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WOMEN AND HERITAGE PRESERVATION IN OLD DIVISION.

BY OKECHUKWU, KENECHUKWU CHIDIOGO PG/MA/2012/61423

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND TOURISM FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF , NSUKKA

FEBRUARY, 2014.

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WOMEN AND HERITAGE PRESERVATION IN OLD NSUKKA DIVISION.

BY OKECHUKWU, KENECHUKWU CHIDIOGO PG/MA/2012/61423

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND TOURISM FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS (M.A) CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND TOURISM

FEBRUARY, 2014.

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TITLE PAGE

WOMEN AND HERITAGE PRESERVATION IN OLD NSUKKA DIVISION.

BY OKECHUKWU, KENECHUKWU CHIDIOGO PG/MA/2012/61423

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND TOURISM FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS (M.A) CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND TOURISM

SUPERVISOR: DR. P. I –UZOMAKA

FEBRUARY, 2014. iv

APPROVAL PAGE

WOMEN AND HERITAGE PRESERVATION IN OLD NSUKKA DIVISION

BY OKECHUKWU KENECHUKWU CHIDIOGO PG/MA/2012/6I423

THIS RESEARCH PROJECT HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND TOURISM, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

By

______SUPERVISOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

______EXTERNAL EXAMINER DEAN OF FACULTY

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CERTIFICATION

OKECHUKWU, KENECHUKWU CHIDIOGO, a postgraduate student in the Department of Archaeology and Tourism University of Nigeria Nsukka with the Registration No. PG/2012/61423 has satisfactorily completed her course and research work for the Master of Arts degree in archaeology and tourism (Archaeology option). The work embodied in this project report is original and has not been submitted in part or in full for any other diploma or degree to any other university.

______Dr. P.I Eze-Uzomaka Prof. E.E. Okafor (Supervisor) (Head of Department)

Date______Date ______

______External Examiner vi

DEDICATION I dedicate this research work to the source of my existence, the Almighty and invisible God, to my inestimable Treasure and companion Daniel Edeh for his emotional and financial support and to my lovely parents Mr. Austine and Mrs. Leticia Okechukwu for their immeasurable support and contribution towards the accomplishment of this work.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My profound gratitude goes first to my supervisor, Dr. P.I Eze-Uzomaka who saw me as her daughter, whose encouragement and constant supervision served as source of inspiration both in Academic and spiritual aspect. It is worthy to appreciate the academic and non academic staff of Archaeology and Tourism Department especially Prof. E.E Okafor, Prof. A.I Okpoko, Dr A.M Ibeanu, Dr.L.C Ekechukwu, Mr.C.S. Agu and Dr.Itanyi for their effort towards the success of this work. I am deeply indebted to my husband, Evangelist Daniel Offorbuike Edeh whose emotional, moral and financial support has been the greatest source of my strength throughout my academic programme in this university. My special thanks go to my parents for their constant advice and prayers. Also, I am grateful to Prof. and Prof Mrs.Osadebe, Mr. and Mrs.Ibenekwu, Mrs. Victoria Edeh, Dr Chuta, Dr Ezibe, Mrs. Blessing Nwoye, Mr. and Mrs. Nnamdi Eze, daddy Alex Chigbo and Ejiofor Onah for their advice and efforts. My thanks go to my siblings Oluebubechukwu, Chukwunazaekpere, Chukwugozirim and Chukwuemerie for their love and care. I appreciate my brethren and all my friends who showed me love, care and concern in the progress of this work. I am equally grateful to my course mates who shared their knowledge and ideas in this work. Finally, I owe God an irredeemable debt of gratitude for his miraculous work in my academic programme. May God reward you all in full!

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ABSTRACT This research centres on women and heritage preservation in old Nsukka division. It gear towards bringing to the limelight the roles women play in the field of archaeology and also the contributions of these women in heritage preservation which has erroneously been undermined by most archaeologist. Also the positions occupied by these women are not exempted which presently should give them full recognition in the field of archaeology and the society at large. With this, the researcher made the use of ethnoarchaeology, using the present materials to interpret the past. Also the use of feminist theory was used for clear understanding of the research. Some sites were used for the study, which were Alor-uno, and Opi found under old Nsukka division. In bringing out these women roles, positions and contributions to archaeology field, materials they produced were studied such as weaving and spinning. This clearly brought out these women potentials which have been under coverage in the field of archaeology and society at large. The roles of men were also considered and the likely inequalities that exist between women and their counterparts. In addition, the values of feminist archaeology were seriously considered. Having this on ground, it is believed that this work will serve as reference material in the field of archaeology and other fields.

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LIST OF PLATES Plate 1: Vegetation of old Nsukka Division ------38 Plate 2: Economic trees of old Nsukka Division - - - - - 45 Plate 3: Umuada of Nsukka in their display during burial - - - - 71 Plate 4: Edem titled woman (loloanyi) ------76 Plate 5: Oche Ekwa (woven chair) done by Edem women weavers - - - 77 Plate 6: Raw materials (cotton seed) ------81 Plate 7: Cotton farm in Ozzi-Edem ------81 Plate 8: Cotton ready for harvest ------82 Plate 9: Harvested cotton ------82 Plate 10: Informant spinning cotton ------83 Plate 11: Locally built loom (Ogwere) ------86 Plate 12: Weaving in Aku ------86 Plate 13: Potsherds discovered in Ozzi-Edem - - - - - 102 Plate 14: Spinner and researcher in Ozzi-Edem - - - - - 103 Plate 15: Informant in Alor-uno on women political positions`- - - - 103 Plate 16: Male informant and the researcher in Ozzi-Edem - - - - 104 Plate 17: Informant (weaver) in Opi ------104 Plate 18: Umuada in Ozzi-Edem on condolence visit - - - - 105 Plate 19: Potsherds discovered at the site showing the north - - - 105

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Reconstruction of Rim.. - - - - - 101 Figure 2: Reconstruction of potsherds collected - - - 101

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LIST OF MAPS 1. Map of state. ------35 2. Map of Nsukka indicating the area of study.- - - - 36

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Inventory of Potsherds from surface collections - - - 99 Table 2: Potsherds inventory analysis - - - - - 100

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page ------i Approval page ------ii Certification ------iii Dedication ------iv Acknowledgments ------v Abstract ------vi List of plates ------vii List of figures ------viii List of maps ------ix List of tables ------x Table of content ------xi Chapter One: Introduction ------1 1.1 Statement of problem ------3 1.2 Research objectives ------5 1.3 Research questions ------5 1.4 Research Methodology ------6 1.5 Significance of study ------9 1.6 Scope of Research ------10 1.7 Limitations of study ------11

Chapter Two: Literature Review - - - - - 16 2.1. Theoretical literature ------16 2.1.1 Theory ------16 2.1.2 Feminist theory ------16 2.1.3 Criticism ------18 2.2 Empirical literature ------20 xiv

2.3 Theoretical orientation ------29 Chapter Three: Background information - - - - - 33 3.1 Geographical location ------33 3.2 Climate and vegetation of old Nsukka Division (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi) ------36 3.2.1 Climate ------36 3.2.2 Vegetation ------37 3.3 Historical background ------38 3.3.1 History of Alor-uno ------38 3.3.2 History of Edem ------39 3.3.3 History of Opi ------40 3.4 Socio-political organization ------42 3.4.1 Socio-political-organisation of Alor-uno - - - - 42 3.4.2 Socio-political organization of Edem - - - - - 42 3.4.3 Socio-political organization of Opi - - - - - 43 3.5 Socio-Economic Activities ------44 3.6 Socio-Cultural organization ------46 Chapter four: Data presentation and analysis - - - - 50 4.1 Data presentation ------50 4.1.1 Women in gender and their contribution to the society - - 50 4.1.2 Gender Archaeology ------57 4.1.3 The Roles of female Archaeologist (pioneers) and their Contributions to Archaeology ------59 4.1.4 The Roles of men in Archaeology - - - - - 65 4.1.5 The imbalance between men and women in Archaeology (gender Inequality) ------66 4.1.6 Women in old Nsukka Division, their hierarchy, roles xv

and positions in the community. - - - - - 70 4.1.7 Materials produced by these women and their uses to these communities ------79 4.1.8 The roles of these women to the promotion of the Study of Archaeology ------90 4.2 Data analysis ------93 4.2.1 The feminist archaeology ------93 4.2.2 Problems of gender/feminism in the field of archaeology and old Nsukka Division. ------95 4.2.2b Problem of gender in old Nsukka division (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi). ------96 4.2.3 The values/importance of feminist archaeology in old Nsukka Division ------97 Chapter five: Summary, Recommendation and Conclusion - - 106 5.1 Summary ------106 5.2 Recommendation ------107 5.3 Conclusion ------109 References Appendices

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CHAPTER ONE Introduction Feminist Archaeology is an aspect of archaeology that many archaeologists tend to ignore or study selectively. Most archaeologists have focused their attention and research on Iron smelting, public archaeology, cultural resource management without paying much attention to the gender and feminist aspects of these studies. One of the most striking changes in humanities in 1980s is the rise of gender as a category of analysis (Showalter 1990:1).Without gender there could not have been the existence of feminism. Feminism has placed gender on the academic agenda and this has generated a lot of arguments in the field of archaeology. Many archaeologists have argued on the issue of women’s contribution to archaeological thought which they saw to be minimal and are being minimized by historians of archaeology, while some never recognize their contributions in the field. In most cases their works are being neglected, not well regarded, thereby making the roles of these women not clearly defined. This has restrained the knowledge about women’s role in the past. Recently, some feminist archaeologists have decided on rediscovering and re-writing this issue of feminism in order to reflect the achievements of women in archaeology. The purpose for this is to present the past, the way they were, the roles of these women in the field which need to be greatly recognized and never neglected. In recognizing them, it encourages these women in their effort and also inspires the young women archaeologists in putting their interest and contribution to the field to see that archaeology attains high level, achieves its goal and becomes known to the society. In addition, feminists have also argued on the ideology that women have been neglected and this has resulted in their exploitation and inequality with the xvii men (Conkey 1976:552); while some were against the opinion that this ideology has resulted to a great problem in the society at large and also in the field of archaeology. The bias has been shown to be particularly striking in the ethnographic and archaeological study of gender, which has overlooked or ignored the activities, roles and perspective of women in the community (Conkey 1976:552) Historically, many feminists have understood women differently mostly as a gender term that depends on social and cultural factors (like social position) not as a sex term that involves biological features like chromosomes, sex organ but as a social factor like social roles, position andbehaviour or identity.Women are accorded a very low status in the society. This poor perception of women has resulted to multiple factors like tradition, value, culture, religion, history and ideologies etc. all channelling to produce very low image of women. The very basic social position occupied by women is as a result of men’s very low perception of them. Traditionally, women were perceived as weaker, inferior and subordinate sex. This low perception of women is one of the strongest factors that have influenced women worldwide. If women were accorded any dignity or recognition by the society, the problem they are facing today would not have been there. Despite the positions occupied by women and their indelible contributions in the society both in the past and contemporary period,there are still elements of gender segregation. In this case, women are seen as inferior to men in all aspects of life such as social, economic, education, political and religion. Thus in all, the role of women in the society has been understood by some cultures and sectors at different times. Just like other communities in Igbo land, it is obvious that the daughters of the lineage known as Umuada or Umuokpu constitute a formidable political group to control the activities of women in the community within their traditional xviii settings. The women in Edem, Opi Alor-Uno and Ahebi Ugbabe of Enugu- Ezike are not left out, because, they left the imprints on various indigenous knowledge and technology in their various localities without minding the challenges facing them in the society. These challenges led to the idea on how men and women interrelated in the past, which demands evidences instead of assertion. To achieve these goals, gender has to be deepened more and made more central to the end of anthropological archaeology (Nelson 2002:1). This study will give rise to the use of the present to interpret the past. Things of the past are understandable and learnt through the interpretation of material objects discovered in the present.However, this work will focus mainly on gender, its roles and positions of women in old Nsukka division precisely in Edem, Alor-Uno and Opi. This would enhance the interpretation of women contribution in archaeological sites in parts of old Nsukka division. In general, for clear understanding of gender and feminism, the place of women, their roles and materials they produced (artefacts), should be deeply studied thereby giving women avenue to display their potential towards the field which can serve as item for documentation and presentation for future use and reference.

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

This work aims at investigating gender archaeology being one of the aspects of archaeology that has been neglected by the society especially the archaeology that concerns women. This neglect has led to A) The misinterpretation of women’s role; and positions in prehistory. This has resulted to the inadequate studies of women`s role in the society, our younger ones have lost their interest in joining the elderly ones in the xix

technological productions like weaving, pottery, spinning. In the prehistoric period, women were less regarded and are equated with their children. In most decisions, their ideas were not considered. Women are faced with the challenge of illiteracy. As a result, women are subjected to taboos and sanctions which have totally swept off their feet in the society. B) In the past, most of the indigenous technologies such as pottery, matting, construction of furnance, preparation of local delicacies, oil processing, were valuably done by women directly and indirectly.This bestowed some respects on them, but as a result of western way of life that people embraced, most of these local technologies were abandoned, and in this modern society, women are denied their fundamental human rights. According to UNICEF Nigeria publication on gender and formal employment and pay wages GAP, women are denied equal rights to work, employment opportunities, job security and benefits available to their male counterparts. Despite the much contribution of female gender to the public services, their conditions and positions have not been so much harmonized. C) In the field of archaeology, most of these women’s contributions are neglected; much importance is not attached to them despite their great efforts in the field. The discriminating practices have equally hampered free entry, equitable distribution of resources and actualization of efficiency among various genders in this field (archaeology).

Religion (Christianity) as a whole has eroded the value and role of Umuada in the society. The intervention and diffusion of Christianity in the society have negatively affected the indigenous beliefs, knowledge and technology of the xx people. This has led to majority ofUmuada turning away from their responsibilities believing they are fetish and allowing their technology to suffer. In the light of the problems stated above, the community, government and other individuals that were interested in the cultural values of the people have made effort to checkmate this situation, especially in Edem, Alor-uno and Opi the people have made it their roles that their women should be recognised especially the position their occupy in the community and also they should know how to weave and spin. And also an organization was formed which every female in the community must belong to. There they acquire knowledge on how to manufacture and invent new selling techniques.

1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The major objectives of the research work include:- To identify and document the roles of women in Edem, Alor-uno and Opi in time perspectives. To identify the positions occupied and still occupy by these women. To assess the materials produced by women in the study areas. To examine the socio-cultural, economic and political positions of Umuada in the community To study evidences of women contribution in the archaeological record and challenges they face in archaeological interpretation (wrong ideas of archaeologies towards women).

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS • Arethere roles performed by women in this community? • Do women occupy any prominent positions in this community? xxi

• How are women regarded in this community especially by the men? • What are the materials producedby these women? • What are the challenges faced by these womenweavers and how do they affect archaeological interpretation? • Who are the umuada`s and what role do they play in this community?

1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIDGN In carrying out this research, qualitative was used. The use of open-ended and semi-structured interview, open-ended questions gave the informants avenue to contribute all that they know about women and their roles without any restriction, while the semi-structured interview guided both the informant and the researcher in achieving the objective of the research without going contrary. In addition, some of the sites were made available for the researcher to carryout her research work which observation, documentation and visual materials was applied as sources of obtaining information. 1.4.1RESEARCH DESIDGN Research design involves the study plan that points to the different approaches of collecting data. In this research, the design used is qualitative research method which involves going to the field to observe, participate and ask question that aims at actualizing the purpose of the research. In achieving this aim, the researcher made use of the knowledgeable informant that gave reliable and relevant information concerning the work. 1.4.2 METHOD AND INSTRUMENT OF DATA COLLECTION To study and document feminist archaeology and gender studies in old Nsukka Division. The research method is ethnographic. In this method, the xxii

researcher took record of the women weavers, their roles, positions and contributions to the society and field of archaeology. The historical background of the people was obtained. There was also a surface collection of potsherds which came as a result of the neigbouring community that engage themselves in pottery production. Data collection was done through two sources such as primary and secondary sources. Primary source This was obtained through interviews, observations and use of questionnaire, in addition the visual materials; thesecondary sources were gotten from documents, libraries, archives internet and textbooks.

Interview This involves obtaining information orally from the people under study. Information obtained through this form is often reliable. Interview made involved the interaction between the researcher and the informants using open-ended questions prepared by the researcher which gave the informants opportunity to speak freely and in detail. Creswell, (2003) in (Okpoko and Eze 2005:6) in obtaining the data, the respondents were encouraged to speak freely in answering the questions. In Alor-uno some women and few men were interviewed, in Opi few women who were members of Umuada were interviewed while in Edem both men and women were interviewed but women in large number all gave their answers freely without restriction. The interviewed respondents made it clear to the researcher how womenwere treated. The respondents explained how the women weavers and spinners were regarded before the advent of the Europeans. In the course of the interview, the men involved gave their own views concerning these women in their communities. xxiii

In obtaining information from the field, unstructured interview was applied which was conducted in an informal way. Reason was to create a rapport for them to supply all the information needed. Unstructured or open-ended interviews are conducted in informal or conversational manner (Okpoko and Ezeh, 2005:6). Here significant questions were used which gave informants a clue of what is needed by the researcher and guides her in responding to information demanded. In the course of using this form of interview, it primarily stimulated the talk which began from the unselected individuals to the main informants who had the adequate knowledge of the people’s culture and technology. The researcher selected few people that were well known in the community that could give reliable information; these people also gave answers to the questionnaire given to them. The selection was done through sampling method in whichTrust Fund (2010:8) supports that theinterview with a number of carefully selected people as key informants is the most appropriate technique to use. In addition, questionnaire was also used for the researcher to actually acquire the correct data needed for the work. Observation As a primary source of generating information, the researcher was observant enough to get information about the people’s way of life and the most prominent roles performed by ‘umuada’ in these communities like land dispute, installation of onyishi also the positions and hierarchy existing among them which affects the society at large as well as the relationship among themselves and the community. All these observations were done in the course of the researcher’s constant visit to these communities while carrying out her research work which was in line with the information gotten from the respondents or informants. Based on the observation made, there was an existence of non-participant observation in which some detail information on ritual issues were hidden from the researcher knowing that she is xxiv not part of them but was on a research work like women appearance during rituals and the norms guiding ritual performance. Visual Materials (Photographs), Drawings and Sketches These also serve as a source of obtaining data from the field which serves as a proof or evidence to the general public about the research carried out and what actually existed in these three communities like the cultivation of the raw materials (cotton), themethod of weaving the umuada and potsherd seen at the site. Secondary sources Having obtained oral information from these three communities (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi), there was need for additional information which was obtained through existing literatures or documentations such as articles, journals, books published and unpublished document also the use of internet. These materials served as supplements to the original data gotten from the field. 1.4.3 METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS In this research, the data obtained through interview, observation, primary and secondary source will be analyzed using ethnographic method. Data gotten were analyzed qualitatively so as to show the women contributions, roles and positions in the study areas especially umuada and women weavers. Information obtained were indicated using diagrams, maps, tables for illustrations, documentation for clarity and photographs for proof.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The main significance of this study is for archaeologists to appreciate the immense contribution ofwomen in archaeological record. This would help our understanding of archaeological data and interpretation. Discovering this, the researcher felt that there is a need to buttress the vital roles of women in the management and promotion of archaeological and xxv ethnographic resources in the society.This work will help in promoting the virtue of these women and the level of their contribution to the field of archaeology. This work will expose the women to their hidden potentials to take the entire communities to a higher level knowing that men are looking unto and counting on them for the good of the society. This will also identify the valuable positions and contributions of women in community development and nation building. With this the researcher concluded on having a comprehensive and reliable document that will be of great value to the department, researchers and archaeologists worldwide who may wish to know about women, their role, and positions including some areas of women that are becoming extinct in archaeology. It is also of interest and addition to the learning society as a literature (secondary source) of data collection for further research work.

1.6 SCOPE OF RESEARCH This research work focuses on the women and heritage preservation in Old Nsukka Division with more emphasis in these sites Alor-Uno, Edem and Opi.In carrying out this research work, the study specifically focused on feminism, and the role of women in archaeology especially in these three communities using what they produce in the past (weaving and spinning) as elements of study. Not all the materials were studied rather the one they were greatly known of and has given them recognition in archaeological field. For widening of knowledge some objects that exhibit the traces of women activities like potsherds were collected on the surface during survey.

1.7 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY xxvi

For a work to be done or achieved there must be constraints. For this work to come to its full expectation there were obstacles and limitations encountered they include. a. Financial constraint: Money is considered the mechanism that propels a successful execution of reliable research work, there was shortage of resources for transportation, and payment in compensation to the informants who demanded money and also cost of photographs. b. Bad Roads: The major road leading to Edem was very bad, untarred and hilly; other roads leading to the necessary areas where information was obtained were bad too. c. Communication barrier and suspicious behavior of the people to strangers were encountered especially from the elderly ones in the village who refused to give out information about their people for a long period of deliberation and introduction which they finally understood d. Materials concerning gender (women) on hand were few including the ones from internet. e. Finally, Time Constraint: There was shortage of time in carrying out the study. The few months with serious academic work made the time given short. But in all the work was actualized. 1.8 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

This section involves the different definition of terms used in this research work. Archaeology Ashmore and Sharer (1979:10) defined archaeology as the study of social and cultural past through material remains with the aim of ordering and describing the events of the past and explaining the meaning of these events. xxvii

Andah and Okpoko (1994:7) defined archaeology as a historical discipline which seeks to obtain an increased understanding of some aspects of the past and increased knowledge of facts about the past. Shaw (1963:1) asserted that archaeology comprises of a system of techniques for deriving the maximum amount of information from the material culture and physical remains which have been left behind by past generations of mankind and which have survived to the present. It is also seen as the study of antiquities or the discovery of treasures of the past. It is also defined as a meticulous work of the scientific analyst the exercise of the creative imagination. Fagan (1986:2) defined archaeology as the study of lives and cultures of ancient peoples, to study and interpret the material evidence of past human activities.

Feminism Hook (2000:26) defined feminism as the movement to end the oppression of women. It is also defined as the collection of movement and ideologies aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic and social rights for women. It can also be defined as seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment. Webster Dictionary (1895) defined feminism as the theory of the political, economic and social equality of the sexes. As the organized activity on behalf of women’s rights and interests. It is a social movement that seeks equal right for women. xxviii

Feminism is a movement for empowering women for the sake of becoming equal to men. Katherine (2006:375) refers to feminism as the radical notion that women are human beings. It is also a movement about women living on equal terms with men and not pushed down by law or by culture, into a subservient role. Feminism is the belief in the social, political and economic equality of the sexes. Kuhler (2012:6) on his definition, women should be given equal right with men in political, economic and social aspect. Hale (1914:22) defined feminism as that part of the progress of democratic freedom which applies to women. Rich (1976:5) saw it as the full recognition of inadequacy, distortion of male – created ideology. Gender Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female, the relationship between women and men, boy and girl, as well as the relations between women and those between men. It is also referred to as socially constructed roles and relations between men and women. Gender is a system for allocating different elements in the sentence to the categories of masculine, feminine and neuter. Gender denotes women and men depending on social factors. (Social role, position, behavior or identity) Chodorow (1978:81) saw gender as a matter of having feminine and masculine personalities that develop in early infancy as responses to prevalent xxix parenting practices. It is often used to classify the anatomy of a person’s reproductive system as either male or female. Ken (1998:227) defined gender as an interaction between females and male as constructed by culture. Gidden (2004:298) refers it as a social expectation about behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex. Conkey (2003:550) defined gender as social differences that may vary according to the times and the society or group one belongs to and which are learners or attributed by women and men. It is seen as a broader concept, the mere biological differences between men and women. Gender archaeology Nelson (2002:3) defined gender Archaeology as the study of the past societies through their material culture by close examination of the social construction of gender identities and relations. Gidden (2004:298) saw gender archaeology as the study of the ancient Societies through close examination of the roles played by men and women as shown in archaeological records of the past. Nelson (2002:49) also examined gender archaeology to be the position of women and men in the society through identifying and studying the difference in power and authority they exhibit in material remains. Conkey (2003:553) defined gender as a social process. It is a way in which social categories, roles, ideologies and practices are defined and played out. It is also the culturally perceived differences between males and females.

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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW This involves an insight to the various researches done by different authors on feminism and gender, based on the objectives of their research works, with this it will aid the present researcher in the understanding and guideline toward areas which needed to be researched on and help avoid repetition of already existing work, in addition this directed the researcher on how to present facts in a judicial way. Due to the importance of this chapter to research work, there is a review of literatures by different authors on feminist archaeology and gender and the theory applied in the work for easy understanding.

2.1THEORITICAL LITERATURE xxxi

2.1.1 THEORY A theory can be defined as a conceptual framework that provides a foundation for explanation with no inclusive programmatic (Ashmore and Sharer (1979:516). Archaeological theory refers to the various intellectual frameworks through which archaeologist interpret archaeological data. There is no singular theory of archaeology rather they are obtained from different fields. For a clear understanding of this work, two sociological theories were used they include feminist theory and criticism. 2.1.2FEMINIST THEORY Feminist theory as a sociological perspective emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the uniqueness of the experience of women. Feminist theory is a theory that indicates women demand for their right. Though there are many strands of feminist theory but all centers on a common desire to explain gender inequality in society and how it should be corrected. According to a feminist theorist, Fried (2004:9) on male dominance and sexual division of labour, it stipulates that gender roles are not inevitable, particular tasks are not universally assigned exclusively to one set or the other. Gender role varies among different societies. In some societies, women`s work are seen to be men’s, like weaving, pottery making, oil processing etc, and in some are thought to be naturally men’s task while in other societies it’s for women. In societies where these are regarded as men’s task, they are generally carried in high prestige than in areas where it is women’s task. Fried pointed out that the degree of male dominance is a consequence of the frequency with which men have greater highly preferential access, although not always. xxxii

On this theory, one can say that the high preference or reorganization of men’s dominance over women is as a result of men’s dominance as a consequence of the frequency of which men have greater rights over women. Male are dominant because they control the exchange of valued good, beyond the family. Feminist theory is one of the major contemporary sociological theories that analyses the status of women and men in the society with the purpose of using that knowledge to change women’s lives. Feminist theory is concerned in giving a voice to women and highlighting the various ways women have contributed to the society. There are four types of feminist theory they include gender differences, Gender inequality, Gender oppression and structural oppression. Gender difference: This involves differences of women location, experience and social situation that is different from men’s. Gender inequality: This recognizes that women location, experience and social situation are not only different but are also of equality to men’s i.e. women have same capacity with men but have been denied this equality. Structural Oppression: This shows that women’s oppression and inequality are as a result of capitalism, patriarchy and racism Gender oppression: This involves women being oppressed, subordinated and even abused by men. Marxist view on Feminist theory: Marx saw feminist theory as a focus on dismantling of capitalism as a way to liberate women. Marxist feminism stated that capitalism, which gives rise to economic inequality, dependence, political confusion and ultimately unhealthy social relations between men and women, is the root of women’s oppression. Marxist feminist’s sees gender as class oppression and women’s subordination which is maintained because it serves the interests of capital and the ruling class. xxxiii

Marx analyses the traditional aspects as using the domestic labour as well as wage work in order to support their positions. 2.1.3 CRITICISM Feminist criticism is concerned with the way in which literature (other cultural productions) reinforce or undermine the economic, political, social and psychological oppression of women. This critique strives to expose the explicit and implicit misogyny in male writing about women (Richter 1346). Feminists’ movement was but exaggeration of a patriarchal society. Gender inequality has now changed. Men and women are now almost equal footing; women are now doing what men do and occupy strategic and sensitive positions than men both in professions and other aspects. It is even obvious that not only the women achieve equal footing with men but are now seeking a higher status over men. These are against discrimination. Affirmative action has made it so that most opportunities favour women more than men. Most companies prefer to work with women than men. Feminist criticism is one of the strategies for reconstructing knowledge. An overview of Feminism Feminism is the movement of ending the oppression of women (Hook 2000:26). Hook also explained that it could be a collection of ideologies or a movement which aims at defining, establishing and defending equal political, economic and social rights of women. Feminism first appeared in France and Netherlands in 1872 as Les feminists. In 1894 and 1895 it appeared as feminist. Previously it was regarded as women’s right. Mary Wollstonecraft was the first feminist philosopher who worked as a feminist writer. In 1960 and 1970’s feminist archaeology emerged as adherents of the second wave feminist movement. This brought argument of women in Archaeology being xxxiv ignored. There are different waves of feminism, the first wave feminism, which lasted from the 18th century until world war and was centered on basic civil rights, such as the right to note and to own properly. Second-wave feminism which lasted from the end of world war until the defeat of the equal rights Amendment (ERA) in the 1980s and centered on achieving equality in the workplace, protecting reproductive choice and attempting to pass the ERA Third wave feminism incorporates racial justice, GBT rights, and class oppression into the feminist worldview and seeks real, practical equality for all women. There are different types of feminism but the major once are Liberal feminism: This seeks equal rights through changes inpolicybut does not focus on cultural issues. Radical feminism: This involves establishing, competing female power structures, traditions and norms.

2.2 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE Many scholars have written on feminist archaeology but have not narrowed it down to the study of women’s roles contributions and positions in these societies and in the field of Archaeology especially umuada who exercise political powers in these communities under study and in addition the materials produced by these women in promotion of archaeology. This is why the empirical literature is considered necessary on the aspect of these communities (Alor-Uno, Edem and Opi). Many researchers have difference views on the women’s role in archaeology thereby discussing the different roles of women in families as house wives, as object of satisfaction and as powerless entity not knowing that women’s positions xxxv and roles are not only to be found in the home as often asserted by the opposite sex. According to (Baden 2004:18), in Women and their roles in African societyhe saw women to be indispensible in the traditional setting. He said that women have other roles they perform to the society apart from the home chores. They were seen to be the producers of most arts and craft that yield income to the society. They were seen highly skilled in pottery making, spinning, weaving, basket works, and grass plating (mats). Igbo women he said returns honour and appreciation to their husbands through their expertise in trade. On the role of women in the society, they promise the economy of the society through their dedication to their traditional arts and craft. Zeidenstein (1979) in (Dine 1983:5) in Traditional leadership as service pointed out that women in rural areas of any country provide a resources base for carrying out their family responsibilities through subsistence production and processing, livestock raising and other income generating activities. Seeing the economic state of the society, women could no longer cope with catering for the family alone, they now engage themselves in other income generating activities as distant trading, technological production, formation of clubs and associations where raising of money is done through contributions. These associations help in generating income for women among themselves and also developing their leadership potentials within themselves for the good of the society. Odukwe (1993:29) in The positions of women in Igbo society noted the attainment of title as the only method by which women in traditional Igbo society could improve their social state and acquisition of titles, which was a form of serving which insured them against destitutions. A case study of Obamkpa, here it was identified that women were known for this titles such as omu, Inwene, Ikenja, Inachi and Amaku. These titles were seen as social institution that help in building up women together with one mind and know their responsibilities in the society xxxvi

Little (1973:8) in African women in town concluded that African women had a tradition of practical participation in public affairs. This existed when men could not attain the expected level in the community; women took over the challenge in giving ideas for the good and betterment of the society which finally placed them on the position of leadership. In political aspect, women are seen to be more active than men. They always exercise considerable power and authority in all levels including decision makings. Leith- Rose (1965:65) in African women described how women waged a political war against oppression in the form of taxes imposed on their farm products and against their non-inclusion in the running of the native counts by the colonial rulers. Ogwuche (2004:82) in archaeological survey of Queen Ahebi Ugbabeconcluded that women position in traditional society was seen as the power behind the throne. He saw women to have right in decision making and execution of judgement to offender which came to their knowledge through the present of Ahebi ugbabe of Enugu-Ezike who has political power and also headship in masquerade culture called Ekpe. She brought gender equality between men and women through her contribution to the community as the queen of Ahebi Ugbabe of Enugu-Ezike. The Aba riot of 1929 illustrated the tremendous power of women’s political organization. Women in the pre-colonial communities in Nigeria involved themselves in political lives of their communities like Madam Tinubu of England and Idan of Benin. Due to modernization and computerization women do works not mindful of it being male or female work. Libya can boast of an army made up of women. In most cases, women are not said to be weak but diligent in all they do. xxxvii

Emejulu (2011:1) in Re-theorizing feminist community development towards a radical democratic citizenship examined the claims of homogeneity in women identities and experiences to be misrecognized and sometimes excluded. She insisted that women should be decentred in favour of radical democratic citizen who is not constituted by essentialized gender claims but by claims to radical democracy, equality and justice. She insisted that feminist community development needed to reconstruct the identity of the feminist political agent rather than constituting the agent as an unproblematic and stable woman. Obilade (1981) in Akuabata (2001:23) in Men perception in leadership position showed the performance of women leaders in Nigeria she point that women in leadership position are an unwitting victim of stereotypical assessment. She emphasized that female administrators are perceived to be aggressive, inflexible and emotional Mrs Justina Eze a political activist said that immensurable success recorded by the society in some political position showed that little attention was given to women in politics. She also added that the general acceptable record has also provided that women are better managers of home than their male counterparts. In the cause of them managing homes, they are indirectly building the nation, that is the family or home is the branch of a nation when the family is well trained and nurtured the nation or society will be well too and move on well. Robert and Wendy (2003:98) Conkey and Janet (1997:416) in gender and feminism in archaeology viewed archaeologists in their male-centered stereotype of past lives portrayed men as active and powerful, while women were cast as passive and powerless; in mostcases they see women as invisible and also as children. They still indicated that cultural anthropologist and other scholars examine, closely the variation in women’s roles worldwide publicly declaring to be wrong the androcentrism and the misrepresentation of women’s lives. These xxxviii political activists of women’s rights were quite vocal in many places. They also emphasized that the correction of the bias and evidences concerning women in the archaeological record has been a great challenge which gender archaeology has imposed. Conkey and Janet in their work still emphasized on feminist theory which must be recognized in the field of archaeology; they said “recognizing the role of gender in ancient lives is very much a feminist approach”. This indicates that feminist should be recognized and also that not all feminist archaeologist are Marxist thinkers. They concluded by expressing feminist archaeology as controversial. Not only being a challenge of processualism but carries the feminist name, that is linked to the waves of political activism and that women’s movement of 1960, have empowered archaeologist and its theory which has also empowered the people of the past. With Conkey view, one may add that recognition of the bias between male and female has aided in giving one insight about the contribution of these women in archaeological fields and this will pave way for women to do their work well in the field. Conkey (2003:552) in Has feminism changed Archaeology indicated that bias has been shown to be striking in ethnographic and archaeological study of gender especially the one that has ignored the activities, roles and perspective of women. The study of gender bias was taken in early 1975 by ethnographers. In Conkeys Idea about gender she emphasized that gender should be taken serious since there is recognition of bias. The study of gender has gone beyond women being seen as invisible. Rather it is a social process that involves the role ideologies and practices. It is the cultural difference between male and female. Male are created with important innovations, and inventions, as hunters, tools- makers, cave painters, priest, and traders etc and also seen more in books and xxxix articles. In thinking seriously about gender, there is need to think about gender as a social and historical process. Conkey (1984: 34) in Archaeological methods and theoryindicated that the study of gender is best seen in human terms when gender is taken up explicitly, it helps more in knowing the past which is the major goal of archaeology. When brought to materials we use, most of them are produced by women, and men make use of them; for example, corn beer in Inka which women produce and men consume it in the ritual feasting. She concluded by saying that for archaeologists to understand the past there must be the study of gender and also for the contemporary society, the learning of varieties and possibilities of social relation which will continue to the reconstruction of the society. With this it is been shown that women through their communal activities are promoting better understanding of the past and the present in order to plan for posterity. Ashmore and Sharer (2003:482) in Discoverying the past on social system stipulated that the most fundamental ways of distinguishing among members of a society are by age and gender. Women are seen to bear children and this attracts a prestige that is accorded to them. Joan Gero in study of lithics discovered that women are the producer of materials they use for their domestic activities such as ground stone, and it is these materials that archaeologists crave for which gives them the likely information of the past Such as the culture of the people, the food they grow and their settlement area unlike the objects (stone tools) produce by man only for hunting, which areregarded to be strongand archaeological not knowing that women’s production owns the best for the field of archaeology that is in sheer volume, the archaeological record of stone tools manufactured and use most likely represents women’s rather than men’s activities. Having reviewed the work one can add that females are the pillar that holds archaeology since they are the ones that produce objects excavated for reconstruction of the past like stone tools, xl potsherd etc through it archaeology can date a sites and know the culture of the people. With this, why shouldwomenbe marginalized since they are the major figure in archaeology. Akerele (2001:15) in Women and public work in Nigeria stated that “contrary to the erroneous belief that women were powerless in pre-colonial Nigeria, they had access to political participation through complex and sophisticated network of relationships, rights and control of resources”, from this Akerele was able to figure out that women are seen to be politically active and they participate in organizations which they work together, this can be seen among the otu Umuada which comprises of all married daughters of the village. This people were seen to be dynamic and powerful well respected in the communities. Akerele in his work also noted that in colonial economy, women were fully involved in the production process such as Agriculture like men who owns farmland; women had slaves and participated in trades. In their suppression, they were forced to pay female tax. Also he further observed that the underutilization and involvement of women in public services was reinforced by the British colonial role. According to this British colonial administration, the British men believed that man is the head of every family and woman is obliged as the perfect wife to be subservient to him. On this ideology, colonial British administrators could not comprehend African women`s involvement as being important to the economic and political activities not their independence on man. Women were seen to be marginalized from public works services. In the Iron smelting studied in , it was said that Iron smelting is like child birth whereby furnace is the womb and period of heating is the time of labour this attribute is likened to females who bear children carry them in the womb and also pass through labour. xli

In Susan Kent (1998:79) Lyn Wadlay’s writing in Gender in African prehistory on invisible meat providers: women in the stone Age of south Africa indicated that woman ‘the planter, food gatherer’’ “man the hunter and ‘man the meat provider’ are not appropriate for stone age that such gender stereotype mask the subtleties of gender relations, it renders women almost invisible in the stone age denying that they did not participate in hunting thereby playing a timeless, unchanging roles whereas the evidence showed that women’s and men’s roles may have change in the past and when there is existence of inequalities in stone age between men and women it is regarded to be passive. In gender and craft production in west central Ghana 1775-1995 it was discovered that both men and women are involved in the production of works women were seen to be the first to take up the pioneer scheme when it became clear that women are generating income, men got themselves involved in large number. Women were seen to be engaged in generating money becoming involved in cash-crop production which was perceived to be men`s domain or work. Banda women established farms and produce in large scale with this the writer is encouraging that gender should be given room in the field of archaeology since women are seen to be actually involved in their local community based on the review in Ghana especially Banda Women. Segobye 1993 in (Kent 1998:227) in Respresenting the past indicated that the idea of subordination of women rests on the interpretation of women’s contribution to the economy as based primarily on their treatment as social capital. In other words, women were important as daughters and mothers who reproduced and bear children as heirs to wealth and authority. He suggested that viewing the complex social formation on male direction, ignores the potential contributions women made and also the diversity they enjoy in their formation of social organization and social relations. She pointed the over simplistic view of women xlii being valuable only insofar as they wereable to reproduce surplus labour and to bear daughters who could in turn marry off, thus creating social or political alliances. She added that women presumably negotiated power and social identity in more ingenious ways. Segobyes aim is on pointing out the need to approach the past from a different perspective and emphasizing the need for acknowledging the diversity of social relations and organizations of women. In studying gender Archaeologies, Conkey and Spector (1984) in archaeology and study of gender indicated that gender will be productive if only a broader shift is done towards more socially focused and analytic approaches. Gender is seen as one of the socially constructed categories that places individuals and groups within a larger set of economic and political relationship and guide the allocation of rights and obligations within a society. According to Obi (2002:1), in Women political Empowerment, showed that women play major roles in rural economics, the urban informal and formal sectors, others as providers of labour, entrepreneurs or joint owners of micro enterprise. He further added that since Nigerian crisis of early 1980 till date, there has been the growing phenomenon of households headed by women where in addition to their economic and reproductive roles, women today have become the bread winners of many families either as a result of retirement of their husband from work or low income earnings of their husband or other causes. This has seriously resulted to the participation of women. Schuler (1992:14) on his work indicated the poor participation of women in public services which could be as result of their little control over decision making and having little or no access to resources with which they can qualitatively enhance their quality life. Schuler observed that women’s right are further constrained by patriarchy which develops to their value of submission, sacrifice, obedience and silent sufferings in their various work places. Thus weakening the xliii attempt of women to assert themselves or demand of share of resources and the inability of them to resist and build up the capacity to challenge the existing power relations and attain greater access to and control of power, resources, decision making in some areas of public services which has hampered the growth of women in such sectors and also discharged their full participation. Opata and Eze-Uzomaka (2012) on Gender and politics in iron smelting emphasized that women are underrepresented in the field of science and technology and this underrepresentation is assumed to be the cause of marginalization of women in social, economic and political spheres. On the aspect of iron smelting, it was shown that women’s sitting arrangement was rationalized. They sit at the base of the masked spirit house facing west while men sit facing the east. The purpose was that their sitting is to prove their power of giving food to the hungry because they own the kitchen where as the furnace refers to the political power and the hungry refers to the quest for political power. Women and iron smelting play very vital roles in Lejja traditional political system especially during installation of the new head ‘Onyishi’. It is the responsibilities of the women to hand over the ‘Arua’ to the new Onyishi especially women whose father are from the same village with the said Onyishi. It is also the Umuada that transfers the Arua from the dead Onyishi to the new one. Before the burial of the Onyishi, it is the Umuada that performs some rites that is linked with iron smelting.

2.3THEORETICAL ORIENTATION In application to this work, women need to be given their right to contribute to the field of archaeology. The laws and taboos imposed on women have seriously restricted them from expressing the potential and greatness to the propagation of the field. Most women in the field of archaeology have been restricted in studying sensitive areas in the field. Areas like shrines, caves and grooves without them xliv having access to these areas, the knowledge that is profitable to both archaeology and the society at large, have been kept from them since the source for such knowledge has been restricted. Prior to this, it had made such aspect unclear and hidden to women because of the laws and taboos used in surrounding them. Most women in their menstrual flow have also been hindered from penetrating to some areas for research work since it is a taboo and this has affected the knowledge which cannot be expounded. Based this, how will such research be carried out? The solution is to relieve the women from harsh laws that have been imposed on them and this would grant them necessary freedom to perform their duties effectively and efficiently in the community. In most cases their efforts to the field have always been kept pending most time argument arises on their contributions to the field. How can a woman do this or carry out such research. How sure are we if the work is reliable and authentic, this discourages women in playing their role effectively knowing that a lot of processes and negotiations will be carried out over their works before publication unlike the men? Little quota or allocation are assigned to women for their field research with this it will automatically dwindle women’s researches in the field and the level of women participation in the field of archaeology would also diminish. Prior to that, the research in conjunction with the women needs to be liberated without discrimination of any form. Traditionally, women are regarded as properties; it is only men that have authority over family possession while women are also regarded as part of the possession. And this has resulted to a lot of suppressions which women pass through. In the traditional aspect, the women are imposed with great taboos such as when their husband dies, the woman is imposed with a lot of sanctions like not to eat any food used during the man’s burial, barbing of hair with razor which will create injuries on her, sitting on one place without changing cloth for 7 seven days. xlv

Some cultures especially in Edem rub mud on her which she stays with for one year before bathing. Some culture will force the woman to sleep with elderly men to prove that she is not the one that killed the husband i.e. adding sorrow to the woman`s sorrow. During masquerading women are prohibited from participant indicating it is a taboo not knowing that they play major part especially in making the costumes. All these have kept women in a state of inferiority. In the civilized areas, women have been prohibited from vital political positions, lucrative jobs, women in the ministry have not be given equal right with the men despite their impart in governmental affairs; no wonder the issue of women’s liberation came to existence even at that, till date women are still under suppression and their right are denied. Cheers to the wife of the president Patience Jonathan whose desire to recognize the effort of women in political sector has propelled her to assigning and increasing the women’s percentage. This will enable them to meet up with their target and also greatly bring out what is embedded in them for the betterment of the country. Another aspect is the perception of women on themselves. Some women in the society and in prominent positions still see themselves as being inferior to their male counterpart. They have not yet broken through those traditional religious sentiments tagged on them that women should be under the man. Such mental conditions have hampered the growth of women in some areas of life, and has resulted to the low concentration of women in prominent positions. On the other hand, as women liberation is considered, there is still need for the maintenance of culture on the roles of women.Many men have criticized their women in pursing freedom thereby allowing their responsibilities in homes to suffer which has resulted to increase of havoc in the society, and also increase rate of divorce in many marriages. Even when these women are well recognized in the society, their families are in shambles or instability. xlvi

Illiteracy has resulted/generated a lot of problem that uneducated women are still behind forever and remain under suppression. The ignorance of their husbandshas blindfolded them that they do not know their benefit from their wife for a better livelihood rather than opposition and suppression.

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CHAPTER THREE BACKGROUND INFORMATION 3.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION Old Nsukka division is a province which is made up of many communities. It is not a community on its own rather it comprise of four councils which includes Igbo-Etiti, Igbo Eze, Isi-Uzo and Uzo-Uwani. In these councils, they have their communities which have now been splited into local governments. Presently, there is no existence of old Nsukka division rather what we have are the local government areas like , Igbo-Eze South, Igbo – Eze North, Isi-Uzo, Nsukka Urban, Uzo-Uwani and . Prior to this study, the researcher has decided to randomly select areas for the study. These areas were selected based on the research objective, being able to provide all that is needed for the work (availability of data) and time constraint. Thus the areas under study still fall within old Nsukka division. These areas include Alor Uno,Edem and Opi. Generally, Edem is known for weaving, Alor Uno is known for their oracle while Opi is known for their iron smelting. But the research is focused on the weaving aspect of the women since they are practiced by these women in all their communities but for Opi they only weave while others spin and also weave. All these technologies, women perform their major roles. The old Nsukka division (Alor Uno, Edem and Opi) are large hamlets in Nsukka local government of . They lie in between 5006w of latitude and 6013E of longitude for Alor uno, Edem falls within latitude 6051 N and Longitude 70.15’’. Opi is approximately on the latitude 6.9N of the equator. These towns are located in tropical rain forest region of Africa with evergreen vegetation. They have mixed vegetation of rain forest and grass land. xlviii

Having a large hamlet in Nsukka, Alor-uno has a total landmass of about 320sq kilometer while Edem has 15sq kilometers in size and about three kilometers from western part of Nsukka urban centre (Eze 1999:11) Edem and Alor share the same boundary. Edem is located at the northern part of Alor uno while in Alor-uno, it is at the southern part. There are towns that surround these areas. Alor uno is surrounded by Obukpa, Ibagwa-ani, Onuiyi, Isiuja and Edem. Edem is surrounded by Okpuje, Alor-uno, Obimo, Nsukka and Nrobo. Opi is surrounded by Ukehe,Eha Alumona Umundu, Obollor Afor.

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Figure 1: Map of Enugu State Source: Modified Map of Enugu State Map from Ministry of Lands and Surveys Enugu State (2010).

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Figure 2: Map of Nsukka Source: Nsukka town Planning Map From Nsukka Local Government Modified 2013.

3.2 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION 3.2.1 CLIMATE These towns have tropical rain forest with marked seasonal rainfall which is quite heavy, ranging from 1.306mm to 2,000mm (Ofomata 1965:26). These towns experience two major season such as dry season and rainy season. Rainy season last from April to October normally, it is interrupted by a brief period of dryness known as ‘August break”; in these towns, the rainfall varies. It may be lowered or increased by some factors as the case may be. This variation has much influence on the crop yields. The dry season on the other hand lasts from November to March. This period is regarded as the harmattan, the cold dry period. It is a period when the north east trade wind exercises itself. 3.2.2 VEGETATION The old Nsukka division (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi) are known for a thick tropical rain forest zone and derived savannah section which covers most hills and farmland with stunted trees, tall grasses and shrubs. This shows man’s interaction and relationship with the environment. These interactions involve his activities which consist of bush burning and continuous agricultural activities. The valleys most especially have lost their thick forest characteristics which are now gradually replaced by high stratified trees and climbers. Old Nsukka Division (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi is blessed with economic trees like palm tree (Elaeis guineensis), oil bean (Pentackthra macrophylla), bitter kola (Gacinia cola), Ose oji (Afromonum melegueta), Ugiri (Ivuingia gabone nisus), mango (Magnifera indica), Udara (Chrysophyuum albidum), Ukwu (Treculiaafricana) Oji (Chlorophora excels), li

Iroko (Alstoria boonie), Ukpaka (Percocarpus soyauzi), Native pear (Canarium sweinfurthii),Ize (Aristida stricta) a type grass used for roofing traditional houses. This grass grows mostly in fields and on hills. These towns are all surrounded with

hills Plate 1: Old Nsukka vegetation 3.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Old Nsukka Division, as elaborated before comprises of many towns and these towns have different history and beliefs despite that they all are within one Division. The period of existence and origin are never the same. Based on this issue, the historical information will be separated. But the unique thing about them lii is that generally they have a link with each other and originated from one source; Igala, before their migrations. This historical background falls in version. 3.3.1 HISTORY OF ALOR – UNO The first informant briefly said that Nsukka was founded by Ezenchi who had four sons; one founded the three quarters, while the fourth founded a quarter of Eha-Alumona, Ibagwa-Ani and Alor- Uno. They were said to be the descendants of Ozizi Owaje through his sons, Akpunato and Tikpoke. The second version was that prior to the advent of government, consist of a vague record of military enterprise. That the most important event was the defeat and destruction of Alor by force from the Abam people, which was said to have come through Opi. This resulted to the scattering of Alor in all directions. The remaining one of them is what is regarded today as the Alor-uno (home town). The second took its refuge near Agubeje Enugu Ezike and is now known as Alor-Agu (Desert town) while the third ran to the field near Eha-Amufu and formed a village called umueror (Umualor) (children of Alor). This distant offspring has naturally become independent; but has the same name for their oracles. It was recorded that there was a ceremonial visit of the Ndiuno to Umualor in 1924; and there was a great feast. The distance became a barrier to their relationship. Alor-agu maintained a closer connection with the mother town Alor Uno and Alor-agu they constantly exchange visit. Each village has its trace of Ndiuno and Ndiagu, in each village, there is usually one Ofo stick and Alor staff kept in the eldest home this indicates the oldest man.He holds this Ofo or Alor as a symbol of authority and eldest office it is his responsibility to perform sacrifices and make decisions for the whole Ndiuno and Ndiagu. Despite the little distance between them the bond is too strong. 3.3.2 HISTORY OF EDEM liii

Edem is seen as the father of three sons Akpa, Edem –ani and Ozzi. Akpa Edem is seen to be the eldest and it comprises of ten villages out of which eight claim their origin from one man called ugwuinyie ogidi Odobo. These villages are Owa, Obeke, Igoro, Okiti, Amankwa, Ama Oba, Ama-dimba and Isi Amani. Nkawushi and Amadimogo were seen not to hail from Edem rather Nkawushi claims it originated from Nri while Amadimogo originated from Nkwurushi in Okpuje. Edem-ani is the second son. It comprises of eleven villages Odojo, Isu, Umuchoke, Uwani and Amenu claim that they descended from Edem-ani while Nkofi, Amogu, Owerre, Ubogidi and Umuchangwu were later migrants. Nkofi came from Ugbene Ajima, Amogwu from Ekwegbe and Owerre ugwu, Owerre – Agbo from Ugwunu in Igala. Ozzi, the third son is the smallest. It comprises of four villages which include, Amaogwu, Ezzi-ozzi, Umoko and Inyewuru. Amaogu comprises of Amankpume, Amaukwa, Ikwuezike, Amaukpa and Dimoke. Ezzi-Ozzi comprises of Umuoji, Amauwenu, Umueyi and Azuezike. Umuoko comprises of Ukpara, Dimaneke, Uwenu and Dimu. These four villages were founded by immigrants and no blood link with Edem people. Dimanu from Ubogide founded Ama-Ogwou, Ezzi-Ozzi came from Nike onicha, and Umuoko came from Opi and Iyeworuor Amaudo were migrants of Amaogwu, Ezzi-Ozzi and Umuoko.The whole Edem is made up of twenty – five villages. It also includes those that claim origin from Ugwu inye odobo as well as the migrants but today all regard themselves as umu Edem (children of Edem) 3.3.3 History of Opi Opi has different versions some trace Opi to have originated from Igala while some claim it originated from Nike, Ozalla and Okpuje. liv

Few informants claimed that Opi originated from Igala kingdom and the founder was a native of Igala which is the present day . There is a controversy of the father of Opi some said he is Opi by name while others believed is Emelegenyi. Opi (or Emelegenyi) married three wives; the first wife hailed from Ide-Nike while second and the last hailed from village in okpuje and ujoma both in Osalie. These three wives had sons, ide, Ibeku and Ogbozalla. These sons left their father’s land and dispersed to different areas, Idi Opi at Idi quarter, Ibeku at the open area in the western side of Opi while the last Ogbozalla settled at the present umujijei village. According to this version, it was discovered that these three sons made up the present three quarters in Opi which presently answers Opinato Based on another version, it was said that the three sons have different ancestors which the ancestor of Idi was the first to settle in Opi and was an autonomous community before the arrival of the two ancestors Ibeku and Ogbozalla. Idi is presence in Opi was as a result of his search for fertile land and security. He first settled at a place called Umuile and later spread before the arrival of other two. They lived as a separate community before the conquestion of Ogwugwu town which was achieved through the joint effort of the three quarters. This united them together and they began to answer Opinato Emelegenyi ogwugwu. It was also discovered that the origin of Ibeku was from Ibeku-okpuje from Nsukka. This came as a result of migration of a man called Ada the man was believed to be one of the sons of Asadu-Atta the founder of Okpuje who came from Igala. Ada was said to have twenty sons but as a result of dissension with his father he fled to the present settlement called Ibeku where he answered Ibeku-Ada. This was also applicable to Ogbozalla people who came from Umojma in Ozalla, nine kilometers south west of Opi in the present Igbo Etiti local lv government Area. Based on the information given, Opi was known as Ogwugwu but due to his envy and jealousy he pursued Ogwugwu away from the land and occupied it and named it opi-nato Emelegenyi Ogwugwu.

3.4 SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANIZATION. Generally, the people of old Nsukka division (Alor-Uno, Edem and Opi) have a number of political organizations which include the family, the age grade, titled men, umunna and umuada. With the data obtained, it was discovered that there were differences in their political organizations like their names and uniqueness but they all perform similar function. The basic socio-political organization is the family which comprises of the father, mother and children. Next is the kinsman (umunna) which comprises of fathers from different families while the different kinsmen coming together forms a village or community headed by one man called Eze in Alor-Uno, Onyishi in Edem and Eze in Opi. 3.4.1 POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF ALOR-UNO Alor – uno has bureaucratic system of government. They have Eze and Asogwa as the head. Eze is usually appointed from the Ugbene kindred. On his appointment, he has a crown on his head with circular tuft. The tuft remains on his head till death. He has a bracelet on his wrist and on his hand is the Ofo staff (staff of authority). The Eze is placed on a stool; this stool is only made for him. Eze or Alor does not offer daily sacrifices, like the Eze of Nibo, but offers occasional sacrifices to Dim Eze who is regarded as the first Eze of Alor. When Eze dies, he is buried in a shaft and tunnel grave in a special grave yard for . An Ibodo tree is planted over the grave of each Eze. Asogwa is to be seen in kindred before the Eze and elders. The Asogwa are regarded as the Eze’s council. lvi

3.4.2 SOCIO – POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF EDEM The traditional village head is regarded as the Onyishi. He is a member of the Oha-umu-nna and he presides over the village meeting. He seeks the affairs of the village and is assisted by the Ozo and Asogwa. The three communities in Edem were under the leadership of Eze. He handles the affairs of the entire village. The issues concerning the kindred are handled by the Obu of Onyishi. The village council (council of Elders) is known as the Ndi ama. Umuada is another political organization who engages in the settlement of disputes. The umuada is a conglomeration of married women in Edem. They are headed by the elderest woman among them. 3.4.3 SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF OPI Opi was initially headed by Emelegenyi Ogwugwu but now is regarded as Eze Opi from Umuere Idi Opi. Eze opi is also called Arua who rules the different communities. The different clans have Onyishi and Eze as their leaders who chairman’s the council of elders and makes laws that govern the people. Onyishi as the head holds the staff of office “Arua”. Presently in Opi, they have four Eze’s. Eze Idi from umu Ezenkwa, Eze Ibeku from Amaushi, and Eze Ogbozalla from Amaukpa, then Eze Opi from Umnere Idi Opi who is the general leader. After the Ezes, Opi people also have Igwe who contributes to the ruling of Opi people such as Ishiewu Opi, Ozioko and Asogwa Opi. They were represented from the three communities to become one. Another group is the Age grades that are in charge of seeing that the community rules are obeyed and the cleanness of the village. They also issue punishment to the defaulters. Looking at these three places of study, the researcher took time to separate them, for their differences to be made clear. They also have the political hierarchy lvii still similar but with slight difference, but using the general hierarchy, their organization flows Onyishi Ozo title Oha Umuada Umunna Age grade Family (Obasi 2003:3) Generally, Umuada are the same and their duty is to make sure that women conform to the norms guiding the community. They also make laws that control women. Despite that, Umuada settles family problems, land dispute and settlement of debts.

3.5 SOCIO ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES Generally, the Old Nsukka Division (Alor uno, Edem and Opi) was known for agriculture. According to Beals and Hoijer (1973:319) a minimal requirement of any society is the production of sufficient food to permit the survival and reproduction of its members; this is true, and it can be achieved through the utilisation of available resources in their cultural environment. Apart from farming, Old Nsukka division (Alor – uno, Edem and Opi) was known for diverse economic activities that made them industrious. These economic activities yield income that aids in their survival and meeting the need of the communities. These activities include weaving, basket making, hunting, palm oil processing, palm wine tapping, hair dressing, wood carving and trading. In Opi, iron smelting has been eradicated by modernization. lviii

Their Agricultural practices involve subsistence level and in this they engage in the production of crops like vegetable, cassava, yam, groundnut, cocoyam, cotton, Bambara nut, fruits and rearing of domestic animals. Edem is well known for cotton production for their weaving while Opi is good at cash crop production and iron smelting. Alor uno was known for basket weaving and oil bean production. In Nsukka, the men were mostly involved in the farm work while the women are into petty production and trading. The practice of agriculture is usually done in rainy season while the preparation (clearing and burning of bushes) is done in dry season between February and March. During farm work, women were involved. They help in planting of crops and weeding. Production of palm oil is also the work of women basically for family consumption while little is sold. The men are also known for palm wine tapping. Apart from cropping some economic trees like breadfruit, palm trees, pear trees, cashew trees and citrus (orange trees) are grown in these communities (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi). lix

Plate 2: Economic trees Rearing of animals (lives stock) is seen as a part time work including hunting of games. They are also involves in trading mostly in two forms the internal within the village and the external which involves different villages. The Old Nsukka Division (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi) has four market days Eke, Orie, Afor and Nkwo. Opi is known to have the largest market day on Afor where people from different areas come to Opi for their trading. Most times Edem and Alor-uno take their products to Ogige market in Nsukka urban for their sales.

3.6 SOCIO-CULTURAL ORGANIZATION The socio cultural organization of these communities (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi) centers on their customs which includes title taking, hunting and festivals. Hunting is seen as part of the old Nsukka cultural organization which is usually lx done once in every month. During this period, hunters organize themselves in groups at the village square before taking off for the games. In this activity not everybody is involved, only the brave males. If any did not participate, such a person is fined. After the days hunting, the game animal is shared equally among all the participants Festivals The Old Nsukka division is seen to generally celebrate masquerade festival (Omaba) and new yam festival (ifejioku or iriji) based on their customs and tradition. Alor-uno is known for the celebration of Onunu festival. This festival has link with Adoro deities. The feast takes place every year in the month of March. It is the chief priest that announces the commencement of the festival. The festival holds in the first Afor day in March. During this market day the elders shoot local guns while the children shoot Achara gun known as Egbe nwa okwe. The gun shut is a signal of the arrival of the deities to the market square. The female deity the Adoro is the only one entitled to this festival. She is regarded as the Nne Nne Oyoo. Every woman that attends the festival goes without cloth on her body but can hang it on her neck. Presently, it involves wearing cloth but one hand is removed. Nne Nne Oyoo is carried out by a woman from the Osu Mma clan. The woman takes a basket on her head, with the free born holding Osu Mma’s cloth while the eldest free born will help to hold the basket on Osumma’s head. Nne Nne Oyoo is followed by Emume ike akwa, that is the wrapping of cloth as well as washing of the cloth. Nne Nne Oyoo performs its rituals and departs with a local gun shut Akatakpa masquerade follows on Nkwo market day, on that day no women is expected to go to market. On Eke day, there is a celebration of Mmanya Anyashi or Eke Ogwu; this is specifically for the in-laws of the community. During the celebration all the in- laws are expected at mmanya anyashi with the lxi required items like cock, yam, palm wine and gin; they always come with their wives, promising the gods that they will properly take care of their wives. Omabe festival This is a masquerade festival celebrated every four years and mostly in the month of February (onwa-abuo). Omabe festival is celebrated in honour of the ancestral spirits. They appear in the form of masquerade which is known to them asOnyekurunyewhich means who called me? The most significant of this Onyekurunyeis to reveal all negative behaviours people commit in the community such as adultery, criminal act, fornications and evil men. This is done by calling their names at night. During this particular moment, People listen attentively to know the people caught for one bad thing or the other. The masquerade appears for 28days before it stops. Once it stops the main festival begins, all roads leads to the Omabe sacred groove. During the festival other types of masquerades are seen such as Oriokpa, Mgbedike, Acharicha mmnanwu, Ediogbene, Ogaru and Ezeowo or Onyishi Mmanwu who is the head of all the other masquerades in the community. Ezeowo or Onyishi mmanwu is the last masquerade to come out from the grooves on the day of festival. At the market place the people waits for their arrival and for its display. New yam festival (Iriji) This festival is celebrated to the honour of the gods of the yam called ushajoku or Ifejioku, for the bountiful harvest of the year. In Alor-uno, new yam festival is celebrated at village levels and not at community level but still celebrated the same day and the way, it usually take place in September every year on the festival day, the villagers assemble at the village square (Otobo) with the required items such as pounded yam and Ogbono soup, goat and cock, palm wine and gin. The eldest in the village Onyishi performs the rituals and sacrifices to the gods of yam and land then merriment begins, eating, dancing and displaying. lxii

Ogonna Festival This is another festival people value much in Alor-uno. The aim of this festival is to appeal the ancestors and the gods of the land (Aja-ala) for their protection and guidenance. The festival is purely on family bases, that is, Umunna. Each family takes care of their own ancestor; it is the eldest man in the family that performs the rituals to their ancestors on behalf of the family. After the rituals each family discusses their family affairs and advices will be given, then the refreshment. In Edem, the Omabe festival is done yearly. It is generally seen as men’s festival. During Omabe festival, the head of every household make it a point of duty to see that all members of the household and invitees are entertained. During this festival, masquerade features and men follow this masquerade while the women stand at rear watching the masquerade’s performance. Edem was also known to celebrate two festivals in a year, the first at the 3rd month in March. During this festival there is washing of feet (igbuchi ukwu)by all the young men; this prepares them to go to the stream for its clearing. Once a man is married he is no longer included. In Akpa Edem they celebrate Adikoourota.This is done in Akpa where their young girls go for the Nkpocha Ohege (clearing of the stream). These women are between the ages of 13 to till the time when the person marries. During this period the girls stay at the steam till mid night then they will be taken to a man’s house where they stay till the end of the festival which last for one month. On the last day, these girls were thrown in the mud and lined up, the eldest at the front with a camel’s tail, another holding her neck not to look back all heading to the village market where they dance and displayedthemselves. During the dancing, people spray money, especially unmarried men who use that avenue to pick their wives. The second festival is done in the seventh month during this festival, much celebration are not done. lxiii

The major festivals seen in Opi was the Omabe festivals, New yam festival known as Ifejoiku mostly celebrated generally by Opi people on Opi day, while other festivals are celebrated differently by the three communities, Idi, Ibeku, and Ogbozalla. The Ogbozalla are known to celebrate Egbe uhere, Ibeku people celebrate Egbaho while Egba Api is for Idi people. Most times the other communities join Idi people in celebrating Egba Api. Omaba festival is done twice every year and the month is January and end in September. It is the responsibility of the chief priest, Attama uhere or Attama Ani, to announce the festival. Opi people have different cultural dances such as Ojima cultural dance, Nnabueze Age grade groups, Akunecheyi cultural dance, Egwu Odinala umada cultural dance, Adabara Egwu Ike cultural dance. Opi was known to engage in spiritual worships like Onu Opi in Idi, Onu uhere in Ogbozalla and Onu Ugwurogo in Ibeku.

CHAPTER 4 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.1 DATA PRESENTATION This chapter involves the presentation of data collected from the sites Old Nsukka Division (Alor-uno, Edem, and Opi) and the specific role of these women in the field of archaeology as part of the study of gender/feminist archaeology. 4.1.1 WOMEN IN GENERAL AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION OR IMPACT TO THE SOCIETY In general, it was discovered that women were active and contributed a lot to the society especially in Nigeria in areas like education, health culture, politics, economy, agriculture etc. In the study of women participation, in agricultural lxiv production, it was discovered that women were actively involved in production. It was obtained that 90 percent of the women had farming as their occupation particularly in northern area; the patrilineal system of inheritance has made most of the northern women have half size of their men’s farm. Women were seen to be physically active and involved in land preparation and also in fertilizer application, weeding and harvesting. They also have full control in their contribution to agricultural development. In some areas, women were not seen to be involved in Agriculture though there were traces of division of labour based on sex. The role of women in Agricultural production cannot be overlooked if maximum production is to be attained. On the aspect of informal activities women were seen to have immensely contributed to the National development in trading especially in bulk trading, transportation, exchange and food distribution. Women in most cases were seen to participate in trade in importation of goods in local areas. They involve themselves in the trading of goods daily in their periodic markets held in four market days; they also involve themselves in the sales of their products like pottery, palm oil and basket making. Women were seen to be prominent in their procession of things and also in their public services like hair dressing, laundry, restaurant etc. As a result of women’s participation in the society, many women co- operative societies and unions were formed which helps these women in generating money among themselves to help their families, meet their needs and society at large. Their role in the political aspect has been of vital issue. During pre-colonial, women exercise their roles as union under the umbrella of umuada. The advent of Europeans affected women greatly especially in suppressing them and imposing alien system on their education, religion, and social cultural institution. In Nigeria, women play prominent role in politics and held important position like ministers, commissioners etc. lxv

Contributions of Women to Archaeological Field Igbo women were seen to have great impact on the society especially in the field of archaeology on their technological production which many scholars have erroneously ignored but are concerned with the domestic life of the women. This erroneous idea has made them to engage mostly in the study of the utilitarian values of these women`s works more than their contribution to the society and in the field of archaeology. There are diverse values and interpretation of women’s object such as weaving, spinning, pottery production, wall painting, basket making, which in Igbo society was generally seen as the product of women. ClothWeaving These are the works of women that bring about the historical knowledge of them and also the community. Woven cloths produced by these women are mostly of wearing apparel which serves as costume to cover body. Also, they engage in the production of easy chairs and bags which serve its purpose. The woven cloth can be seen in two forms: the cloths for prestige mostly worn by king, Queens and title holders during ceremonies which portray wealth, power and status. These cloths are mostly worn during ceremonies like funeral, title taking and festivals. The second is cloths worn during ancestral and spirit mask. This particular cloth is sacred and has some ritual performance attached to it example is the cloth worn by masquerade. Other woven cloths are for miscellaneous activities like nursing babies, easy chairs, wrapper etc. In Igbo land, weaving is seen in four places such as , Nsukka, Akwete and Anioma. In Nsukka, it was discovered that Edem, Okuje, Aku, Ibagwa ani are good at weaving which represent the culture of the people. Pottery lxvi

In , Igbo women were seen to be among the finest potters in Nigeria as shown by their inexhaustible store of invention both in form and in their decoration. Archaeologists, historians, ethnographers and anthropologists have used pottery object to reconstruct the past of many cultures. In 1975 the excavation carried in Afikpo by Vincent Chikwendu showed over 20,000 potsherd remains with resemblance to pottery produced today in that area (Chikwendu 1976:132). This showed that pottery production was at its pick between 1200 and 1400 AD before it decline in 1600 the potsherds discovered also provided evidences of transition from a late stone age culture to an Agricultural period. Thurstan Shaw’s excavation at Igbo-ukwu has six different forms of pottery with 150 sub-categories such as water pot, bowls and cooking pots. Igbo-ukwu findings date between 700 AD and 1600 AD. The pottery has decorations. M.D.W Jeffery also indicated the pottery pipe with multiple perforations for taking pipe stem for smoking tobacco in Aguleri market. This pottery gave information about the producers. Some of the pottery wares were used for ritual purposes in areas like Abakaliki in Izzi and Ozza. It is the elderly women who produce these ritual vessels used for ritual performances. In Nrobo, it was discovered to be the same. Most of these pots were also used for title taking by the men during their initiation. In Igbo generally the elderly women are known for producing ritual vessels while the young women and girls produced utilitarian pots which serve different purposes. The reason for this was as a result of fear of infertility on the side of the young women and girls. Most of these pots produced by these women have some designs on them which depict the culture of the people, sometime some female’s features like nipples and navels indicating fertility. In some areas, pottery vessels were seen as symbols of protection, prosperity and reproduction. Some also believe on pottery for fertility in areas like Nsukka, lxvii

Akwaukwu (Ideato). These pots prepared by these women are presented to the shrines to meet the need of their fellow women especially the young ones that need children. In Nsukka and other places pottery vessels represent symbols of the Earth and other deities. The pots are used to appease the gods for protection, appreciation and for fertility. In Nrobo, a community close to Edem, during each pottery production season, they first produce one pot which they present to (Ohe) for a successful pottery production and sales. Igbo pottery stimulates trade relationship between Igbo’s and their neighbours. It was discovered that Ibibios value Igbo pottery because Igbo pots last longer than Ibibios`. In 1977 Igbo pottery was on sale in Mamfe in Cameroon. In 1960s Afikpo pottery were also sold in Calabar and other surrounding market. All these activities are associated with women’s contribution to Igbo land thereby revealing important historical information about the producers, their historical culture and also the culture of Igbo land. Ornament In general, women’s ornament also contributes to the historical knowledge and historical information of the people. The knowledge of the people can be preserved through Igbo women’s ornaments. These ornaments include spiral coils of brass rod (nja), Ivory bracelet and ankles (Odu), beads, and anklets (ogba). Ornaments were used by women for expression of their wealth, power and status. Igbo women especially areas with Ozo titles wear costly Ivory bracelet and anklets; for example, in Nsukka their prominent titled women wear Ivory anklets. In , women of great power and influence still wear Odu anklets. This is visible in Onitsha were they have Otu Odu society which is the highest title for any Onitsha woman to attain. This society is mostly for prominent women, women of great calibre who exhibit wealth. They are mostly women in political power and also women that have great influence in the society. lxviii

In some villages, girls wear fashioned brass anklets (Ogba) some are brass rod (nja) which start from the ankles to their knees. Nja is mostly seen during marriage ceremonies where a young man removes it from the lady he intends marrying symbolizing change from singleness to married life. All these things are worn by women for their pride and prestige. Also stone and glass beads worn by prominent women today also give historical information. In some regions, titled women wear carved wooden beads during their installation Ceremonies. All these ornaments used by these women have historical information about the women that used them not only for prestige and power but also bring information to the enlargement of archaeological knowledge. Body decorations and wall painting This also contributes to archaeology field. Igbo women distinguish themselves through body decoration and wall painting. These women make use of Uli for their body decorations and wall painting. Uli is a fluid gotten from pods of different plants that produce indigo-dark colour, and give dark blue colour on the skin when dried. This body decoration is highly valuable among the women.It is also used during ceremonies thereby adoring the body of the women. Herbert and Chike (1984) said Uli is the women’s art of excellence. Women most times make use of symbols from animals and plant motifs. Animals like snake movement (python), coil or spiral.Other objects like war implements. This can be used depending on the women`s taste and culture. Also abstract designs like lines and dot can also be used for decorations on the body. Uli symbols can be applied on legs, arms, faces and bodies. Women, especially in Igbo land, use it for specific events like marriage, ceremonies and initiations. It contributes to the field of archaeology by telling archaeologists the culture and history of the people, the prestige of women in the society and also the folklores told in the community. lxix

Wall painting with Uli is a female art work. Walls painted with Uli look unique not only to the owners alone but also to the society in general. Being that women mostly stay indoors, they engage themselves in wall decorations. Uli wall painting suggests human social ability. The paintings used during ceremonies are usually done communally. Women also do this work on men’s building especially titled men. The men’s houses are distinguished from each other based on changes in social and political status in the community which are represented with Uli on their walls by women. Uli also reveals the economic standard of men. Any man who can paint his house and compound with Uli is said to be a wealthy fellow. Walls of shrine and burial places are painted with Uli e.g Nibo shrine, new Akwa dated beyond 1910 (Thurstan 1970). This type of workisnot done alone without the assistance of others.For example, in 1983, the painting wall of Arusi Inyiazi shrine in Agbadana Nri where women between ages of 40 and over 60 years were involved, this paintings brought privileges and honour to the society. Uli painting can be symbolically interpreted as Igbo women’s literature. Masquerade In masquerading, women are limited but there were some aspect which they play major role such as contribution to the costume, providing clothes, beads, and other ritual materials used by these masquerades; for example, in Nsukka, women weave the basic white or white cloth for Odo and Omaba while men add embellishment and perform all the rituals needed on them. In some cultures, women`s presence were felt in dancing with the masquerades. Also most times, few women are inducted into masking societies especially the elderly or postmenopausal women for performance of specific duties. In some traditions, men consult certain spiritually powerful women before the display of their masquerade; for example, in Abakaliki, the Okperegedemasquerade. These masquerades usually come out annually during dry season by Izzi and Ikwo. They are usually followed lxx by Eze nwanyi and Nwamma who were women of great dancers.They dance carrying babiesin appreciation to the gods for the gift of children. In general women have contributed to the field of archaeology based on their provision of costumes and participation in specific duties especially spiritual power. Women contribution helps in the presentation and transition of historical knowledge about in the society. Also women contribution in the field as researchers cannot be over looked. Women like Gertrude Bell, Kathleen Kenyon, Mary Leaky, Gertrude Caton and Pamela Eze-Uzomaka and other women to mention but a few have played greater roles in discovering of archaeological site and engaging in field excavations which has brought propagation to the field through materials discovered, Which presently because of their contribution to the field the aspect of women (feminist/gender archaeology) was put in to consideration as a study in this field.

4.1.2 GENDER ARCHAEOLOGY Gender as it implies generally, is a wide discipline that is applicable to different fields, but base on this work, it will be narrowed down specifically to the field of archaeology. Gender Archaeology is an aspect of archaeology that has its focus on the study of men and women in archaeology. Gender deals much on the assumption that helps in determining the sexual categories and holds on the reconstruction of the past from a holistic perspective that yields to the role of individuals in the society from a gender perspective. In studying gender in archaeology, one focuses his attention on the role and capability of men and women in the field of archaeology. The study places women and men on equal ratio based on their contribution to the field and also studying the totality of man and women. Through the study of gender, the contributions of each to the field of archaeology are lxxi known. The early men were seen as hunters while women were seen to be gatherers. In studying gender in archaeology, it gives archaeologist view on the likely object made by men like hand axes, chopper etc. and objects made by women like pottery product, grinding mill etc. Gender archaeologist examines the relative positions of men, women and children in the society through the identification and study of their differences, their authority and power which they exhibit and also the study of their material remains produced. Gender archaeology is a study in archaeology that began in last two decades within the English – speaking archaeological community. Conkey and Spector were seen as the first people that considered it in the field of archaeology and also the application of feminist theory. They brought gender to the point of research. In addition Joan Gero brought out his work on the western ideological construction of women in archaeology. In 1989-1991, gender archaeology was first studied in South Carolina and Oberlin University in diverse forms as women and prehistory, Engendering archaeology and as women and archaeology (Preucel and Hodder 1996:418). Looking at this issue, some people had interest on gender archaeology whereby they believed that gender archaeology came into study as a result of the women’s liberation which occurred in 1960s later had it full place in 1984 in archaeological field. According to Nelson (2003:3), the study of gender as a discipline in archaeology came into existence within the intellectual framework of feminist theory. As gender is concerned, Women were seen to be highly involved in the production of objects which they used for their domestic activities equally with men who also produce objects they used in carrying out their hunting activity. Gender archaeology saw men as producers and women equally as producers. It lxxii distinguishes people, objects produced by females and the ones produced by males but still that both objects produced by the male and female in the society are equal; there is no discrimination or segregation. During the Neolithic period (period of agriculture), men were seen as farmers while women were seen as planters of crops. They also help in harvesting, for any successful labour to be carried out in farm production, both contributes to the success of it. In the aspect of archaeology, despite the fact that archaeology is a tedious discipline, both men and women are needed. Initially, men were seen to be dominant in this field but gradually there was need for women in the discipline. Women have greatly emerged thereby impacting greatly to the field with the view that what a man can do a woman can also do it. Women have seriously engaged themselves in field researches and have even gone beyond what they were thought. In terms of positions, women were seen to equally perform in like manner with men; gender has placed equality between men and women in archaeological field. Looking at the statues and roles of women in their household, men were seen to be the head of the home but women as wives, have greater power in influencing decision makings at home. Culturally, during festivals, both men and women participate and contribute. Women aid in the production of the materials used by the men. It is the duty of the men to invoke the spirit into those materials for their manifestations during festivals. Also elderly women take part in the invoking of the spirits. In political aspect it is the Onyishi who is in charge of the communities execution of laws and orders, it is the umuada that see to it that the laws are carried out thereby both seek for the betterment of the community.

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4.1.3 THE ROLES OF FEMALE ARCHAEOLOGIST (PIONEERS) AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY Gertrude Bell: (1868-1926) Gertrude Bell is a female English archaeologist who carried out excavations in sites like Abbasida Palace of Ukhaidir, Iraq, Byzantine monuments, in Syria, and Birbinkilise, Turkey. She is the mother of Mesopotamian archaeology, a place where men carry out their excavation. She discovered Iraq, Archaeological Museum in Baghdad using her own modest artefact collection. She established the British school of Archaeology Iraq. She is an Administrator and a political officer. Bell, from World War I till her death, was the only women who held political power.She was also influential to British imperial policy-making. She also established Hashemite dynasties in Jordan and Iraq with T.E Lawrence and had interest in women’s right. Dorothy Bate (1878-1951) Dorothy Bate is a colleague to Dorothy Garrod, who accompanied her to excavation at Mount Carmel in 1920s. Dorothy Bate is a British palaenotologist and a pioneer of archaeozoology whose concentration is on climatic interpretation. She carried out extensive work in Mediterranean and in china, where she carried out a study on ostrich remains with ornithologist. Percy R. Lowe. During her time, many archaeologists and anthropologist relied on her expertise in identifying bones. The identification of great anthropologist Louis Leakey’s bone was among her greatness. Due to her great contribution to the field of archaeology, in 2005 the natural History museum dedicated one of the notable gallery characters to her known as ‘Dorothea Bete facsimile’. Gertrude Caton-Thompson (1888-1985) Gertrude Caton is a researcher in the field of archaeology. As a researcher she attended a Cambridge University on Anthropology and prehistory. As a lxxiv research fellow in Newham college1923, she first carried out her research in Egypt in 1911 as survey and excavation in Faiyum. In 1928-1929 she embarked on excavation with all female excavation at great Zimbabwe southern Rhodesia. As a researcher her findings raised uproar with the local white population. Caton’s work greatly influenced Mary Leakey in her researches.

Harriet Boyd Gaws (1871-1945) Harriet was an American archaeologist a pioneer who specialized in classic in Greek. She held a post at smith college Northampton, in Massachusetts from 1900 to 1905 where she taught Greek Archaeology. During her teaching period she embarked on research in the company of females into territories in search of prehistoric sites. As an archaeologist she discovered the Bronze Age site of Gournia, the first Minoan town site ever unearthed. She also carried out an excavation and was the first woman to direct a major field project in Greece, supervising over 100 men. Her works are published in lavishly illustrated reports which are still in consultation till date. Hetty Goldman (1881-1972) Hetty was an American classical archaeologist, who graduated from Radcliff College, Cambridge, Massachusetts with a PhD in archaeology in 1916. Her focus was on early Bronze Age Eutresis, Boeotia, and central Greece. She was the first woman to conduct an officially sanctioned excavation in 1911 at Halae, Greece. She also carried out excavations in Asia Minor, Yugoslavia and Turkey in 1936. She became the first female professor at the school of Humanistic studies at the institute for advanced study in Princeton. Dorothy Garrod (1892-1968) Dorothy Garrod was a British archaeologist and a daughter to a famous English physician Sir Archibald Edward Garrod. She attended Newnham College, lxxv

Cambridge where she carried out her excavations in 1925 and 1926. While in 1928, at Gibraltar she directed an expedition through south Kurdistan. She became a research fellow in 1929 to 1932 at Newnham. Garrod and Dorothy Bate carried out an excavation at Zarzi in Iraq and Mount Carmel, Israel. In 1928 the excavations proved ground breaking. There was an establishment of a key sequence for Near East evidence which showed occupation from the middle Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic The fossil human remains unearthed have become invaluable to the understanding of relationship between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. In 1937 she became the first female professor in any subject at Cambridge and the first recognized female prehistorian in the world in a professional status. In 1939 she was appointed the Disney chair of archaeology at Cambridge University which she held till 1952. She also served as women’s Auxiliary force in 1942 to 1945. In 1952 she was elected as fellow British Academy and was awarded the CBE in 1965. Mary Leaky (1913-1996) Mary Leaky was a British archaeologist and anthropologist who spent most of half a century in carrying out meticulous excavation with her husband Louis Leaky at various sites in East Africa, in Olduvai Gorge and Tanzania. In 1959 she excavated the skull of an adult australopithecine (bipedal and dentally similar to humans), Zinjanthropus boisei which was dated 1.79 million years ago. After her husband’s death she became a leading palaeoanthropologist. In 1976 to 1981 she led her own excavations and staff at Laetoli Tanzania where she discovered the famous trail of fossilized hominin foot prints whichhad been in volcanic ashes some 3.6 million years ago. Kathleen Kenyon (1906-1978) lxxvi

Kathleen was a formidable British archaeologist who read history at Somerville College Oxford. She joined Gertrude Caton-Thompson in excavating the ruins at Great Zimbabwe, Southern Rhodesia. In Britain she was trained on Roman sites similar with verulamium under Mortimer Wheeler, she became an advocate for wheeler method which used closed control in stratigraphy to look at a site formation. Due to the World War II, Kenyon stayed in England and contributed to the founding of university of London’s institute for archaeology, she was a lecturer in Palestinian archaeology. Kenyon went to near east where she applied the wheelers method of excavation by stratigraphic sequencing (visible layers revealed by excavation, showing different levels of occupation) she applied it to two most complex excavated sites in Palestine; that of Jericho and Jerusalem. In 1951 she became Honorary Director of the British school of Archaeology in Jerusalem, her resulting work on the occupation mound in Jericho from 1952 till 1958 producing evidence that pushed back occupation dates from the Bronze age and Neolithic to the Natufian culture at the end of the Ice-Age (10,000-9,000 BC). She acquired worldwide fame and the site was commonly referred to as the earliest town in the world. In 1962 to 1972 she was the principal of St High’s College, Oxford. In her retirement in 1973 she was awarded the DBE (the female version of a knighthood); after her retirement she published works on Jericho and Jerusalem. Her works are being edited and published after her death. Winifred Lamb (1894-1963) Winifred is a classical archaeologist. She worked on several sites in Aegean and Turkey. She tried establishing cultural connections between Island and the Anatolian mainland. She excavated several late Bronze Age and Archaic sites on the Islands of Chios and of Thermi, Lesbos (contemporary with early Troy). She spent three seasons at Kusuraat Afyon (western Turkey) her work was recognized lxxvii in England where she obtained honorary keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities at Fitzowillian museum Cambridge for nearly 40 years. Anna O. Shepard (1903 – 1973) Anna was an American Archaeologist who studied hard sciences and archaeology. In 1930, she studied in optical crystallography at Claremont College California. Shepard was a specialist in Mesoamerican and southwestern archaeology and ceramics. She was one of the pioneers of petrographic (description and classification of rocks) analysis of archaeological potter (focusing on sherd paste, paint and temper). Her analysis works were done from laboratory in her home. Shepard was widely admired in her profession even publishing a standard work ceramics for the archaeologist. Tatiana Proskouriakoff (1909 – 1985) Tatiana was a graduate of architecture in 1930. She worked in museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. In 1936 to 1937 she visited Maya site of piedras Negras peten, Guatemala where she decided to work as Maya architecture, art and hieroglyphs. She produced a number of architecture plans of chich`eri itz`a in yucat`an, Mexico and Cop`an, Honduras, a book entitled “A study of classic Maya sculpture”. She also contributed to the decipherment of Maya hieroglyphic writing pioneering the ideas of Maya recorded political and dynastic histories and not calendrical and astronomical information. Virginia Randolph Grace (1901-1994) Grace was an American classical archaeologist who became world authority on Roam amphora trade. She had her M.A in classical archaeology in 1930 and carried out excavation in Asia Minor where she excavated Pergamon (a Greek city in modern – day Turkey) and Halai, Lokris, Greece and the tombs at Lapithos in Cyprus. She joined Agora Excavation in 1932. She had her PhD in 1934 on amphora. She also visited Princeton for Advanced study. In 1938 she won a lxxviii

Guggenhein (American grant) this gave her privilege to travel and study wide. She also worked with the OS.S Greek Affairs Offices in Istanbul, Cairo and Izmir. She published works on Benaki collection of Alexandria with the help of American Research centre in Egypt Grace.

Alice Kober (1906 – 1950) Alice Kober was an American classical scholar ad archaeologist, whose groundbreaking work helped in building the foundational decipherment of linear in B. Script. As an assistant to John Myers, Kober carried out studies on linear B. Based on record on clay tablet. It was discovered that the writings of Linear B was from left to right and their language is Cretan language with 90 distinct characters. Kober was seen to fill 186,000 with her memory alone. She discovered some patterns of writing indicating some character to be consonants others as vowels. After her death, her works in Linear B still remains invaluable.

4.1.4 THE ROLES OF MEN IN ARCHAEOLOGY In the field of archaeology, the role of men cannot be done without. Men were as the originality that brought about the study of archaeology due to materials they produced to carry out their day to day activities. In the field of archaeology, men were seen to be dominant and perform greater responsibilities such as, in the early period, it was discovered that man originated from ape and became a hunter. It is through his hunting activities that many objects were produced which aided him in carrying out his hunting activities. Man was seen to be responsible for the invention of fire used, he engaged himself in the production of objects like agricultural implements, weapon etc, used for his comfort. Men were seen to be directly performing roles in archaeology. Apart from the materials they produce, they were also seen to occupy some specific position such as Onyishi, Onuoha, lxxix council of elders. Technologically, men engage in production of iron (iron smelting), wood carving, palm wine tapping etc. In old Nsukka division, men were seen to be good at basket making, it was also seen that it is the duty of men to help in digging up clay used for pottery production especially in Nrobo. Politically, men were seen to hold the power of leadership and authority in the communities. They establish rules and regulations guiding the society. Most of these political positions like onyishi, Oha, Asogwa and council of elders are occupied by men. In religious aspect, men were seen to be in charge, they see to it that the religion of the land was observed. It is the duty of Attamah to appease the gods and Attamah are mostly men. In ceremonies/festivals, most of the spiritual initiations like masquerading are performed by men; men were seen to be in charge of every form of initiation in the communities. They see to it that both the initiations and festival celebration are perfectly done. On the aspect of archaeology, mostly men were seen as the stakeholders of the field. Most prominent archaeologists seen today in this field aremen, such as Thurstan shaw, Goerge Fletcher, Anozie etc. Based on assumption, statistics showed that 80% archaeologist are men; with thisstatistics; most of the researches carried out in the field are done by the male archaeologists. The first archaeologist to carry out marine archaeology was an America male archaeologist, George Fletcher Bass, Thurstan Shaw was a male archaeologist who excavated Igbo-ukwu, Anozie carried out excavation in lejja, and Prof Okafor discovered iron smelting in Opi. Men were seen to be at the forefront in the field and carryout the major responsibilities in the field which made them to be highly recognized.

4.1.5 THE IMBALANCE BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN IN ARCHAEOLOGY (GENDER INEQUALITY). lxxx

Despite the contributions of female archaeologists and cultural professionals, there are still imbalance and gender inequality in the field of archaeology. This has seriously affected the discipline, such as large numbers of male professors than female. The men are allocated more money than women for the same type of work, sometimes the support which the women need financially are not given to them. Men network and make up their social entities thereby leaving their female colleagues aside for informal issues. These women`s ideas are neglected and also during decision-making they are kept behind. The males also network and subtly acquire better positions thereby leaving the females aside; sometimes they engage them with administration and other irrelevant activities. Research has made it known that few women occupy prominent positions in archaeological department. In most cases, women were constrained from carrying out research in some specific areas like sacred grooves, shrine and cave. Also in the distribution of awardsby agencies like NSF, National Geographic Society and National Endowment for Humanities (NEH) it was discovered that the percentage of women that receives these awards is less compared with men. Years ago, it was reported that the proposed size of women’s NSF budgets and duration of their research tends to be less than that of the male counterparts. Based on this imbalance of men and women in archaeological field, it was discovered that, gender handles both men and women and there is equality that exists between them, it was also discovered that in most cases these equality is not exercised because men always prove superior on the bases that women are inferior and theirs ideas as childish. In the society, women were generally concerned to the kitchen and in home management not knowing that with such ability of handling home for a better society, it can also be used to organize and handle difficult issues in the society. lxxxi

The imbalance between men and women in the archaeological field has seriously affected the discipline, women have been restricted from some aspect of the field research with the purpose that it is a tedious discipline that demands much strength and time, on this women wereprevented from some areas, thereby making the discipline to be narrowed down to masculine and some certain areas. On this issue, it has not yet occurred to them that women have the greater capacity to view beyond and has the potentials to contribute greatly to areas that will widen this field. Most of the material remains discovered and used for reconstruction of the past are object made by these women. In the sense that if these women are neglected or ignored, what is the essence of studying these materials they produce which is the major areas in archaeology. The materials produced by these women should create avenue in placing these women on a greater position of recognition in the field of archaeology. The neglect of these women in funding of their research works has also made them to enter their shell with their potentials deprived from manifestation. In most cases, the funding allocated for fieldworks are meagre and sometimes mostly consumed by male archaeologists with the view that women carrying out the research due to theirability and time consumption will result to the detriment of their families. What made men to reason in such manner is still a question yet to be answered. Women are of great honour since they are able to handle both the issues of homes, society and also the field. Once a woman has decided to handle issues, she sees to it that, such issues are perfectly done without much consumption of money and other things. This is one of their great virtues, to manage everything around them including money unlike the men. Most sensitive positions are occupied by men thereby looking down on women. Nsukka specifically, women were seen to have the virtue of organization lxxxii once they were able to handle their homes and minor jobs, including their husband who sees her as inferior. With this ability, what prevents her from handling larger responsibility? It is as a result of this neglect on women which has psychologically affected them that most of them shy away from certain responsibilities that will benefit both them and the society. Women naturally have the ability to create. Most of the archaeological materials studied are the creative works of women like weaving, pottery, and wall painting etc. most of the work done by men today, usually have the secret contribution of women behind it. Then, why are they neglected? In the cultural aspect especially in these areas under study, it was discovered that women are prevented from coming out during Omaba festival while most of the materials which Omaba uses are the works of these women including the dishes prepared during the festival which were their efforts. Women at menopause and young girls displays their dances during the festival this aspect also graces the festival, still part of the women`s contribution to the community. In political positions, women are neglected while without the contributions of the Umuada, the community will not perfectly stand. Umuada were seen to govern themselves, and also their society indirectly since one of their responsibilities is to seek for the welfare of the society and to handle difficult issues in the society, including making sure that the law of the land are obeyed. In most cases, their presence is constantly needed during initiation and other ceremonies.

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4.1.6 WOMEN IN OLD NSUKKA DIVISION, THEIR HIERARCHY, ROLES AND POSITIONS IN THE COMMUNITY. The roles of women in old Nsukka division In traditional African society, African women have definite social, political, and economic roles which enable them achieve a measure of independence and autonomy (Steady 1981:28) In view of this, it is pertinent to note that women of old Nsukka division (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi) being that these three communities were related and were seen under the former old Nsukka division, their women (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi) were seen to play different roles in these communities which can be grouped into political, social, economic and religious roles. These roles they play are for the good of the communities and the society at large. Political roles of women Women play significant roles in the political life of the people especially through their leadership within themselves and also within the community like the legislation, execution and punishment of offenders.Generally, it was observed that the political powers belongs to the men, the highest political authority belongs to the Onyishi, the council of elders which are males. Women only take part in minor decision making when invited. Their roles were seen to be limited and cannot be equated with the men. Despite that, they were seen to still play crucial and important role collectively or in association (umuada). As an institution of women (Umuada), women play their vital roles and are popularly known in the society as peace makers and freedom fighters. In their roles they fight for peace, unity, progress independent of their lineage. In addition, they were seen to supervise the general conduct of women, both young and old. In old Nsukka Division, umuada women were regarded as peace-makers who fight for peace and settle disputes between husbands and wives. They were the people with authority and play no injustice. They are also united to handle lxxxiv difficult issues like washing the deceased before burial and also in staying with the deceased family. It is the duty of umada to see that the deceased are buried appropriately. In land dispute, women intervene since land is a major problem in the society once men find it difficult to handle. They were able to handle this with the help of their goddess Adoro who places punishment on the offender in Alor-uno. Whenever umuada are seen, they exhibit their power and authority and because of their authority in the community they were held in high esteem.

Plate 3: Umuada of Nsukka displaying during burial Religious roles of women lxxxv

In this role, women established a good relationship between the entire community and their deity Adoro a female goddess According to Ezema, my informant, women by nature are closer to Adoro Alor than men. They work as messagers and also as children to Adoro they see that Nnenne as they call the goddess is daily attended. These women help in the pacification of Adoro when detected to be angry. During sacrifice, they do not go directly to Adoro rather they go through Attamah knowing that it is a taboo for woman to offer sacrifice. During ceremonies, it is the duty of the women to take food to Adoro with one hand of their cloth off. During festivals these women are not reminded of their duty in food preparation and entertainment through dancing. Socio-cultural roles ofwomen The rolesof women in the society, starting from the domestic work to the group or communal stage, bring forth perfect socialization. Their activities during festive periods can never be over-looked or overemphasized in the aspect of promoting the traditional activities, without them, there is no society. Bala and Bello (1987) in Ezema (2005:13) had it that an individual in a society contributes his best in any form which he will, in turn, receive services that enrich him materially, culturally and emotionally. This is applicable to women in the society who contribute through their advice and settlement of disputes and by so doing socializing people and enriching themselves culturally. It is the duty of these women to promote the norm of a given society through their solemn task in family upbringing. Women with their positions as mothers transmit to the family members and influence decision making in homes, especially the younger ones, the social norms and values of the society. Women also work as compassionate leaders and socializing agents. It was equally noted that any upset in their life affects, directly or indirectly, the society. The degree of disorganization and disorder mostly occurs when they are absent in the matter. lxxxvi

Economic roles of women The economic role of these women in the affair of these communities, bestow on them as the bread-winner. In old Nsukka, women played a greater economic role which does not seem generally to be recognized by men and appreciated in the society. Women engage themselves in spinning, weaving, broom making, pottery production, palm oil processing, cashew processing, garri processing, farm work and trading, all for the good of the society. In the aspect of farm work, women involved themselves mainly in planting of crops, weeding and harvesting which are done at subsistence level. Some women also engage themselves in larger production which they sell for money. Women are also known to produce palm oil the oil gotten is sold including the kernel which generates income for the women to take care of their families. Women also engage themselves in rearing of domestic animals like fowl, goat, sheep etc for economic purpose. Trading is the central feature in the life of every Igbo woman. Afor Opi, Afor Edem, Afor Alor uno create a forum for interchange of products. Economically, women attain a very high status and become wealthy out of hard work, they help their husband in meeting the financial needs of the home. In their products, their culture are been depicted, thereby promoting their way of life. Women’s interaction with other settlements, far and near, in form of business transaction leads to cultural diffusion and acculturation. The Hierarchy of women in old Nsukka division Based on hierarchy, women were seen to be among the least in the community after children. In political train, they were placed close to the last as Umuada which after them comes the age grade. Among these women, they also have hierarchy within themselves which Onyishi Otu Umuada is regarded as the head who has authority over others; she takes care of otu umuada. She sees to it that women are responsible in their homes and in the community. Onyishi umuada lxxxvii organizes women and play major part in the women forum; she serves as the spokeswoman to the council of elders. She is first considered before others especially in sharing of things. She is regarded as the eldest among other women in most case given higher responsibilities in the community and also among women. The Positions occupied bywomen in old Nsukka division Among the title taking in Alor-Uno, women have their own positions and titles such as the Adaogwu. This is the only title assigned to women in Alor-Uno. This title is not meant for all women; rather there were some women who are regarded to take up the title. This title taking is meant for women found virtuous and honest in the community. The title is given to any women who the entire community has found her character worthy with sound relationship with people. The woman is seen to be industrious in the community. During the title taking, there are some requirements such as the woman must have a good family background, she must be engaged with one thing or the other and she is not seen to be lazy, she must be a married woman, her culture must be known and where she was married from. At the initiation period, the Umuada (married daughters of the community) are the people in charge. The ceremony takes place at the eldest in Adaogwu’s compound where all the Umuada gather for the occasion. The Umuada accompanies the woman to Adaogwu`s compound with a praise song. The elders and titled men of the community also gather. It is the duty of the Nnenne Adoro Alor to carry out the initiation rituals and placing of the regalia on the woman such as beads (Eka) on her two legs. She is given a camels tail which serves as staff of authority. After the initiation there were entertainments and display of masquerades, including the dancing done by young girls and elderly women. After the initiation, it is the duty of these elderly women to take the new Adaogwu home in the company of the goddess Nnenne Adoro who takes the woman by the hand and leads her home (Ikpona Uno). The husband of the woman with the elders of lxxxviii the community receives the wives with a presentation of kola nut, and pregnant goat which signifies the procreation of women. The goat belongs to the gods of the land while the kola nuts are shared among the women. The role of these titled women is to deliberate on women affairs and to represent the women in the community meetings. Women positions found in Edem Title taking is also associated with women in Edem. The women are known to take the position of Loloanyi title. Loloanyi are women of richness in Edem. They are the favourites of their husbands and commands high respect within the community and also outside. (The Owu Lolo serves as a signal of her position; the Owu Lolo is a ring like thread well knitted round their ankles which signifies membership). It gives respect to the people especially the wealthy ones. During ceremonies, the loloanyi appears in her traditional attire with two yards of cloth (abada) one on her head and the other on her shoulder with a musical gong (Ivom). According to the informant, the cloth serves as richness and homage while the gong serves as their musical instrument. lxxxix

Plate 4: Edem titledwoman. (Source: Eze 1999:47) The Loloanyi title taking is only meant for women that are married to Ozo title holders. This serves as a basic qualification for them in Edem. The loloanyi is expected to be an exemplary woman in conducts being honest and upright in all her doing. This position is usually obtained for them by their husbands who assumed that they are wealthy enough. They exhibit their wealth by assuming or aspiring a title for their wives. The women with these positions serve as spokewomen in the women’s meetings and they are highly elevated and honoured by the community at large. They are regarded as the women of power. The initiation of Loloanyi title During the initiation, the woman obtains her husband’s approval, the community gathers including her husband’s group, the Ozo titled men. There is a presentation of kola nut, fresh palm wine and pounded yam. The woman is introduced to the people by (Umuada). She stands before the men and the entire xc community to make known her aim of becoming a Lolo after which the elders approve and advice her on what she is expected to be and do as a woman in honour to the community. Having given her approval, the first ceremony to take place is the Okputukputu ceremony (the eating hour). During this ceremony, all the members of the Ozo and Loloanyi in the woman’s village are invited including friends and well wishers while the Ozo men and all the Loloanyi sit together. They are entertained with a pot of kola nut, a full pot of fresh palm wine Ite Okpukpu for the members of Ozo and Ite lolo for the loloanyi (titled women). The first food presented is Nri Igbugbu (food eaten with spoon) which in most cases is sliced yam with obobo which serves as stew for eating the yam. After that, the second presentation is the pounded yam and ogbnono soup (Ofe Ohoyi) which serves as the main dish for the ceremony. At the end, two pots of fresh palm wine are served which they believe sends the food eaten to the stomach. At the end of the entertainment, the woman is called and sat at the middle before all the people on Oche Ekwa (Abacha) a wooden chair with woven cloth which was fashioned by xci the weavers ( usually women) and are mostly used by the onuoha titled men.

Plate 5: Oche Ekwa woven by Edem women weavers. (Source: Eze 1999:81) On that sit, the loloanyi is tied with Owu lolo round her ankle by an Ozo. This shows a public declaration of her initiation into the membership as a loloanyi. After that follows the outing ceremony which takes place on Izu ano (for native weeks) the woman is accompanied in a procession form to all the villages as friends and well wishers spray money on her. After that, on the seven native weeks (Izu asaa) ashua lolo is carried out where all the loloanyi members gather for their own entertainment which includes a pot of kola nuts, two gallon of fresh palm wine and a fowl. This is also accompanied with music for jubilation, each loloanyi with her Ivom (metal gong) as they take the woman (new loloanyi) to Afor Edem, indicating to the public that she has become part of them which after the visit to Afor Edem, they brings her home and continued their celebration till night when all will depart to their homes. xcii

Okpukpu Eka: This is one of the regalia worn by the loloanyi during their initiation ceremony or death of their members. The okpupu Eka is obtained from elephant tusks. It is a symbol of honour and respect for the women who occupy the position. Oche Ekwa: This is a traditionally made chair carved out from wood with a traditionally woven piece of cloth by Edem women known as Abacha. The colour of the Abacha varies depending on the instruction given to the traditional weaver. This chair can be stretched and unstretched depending on one’s choice. Oche ekwa is a special seat for the onuoha titled men. The Asogwa makes use of this chair during festivals like egba egorigo during an initiation ceremony of one of their members and also at the initiation of loloanyi.

4.1.7 MATERIALSPRODUCED BY THESE WOMEN AND THEIR USES On the three sites studied, it was discovered that the three communities had the knowledge of weaving. Edem is reknowned for spinning and weaving, Alor-uno women specialize mostspinning while Opi only dwells on weaving that is making use of the spinned thread to make a cloth through the aid of Ogwere. The Achima (textile product) whose raw material is gotten from cotton has long been in existence as a culture and socio economic in Igbo land. This was first discovered in Igbo Ukwu archaeological site (Radio-carbonated to 9th Century AD) where a fragment of textile was recovered indicating the weaving technology among the Igbos (Afigbo 1985:7). As a result of the textile excavated in Igbo Ukwu it was assumed that textile industry in Igbo culture has been older than the period seen in Edo and Igala where there was a system of centralization of state. In addition the oral tradition, it was established that cloth-weaving has long been practiced in Igbo land before the colonial misconception and record of Igbo culture (Afigbo 1985:12). Based on the colonial record, it was revealed that weaving xciii communities of Igbo land whose textile industries were seen was mostly in Old Nsukka Division which the communities known for practicing these weaving includes Edem Ani, Enugu-Ezike, Aku, Ibagwa-Ani, Okpuje, Nsukka and Obukpa (Okagu 2012:157). According to the oral information obtained in the three communities, it was discovered that they all in Old Nsukka division have the knowledge of textile production and have engaged themselves in the production. In Edem they were known for both spinning and weaving while Alor-Uno in view is good at spinning and Opi is good at weaving. Based on the informant (Esther) in Opi,she said “we obtain our wool (Owu Igbo) from the producers which we use for our weaving.

Source of raw material. Primarily, the raw material for the production of the textile is from cotton wool. It was discovered that weaver, engage themselves in the cultivation of these cottons which they plant in large quantity needed for the production of their weaving work especially in Edem. The cultivation was usually done in form of plantation but now due to civilization the technology has reduced, presently, the cultivation is mix cropping, that is, cultivating it with other crops. Nwanapa, my informant, indicated that the best period for this planting is between May and June while the best period for its harvest is between December and early March. After planting, it last for about seven months before the harvest. The growth is usually controlled by spacing and constant clipping of the branches to avoid vertical shooting to the sky and affecting other plants thereby encouraging a horizontal growth (Okagu 2012: 159) Once the cotton is riped for harvest, some spilt open in the farm by the sun whereby the wool isexposed; this shows that the cotton is ready for harvest. During xciv the harvest, a sharp knife is used to remove the bolls with the stable which are spread under the sun to split-open, producing the cotton fibre which is the main material needed for the production. When harvested, the cotton contains the seeds and some trash which are removed through hand picking for its neatness. The unique thing about the cotton is that as the wool is further sundried, the whiter the fibre becomes.

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Plate 6: Raw materials (cotton seeds)

Plate 7: Cotton farm

Plate 8: Cotton ready for harvest xcvi

Plate 9: Harvested cotton SPINNING This involves the transferring of the cotton into a yarn or thread form before dying for weaving based on ones choice. The objective of the spinning is to transform the single cotton or fibres into a cohesive and workable continuous length yarn. The spinning is usually done by hand with the local spindle (Nturu owu). The yarn is spun from the mass of combed cotton lint on the Ehoro-owu which is held on the left hand above the rotating spindle (Nturu). This process is known as Itu-owu. The other form is also known as Ifia owu which is the final stage of the spinning before dyeing. At this stage, the thread is doubled thereby bringing the spindle into contact with the thigh and rubbing the spindles (Nturu) xcvii sharply against the thigh with the open palm of the hand.

Plate 10: Spinning of cotton Dying process There are varieties of domestic sources of dye. Dying process involves the use of pots, pestle and mortar, leaves and barks of many plants and trees which includes Alulu leaves (Conchocarpuscyenesuens) and sap of old physic tree bark of tree (Jatropha curcas) (Afigbo 1985). The fresh green leave called Alulu produces blue dye. This is obtained when the leave is pounded on a wooden mortar with a heavy wooden pestle producing a bluish -black coloured liquid which is the main dye. In Edem, the processing is furthered by removing the pounded leave from the mortar and formed into balls which are kept for few days for fermentation to take place. The oil bean (Pentaclethramacroplylla) Akpaka tree is cut and burnt to obtain ashes which are added to the molded ‘Alulu’ left in a big pot and kept for fermentation with little addition of water. The solution is stirred at regular intervals for about three days to xcviii give dark blue or indigo colour. The thread (spin) is dyed three times daily, morning, afternoon and evening which lasts for one hour. After the dyeing, it is dried and ready for weaving. Also an already weaved cloth can be dyed by immersing it in a pot of dye; before the dyeing, the cloth is first made wet for about two minute and squeezed out on a draining board then dipped in a dye pot and allowed for an hour for the cloth to absorb the colour solution. The dyer checks if the entire colour has been absorbed by putting a small piece of cloth into the dye and squeezing it at her fingers; once there is no stain on her finger this indicates that the cloth is ready to be squeezed out. When the dye materials are first brought out of the dye, it is usually greenish but gradually changes to blue. If more colours are still needed, the dyer prepares more dye using the same method. Like the use of Okpeye tree which gives the red colour, the combination of colours depends on the creativity of the dyer. Methods of weaving The weaving production involves two sets of yarn or thread interlaced at right angle to form a fabric or cloth. The vertical threadcalled the warp and the horizontal thread called the weftare inter woven in an orderly manner designed by the weaver to form a fabric. The warpthreads are held tight in parallel to each other, typically in a loom,the weft crosses the warp in an alternative manner held to receive the weft and pressed together to be compacted to form a cloth. Often the weaver gives attention to the weft thread thereby making them appear in a planned or designed order to form a good fabric. The loom (Ogwere) as called by Edem and Opi is the vertical build broadloom usually built by men and is made of wood depending on the choice of the wood like Ogirisi (New bowdialeavis) or Otosi (IndianBambo). The purpose for these particular woods is because they are insect and ant attack free. The xcix standing post have their base dug into the ground, the raffia palm at the top and the other at the base, run horizontal to the two standing posts. The top cross bar is fastened the standing post with a rope while the base cross bar with a uniform cross-section joint to the two standing post through holes created at their lower ends. The base crossbar gives tension to the loom. Between the top and the base bar are the warp and the cloth beam. The warp beam is placed some centimetres below the top cross bar and parallel to it and fasten to the standing posts. Also another hole is dug for the loop with which the weaver fastened the rope at the ends of the warp beam to facilitate the adjustment of the warp beam to vary the height of the standing posts to the length of cloths desired. The cloth beam is positioned at few centimetres about the base bar and is jointed to the warp beam by the warping ropes and to the bar with a cord. Also there must be a heddle which separate groups of warp yarn between which the weft passes.

Plate 11:Ogwere (loom) (source Okagu 2012) c

Plate 12:Weaving in Aku (source Okagu 2012)

Materials used for the weaving include Weaver’s sword – mbuba

Shuttle – nkpara

Warp space – mbuba elu

Warping stick - mgbakpa

Heddle – Eyo

The weaving starts from the base and progress upwards through the alternative movement of weft and the warp with the control of the loom. This is done continuously. Once it gets to a point where the length of the warp thread between the woven cloths, the warp beam becomes short and will be difficult to allow easy ci movement of the shuttle at that point, the weaving stops based on the weaver’s measurement and choice. TYPES OF WOVEN CLOTHS The people of Edem and Opi are known for weaving cloths like Achima – male wrapper Osho ani – A large woven cloth, larger than a towel mostly used by women at home for their domestic activities Agbor – A female wrapper for outing Abacha (oche Ekwa) – chair with woven cloths used by onuoha and loloanyi during initiation In Opi they produce Mbubu Oja – woven head tie Ekpoto– woven cloth tied by Elders and also used by masquerades Oja– woven cloth used for tying babies Okpurukpu– woven cloth used during funerals. Mbubu woven cloth – cloths mostly used as wrapper, towel, chairs (Abacha) and sleeping depending on the size. Edem and Opi generally produce two designs of cloths such as; Oja – the narrow width cloth which serves different purposes like towel, chair cloth, head ties, and baby ties. Achima: This involves a standard size woman cloth measuring two meter by sixty centimetre mostly tied by women and men and also for sowing cloth used by prestige men. USES OF CLOTHS IN THE COMMUNITY These woven cloths serve economic purposes; serve as a source of employment to the women. Most women engage themselves in weaving as a source of their living. It yields large revenue to these communities since they have full-size markets; they produce in large quantity which they sold for money. It was cii discovered that 70% revenue realized in thesecommunities from weaving. They also provide large quantity of Achima textile clothes for the people to meet their needs on clothing. The materials used during ceremonies, during initiation are produced by these women thereby promoting their culture. Also during masquerading, the costumes worn by the masquerade are the products of these women weavers. The works of these women especially in Edem has brought the history of Edem and the culture to limelight and be documented. It has also attracted the attention of foreign agencies and governmentalallocations and revenue for the building of weaving centres and development of the community. These centres can be seen in Edem ani, behind St. Cyprian’s Girl’s Secondary School which has brought development to Edem community. PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN WEAVERS IN EDEM These women weavers have been faced with a lot of problems such as the commercial activities. Trading and Agriculture has affected their production whereby most women have jumped into other commercial products like garri processing in Edem and Alor-uno while Cashew processing and honey processing in Opi, leaving their original product of weaving cloth behind thereby reducing the technology. The western fashion textile industries and competition of European fashion has drastically affected our indigenous textile technology people are no longer interested in the local materials rather they crave for the modernized clothing. In this present day, modern industries have over-shadowed cultural textile in the society due to their attractiveness. The time and strength used in the production has seriously affected the weavers that most of the present women lack the patience to continue the work. ciii

Poor storage facilities and procurement of raw materials has affected the technology. The wools used for these weaving were seen to be dull and heavy when worn. Also the raw materials used were locally gotten and are difficult in processing which makes the weaving not enjoyable thereby making many weavers to crave for already processed ones (Owu oyibo) and used modernized machines for their production. Locally, they are produced in few quantities but modernization has made production to appear in mass which has resulted to the neglect of the public toward the local one. It was discovered that poor awareness of weaving to the younger generation has seriously affected the technology. Modernization has won the heart of many young women that they most desire white cola job more than the cultural technology. In conclusion, modern textile has brought a hindering force to the growth of our traditional textile weaving in these communities (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi).

4.1.8 THE ROLES OF WOMEN IN THE PROMOTION OF ARCHAEOLOGY Generally, the knowledge of these women`sproducts, have given them avenue to effectively participate in the field of archaeology both to the traditional women which now play major role in the field of Archaeology and to the female researcher in the field of archaeology. Previously, these women had no knowledge of education and no chance was given to them both in political sector and in other parts; they were seen as disadvantaged sex in terms of political, economic, legal, religious and social power. Women are depicted as wielding no significant power in any society (Nzei 2013:1) except at homes mostly in the kitchen. As a result of civ this movement, women were been brought to the lime light of education which made them wiser thereby making the reverse the case. The emergence of feminist movement brought gender equality and liberation to women. Many local organizations for the articulation of feminist view and goals, such as the United Nations special women commission were founded in 1970s and 1980s (wiper 1988:417) and many other organizations local, regional and national were formed all for the betterment of these women. It was as a result of these light of education they have seen that their children were educated which made us to have prominent women who now play major role both in the field of archaeology and in the secular world today; Women likeMargret Peter Obi Oluremi Tinubu, Justice (Mrs) Fati Lami Abubakar Ambassador Bianca Ojukwu, Justice Mary Odili, Mrs Amina Sambo (OFR), Hajiya Aisha Buhari, Dame Patience Jonathan.. Women were introduced to many social sciences and other cultural aspect which archaeology is part of it. They were seen to be championing many areas which the old Nsukka Division is also part of it. Based on the women’s role in Nsukka basically in promotion to the field of archaeology, much work has not been intensively done in Nsukka on the aspect of women expect the ones carried out by Dr. Pamela Eze-Uzomaka a female archaeologist, at Lejja where she studied the role or part played by women in iron smelting. The authority the women have as the care givers/the food giver who help in quenching hunger and also the reproduction as part of iron smelting. She was seen to have done a lot of work based on the field of archaeology. And as a female archaeologist she plays major roles which have brought growth and promotion to the field. Also, in Edem it was discovered that a female post graduate student from Ibadan in conjunction with Anozie carried out a rescue excavation during the foundation laying of Anglican Church where a smoking pipe was discovered, the report was taken to Ibadan. Viewing it, through relative dating, inference is drawn cv on cross cultural that dating for smoking pipe in Igboland was in existence since 16th century, this indicated that the history of Edem and the people that utilized the smoking pipe has been in existence since 16th century. Despite that (women) were confined to the kitchen, there they engaged themselves in the production of material, such as weaving, broom production, pottery, wall painting which now made them to be recognized and the materials they produce contributing to the study of archaeology which has given these women position in the field of archaeology. Generally, women have played a vital role in their culture. The home which has been the domain of these women, has become a place of production notwithstanding their neglect and placement at home alone, they engage themselves in production of objects which they use to solve their daily needs. Being that cooking is one of their major responsibilities, at home they involve themselves in production of materials needed for their food preparation like pottery which are used for cooking and storage of water and other things. These potteries are in use by the archaeologist for their site dating and also knowing the culture of the people through the designs or decorations on them. The kitchen construction of these women especially their postholes and ashes serves as evidence of the presence of human activities which through the charcoals discovered can be used to date the site. Thepost (wood) when analyzed tells the possible trees that exist in such areas; with the tree, the vegetation of the site can be detected. Also the grinding stones produced by these women in their kitchen for easy preparation of their foods can be used in detecting the grains found in such sites which can tell the archaeologist the likely food the people feed on and the type of grains they cultivate. Also their kitchen construction tells the archaeologist their Architectural ability, settlement pattern and their culture.

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4.2 DATA ANALYSIS 4.2.1 FEMINIST ARCHAEOLOGY Feminist archaeology is seen to be the same with gender archaeology. To some scholars, they tried differentiating the two and regarding feminist archaeology to place women at the centre of investigation and making women the focus of study, more especially their roles in the field of archaeology. While on the other hand, they saw gender to be socially or cultural constructed sex-role identity that emphasizes the distinction between male and female. They saw gender archaeology and feminist archaeology to be on different research programs and methodology. While some scholars, saw the two as the same and interwoven since gender also have its root on the second and third wave feminism. Feminist cvii archaeology is a branch of theoretical archaeology that places women at the centre of investigations, by using gender theory as a background to discuss the evidence, associations and frameworks from feminist perspective. Despite gender root on feminism, it still shows the divers roles of both male and female. While feminist archaeology shows inequalities and male bias on archaeology with critiques of androcentrism – male bias in the study of archaeology. Feminism seeks for the equality of recognition and is concerned with the emancipation of women in the discipline and the archaeological recognition of women and representation of women in the past (Gilchrist 1999:30). Feminist archaeology employs a feminist perspective in interpreting past societies. It mostly focuses on gender and also considers it with other factors like sexuality. There are three types of feminism liberal, Radical and Marxist. Liberal feminist focuses on the equal right in relation to women for better. Radical feminism focuses on the sex war and segregation. While Marxist or socialist feminism focuses on the impact of capitalism. The splitting of gender archaeology from feminist took place in 1990s where gender archaeology was viewed as a wide umbrella. Through the study of feminism, it has brought value and right to women. Feminism as described brought revolution that involves women and men who wish the world to be equal without discrimination and biases towards another. Feminism does not see gap or inequality of people or decrease of one another rather their total idea is to see that women are of equal power and authority in the society along with the men. In archaeology, women play vital roles which men refuse to recognize, using pottery production as an example. The activities of men end only on the digging of cviii the raw material (clay) while that of womenfrom the soaking of the clay till the end of the production (firing). Feminism is against women being placed behind the curtain or seen to be inferior rather they should be recognized as part of the society. As leadership positions are being assigned to men, likewise it should be assigned to women since they can handle their homes effectively equally, they can handle the society at large. Women should be treated as human beings not as objects; since they have great ideas to contribute both to the success of the society and also to the field of archaeology. Women should also be allowed to participate fully in every aspect of life; there should not be any area restricted from women to penetrate since they indirectly have impact to it. Women should not be prevented from carrying out researches in sacred areas since sources of the objects used in those areas for scarifies and other activities are the works of women. Also, women should not be neglected in certain areas in archaeology like field research, sensitive positions etc. feminism saw women to have the same capability like men.

4.2.2 PROBLEMS OF GENDER/FEMINISM IN THE FIELD OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND OLD NSUKKA DIVISION. There has been a bone of contention on what gender in archaeology constitute of. This emerged from the opponent of gender in archaeology stating that gender is not a visible aspect in archaeological record such as no reconstruction on the basis of gender. This poses an argument that it is usually not feasible to establish or determine the number of gender or what constitutes gender in the past. The argument also indicated that the possibility of determining gender outside the context of sex is small, showing that gender cannot be independent of sex. This cix argument has questioned if gender archaeology is not in essence archaeology of sexuality. To agree with this indicates that ethnoarchaeology, field archaeology, environmental archaeology etc are nothing short of reality. The issue of women is central to feminist politics and feminist theory, according to the feminist theorist, this issue of women is a major problem that has posed a dilemma in the field of archaeology at the same time needs critical investigation. Women and gender are inaccessible area in archaeological context. This was as a result of the methodology in use which is seen to be limited for the preservation of the research identification of women’s activities. Another problem is the political stance, women`s position in the society, being classified as inferior to men and seen as children in certain aspect. Based on gender, women were neglected and referred to as weaker vessels which cannot produce any meaningful thing but brings discouragement and weakness to the men. 4.2.2b PROBLEM OF GENDER IN OLD NSUKKA DIVISION, (ALOR- UNO, EDEM AND OPI) In Old Nsukka division, women were faced with a lot of problem as a result of gender bias whereby they are denied equal right with men in the aspect of political structure both in ideas and in exhibition of their authority. Men believed that they were made to be under them and have no power of their own or even have equal right with them. Because of this subjection, women were treated and regarded as children. There is always a strong opposition of women`s contribution to the development of the society. Most cases their ideas are considered last when others did not work out. cx

Most times, these women weavers are subjected under laws, tax and discrimination by men. This discriminatory practices, has resulted to the under utilization of women in the society in bringing out their potentials for the growth and development of the communities. According to Regina (informant) she suggested that “if we women were well recognized in this Alor uno community like other women Alor- Uno could have been a developed area. Ezema added that if our men have give us their support and impacted especially in the lives of their children the challenges we are facing as women would not have been there. Nwanapa on her own side contributed that if the communities in general have supported them financially and also the government by showing concern towards their weaving itstate now would not have been the same rather it could have been a developed one and have brought development to Edem. She lamented that people saw their spinning as unserious with the view that it is been used for recreation. From the above statement of theirs, it was observed that the power which will grant these women the ability to display the hidden endowed potentialshas not yet been released to then. Because of this, it has seriously affected these communities and the society at large. It has also affected the discipline, that weavers, spinners and their products are scarcely seen for data reconstruction of cultural history, technology and knowledge of the people. These women weavers are also faced with the problem of poor attention towards their production which has gradually resulted to the death of cloth weaving in old Nsukka Division. Also in the field of archaeology female archaeologist were hardly recognized both in Academic sector especially in research works were most well paid researches and opportunities are denied them and reserved for men while these women are given lesser opportunities with the intention that their core potential is their family. cxi

It may interest you to know that even till present that most of these women are regarded as house wives by their husband believing that little do they have to offer to the growth of this field and to the society at large.

4.2.3 THE VALUES/IMPORTANCE OF FEMINIST ARCHAEOLOGY IN OLD NSUKKA DIVISION. Feminism is an aspect that has brought enlargement of scope and betterment in archaeology especially when this aspect has been given full attention and focused on without doubt. Feminism helps in correcting the bias introduced by men towards women. It has brought women to the centre and created a balance between men and women. Feminism has given women the avenue towards gaining equal rights and opportunities including allowing them to have control over their lives and bodies. Through feminism, many women have recognized their privilege and stand in the society. Feminism has helped in the protection of women from harms by the men and has helped to stop discrimination of women. It has created equal opportunity to women with men especially in jobs opportunities, positions and honour thereby making them have confidence and power in the society. In old Nsukka division (Alor-uno Edem and Opi), through the study of the materials they produced, it has given these women position and prestige in these communities. The materials they produced have become an object of attraction (tourism product) whereby people gather to see the objects including their producers. Indirectly it has given promotion to tourism in their localities, making it a tourist site. In the cause of people coming for site seeing, it has brought development to the community such as construction of road and the activity of women recognized. Through these materials produced by these women, it has cxii become an object of interest to archaeologist thereby the materials produced can be used for reconstruction of the past. Through these products, the cultures of the people are identified. To archaeologist, it can be used to know the technology of the people, the period when human activities began as similar with the discovery of piece of cloth in Igboukwu. Through these objects and the study of women and their roles, and through the study of feminism in old Nsukka Division, women now have stand in their communities and prove their importance to the society, and their contribution has great impact to the growth and development of the community, also their products which serve as a source of generating income or revenue to the communities. It was also discovered that through their products, it has made their communities an area where diverse techniques of textile works can be seen which can be used for exhibition. It can also serve as a means of culture diffusions especially in area that are involved in the trading of these products. If these women can return back to production of these materials (cloth) Governmental allocation will be given to them and building of technological sites will be constructed, through these, it will serve as source of employment to the people and also help in reducing unemployment in their communities and in the society at large. In the course of studying feminism in old Nsukka division, it has brought a lot of importance and values both to archaeology, tourism,and the women and also to the communities. Feminism in archaeology has actually made old Nsukka division an ethnographic site where further researches and information about the communities, the people and their culture can be studied. In the course of carrying out the research there were some discovery of potsherds in Edem where surface collections were made, this came as a result of the neighbouring town Nrobo, where women engage themselves in pottery cxiii production which also depict the contrbutions of women in the archaeological record. Table 1: An inventory of Potsherds collected in Edem

S/N Type of Thickness Temper Surface Motif Technique Colour Rim Vessel potsherds treatment morphology form

1 Rim 1.0cm Clay burnished - - Brown Everted RNS

2 Body 0.5cm Clay Decoration Net Impression Brown - B

3 Body 0.6cm Clay Decoration Net Impression Brown - B

4 Body o.4cm Clay Burnished - - Brown - B

Total number of potsherds = 4Rim = 1Body Sherds = 3 Note: R - Rim B - Body S - Shoulder N - Neck

Table 2: The inventory analysis of potsherds. S/NO Motifs Total number

1 Impression 2

2 Burnished 2

Based on this, the inventory of potsherds indicated that both impression and burnished were dominant in Ozzi-Edem. cxiv

Figure 1: Reconstruction Rim found in Edem cxv

Figure 2: Reconstruction of potsherds collected in Edem

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Plate 13: Potsherds discovered in Edem.

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Plate 14: Spinner and researcher in Ozzi Edem

Plate 15: Informant in Alor-uno on women political positions cxviii

Plate 16:Male informant and the researcher in Ozzi-Edem

Plate 17: A weaver in Opi(informant) cxix

Plate 18: Umuada in Ozzi Edem oncondolence visit.

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Plate 19: Potsherds discovered in Edem indicating the north Chapter Five Summary, Recommendation and Conclusion 5.1 Summary Having researched on feminist archaeology, the roles and contributions of women both women in old Nsukka division (Alor – uno, Edem and Opi) and female archaeologist to the field of archaeology, it is pertinent to know that the work has examined the past and present activities and contributions of these women to the field and also to the society at large. Feminism in archaeology is a great aspect of archaeology which traditionally was seen to have greater responsibilities in society than the men but owing to the wrong notion on the mind of men, the responsibilities of these women were neglected and looked down on. But in the course of this work, it was observed and brought under conclusion that women have vital roles, contributions and positions in the society which they must be allowed to work out, for the betterment of the society. Politically, women were seen as pillars that hold the society in their roles especially as Umuada who occupy the position, settle dispute, and engage in decision making and settlement of debts. Women also occupy positions academically as researchers, lecturers, supervisors and traditionally as loloanyi, Adaogwu etc. On the aspect of their products, it has brought upliftment and attachment of high value to these women.Dueto the materials they produce, women were recognized and valued in the society and also to Archaeology by the men in the past. In the course of the research, the feminism, roles and contribution to the field of archaeology was handled, and this exposed one to the aspect that women and their roles were silently seen but not recognized by the men. It is cleared that cxxi women contribute a lot to community development and the promotion of archaeology in Nigeria starting from the materials they produce, their contribution to indigenous knowledge and technology and their responsibility in handling issues which men findso difficult to handle, including the leadership among them. The materials produced by women in the community are of great important to archaeology and tourism. Much of their work later serve as archaeological data that archaeologists collect and study to determine the culture of the people, their technology and their economic beneficial through tourism and museum development, and some of them are duplicated and sold to the tourists or culturally oriented people as souvenirs. 5.2 Recommendations Despite the constraint of women in the field of Archaeology and old Nsukka division (Alor uno, Edem, and Opi), there is an overwhelming evidence from the main work about women’s immeasurable contribution to the society and to the field of archaeology, especially through their products like Basket making, spinning and cloth weaving. In general, women were seen to be endowed with wisdom towards issues both in families and for the society in general they are seen to have fore sight and can cope with any environment they find themselves. Their contribution to the old Nsukka Division (Alor-uno, Edem and Opi) even to the society at large and also to the field of archaeology cannot be neglected. They have the ability to dictate the pace and direction of their society and also help in the production of materials which are valuable to archaeological field. Archaeologist crave for the materials produced by these women which they use for reconstruction of the past culture and technology of the people. Most of these women`s products and contributions have resulted to the existence and expansion of the scope of this discipline archaeology. cxxii

In identifying and improving the roles and contributions of women in the society (old Nsukka Division – Alor –uno, Edem and Opi) efforts should be made for a holistic encouragement of women along ensuring a policy intervention in bringing up their potentials at par with that of men by the government and also academic institutions for the female archaeologist. Government and employers of labour should restructure policies that will suite these women in giving them opportunity to express their potentials. Policies should be made towards training and equipping these women in their technologies and workshops for their research works in the field. Also certain positions in the society in governmental level, academic level and others should be allocated to these women for them to express their endowed potentials and rights for the good of the society. There should be development towards their productions such as provision of the raw materials and necessary equipment needed for their production and also development of their sites which will result to the attraction of people to the site and to invitemany researchers for further research at the sites. There is need for the governmental provision of access to the sites and good communication network. Also government should allocate fund to the local women for their effective production; to female archaeologists for their research work which should be equated with the male archaeologists. These women need both the community and the governmental attentions. Identification and discouragement of any form of discrimination based on sex should be made by the government. Government should revisit all forms of legislation and discrimination that hinders women from participating in public services since they have equal right with men. Through legislation, the position and roles of these women should be recognized and equal position should be given to them with men in the society. cxxiii

For great and advancement of their technology and knowledge, there should be need for formal Education. Women should be encouraged to acquire advanced knowledge beyond their inherited knowledge. Through the education provided, it will enable them to fit into more creative and technological works. The information concerning weaving and, spinning should be made available to these women by the government and individuals through the organization of production programmes. Finally, efforts should be made by women to be heard, seen and enrolled into anything that concerns the society and other aspects since they are equal to the task. Women are not expected to look down on themselves rather they should look forwards on what they can do for a better people and society. 5.3 Conclusion In conclusion, this work has shown the historical background of the old Nsukka division (Alor-Uno, Edem and Opi), the geographical location of the site, and the political economic and social-cultural organization of the people. It has widely touched the feminism in archaeology, general roles and contribution of women in the field thereby placing women at the center of study through the aid of gender. It has made the role of these women clear the part they play in the field and also in the society which has led to the growth of the field and their communities and has brought value to these women in the society. In narrowing it down, observations were made on the archaeological materials produced and their technological method which made each community unique from the other. Through this objects weaving, and spinning produced, it has shown that the positions and roles women occupy in the community are immeasurable. The research made, has unveiled that the sites will be of great benefit to archaeologists for further research work and also aid in the preservation of archaeological materials discovered. cxxiv

Finally, through this work feminist archaeology, the study of gender in archaeology using old Nsukka Division as a case study(Alor-uno, Edem and Opi), the researcher has come to the final conclusion to say that women have greater roles to play in archaeology and some potentials embedded in them which must be allowed to manifest for the betterment and growth of the society and Nigeria at large.

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