Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Studies in History and Philosophy of Biol & Biomed Sci journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/shpsc Ancient DNA: a history of the science before Jurassic Park Elizabeth D. Jonesa,b,∗ a University College London, Department of Science and Technology Studies, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom b University College London, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom 1. Introduction an array of actors from futurists and enthusiasts to scientists and the popular press contributed to ancient DNA's early history, and that what This history highlights the search for DNA from ancient and ex- we see as science often has its beginnings with ideas and individuals tinct organisms from the late 1970s to the mid 1980s, uncovering the that are outside the conventional confinements of the laboratory. origination and exploration of ideas that contributed to the con- Second, this article argues that from the beginning, particularly struction of this new line of research.1 Although this is the first preceding the release of Jurassic Park,thesearchforDNAfromfossils academic historical account of ancient DNA's disciplinary develop- was closely connected to the idea of bringing back extinct organisms. ment, there are other reviews and reports that outline its history.2 Ancient DNA elicited enthusiasm and speculation across different Most cite a paper published in Nature in 1984, where researchers audiences. Some imagined using DNA to study evolutionary history. reported the discovery of DNA froma140-year-oldextinctquagga,as Others speculated about its potential to resurrect long-lost species. the beginning of ancient DNA's history. Most also cite Michael These ideas were coupled but also contested. This study showcases Crichton's 1990 book and Steven Spielberg's 1993 movie, Jurassic the interplay between science, speculation, and spectacle – particu- Park, as the beginning of its popularity. I argue for a different history. larly around the idea of bringing dinosaurs back to life – as influ- Drawing on archival material as well as published and unpublished ential in ancient DNA's early history. I argue that this interplay documents, this paper presents a new narrative about the search for contributed to the construction of expectations for this new line of DNA from fossils. research and played a part in its emergence, then evolution, into a First, this article argues that ideas regarding the recovery of DNA discipline. from fossils were pursued by different people in different places, both Appreciation of this historical and intellectual connection be- inside and outside of the lab, at around the same time. Stories about tween the idea of recovering ancient genetic material and resur- these ideas and the individuals who championed them have been told in recting extinct organisms, especially the ways in which individuals one way or another, but they have never been told together in a way associated or dissociated from the coupling of these ideas, is essential that captures their contribution to the disciplinary development of for understanding the whole of ancient DNA's disciplinary develop- ancient DNA research. There are six strands of inquiry in this history ment within the broader backdrop of evolutionary biology. Crucially, starting with (one) Charles Pellegrino and extending to (2) John Tkach, this account and analysis of ancient DNA research contributes to (three) George Poinar and Roberta Hess, (four) Michael Crichton, (five) wider historical, sociological, and philosophical conversations about Allan Wilson and Russell Higuchi, and (six) Svante Pääbo. I argue that disciplinary development in terms of the features that help to form ∗ University College London, Department of Science and Technology Studies, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom; University College London, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom. E-mail address: [email protected]. 1 “Ancient DNA Research” refers to the process of extracting, sequencing, and analyzing degraded or damaged DNA from ancient and extinct organisms including plants, animals, humans, and bacteria. Ancient DNA can be preserved in skins, tissues, and bone if the bone is not a fully mineralized fossil. To be clear, a fully mineralized fossil is unlikely to preserve DNA, whereas a subfossil, a partially mineralized part of an organism, may retain remains of its cellular or molecular components. Generally, insects preserved in ancient amber, a type of fossilization, are often referred to as fossils although the organism trapped inside is not itself mineralized. Specifically, an organism's status as a fossil or subfossil, or whether it exists as a piece of skin or tissue, matters when considering whether cellular or molecular components may be preserved. Nonetheless, I use the terms “ancient DNA,”“the search for DNA from ancient and extinct organisms,” or the “search for DNA from fossils” interchangeably throughout this article to refer to the investigation of DNA from many different materials including museum skins, paleontological or archeological remains, and amber fossils. It is also important to note that the term “ancient DNA” does not necessarily relate to the age of the DNA but to characteristic damage patterns in the DNA that happen after an organism has died. Given this damaged state of genetic material, research into DNA from old organisms requires specialist skills and technologies. 2 Most narratives of ancient DNA's history have been written by journalists in the media or scientists who have documented their discipline in textbooks or books, as well as professional and popular articles. See Jeffreys (1984), Cherfas (1991), Browne (1991), Brown and Brown (1992), Begley (1993), Herrmann and Hummel (1994), Lister (1994), Stoneking (1995), Schweitzer and Staedter (1997), DeSalle and Lindley (1997), Wayne, Leonard, and Cooper (1999), Hofreiter, Serre, Poinar, Kuch, and Pääbo (2001), Jones (2001), Hummel (2003), Pääbo et al. (2004), Willerslev and Cooper (2005), Shapiro and Hofreiter (2012), Hagelberg, Hofreiter, and Keyser (2015), Pääbo (2014), and Shapiro (2015). Elsbeth Bösl has recently published an article, “Zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte der aDNA-Forschung” (March 2017), and a book, Doing Ancient DNA: Zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte Der Adna-Forschung (August 2017), on the topic of ancient DNA research. These works view the practice of ancient DNA research from a historical perspective and both are published in German. See Bösl (2017a) and (2017b). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2018.02.001 Received 12 May 2017; Received in revised form 4 January 2018; Accepted 14 February 2018 E.D. Jones new disciplines, as well as those that sustain them over time. organs appeared to be preserved in microscopic detail” just “as if they have been alive the day before” (Pellegrino, 1985a, p. 40). This 2. Resurrecting a dinosaur prompted Pellegrino to imagine the potential of amber for studying ancient and extinct organisms (Pellegrino, 1985a, 1995). Pellegrino In 1985, Charles Pellegrino – polymath scientist, writer, and futurist speculated that if cellular structures could stand the test of time, then – published an article called “Dinosaur Capsule” with a recipe for perhaps molecular components like DNA could too. If so, it was a way bringing dinosaurs back to life. As a scientist, he spread his interests and of perhaps “bringing back dinosaurs” to “study them face to face” expertise across different disciplines from paleontology and archeology (Pellegrino, 1985a, p. 114). Inspired by amber-embedded insects in the to space science, designing rockets and working in part on the ex- field and in the lab, Pellegrino actively advocated for these ideas about cavations of Pompeii and Titanic. As a writer, he had close connections the theoretical preservation, potential extraction, and hypothetical with other futurists from Isaac Asimov to Arthur C. Clarke. In other resurrection of extinct life. words, Pellegrino's studies were wide-ranging, and as a visionary he In the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, Pellegrino and his ideas was far from conventional. In his article, “Dinosaur Capsule,” Pellegrino faced criticism. Before the publication of “Dinosaur Capsule,” speculated about an ancient past to one day be unlocked by pa- Pellegrino discussed his ideas with colleagues only to discover they leontologists and technologies of the future. For Pellegrino, amber thought them to be too speculative or “totally bizarre” and even specimens – often whole organisms first trapped in sticky fluid tree “downright crazy” (Pellegrino, 1995, pp. 69–70). While he said he ex- resin and later encased in hardened amber fossil shells – were the ul- perienced difficulty convincing his professional colleagues of his ideas, timate means to rediscover and recreate the past. He imagined a time Pellegrino encountered even more difficulty publishing his ideas in when someone, somewhere, would discover insects pristinely preserved professional journals. Pellegrino had corresponded with Smithsonian in amber; insects that once lived during the days of the dinosaurs. Magazine since 1981 about his amber article, but editors and reviewers Pellegrino proposed that “ancient bacteria on and in the flies may still thought the article was too speculative. Editor John Wiley explained be capable of reproducing themselves” and that in the “stomachs may that even “legitimate speculation”