive not is that all from children our protect to want We misguided. perhaps but good, That makes sense. But by keeping them from gaining experience with the more negative aspects o negative negative emotions that are most frequen ‘minimize children’s anxiety’ particularly relevant for this discussion, since it is generally themes and subjects related to various 113
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018
- e 114
installed’ - are are part of our anising principle anising
allow allow them to gain
– typical behaviour that a box titled ‘forbidden ‘forbidden titled box a -
m us not just of what underlying species risk, vicarious it experience provides. - not do the next best thing
children children are drawn to the ‘forbidden’, because
– hat hat perhaps they are only doing what evolution designed Chapter 5 Chapter this paper, the development and organisation of cognitive just maybe
– real real adaptive value. in (Keep mind, that once again, the forbidden is
lives. lives. The second meaning is that ‘we must try to keep out of [the child’s]
in fact, it is mostly considered a natural part of adult life, or at least an occurrence an least life, of adult or at part aconsidered natural it is mostly in fact,
– n adaptively valuable input from the low the n valuable input from adaptively dangerous) experience needed for them to cope with unpleasant and arguably dangerous - I I have shown how our ‘human nature’ can be boiled down to a species
neurocognitive machinery, but we could never be born with such complex and specialised knowledg specialised and complex such with born be never could we but machinery, neurocognitive adaptations. adaptations. As I have emphasised in relation to this, we are born with a fair deal of ‘pre reproducing, reproducing, for example, along with various other motives related to the life history of the human species, but also, as is the focus of originates in cognitive behavioural systems, which guide us towards the primary org primary the towards us guide which systems, behavioural cognitive in originates in our behaviour, namely what is termed ‘life goals’. A life goal can be to carry on one’s genes by because we gai because typical typical characteristics inform the elements of a given story, but also what a reader may take from it. More particularly, I have argued that we are motivated by our emotions to pay attention to story, disposition for creating and consuming art can provide a framework for a literary analysis that takes into account our evolutionary history and thus can infor 5.1 Conclusion peculiar our to and mind, human the to nature, human to approach evolutionary an how shown have I situations themselves? however, however, impossible. So, if we cannot do that, why the (non fiction. fiction. Preferably, we would all protect our children from harm for the rest of their lives. This is, our genetic inheritance does, what we are exposed to is not unimportant. The point is not necessarily necessarily point is not exposed unimportant. The to is are not we what does, inheritance our genetic to let children read horror fiction, or to make children’s literature that is modelled on adult horror perhaps perhaps this is not (always) a bad thing? T them to do? Of course, nothing is black and white, and since our environment shapes us as much as motivational systems and serve to drive us towards input which has adaptive value. If children’s fascination drives them towards certain themes and subjects, should we not entertain the idea that not so for adults adults not so for that is not thought much of). As has been argued in this paper, our emotions entertain entertain the thought that maybe knowledge of the forbidden has cowardice, good and evil’ (ibid.), and thus we group these realities of life into life of realities these group we thus and (ibid.), evil’ and good cowardice, for children’. This seems less logical, as these aspects are (largely) unavoidable truths of life. usLet them for the rest of their mind that the he knowledge is born into a world death, violence, wounds,of heroism adventure, and inhibit might it rather, way, any in them help to likely not is phobias children giving logical: perfectly
ISSUE 3 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2018 al cribed cribed indeed made us a born with the basic
are
e e for directing attention and behaviour . However, we he he reader’s cognitive adaptations and thus energy, and vicarious setting. I have shown how shown have I setting. vicarious and energy, dren will benefit from the same experiences that experiences same the from will benefit dren - ct ct with a focus on genres and plots, and do an essential skills for the enhancement of fitness and
Homo sapiens – risk, low risk, - ncrease of that WTR and thus of our fitness. I then proceeded then I fitness. our of thus and WTR that of ncrease
social world of -
particularly in a low a in particularly
the only difference being that they might need input of less complexity, not less gravity. gravity. less not complexity, less of input need might they that being difference only the
– focused focused species, but has also made us capable of responding adaptively when necessary.
- I then I proceeded to discuss the of choice an evolutionary approach to literature, and to present After After arguing for the evolution of emotions as a guid
bstacles bstacles and limitations as well as advantages and benefits. In the theory section, I gave a brief
to differ from the ones adults are more likely to read, and how this reflects the differences in biologic in differences the reflects this how and read, to likely more are adults ones the from differ to maturity. cognitive and evolutionary evolutionary literary analysis that could identify how the genres and plots that children are attracted what children should and should not read, in terms of what is appropriate. In relation to this, it would would it this, to relation In appropriate. is what of terms in read, not should and should children what also have been interesting to approach this subje I I take up this point again in the discussion, where I argue for ways we can use the above insights in our practical approach to the production of children’s literature as well as to inform our notions of are different in degree rather chil in kind, and that degree than different are will adults o introduction to childhood and children’s literature, where I also emphasised that children and adults the future. serves serves as experience that helps develop and organise t in situations related their and emotions such to respond and with deal to able better her or him makes in characters and how they emotions of evocation this were that concluded I story. given a evoked in characters prosocial the with in sympathises readers, based on the assumption that the reader where I provided examples of the beforementioned emotions in these books, how they were des were they how books, these in emotions beforementioned the of examples provided I where direction that will hopefully result in an i an in result hopefully will that direction books, children’s chosen six the of analysis literary evolutionary an with hypotheses these combine to negativity Reacting with anger to cues of a low WTR towards oneself, for example, guides our behaviour in a negative negative emotions have been essential to survival and reproduction in our evolutionary past: how a bias towards detecting cues of danger or other unfavourable situations have negative negative emotion (as defined by Ekman), and through this argued for the each, importance with experience of gaining towards that which has adaptive value for us, I have elaborated on the evolved purpose of each basic basic of each purpose have the evolved on elaborated us, for I adaptive value which has that towards circuitry circuitry needed for further development and organisation of such skills. The next thing needed is such stories. this development, as input will that external help reproduction reproduction in the hyper as that which is expressed through e.g. our social skills and our ability to infer the reactions, beliefs, and intentions of the people around us 115
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Handbook Handbook of
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622. - 106. 366. - - - , edited by Brian , edited by Michael by edited ,
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