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Landslide Typ Es and Processes

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Landslide Typ Es and Processes kChapter 3 DAVID M. CRUDEN AND DAVIDJ. VARNES LANDSLIDE TYP ES AND PROCESSES iN I I it.iuiir.iij Words strain, Crack and sometimes break, under the burden, he range of landslide processes is reviewed in Under the tension, slip, slide, perish, T this chapter, and a vocabulary is provided for Decay with imprecision, will not stay in place, describing the features of landslides relevant Will not stay still. to their classification for avoidance, control, or re- mediation. The classification of landslides in the Such displaced terms are identified in this chapter. previous landslide report (Vames 1978) has been Following Vames (1978), the use of terms relating widely adopted,, so departures from it have been to the geologic, geomorphic, geographic, or cli- minimized and the emphasis is on the progress made matic characteristics of a landslide has been dis- since 1978. Although this chapter is complete in couraged, and the section in the previous report in itself, particular attention is drawn to changes and which these terms are discussed has been deleted. additions to the vocabulary used by Vames in the The viewpoint of the chapter is that of the previous report and the reasons for the changes. investigator responding to a report of a landslide The term landslide denotes "the movement of on a transportation route. What can be usefully a mass of rock, debris or earth down a slope" observed and how should these observations be (Cruden 1991, 27). The phenomena described as succinctly and unambiguously described? landslides are not limited either to the land or to The technical literature describing landslides sliding; the word as it is now used in North has grown considerably since 1978. An important America has a much more extensive meaning than source of landslide information is the proceedings its component parts suggest (Cruden 1991). The of the International Symposium on Landslides. coverage in this chapter will, however, be identi- The third symposium met in New Delhi, India cal to that of the previous report (Vames 1978). (Swaminathan 1980), and the symposium has since Ground subsidence and collapse are excluded, and met quádriennially in Toronto, Canada (Canadian snow avalanches and ice falls are not discussed. Geotechnical Society 1984); in Lausanne, Switzer- This chapter also follows Vames's expressed land (Bonnard 1988); and in Christchurch, New intention of (1978, 12) "developing and attempting Zealand (Bell 1992); it is scheduled to meet in to make more precise a useful vocabulary of terms Trondheim, Norway, in 1996. by which... [landslides] ... may be described." The Among the other important English language terms Vames recommended in 1978 are largely texts and collections of descriptions of landslides retained unchanged and a few useful new terms have been those by Zaruba and Mend (1982), have been added. Eliot (1963, 194) noted: Brunsden and Prior (1984), Crozier (1986), and 36 Landslide Types and Processes 37 Costa and Wieczorek (1987). Eisbacher and with landslide activity, many of Hutchinson's sug- Clague (1984) and Skermer's translation of Heim's gestions from the Working Party on the World Bergsturz und Men.schenleben (1932) have made Landslide Inventory (WP/WLI) have been descriptions of the classic landslides of the Euro- adopted (WP/WLI 1993a,b). pean Alps more accessible to North Americans. Under Hutchinson's chairmanship, the Interna- Important reviews of landsliding around the tional Association of Engineering Geology (IAEG) world were edited by Brabb and Harrod (1989) and Commission on Landslides and Other Mass Move- Kozlovskii (1988). Kyunttsel (1988) reviewed ments continued its work on terminology. The experience with classification in the USSR and declaration by the United Nations of the Inter- noted "considerable divergences of views between national Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction various researchers concerning the mechanisms (1990-2000) prompted the IAEG Commission's underlying certain types of landslides. This applies Suggested Nomenclature for Landslides (1990) and particularly to lateral spreads." the creation of the WP/WLI by the International A historical perspective has been added to the Geotechnical Societies and the United Nations discussion of spreading to show that this type of Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization landslide was recognized in North America over (UNESCO). The Working Party, formed from the 100 years ago and is represented here by some IAEG Commission, the Technical Committee on extremely large movements. Both the size and the Landslides of the International Society for Soil gentle slopes of these movements command par- Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, and nom- ticular attention. inees of the International Society for Rock Me- Crozier commented: chanics, published Directory of the World Landslide Inventory (Brown et al. 1992) listing many workers The two generalized classifications most likely interested in the description of landslides world- to be encountered in the English speaking wide. The Working Party has also prepared the world are by J .N. Hutchinson (1968; Skempton Multilingual Landslide Glossary, which will encour- and Hutchinson, 1969) and D.J. Vames (1958; age the use of standard terminology in describing 1978). Both authors use type of movement landslides (WP/WLI 1993b). The terminology to establish the principal groups.. The major suggested in this chapter is consistent with the sug- distinction between the two classifications is gested methods and the glossary of the UNESCO the difference accorded to the status of flow Working Party (WP/WLI 1990, 1991, 1993a,b). movements . slope movements which are initiated by shear failure on distinct, boundary shear surfaces but which subsequently achieve 2.FORMING NAMES most of their translational movement by The criteria used in the classification of landslides flowage... this dilemma depends on whether presented here follow Varnes (1978) in emphasiz- the principal interest rests with analyzing the ing type of movement and type of material. Any conditions of failure or with treating the results landslide can be classified and described by two of movement. Hutchinson's classification nouns: the first describes the material and the sec- appears to be related more closely to this first purpose. Both Hutchinson's and Vames' ond describes the type of movement, as shown in classifications have tended to converge over Table 3-1 (e.g., rock fall, debris flow). recent years, particularly in terminology. The names for the types of materials are un- Whereas Vames' scheme is perhaps easier changed from Varnes's classification (1978): rock, to apply and requires less expertise to use, debris, and earth. The definitions for these terms are Hutchinson's classification has particular given in Section 7. Movements have again been appeal to the engineer contemplating stability divided into five types: falls, topples, slides, spreads, analysis. (Crozier 1986, Ch. 2) and flows, defined and described in Section 8. The sixth type proposed by Varnes (1978, Figure 2.2), The synthesis of these two classifications has con- complex landslides, has been dropped from the for- tinued. Hutchinson (1988) included topples, and mal classification, although the term complex has this chapter has benefited from his comments. In been retained as a description of the style of activ- Section 4 of this chapter particularly, which deals ity of a landslide. Complexity can also be indicated 38 Landslides: Investigation and Mitigation Table 3-1 Abbreviated Classification of Slope Movements TYPE OF MATERIAL TYPE OF ENGINEERING SoiLs MOVEMENT BEDROCK PREDOMINANTLY COARSE PREDOMINANTLY FINE Fall Rock fall Debris fall Earth fall Topple Rock topple Debris topple Earth topple Slide Rock slide Debris slide Earth slide Spread Rock spread Debris spread Earth spread Flow Rock flow Debris flow Earth flow by combining the five types of landslide in the ways The name of a landslide can become moreelab- suggested below. The large classification chart orate as more information about the movement accompanying the previous report (Vames 1978, becomes available. To build up the complete iden- Figure 2.1) has been divided into separate figures tification of the movement, descriptors are added distributed throughout this chapter. in front of the two-noun classification using a pre- ferred sequence of terms. The suggested sequence Table 3-2 provides a progressive narrowing of the focus of the Glossary for Forming Names of Landslides descriptors, first by time and then by spatial loca- AcnvrrY tion, beginning with a view of the whole landslide, STATE DISTRIBUTION S1mE continuing with parts of the movement, and finally defining the materials involved: The recommended Active Advancing complex sequence, as shown in Table 3-2, describes activity Reactivated Retrogressive Composite Suspended Widening Multiple (including state, distribution, and style) followed Inactive Enlarging Successive by descriptions of all movements (including rate, Dormant Confined Single water content, material, and type). Abandoned Diminishing This sequence is followed throughout the chap- Stabilized Moving ter and all terms given in Table 3-2 are highlighted Relict in bold type and discussed. Second or subsequent DESCRIPTION OF FIRST MOVEMENT movements in complex or composite landslides can be described by repeating, as many times as RATE WATER CONTENT MATERIAL TYPE necessary, the descriptors used in Table 3-2. Extremely rapid Dry Rock Fall Descriptors that are the same as those for the first Very rapid Moist Soil Topple movement may then be dropped from the name. Rapid Wet Earth Slide For instance, the very large and rapid slope Moderate Very wet Debris Spread movement that occurred near the town of Frank, Slow Flow Very slow Alberta, Canada, in 1903 (McConnell and Brock Extremely slow 1904) was a complex, extremely rapid, dry rock fall—debris flow (Figure 3-1). From the full name of DESCRIPTION OF SECOND MOVEMENT this landslide at Frank, one would know that both RATE WATER CONTENT MATERIAL TYPE the debris flow and the rock fall were extremly rapid and dry because no other descriptors are used Extremely rapid Dry Rock Fall for the debris flow.
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