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The Syntactic Analysis of Unaccusative Verbs in Archaic Chinese

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IALP 2020, Kuala Lumpur, Dec 4-6, 2020 The Syntactic Analysis of Unaccusative Verbs in Archaic Chinese Mengbin Liu School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen Shenzhen, China [email protected] Abstract—In this paper, I provide syntactic analysis on paper, I will conduct a study from formal syntax unaccusative verbs in Archaic Chinese. I argue that a zero or perspective. I will discuss whether these words in subject, covert nominalizer exists and triggers verbs in the subject or object or modifier positions are nouns or verbs and verify object position to undergo nominalization. When an my analysis through syntax. unaccusative verb appears in the position of prenominal 有 無 modifier, it behaves as predicate of a relative clause, rather I argue that such as You “existence”, wu than behave as modifier itself. This can be proven by the “nonexistence”, si 死 “death” and wang 亡 “death” in (1) relative operator zhi 之 in Archaic Chinese. When and (2) are still verbs rather than nouns and they do not unaccusative verbs sheng 生 “alive”, li 立 “stand” and zui 醉 directly behave as subject, object or modifier. I argue that “drunk” appear in the preverbal position, I argue that they when a verb appears in the subject or object position, it is are not verb compounds but syntactic phrases of “V1-V2” nominalized by a zero nominalizer. When it appears in the form, in which V1 behaves as adjunct. Through analysis, I prenominal modifier position, it actually behaves as the have done a more in-depth study on Archaic Chinese and predicate in a prenominal relative clause, rather than may shed light on the studies of formal syntax and modern directly behaves as the modifier. languages. According to the Unaccusative Hypothesis [3-4], verbs in a language can be divided into unaccusative and Keywords-Unaccusative Verbs ； Archaic Chinese ； unergative types. As claimed in the previous studies [5], Syntactic Analysis the Unaccusative Hypothesis can widely applied to Modern Chinese and can also be applied into Archaic I. INTRODUCTION Chinese. Since unaccusative verbs and unergative verbs Verbs normally behave as the predicate of a sentence. differ from each other in both semantics and syntax, we However, according to the traditional point of view, verbs focus on our syntactic analysis on the unaccusative verbs can also behave as subject, object and modifier [1-2]. I in Archaic Chinese in this paper. consider it necessary and significant to conduct a more in- II. THE SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS depth analysis from formal syntax perspective. I will focus on Archaic Chinese and examples are shown below. In this section, I first conduct syntactic analysis on unaccusative verbs in subject and object positions in (1) 有生于無。(《老子》) Archaic Chinese, then conduct syntactic analysis on you sheng yu wu (Laozi) unaccusative verbs in the modifier position. existence live from nonexistence “Things came into being because of A. Unaccusative verbs in subject and object positions emptiness.” Unaccusative verbs may appear in subject or object position, as shown in (1) and more examples below. (2) 死亡之患,臣弗敢畏也.（《戰國策·秦 3》） siwang zhi huan, chen fu gan wei ye (3) 死生有命。(《論語·顏淵》) (Zhanguoce.Qin3) si sheng you ming. (Lunyu.Yanyuan) death Prt worry minister not dare afraid Prt death life have destiny “As for death, I dare not worry about it.” “To die or to live is determined by destiny.” You 有 “existence” and wu 無 “nonexistence” in (1) (4) 群臣懼死。(《左傳·昭公 5 年》) frequently behave as predicates, but here they appear in qun chen ju si (Zuozhuan.Zhaogong5nian) the subject and object position respectively. Similarly, si group minister afraid death 死 “death” and wang 亡 “death” in (2) which normally “The ministers are afraid of dying.” behave as predicates appear here in the modifier position. (5) 事亡如事存。(《中庸》) Are they really verbs directly behaving as subject, object or modifier as seen from the traditional point of shi wang ru shi cun (zhongyong) view? Many linguists may argue this way because they treat death like treat life consider the part of speech is not clear in Chinese, as “Treat the dead ones as good as when they are claimed in the traditional literatures like [1-2]. However, alive.” they did not show enough evidence for such argument. Therefore, I consider this analysis too simplified. In this 1 978-1-7281-7689-5/20/$31.00 c 2020 IEEE 351 Sheng 生 “live”, cun 存 “existence” and wang 亡 “death” (9), nouns are used after genitive marker zhi 之 and in (3)-(5) are unaccusative verbs normally behave as genitive pronoun qi 其. Zhi 之 is genitive marker before xi predicates, but here are in the subject or object postions. 西 “west”. Qi 其 in (9) is also a genitive marker which is Are they truly verbs rather than nouns? How to test different from the determiner qi 其 in (7). In (10), the through syntax if they are nouns? If they are verbs, are noun xiao guo 小国 “small country” is used after they directly behaving as subject or object as claimed in 于 the traditional literatures? preposition yu . From the perspective of formal syntax, nouns can be It should be noted that although nouns can be used tested at least through the following ways: (i) they can be after the words ci 此 “this”, bi 彼 “that”, qi 其, zhi 之 and marked by determiners like a and the in English; (ii) they yu 于, it doesn’t mean that the words following them are can follow the genitive expressions like genitive marker ’s necessarily nouns. Predicative phrases may also appear and genitive pronoun mine or his in English; (iii) they can after these functional categories, as shown below. behave as the complement of prepositions like to in (11) 凡此飲酒，或醉或否。（《詩經·賓之初筵》） English and (iv) they can appear after classifiers like ge fan ci yin jiu huo zui huo fou 個 in Mandarin Chinese (Shijing.Binzhichuyan) Since classifiers in Archaic Chinese are not quite all this drink wine some drunk some not developed, we can only use the former three ways to test. “Of all those who drank, some were drunk and We consider that nouns in Archaic Chinese should be able others were not.” to appear after at least the following types of words: (i) (12) 而何其血之流杵也？（《孟子·盡心下》） the determiners or pronouns ci 此 “this”, bi 彼 “that” and qi 其; (ii) the genitive marker zhi 之 and genitive pronoun er he qi xue zhi liu chu ye (Mencius.Jinxinxia) qi 其 and (iii) preposition yu 于. Examples are shown Con what Prt blood Prt flow pestle Prt below. “How could the blood be too much as the pestle (6) 維此哲人，謂我劬勞。 (《詩經·鴻鴈》) can flow in it?” wei ci zhe ren wei wo qu lao (13) 貴其不已。（《禮記·哀公問》） Prt this wise man say me tired tired gui qi bu yi (Liji.Aigongwen) (Shijing.Hongyan) valuable it not stop “The wise man knows why I am tired from hard “It is valuable that the law of nature will never working.” stop.” ( · (7) 今欲舉大事，將非其人不可。 《史記 項羽本 (14) 況于殺人以求之乎？（《孟子·告子下》） 紀》) kuang yu sha ren yi qiu zhi hu jin yu ju da shi, jiang fei qi ren bu ke (Mencius.Gaozixia) (Shiji.Xiangyubenji) beside Prt kill people to get it Prt now want do big thing will not that man not can “Let alone getting it by killing people.” “Now if we want to do this great thing, we will (11)-(14) are examples of predicative phrase appearing not succeed without him.” after ci 此 “this” , bi 彼 “that”, zhi 之, qi 其 and yu 于. (8) 秦攻楚之西。（《戰國策·楚 1》） Now let’s see whether you 有 “existence”, wu 無 qin gong Chu zhi xi (Zhanguoce.Chu1) “nonexistence”, si 死 “death”, sheng 生 “live”, cun 存 Qin attack Chu Gen west “existence” and wang 亡 “death” belong to the noun “Qin attacks the west area of Chu.” category. The data show that all of these words can stand (9) 則其父母弗能主也（《禮記·雜記上》） after zhi 之 and qi 其 . You 有 “existence”, wu 無 ze qi fu mu fu neng zhu ye “nonexistence”, si 死 “death”, sheng 生 “live” and wang (Liji.Zajishang) 亡 “death” can stand after yu 于. However, none of them then his father mother not can host Prt is found after ci 此 “this” and bi 彼 “that” in Archaic “Then his parents are not allowed to host it.” Chinese. Since ci 此 “this” and bi 彼 “that” are typical (10) 夫大國之人令于小國（《左傳·昭公 16 determiners in Archaic Chinese, this should not be the 年》） case if the above words are truly nouns. As we know, nouns should be able to appear after all these words. fu da guo zhi ren ling yu xiao guo 有 Prt big country Gen people command to small Hence, it is reasonable to claim that you “existence”, country wu 無 “nonexistence”, si 死 “death”, sheng 生 “live”, cun (Zuozhuan.Zhaogong16nian) 存 “existence” and wang 亡 “death” are actually verbs “The big country has command of the small rather than nouns. country.” Examples of appearing after zhi 之 are given below. In (6) and (7) nouns are used after determiners ci 此 (15) 鄭群公子以僖公之死也 （《左傳·襄公 8 “this”, bi 彼 “that” and qi 其. Ci 此 “this”, bi 彼 “that” 年》） and qi 其 can also be pronouns in other cases. In (8) and 2 2020 International Conference on Asian Language Processing (IALP) 352 zheng qun gongzi yi xigong zhi si ye jie zhou yong qi cai er cheng qi wang Zheng group childe because Xigong Prt death Prt (Lüshichunqiu.Yiyong) (Zuozhuan.Xianggong8nian) Jie Zhou use their talent and get their death “Group of childs planned (to murder Zisi) “Jie and Zhou took use of their talent and because of the death of Xigong.” caused their own death.” (16) 物之生也,若驟若馳。（《莊子·秋水》） Examples of appearing after yu 于 are given below.
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  • Manufacturing Martial Spirit Ethos, Ideology and Identity in the Chinese Martial Arts Douglas Wile

    Manufacturing Martial Spirit Ethos, Ideology and Identity in the Chinese Martial Arts Douglas Wile

    Douglas Wile gained his doctorate in East Asian Languages from the CONTRIBUTOR University of Wisconsin. He is currently professor emeritus from the City University of New York. His research interests include revolution in the late-imperial, Republican and Communist periods, martial arts historiography, the translation of premodern taijiquan literature and embodied practices in the humanities curriculum. MANUFACTURING MARTIAL SPIRIT ETHOS, IDEOLOGY AND IDENTITY IN THE CHINESE MARTIAL ARTS DOUGLAS WILE DOI ABSTRACT 10.18573/mas.103 This article interrogates the enduring place of ‘martial spirit’ (shangwu jingshen) in China. It argues that it emerged decisively as a discursive trope during the late nineteenth-century as China faced the existential threat of internal rebellion, Western and Japanese imperialism and a moribund Manchu dynasty. This was when China’s self-image as the ‘Central Kingdom’ gave way to the international image of the ‘Sick Man KEYWORDs of Asia’, proMpting Many native and foreign observers to attribute China’s vulnerability to a chronic deficiency of martial spirit. The article China, intellectual history, martial shows that progressive intellectuals sought models of courage and self- spirit, national ethos, political ideology sacrifice, looking both to China’s ancient history and to Sparta and Japan, while foreign historiographers, from Montesquieu, Hegel, Marx and Spencer to Lattimore and Wittfogel, proposed various theories to explain China’s weakness. Similarly, Confucian and Daoist, as well as Legalist and Moist philosophers of the late Bronze Age, all identified a role for martial CITATION spirit in character-building and the construction of national ethos, while military strategists from Sunzi to Qi Jiguang addressed such issues as esprit Douglas Wile.