heroes. The Hindi poet Bhartendu in his play Bharat Durdasha lamented the impoverishment of India under the British rule. In the Editorial south the Tamil poet Subramanya Bharati was the poet of the awakening of a truly national consciousness. The Novel as a literary form emerged in the nineteenth century. Biography and The British Rule in India is looked upon by many as a nightmare autobiography was another genre which developed in this period. while others consider it as a period of churning of several ideas Even if these literary forms were not the outcome of the colonial which influenced Indian psyche and to some extent at least, encounter, they made their appearance in this period. Gandhi and attempted to liberate it from orthodoxy. The empire did enslave Tagore, the one in the political field and the other in the literary and minds but it also generated ripples in a society which had lived cultural field were trail blazers in several fields at the same time. through centuries with a placid calmness. The independence The encounter with the British developed an understanding of the movement forced the British to withdraw from Indian soil and also relationship between Imperialism, Colonialism, Capitalism and initiated a healthy thought process in the minds of men to design a democracy. Thinkers like Bhagat Singh understood very well that structure of the constitutional democracy that was to be the Republic mere political freedom would not guarantee the emancipation of the of India. The churning also generated various issues which were not masses. He and other revolutionary leaders of Indian independence directly connected with anti British struggle, but which assumed a knew the limitations of capitalism very well and dreamt of building significance which has grown since these issues first came into up of a socialist secular republic after independence. The mere focus. They may be called 'identity questions'–regional identities; transfer of power was never their goal. The bourgeois political racial and linguistic identities; tribal identities, dalit identity and parties, however, thought that once the political power was gained many others. The relationship between the nationalist struggle and other things would naturally flow from it. The lessons of history these identity groups has been a fluid one and it has been a problem were learnt, though, after great suffering, both before the to maintain a balance between them. The question 'the nation state independence and afterwards. and identity groups' has gained significance in any nationalistic discourse. The gender issue has, by now, has assumed global India of the twentieth century is the making of the experiences of the dimensions. It is claimed that discourse in almost every field, even feudal and colonial past. The rise of English in India is also one of scientific discourse, has a gender bias. the factors of this transformation. The divide that separates the Shining Indiafrom Shivering India is also to some extent a linguistic Macaulay's minute concludes with the hope that the new class of English educated Indians will refine the regional languages divide. English language is the symbol of power which reflects the (vernaculars), enrich them with terms of science borrowed from the social stratum as well as political empowerment. One may agree or Western nomenclature, and render them fit vehicles for conveying not India is still under the rule of the English, not the people but the knowledge to the great mass of the population. The growth of language. The ruling classes of the country believe in maintaining literature in the regional languages, as also the emergence of new this status quo. However, the need is to use this tool for liberating the forms of literary expressions, was the result of this encounter. Some masses and empowering them so that the neo-colonial forces be kept authors sought to revive the glorious past to counter the English at bay and the real independence of the polity and the economy of claim of superiority. The Urdu poet Altaf Hussain Hali in his Indian Nation be established. This number of the Journal of Mussadas;and the Hindi poet Maithilisharan Gupta in Bharat Rajasthan Association for Studies in English might be a small step in Bharati recounted the glories of the past. Michael Madhusudan Dutt this direction. in his Bengali workMeghnadvadh Kavya treated the Puranic theme K.K. Gautam in a manner in which the moral roles of Ram on the one hand and Professor, Jaipur National University Ravana and Meghnad are reversed. The demons emerge as tragic Guest Editor CONTENTS 14. Role of English Language Education in Social and Economic Upliftment of Children of Labour Community – Dr. Rekha Tiwari 112 15. Reflection of Colonialism in Seamus Heaney's Station 1. Sir Syed's Support to British (?) and his Vision of English Island – Dr. Haris Qadeer 119 Education: A Critical Reading – Sana Niazi 1 16. Revolt, Violence and Bloodshed: Reaction against the 2. Narendra Singh Sarila's Reflections on Partition of India British Rule in Sadat Hasan Manto's Short Stories – the Stark Reality of History with special reference to Dr Jamsheed Ahmad and Nafisa Zargar 134 Mohammad Ali Jinnah – Dr. (Miss) Munni Pareek 8 17. Burning and Balmy Impact of British Rule on Indian 3. Freedom Movement of India and its Reflection in Raja Psyche: A Pragmatic Reflection – Dr. Bir Singh Yadav 141 – Rao's novel Kanthapura Dr. Gautam Sharma 17 18. Against the Colonial Hegemony: Change in Uses of 4. Restructuring the Image of Gandhi – Dr. Anant Dadhich 24 English – Dr. Sunita Agarwal 152 5. Modern Education: A Culture-Centric Assortment of Our Contributors 159 Classics and Innovation – Dr. S. S. Thakur and Dr. Anita Thakur 34 6. The Palace of Illusions: Revisiting an Epic Tale – Prof. Nafisa Hatimi and Dr. Jyoti Tripathi 41 7. Unearthing the Lost Voices : A Postcolonial Reading of Midnight's Children by Salman Rushdie – Dr. Manisha Sharma 50 8. The Voice of a Freedom-Fighter in Makhan Lal Chaturvedi's Hindi poem 'Qaidi and Kokila' – Prof. Asha Arora 54 9. The Evolution of the Indian Jewish Identity under the British – Dr. Navras Jaat Aafreedi 61 10 North-East India: Target of British Apartheid – Dr. (Mrs.) Indu Swami 72 11. Quality Education and RTE Act 2009:A Case Study of Government Primary School, Mahaling, Kalahandi – Dr. P.K. Sahu 83 12. Bifocal Biography in Altaf Tyrewala's No God in Sight – Dr. Arpit Kothari 94 13. Revisiting Macaulay in the Contemporary Indian Scenario – Sanjiv Kumar 103 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 1-7 (2013) 2 Sana Niazi

the British and were declared rebels. Sir Syed could not entertain the idea of enriching himself with the wealth of his fellow countrymen. Sir Syed's Support to British (?) and In 1888, when the distinction of C.S.I. was conferred on him, Mr. Kendy, the Collector of Aligarh, said: “Syed is the only person who his Vision of English Education: A Critical Reading never asked the Government anything for himself”.1 Sana Niazi Sir Syed lived through and experienced all the horrors of the hectic days of 1857. In saving English lives he had discharged what he felt to be his moral duty, but the inhuman treatment meted out to The year 1857 was a turning point both in the history of the Indian Muslims and the miserable plight in which he found them, stirred his sub-continent and the Indian Muslims. The Muslim political power soul to its depths. The British chose to believe that the Muslims were th which had been gradually declining from the beginning of the 18 responsible for the anti-British uprising, therefore they made them century, touched its nadir and was finally dissolved in the bloodbath the subject of ruthless punishments and merciless vengeance. He saw of 1857. And with it a whole culture round which the entire fabric of in Delhi palatial houses ruined and deserted, and wells and tanks Muslim social behaviour had been woven through the centuries, gutted with the dead bodies of his maternal cousins. It was with great collapsed. difficulty that he got a jug of water for his thirsty mother and the Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, at such a crucial juncture of history, acted dying maid-servant. He felt lost and thought of migrating from India with foresight in rebuilding the dignity of the Indian Muslim. Sir to some other Muslim country where he could efface from his Syed was born in Delhi in the year 1817 in an aristocratic family memory the horrors he had witnessed. That was a crucial moment in which had a long tradition of contact with the Mughal court. With the his life, but he ultimately saw the divine light which seemed to direct clear vision of a realist Sir Syed realized that the Mughal Empire was him to devote his time and energy to the reform and regeneration of nothing more than an apparition of its former self. It could neither his people. The so called Aligarh Movement or the message serve the interests of the Muslims nor the country. To stick to it was a propagated by Sir Syed saved Muslims from impending ruin and mockery of the sentiment of loyalty, and to ignore the new forces, degradation. In his public prayers which he offered at the Moradabad which were gathering on the horizon, was suicidal. So he decided in mosque on the occasion of the '1858 Proclamation of General Amnesty' he said : “Oh God, the period which has just passed has 1838 to join the service of the East India Company. It was a bold been so disturbing that hardly anyone, including animals and trees, decision as it was considered derogatory in those days for a man of was ever at rest. No one felt secure of life, property or honour. This noble birth to accept a job under the 'Farangis' or the Whites. period completely upset heaven and earth. Thou hast now removed Regardless of all criticism, Sir Syed accepted the post of Naib these elements of friction....the people of India long for mercy more Sarishtedar in the court of the Sadr Amin of Delhi. When the Mutiny than the thirsty are anxious to get water under the extreme heat of the broke out in 1857 he was at Bijnor. He remained loyal to his English desert”. officers in those stormy days. Neither the threats nor the promises of the mutineers could shake him from the position he had taken. He The failure of the Revolt of 1857 created a new situation in Indian saved the lives of Mr. Shakespeare, collector of Bijnor, his wife and a politics. After dislodging the Muslim Nawabs from the thrown, the few other Englishmen when Nawab Mahmud Khan besieged them. new rulers, the British implemented the new educational policy with Later, when Shakespeare arranged a jagir for Sir Syed, he declined to drastic changes. The policy banned Arabic, Persian & religious accept it. The taluqa of Jahanabad which was offered to him, education in school and made English not only the medium of belonged to Mir Sadiq Ali and Mir Rustam, who had fought against instruction but also the official language in 1835.This spawned a Sir Syed's Support to British (?) and his Vision of English... 3 4 Sana Niazi negative attitude amongst Muslims towards everything modern and the opinions expressed by Hunter seemed confirmed. Writing of western and a disinclination to make use of the opportunities those distressing circumstances in 1872, Sir Syed remarks in The available under the new regime. Seeing this atmosphere of despair Loyal Mahomedans of India : “.....Now the season of dire extremity and despondency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit to which I allude is that which befell the Mahomedans in 1857-58. of progress within the Muslim community in India. He realised that There was no atrocity committed then of which the blame was not for the survival and progress of his co-religionists it was absolutely imputed to the Mohamedans, although the parties really guilty may necessary that they eschew rebellious thoughts, make friends with have been Ramadhin and Matadin”.3 the Englishmen and devote themselves to the study of modern W.W. Hunter's book had the effect of widening the gulf between the science and literature. He took upon himself the dual task of English and the Muslims. Sir Syed therefore published a review of convincing the Muslims that their future lay in their close alignment this book in a series of articles which also appeared inThe Pioneer. It with the British and assuring the Government that the Muslims could exposed the fallacies in Hunter's thesis, and created a wholesome be depended upon for their loyalty and faithfulness. effect on British opinion in England and in India. The European Sir Syed saw in the dawn of a new era of science and education the editor ofIndian Observer remarked that Hunter knew nothing of glimpse of a new civilization , and he felt convinced that the future Indian Muslims and was ignorant of the basic facts of their religion. of Muslims lay in assimilating the new spirit. It was not a shifting of Sir Syed had a stiffer task in convincing the Muslims that no loyalties from the fallen to the victorious. Feelings of loyalty to the progress was possible without acquiring Western education. There British appeared essential for imbibing the spirit of science was a general misunderstanding and suspicion about the role and represented by the west and so loyalty to the Government was a value of Western sciences. It was thought that science would shake necessity and not a virtue. the traditional beliefs of the people. This fear was not wholly It is difficult to visualize the hurdles which Sir Syed had to surmount imaginary or unfounded. Lord Ronaldshay has quoted a Bengali in drawing the Muslims to Western learning and create an student as saying: “Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic, held in such atmosphere of goodwill and trust between them and the Englishmen. supreme reverence but a few years ago as the only source of wisdom By and large, the Englishmen distrusted the Muslims, for it was on were in consequence of western teachings, looked upon with the ruins of the Muslim government that they had raised the edifice supreme contempt...Westernism became the fashion of the day and of their Empire. They were therefore not associated, as a rule, with westernism demanded of its votaries that they should cry down the the army or even with petty administrative jobs. The Indian States civilization of their own country”.4 did not have the resources to employ and maintain courtiers or Sir Syed sought to reconcile western education to oriental sense of servants on a large scale. Hence financial ruin stared in every morality by associating it with Islamic teachings. Addressing the Muslim's face. youth at the Lahore Session of the Muhammadan Educational Dr. Hunter's book, Our Indian Musalmans, which appeared in1871, Conference, in December 1888, he said : If you get high education defined the British attitude towards the Muslims of those days. It and shine like stars in heaven but leave the fold of Islam, then the said that the Musalmans could never be loyal to the British relationship between you and me will be snapped asunder...the tether Government and hence they constituted a source of perennial danger that binds you to me and the rest of the Muslim community is that to it. “Rebellion is rooted in the Muslim religion as taught by their God and His Prophet.....it is my earnest desire that you gain

Prophet”,2 declared Hunter and cited the Crusades in support of his perfection in science and in western literature but I shall enjoin on assertion. It was a strange coincidence that at this very time Mr. you all not to forget thekalma that God is one and Muhammad is His Norman, the Chief Justice of Bengal, was murdered by a Muslim and Prophet”(Lectures ,p. 308). Sir Syed's Support to British (?) and his Vision of English... 5 6 Sana Niazi

Conservative Muslims and the divines considered all contact with That was his conviction about the way to raise the Muslims, which, Englishmen as sacrilegious. Sardar Muhammad Hayat Khan once as a consequence, included the foundation of a modern and vigorous referred to an incident that occurred in his village when he was a system of education. According to him, it was to be a confluence of young boy. A Muslim who had learnt a little of the English East and West with special emphasis on the development and vocabulary died in1850. The Muslims of the village refused to dissemination of scientific education In spite of this stress on modern participate in his Namaz-e-Janaza (funeral prayers) as the deceased education, however, he never neglected the need for religious was considered an infidel. The speaker himself was prohibited by his instruction. father to join the funeral procession. Sir Syed believed that training under European would prove of Dining with English men or studying western literature was immense value to the students in bringing them closer to the British considered as an act ofKufr or infidelity. The intensity of Muslim in India. He was convinced that the European members of the staff, feelings on the subject may be gauged from the fact that they refused besides teaching them manners and etiquette or looking after sports to say their Asr (before sunset) prayers with Sir Syed in1856 at and extra-curricular activities, would really enable the College to Nagina when they saw him having tea with Mr. Palmer, the maintain close liaison with European officers stationed at Aligarh Collector. A Rais of the Aligarh district declined an invitation for and other dignitaries like the Commissioner, the Lieutenant Governor dinner in 1876 for he could not dine on the same table with Sir Syed, and the Viceroy. aKafir . Hali was refused the use of water jug by his Muslim coach As he later explained, “the most important of my aims to establish driver in1879 because he had seen Hali having food with the Syed, a the College was to create friendly relations between Muslims and kafir. Englishmen and remove mutual prejudice and hatred. Success in this Sir Syed Ahmad wanted the Indian Muslims to regain some of their mission is mainly due to the presence of European professors in the lost space through shedding their backwardness and apathy. He College”.5 In creating a sense of loyalty towards the government, the clearly advocated that if any nation or race wanted to regain its M.A.O. College did not transgress the bounds of dignity and self- position, it had to acquire education and enter different fields of respect. In fact loyalty was only a device to procure help for the knowledge, or, as he put it, “cure the root and the tree will flourish”. college. He argued in several books on Islam that the holy Quran rested on a deep appreciation of reason and natural law and therefore did not Sir Syed, in his own life time saw the fulfilment of his mission in the preclude Muslim involvement in scientific methodology. These growing association of Muslims with the British and in the change in themes mixed with a call for Muslim education regularly appeared in the outlook of the Muslim youth who adopted European culture and his journals, 'The Mohammedan Social Reformer' and the 'Aligarh at the same time abided by the basic tenets of Islam. The College Institute Gazette'. rendered yeoman service to the Muslims of India and literally brought them out of darkness into light. It developed into a force and Syed Ahmad's ideas on the education of Indian Muslims aimed at created in Muslims a consciousness of their civil and political rights. improving their condition rather than giving them paper The services rendered by the great founder still hold dear as the qualifications. His vision was to build Muslims as a strong Aligarh Muslim University is an amalgam of modern education and community so that they could live with honour and dignity in the traditions. country. His main aim in establishing the M.A.O. College was References: therefore to instil the sense of pride, self-respect and honour among the Muslims. In Sir Syed's opinion, Muslims should excel in all Bhatnagar, S.K..History of the M.A.O . College Aligarh. Bombay : Asia disciplines of knowledge and serve people in and outside the country. Publishing House, 1969. Sir Syed's Support to British (?) and his Vision of English... 7 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 8-16 (2013)

Hali, Maulana Altaf Husain.Hayat - i - Javid. Lahore: Ishrat Publishing House, 1965. Narendra Singh Sarila's Reflections on Hunter, William Wilson. The Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound by Partition of India the Stark Reality of History with Conscience to Rebel against the Queen? London : Trubner & Co., 1871. special reference to Mohammad Ali Jinnah

Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad.The Loyal Mohamedans of India , Vol. 1, Meerut : Dr. (Miss) Munni Pareek Mofussalite P., 1860. Sir Syed's speech at the 4th session of the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference-December 20, 1889. The opening of the sea route to India had far reaching repercussions. The Portugese, Dutch, French and English merchants were attracted by the lucrative trade and they made India centre of their economy. The wars amongst them made the English East India Company the master of the east. The English traders gradually became eager to establish their position by territorial acquisitions. The conquest of Plassey in 1757 established the British rule in Eastern India. This foreign intrusion encouraged dislocation of Indian economy and political domination made life of the people miserable. It took hundred years to design a revolt against this colonial rule. After the revolt of 1857 communal tensions heightened beyond limits. With the result the Britishers started fishing in this water. In 1905 they partitioned Bengal and sowed the seeds of enemity between Hindus and Muslims. They instigated the Muslims to maintain their identity. The communal frenzy gripped the Muslims and led to suspicion and doubt. Day by day the gulf between the two communities increased. The Muslims feared Hindu domination after independence and started feeling out of place. Thus the feelings of estrangement and hatred culminated in the idea of partition. In July 1947, the British parliament passed Indian independence act and on 15 August 1947 India was declared independent. This marked the end of British imperial rule over India giving birth to a new nation i.e. Pakistan which created a holocaust. I A great deal has been written on the partition of India and the process of rethinking the history of partition is still going on. Historians continue to write about it as to how and why one nation was torn apart. Scholars such as Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Pakistan or the Partition of India 1940), Ram Manohar Lohia (Guilty men of India's Partition, Narendra Singh Sarila's Reflections on Partition of India... 9 10 Dr. (Miss) Munni Pareek

1960), Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre (freedom at midnight, and strategy of the Indian leaders regarding India's independence and 1976) Stanley Wolpert (Jinnah of Pakistan, 1984), Gyanendra partition. Beginning from the great game played by the British by Pandey (Remembering partition, 2001), Rafiq Zakaria (The man who forming Anglo Muslim alliances, it analyses the Churchill Roosevelt divided India, 2001), Narendra Singh Sarila (The Shadow of the clash. The book is great contribution in understanding the dynamics great game- The untold Story of India's partition, 2005) and many of partition of India, the narrow attitude as well as the fulfilment of others have analysed the catastrophe. personal ego of the players of the game such as Nehru Gandhi and Jinnah at the cost of the nation. In this paper I have endeavoured to describe as succinctly and briefly as possible the course of a somewhat varied and eventful life of III Mohammad Ali Jinnah the role he played in shaping the India as The tenth to sixteenth century witnessed political disturbance in reflected in Sarila's work.1 Persia. People of various communities including khojas fled to west India. Jinnah's grand father belonged to the khoja community and II was converted to Islam. He settled down in Rajkot, in Kathiawar, Sarila was born in 1927 in the Sarila princely State in Central India Gujarat. From here Jinnah's parents, Jinnahbhai Poonja and Mithibai and enjoyed a noble childhood. He grew up in an atmosphere of moved to Karachi in Sind to try their luck in some business. freedom movement, the event which has now become a legend. He Mohammad Ali Jinnah called as Mammad at home was admitted in studied at Mayo College in Ajmer, Rajasthan. When once asked if he Sind madarasa for his primary education. His aunt who lived in was ready to lose his state as a price for Indian independence he Bombay took the child with her, but soon he was called back from promptly said yes. It was this attitude which built his image in Bombay to Karachi and was admitted in Christian Mission High society. He was a Ranaji Cricketer. In 1947, at the age of twenty one School,. His father had established himself in business and was he became Aide-de-camp to Lord Mountbatten, the last British Governor-General of India. After independence he joined the Indian closely associated with Douglas Graham and company a British Foreign Service where he served from 1948 to 1985. He was a managing agency in Karachi. Frederick Leigh Croft, company's representative in the delegation to the United Nations. He headed the General Manager had a liking for the child. He asked for favour for Pakistan and international organizations division at the ministry of the young boy to his home office in London for the purpose of external affairs with head-quarters in New Delhi. He later served as learning. His mother was convinced after much argument and agreed India's ambassador to Spain, Brazil, Switzerland and France. He to send him on condition that he could leave after getting married. observed and analysed the great game played by the leaders and He was married to a young girl of fourteen years. recorded their ramblings in carving out Pakistan. In London he concentrated on his study of the law at Linclon's Inn. A The author has consulted Oriental and Indian collection of the British letter from his father informed him of his mother's and wife's death. library, Hartley, library in Southampton where Lord Mount batton's After completing his studies he came back to India and enrolled archives are kept, the public records office in kew, the national himself as a barrister in Bombay High Court and started practicing archives in Washington, the archives of the state department of USA law. where the correspondence of Roosevelt, President of USA and Six feet tall, he was a man of strong will power. He was hard worker, 2 Churchill, Prime Minister of Britain are preserved. disciplined and passionate to his work. Standing apart, a man of few The author depicts artistically various aspects of contemporary words, he was hyper sensitive and had his own apprehensions political realities. The book explores the event since the inception of regarding respect for one's self, heedless for the price he had to pay. partition to Kashmir problem with special focus on the British View's He would not tolerate the slightest humiliation and requited an act of Narendra Singh Sarila's Reflections on Partition of India... 11 12 Dr. (Miss) Munni Pareek the same kind as he received. His thinking and his life style were bond between Hindus and Muslims. Now he wanted to use all his both westerly. He preferred the company of the rich Parsees for their energies to undo that past. He devoted himself henceforth to do western manners. He neither spoke Hindi nor Urdu. He addressed his everything in his power to divide Hindus and Muslims.”8 public meetings in English. He did not practice the Islamic faith. He He came back to Bombay and started re-organizing the Muslim ate pork and drank wine. He married Ratan Bai a beautiful parsee. league, established its boards, prepared volunteers from the Aligarh “fairy princess” daughter of Sir Dinshaw Petit of Bombay half his Muslim University, visited various places asking Muslims to give up age, who separated after a decade and died at the age of twenty nine mutual jealousies and promised Britain to help in war. When all India leaving him deserted. conference of all parties was held at Delhi, Jinnah represented the After achieving his goal of carving out a nation out of India, Jinnah Muslim league and tried to convince the Muslims to give up the the Governor General of Pakistan died on 11 September 1948 at the demand of the separate electorates and ask for 1/3 Muslim seats in age of seventy two of tuberculosis and cancer of lungs.3 the central legislature, separation of Sind from Bombay and North West Frontier Provinces to have their own provincial legislatures. IV The demands were welcomed by the congress but not accepted at the The confession of Jinnah on death bed to Elai Baksh, his doctor that conference. Jinnah took it as a violation of trust. In a meeting at “I have made Pakistan but I am convinced that I have committed the Calcutta Jaikar said that “Jinnah represents the Muslims.”9 greatest blunder of my life”4 confirms Jinnah's role in bifurcating the nation. Transformation after the holocaust was of no use. A man who The congress turned victorious in the provincial elections held in came forward to react against the idea of separate electorates for 1937 where the Muslim league did not secure even ¼ seats. And here Muslims and called it “a way to tear people politically apart5 came the turning point in Jinnah's political career. Congress did not contested the election to the viceroys's executive council from the show any inclination to share the victory which he was longing for reserved Muslim seat of Bombay in 1910 and won. This fired his and this Jinnah took as a sharp personal reprehension and this was an imagination in dominating Muslim politics. In 1913, he joined the enough evidence for him to believe that “Muslim league would never Muslim league. He was member of the congress as well for he get a fair share from the congress run India.” Thus he became an believed “co-operation to the cause of motherland as a guiding upholder of the two nation theory which he had thought previously 10 principle.”6 But he was distrusted by the Hindus and suspected by the as an “impossible dream.” Muslims. Congress men said that “Jinnah was a communal wolf in On the other hand congress felt that India was forced to participate in the form of a nationalist sheep” and Muslims called him “an agent of Second World War without the consent of its representatives. Their 7 the Hindus.” He turned to the British for help and again he was demand of freedom after the war was put down. So they gave up charged of having become a tool of the Britishers. So he went back from the governments in the provinces. Britain interpreted this act as to London to start his practice before Privy Council and decided to “refusal to support Britain in its life and death struggle” Jinnah called stay apart from Indian politics. In absentia he was elected to the it a “Himalayan blunder” as the congress lost all rights to put their Bombay Seat. And this changed his mind set. demands with the Britishers. This resignation of the congress created “Disowned by the Muslims, distrusted by the Hindus and discarded a vacuum and Jinnah thinking the opportunity favourable made by the British he decided to change his way. He took a vow to start “back door entry” promising Britain “to help in the war.” organizing the Muslims as a counter force to the congress when he As Gandhi had made his place in the British hearts by helping them believed that it represented only the Hindus. He abandoned the idea during the First World War Lord Linlithgow, the viceroy of India of staying in London. In the past Jinnah had sought to cement the Narendra Singh Sarila's Reflections on Partition of India... 13 14 Dr. (Miss) Munni Pareek talked to Gandhi regarding the efforts of Congress during the Second V World War. Gandhi agreed to unconditional support but the congress Conclusion members asked him to meet the Viceroy again as they wanted a declaration of freeing India after the war. To this the Viceroy said The secular nationalistic attitude of the congress attracted Jinnah and that “the congress was not the only organization to be considered. ardently inspired him. He pronounced the step taken by the Muslims There was also the question of the claims of other parties the princes for converting the Anglo-Oriental college into the Muslim University and the Muslims.” Jinnah had already met viceroy before this as utterly wrong. When Pheroz Shah Mehta sent him to London as meeting and had assured him that “the aim of the congress was to member of the Congress delegation, he asked the British authorities destroy the British and Muslims.” He also gave him a word that he for a larger share in administration for Indians. He condemned Lord would oppose congress. In return he demanded separation of dense Curzon for the partition of Bengal and threatened him for the gulf he Muslim populated areas from Hindus. After the war Jinnah refused to created between the Hindus and Muslims. He refused to become a enter any agreement with the congress and suggested the Viceroy “to member of the Muslim league founded at Dacca in 1906 as he abandon the plan of creating a united India and give protection to the believed it was against the Congress. He openly showed his hostility Muslims in the provinces.” Besides he warned the Viceroy that if the to the league as its leaders intended to create Hindu Muslim congress took up the provincial administration it will lead to civil discord.14 Aga Khan the honorary president of the league wrote that war in India. With the result the viceroy asked Jinnah to install a Jinnah was the “doughtiest opponent in 1906 who came out in bitter Muslim league ministry in the North West Frontier Province, vacated hostility toward all that I and my friends had done.” He did join the by the congress.11 Muslim league in 1913 on a condition that his “loyalty to the Muslim Jinnah who had once refused to meet Rahmat Ali to hear his league would in no way and in no time imply even the shadow of suggestion of the partition of India (who had published a paper from disloyalty to the longer national cause to which his life was Cambridge in England regarding partition), took advantage of the dedicated” and warned it never to forget that “one essential requisite tide and came forward with his two nation theory turned by Gandhi condition to achieve Swaraj is political unity between the Hindus and as “an untruth”12 The congress parties decision of civil disobedience the Muslims.” Ghokale often told Sarojini Naidu that Jinnah had at this juncture was highly criticized in context to the national and “true stuff in him and freedom from all sectarian prejudice which 15 international situation. Jinnah used it as a trumpet card for fulfilling will make him the best ambassador of Hindu Muslim unity.” his plan in the game of politics. In the session of the league held at Bombay on 30 December 1924, The British considered him as a sole spokesman of the Muslims, thus Jinnah said that “the aim of the resolution was to organize the virtually giving him veto power over future Indian constitutional Muslim community not with a view to quarrel with the Hindu developments. As Sarila writes “Linlithgo turned down Jinnah's pleas community but with a view to unite and co-operate with it for their to accept the principle of Pakistan saying that this must be an open mother land.”16 question for post war discussion. He displayed no real enthusiasm for When Lord Minto assured the Muslims of the representation Jinnah Pakistan, but by making concessions to Jinnah, to keep in play warned them not to yield to the British policy of divide and rule. He against the congress party, he created the condition on the ground 13 had criticized the league's communal impression and portrayed it as a that made partition possible a few years later” thus making Jinnah 17 the architect of partition who bought the freedom at the cost of “poisonous dose to divide nation.” Jinnah was a nationalist to the nation's unity. extent that Hasarat Mohani, a Muslim leader criticized him as an “Agent of the Hindus.”18 Narendra Singh Sarila's Reflections on Partition of India... 15 16 Dr. (Miss) Munni Pareek

It is great irony of history that a wan who stood for Hindu Muslim Sarila, Narendra Singh. 'The Shadow of the Great Game' The Untold Story unity so ardently, carved out a Islamic nation out of the womb of of India's Partition. New Delhi : Harper Collins Publishers India, a India which affected losses both human and material. Partition joint Venture with the India Today Group, 2005. produced that “which it was designed to avoid.” The demarcation of Wolpert, Stanley.Jinnah of Pakistan. New York : OUP, 1984. the boundries created a gulf which led to brutality and barbarism. It Zakaria, Rafiq.The Man Who Divided India. Mumbai : Popular Prakashan witnessed violence abduction, rape and blood shed that ruined Pvt. Ltd., 2001. everything bisecting and uprooting millions of people from their homes, turning them to the status of refugees, leaving behind sorrow and pain. Dr. Zakir Hussain submitted his report to the emergency board, ascertaining the truth of the matter of fact under investigation, the dreadful state in the old fort that the “men and women had been rescued to death to be buried in a living grave.”19 This was probably the “greatest migration forced or willing in all history.”20 The trauma of partition stamped its mark on the lives of the innumerable people to the extent that the psychic wounds are still visible in those who witnessed it. The havoc of 1947 paved the path for future wars (1965 and 1971) and did not settle the communal problem in either dominion till today leaving the Kashmir problem as an oozing wound. Dehlavi rightly remarked “the scars of this forced separation will never disappear”21 as it was “more than just a political divide or a division of properties, of assets and liabilities. It was also a division of hearts.”21 References: Ambedkar, B. R.Pakistan or the Partition of India. 3rd ed. Bombay : C. Murphy for Thacker & Co. Ltd. Ranpart Row, 1946. Azad, Maulana Abul Kalam.India Wins Freedom. Madras : Orient Longman Ltd., 1959. Butalia, Urvashi. The Other Side of Silence, Voices from the Partition of India. New Delhi : Penguin. Collins, Larry and Dominique Lapierre.Freedom at Midnight. Delhi : Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1976. Lohia, Rammanohar.Guilty Men of India's Partition. 5th ed. Delhi : B.R. Publishing Corporation, 2012. Pandey, Gyanendra.Remembering Partition. New Delhi : Cambridge University Press India Pvt. Ltd., 2001. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 17-23 (2013) 18 Dr. Gautam Sharma

call to boycott it under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai. The crowds were lathi charged and Lala Lajpat Rai, also called Sher-e-Punjab Freedom Movement of India and its Reflection (Lion of Punjab) died in this cruel incident. in Raja Rao's novel Kanthapura Mahatma Gandhi led the Civil Disobedience Movement that was launched in the Congress Session of December 1929. The aim of this Dr. Gautam Sharma movement was a complete disobedience of the orders of the British Government. During this movement it was decided that India would celebrate 26th January as Independence Day all over the country. On After the First World War (1914-1918), Mohandas Karamchand 26th January 1930, meetings were held all over the country and the Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the Congress. During this Congress tricolour was hoisted. The British Government tried to struggle, Mahatma Gandhi had developed the novel technique of repress the movement and resorted to brutal firing, killing hundreds non-violent agitation, which he called 'Satyagraha', loosely translated of people. Thousands were arrested along with Gandhiji and as 'moral domination'. Gandhi, himself a devout Hindu, also Jawaharlal Nehru. But the movement spread to all the four corners of espoused a total moral philosophy of tolerance, brotherhood of all the country following Round Table Conferences were arranged by religions, non-violence (ahimsa) and of simple living. With this, new the British and Gandhiji attended the second Round Table leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose also Conference at London. But nothing came out of the conference and emerged on the scene and advocated the adoption of complete the Civil Disobedience Movement was revived. independence as the goal of the Nation. During this time, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were arrested The Non-Cooperation Movement was pitched in under leadership of on the charges of throwing a bomb in the Central Assembly Hall Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress from September (which is now Lok Sabha) in Delhi, to demonstrate against the 1920 to February 1922, marking a new awakening in the Indian autocratic alien rule. They were hanged to death on March 23,1931. Independence Movement. After a series of events including the In August 1942, Gandhiji started the 'Quit India Movement' and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Gandhiji realised that there was no decided to launch a mass civil disobedience movement 'Do or Die' prospect of getting any fair treatment at the hands of British, so he call to force the British to leave India. The movement was followed, planned to withdraw the nation's co-operation from the British nonetheless, by large-scale violence directed at railway stations, Government, thus launching the Non-Cooperation Movement and telegraph offices, government buildings, and other emblems and thereby marring the administrative set up of the country. This institutions of colonial rule. There were widespread acts of sabotage, movement was a great success as it got massive encouragement to and the government held Gandhi responsible for these acts of millions of Indians. This movement almost shook the British violence, suggesting that they were a deliberate act of Congress Government. policy. However, all the prominent leaders were arrested, the The Non-cooperation movement failed. Therefore there was a lull in Congress was banned and the police and army were brought out to political activities. The Simon Commission was sent to India in 1927 suppress the movement. by the British Government to suggest further reforms in the structure Meanwhile, Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, who stealthily ran away of Indian Government. The Commission did not include any Indian from the British detention in Calcutta, reached foreign lands and member and the Government showed no intention of accepting the organized the Indian National Army (INA) to overthrow the British demand for Swaraj. Therefore, it sparked a wave of protests all over from India. The Second World War broke out in September of 1939 the country and the Congress as well as the Muslim League gave a and without consulting the Indian leaders, India was declared a Freedom Movement of India and its Reflection in Raja Rao's novel Kanthapura 19 20 Dr. Gautam Sharma warring state (on behalf of the British) by the Governor General. novel. When the Quit India movement was started by Gandhi in Subhash Chandra Bose, with the help of Japan, preceded fighting the 1942, Raja Rao was associated with the underground activities of the British forces and not only freed Andaman and Nicobar Islands from young socialist leaders. Raja Rao finds himself in the protagonist of the Britishers but also entered the north-eastern border of India. But the novel Moorthy in many terms.Kanthapura is however a in 1945 Japan was defeated and Netaji proceeded from Japan remarkable rendering of India's struggle for independence which through an aeroplane to a place of safety but met with an accident affected even the remotest villages in the country. The novel elevates and it was given out that he died in that air-crash itself. the Gandhian movement to a mythological plane; since he is fascinated by Indian metaphysical tradition which is devoted to "Give me blood and I shall give you freedom" - was one of the most myths. The villagers sacrifice all their material possessions in popular statements made by him, where he urges the people of India triumph of the spirit showing how people of the country united at the to join him in his freedom movement. time. At the conclusion of the Second World War, the Labour Party, under InKanthapura Raja Rao describes the impact of the Indian freedom Prime Minister Clement Richard Attlee, came to power in Britain. movement on a tiny south Indian village, Kanthapura is a small The Labour Party was largely sympathetic towards Indian people for village in the province of Kara in Mysure state. It is situated high on freedom. A Cabinet Mission was sent to India in March 1946, which Ghats and steep mountains that face the cool Arabian Seas. It is after a careful study of the Indian political scenario, proposed the watered by the river Himavathy. It has many a centre of cardamom formation of an interim Government and convening of a Constituent and coffee, rice and sugarcane. Assembly comprising members elected by the provincial legislatures Studying Indian literature of the early twentieth century, one comes and nominees of the Indian states. An interim Government was across the important Indian novelists Mulkraj Anand, R. K. Narayan formed headed by Jawaharlal Nehru. However, the Muslim League and Raja Rao. Their novels are still esteemed because of the realistic refused to participate in the deliberations of the Constituent presentation of the past. Raja Rao's first novelKanthapura presents Assembly and pressed for the separate state for Pakistan. Lord the crucial events of the nineteen thirties. The novel focuses on the Mountbatten, the Viceroy of India, presented a plan for the division villagers of Kanthapura who participate in India's struggle for of India into India and Pakistan, and the Indian leaders had no choice independence. The author relocated the events in a rural area. Thus, but to accept the division, as the Muslim League was adamant. Thus, one might wonder why Rao did not select one of India's cities, which India became free at the stroke of midnight, on August 14, 1947. at that time had been ruled by the British government, for, in the first (Since then, every year India celebrates its Independence Day on instance, the urban population clearly felt the consequence of the 15th August). Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minster of British decisions. Rao's choice was connected with the fact that the free India and continued his term till 1964. villages had always formed India. (Weber, Max. The Religion of Kanthapura, the first major Indian novel in English by Raja Rao. It India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism,P.111). deals with Civil Disobedience movement of the 1930s.The novel was The novel begins with the vivid description of the village of published in English and later in French. Mahatma Gandhi on the Kanthapura which “high on Ghats and province of Kara”. participation of a small village of south India in national struggle (Kanthapura , P.1). The village is divided in five districts, namely in calls for the story's central concern. Raja Rao's first novel Brahmin quarter, a weaver's quarter a pariah quarter, a porter's Kanthapura published in1938 mainly portrays the freedom quarter as well as Shudra's quarter ( P.5). it results that every caste movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920 to liberate India group has a particular social environment and an area in the caste form the imperialistic hegemony of British. India's struggle for ridden traditional rural society. ( Socio-cultural Aspects of Life….., independence with its powerful sensibility forms the nucleus of the P.17). Freedom Movement of India and its Reflection in Raja Rao's novel Kanthapura 21 22 Dr. Gautam Sharma

Moorthy, the central figure of theKanthapura has a close affinity place is taken by Ratna, and so the movement continues. The with Rao concerning his political activities and views. Like Rao, novelist describes: “And more and more women joined us,and Moorthy is inspired by Gandhi since Moorthy has decided to battle children followed them,and old men followed the children,and there economic operation and human degradation, he tries to improve the was a close silence, and everything sat looking at the tight hall situation of pariah, who live in the village as well as of those who door,when it opened, and there was Ratna,and she said something to work at the Skeffington Coffee Estate. With this aim in the view Seethu and Seethu said something to us, and we all gathered our sari- Moorthy tries to gain Brahmin's support crossing traditional barriers frings and we waited…. And the city boys, they were like princes of caste, Moorthy pursues the intention to unite people in order to fair and smiling and firm, and one of the volunteers ,the one stood by achieve India's independence. the threshold and said sisters, there is nothing to be frightened about.”(Kanthapura) Kanthapura is not only a fine work of art but it also aims at arousing the conscience of the country and even of the world at large, at the The ideals of patriotism and national integration are depicted through ills and injustices which plagued Indian life in the 1930s. Though the one of the minor characters, Advocate Sankar. His professional novel depicts the freedom movement led by Mahatma Gandhi as the attitude reflects principles of Gandhi. Sankar never takes up a false main theme, it also aims at social reforms. It is so because the case and would either give up a case or make the client confess his Gandhian movement did not aim at Swaraj only, but also at social crime. reform. In fact, Mahatma Gandhi believed that Swaraj itself could be British government in India, its laws and ways are also depicted attained after certain social reforms and social awakening. These vividly in the novel. The white man who owns Skeffington Coffee social reforms included freedom from exploitation by the West by Estate is a symbol of the imperialist rulers of India who exploited boycotting foreign goods and by spinning yarn and wearing Khadi Indians in various ways. They employed paid agents like Bhatta and made from it also eradication of untouchability and rigidities of caste the Swami to oppose the freedom movement. They send policemen system and removal of illiteracy and ignorance and superstition. like Bade Khan to harass the patriots and cook up false cases against InKanthapura , we have more than a glimpse of freedom movement them. Their treatment against peaceful Satyagrahis is extremely in India under the leadership of Gandhi. The theme of this novel inhuman. The British policy of divide and rule is also seen in pictures so truthfully and touchingly the story of the resurgence of operation, for the loyal Swami is given a gift of twelve hundred acres India under Gandhi's leadership. Moorhty is a typical example of the of land, so that there is no chance of his joining the freedom thousands of young men who were fired with patriotic zeal by movement. Gandhi's inspiration and who under his program, left schools, The boycott of foreign goods was meant to cripple the efforts of colleges and universities and resigned from their jobs and made a foreign manufactures to exploit India. “When Moorthappa, the bonfire of their costly imported clothes. Rangamma and Ratna member of the rural society and the initiator of the rebellion against represent the women's side of the movement while Range Gowda the colonial rule is obvious falsely accused, the villagers appeal to and Rachanna show how even the people of lower caste picked up Kenchamma, begging her to destroy the government”. (Kanthapura , courage and curbed their natural instinct for retaliation and accepted P.98). Nevertheless, they do not wait inactive for wondrous deed of the voluntary restraint of non-violence. goddess. Together with the men from other region Moorthy's followers march to toddy-booths in order to boycott them. Women like Ratna, are beaten up and dishonoured but their spirit is not crushed. Shouts of Gandhiji Ki Jai and Inquilab Zindabad Thus the political movement of Swaraj is closely linked with resound in the air and boost the morale of the people. Large number religious reforms and social uplift inKanthapura. The theme of the of people are arrested and sent to jail. When Moorthy is arrested his Kanthapura is the continuity of Indian traditions naturally in the Freedom Movement of India and its Reflection in Raja Rao's novel Kanthapura 23 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 24-33 (2013)

Indian air from the soil just as wild flower from the jungle.Moorthy, Rangagowda, Bhatta,Ratna,Subhha Chetty, Ranganna and many other men and women seem to be rising from soil ofKanthapura . The novelKanthapura is a spectrum coloured with three hues the social, political and mythological. It is in a sense, a work of realism Restructuring the Image of Gandhi in fiction and yet it is not purely realistic. It is combined with the strains of myth, of gods and goddess. It is reflection of freedom Dr. Anant Dadhich movement of India observed in a visionary state of mind. References: Had Gandhian ethics and philosophy propelling the precepts like Gerth, Hans H. and Don Martindale, eds. The Religion of India: The resistance against imperialism, untouchability and communalism Sociology of Hindusim and Buddhism. New York : Free, 1967. been the crux of the politics of the post- independent era, it would Rao, Raja.Kanthapura. Delhi : Oxford University Press, 1993. have been a different picture of the nation where the common man Rao, Sudhakar and Akkinepally. Socio-cultural Aspects of Life in the was not treated as the cattle class, and it was not officially spoken Selected Novels of Raja Rao. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and that thirty six rupees per day are enough for subsistence allowance. Distributors, 1999. In such a phenomenon Gandhi is the life force which happens to be the adequate path for the present lacuna both of economy and the nature of state. Is Gandhi back or he has to be brought back is the key conflict of the present IT driven society where the world is definitely flat but the social relations and affiliations are marginalized to a miserable extent. Apart from the nationalist politics during freedom struggle Gandhi's serious engagements with issues of socio-economic phenomenon has been the source of debate and discourse looking to the present era of globalization which is marked by growing inequalities resulting in unrest and discomfort on the part of public. To what extent Gandhi's dream of making the newly independent nations including India came true in decolonizing the social structure in terms of power, politics and culture. Did the fall of colonial rule bring out decolonization in India pertaining to the nature of state and forms of public administration? Were the objectives of the freedom struggle movement achieved with a view to solace the last man of the last queue? Are secularism and social harmony the prime priorities of our governments which were the key-concepts of Gandhian philosophy? These are some of the questions of modern day India which is witnessing the problems of fundamentalism, terrorism and corporate greed. In post- globalised societies 'the loss of community', 'the loss of small scale industries', 'deterioration in agricultural production', 'the flow of rural population in urban area', have been some of the key-factors which have Restructuring the Image of Gandhi 25 26 Dr. Anant Dadhich motivated the critics and men of letters to think again of Mahatma himself as a humble, naked old man, sitting on a praying-mat and Gandhi, to restructure his image with a view to organize such a shaking empires by sheer spiritual power.... (1) society which may be equally comfortable and worth living for a lay In fact Gandhi's simple living, contentment with minimum resources man. In the present era of recession the time has come to rethink and of life, asceticism, and simplicity gave him a status of saint by his redesign the shape and form of economy as per the Gandhian model followers but his one point programme was to set India free from of suraaj and swadeshi which thinks about last man with equal imperialism. In his resistance against British he comes with specific priority. Gauba writes, “But as the time rolled on, it revealed the strategy which is later on treated /held as sainthood. His sense of immense possibilities of application of Gandhian principles to simplicity, modesty and honesty has been the means to draw the various social, economic and political situations, and their relevance attention of the masses which was in a way supporting and is steadily increasing. It proved that Gandhian way of thinking has strengthening the colonial rule by serving it in many ways. He breaks not only its distinct identity, but it embodies a full-fledged word up this image of the British that it is worth beneficial for Indian view. That is precisely the basis of Gandhism.” (317) Manimala also continent. Therefore people, fascinated by Gandhi as a true freedom says, “In present era of Globalization when the market is expanding fighter in the form of a simple living creature, are prepared to initiate and the society is shrining; the hold of capital is getting tight whereas a mass-movement against this rule. the hold of relation is getting loose. Amidst this Gandhi and pro- Gandhian people are immensely becoming relevant. Think only of Orwell critiques Gandhi's dress-sense at some places in the essay. yourself and your loved ones is the basic precept of this era which is These reflections also give vent to orientalism to see the east from terribly marked by growing consumerism. The resistance against the point of the west. He comes to know about Gandhi from his such notion is crushed. In such a phenomenon the course of Gandhi autobiographyMy Experiment with Truth published in some Indian however tough it may be remains the only path for redemption. (16) newspaper. The printing quality of the newspaper did not appeal For the present paper two literary texts have been taken; 1 Orwell's Orwell. Though he accepts that the autobiography as a work of essayReflection on Gandhi and Roderick Matthews new book literary piece made a good impression on him. Orwell also goes to Jinnah VS Gandhi. the extent of saying that Gandhi's strategies and politics were not well in accordance with the new wave of science flourished in the George Orwell, in his essay,Reflection on Gandhi , explores the west as an outcome of the renaissance. He writes, image of Gandhi from the perspective of sainthood. The very first epigram of the essay 'Saints should always be judged guilty until The things that one associated with him- homespun cloth, 'soul- they are proved innocent' is evident that Orwell is much fascinated force', and vegetarianism–were unappealing, and his medievalist by the sainthood of Gandhi; though Gandhi himself did not accept or programme was obviously not viable in a backward, starving, project any such image which separates him from the common man. overpopulated country. (1) This essay is an attempt to view how the western critics examine the doctrines of Gandhian philosophy with no emotional attachment or Orwell candidly writes about those things which are personally adoration which may lead one to extreme conclusions. Orwell at the unappealing to him. He endeavours to demean the sainthood image very outset applies the parameters of sainthood to Gandhi by raising of Gandhi by mocking his dress-sense and vegetarian mode of living. some of the doubts about him regarding the line of distinction Orwell cannot afford to see beyond Gandhi as a saint. Kumarsamay between manhood and sainthood. He writes, is of the view that our culture is in many ways, very image obsessed. (52) In fact Gandhi does simplify his clothing by wearing a 'dhoti' In Gandhi's case the questions one feels inclined to ask are; to merely as a tact or strategy through which he could manage the what extent did Gandhi moved by vanity-by the consciousness of image among the public rather it had been something deeper Restructuring the Image of Gandhi 27 28 Dr. Anant Dadhich inference. Firstly, Gandhi had to identify himself with the common In Gandhi's case his entry into politics has been to set the nation free masses living in poverty and misery so that a sound campaign from the imperialism through his own strategies of truth and non- against the British could be operated. And secondly it was not simply violence. He did not wish to acquire any self-leadership. He always a part of resistance but was something character –oriented dimension kept himself away from seats and medals except in 1923 when he of his personality which propels moral and spiritual growth of a man. was elected as the president of the Congress in Belgamn Adhiveshan. Kumarsamaya observes, “Firstly his strong sense of compassion In fact Gandhi's social philosophy stems from his morality. For him, would not allow him to live him in his material comfort while the social transformation and political purity should be a part of personal rest of his country's citizenry lived in poverty and misery. Secondly conduct and a form of service to people. That is why Gandhi in he saw himself as a trusty or care taker of the earth. He wished to Politics does not prove the coercion and fraud. He suggested to this live simply so that others are not denied their share. Thirdly Gandhi extent that congress as a party should be dismissed after saw the virtue of simplicity as essential to spiritual growth, and thus independence. The unique contribution of Gandhism is enunciation he began to integrate the principle of simplicity into his character.” of the concept of decentralization in almost all walk of society (52) particularly in politics. He talks of the partyless democracy in which local public is left free to elect its own government. He also asserts Orwell's major charge against Gandhi in the essay is his entry into that politics without morality is a sin. Bose points out, “As a politics which in his opinion is an abode of compulsion and protagonist of Ram Rajya–the divine kingdom on earth-Gandhi deception. Orwell is not able to accept that there might be any reacted against the use of force by state. The state represents violence balance between sainthood and politics since these two are poles of in a concentrated and organized form. The individual has a soul, but different nature and ideologies. The politicians are supposed to be as the state is a soulless machine, it can never be weaned from shrewd and diplomatic in the matters of politics which does not violence to which it owes its very existence.” (65) match the nature of sainthood. Orwell wonders by saying that did Gandhi not compromise his own principles by entering into politics? Orwell's viewpoint regarding politics an embodiment of coercion and (1) For him a saint into politics is a self-contradictory phenomenon. fraud has been the outcome of his own experience of Spanish civil But Gandhi argues that only an individual could exercise conscience, war in which he actively took part as a member of communist party. and therefore morality. Why does Gandhi join politics? Is it a The internal rivalries for supremacy among the party has been so violation of sainthood? These are the major doubts of Orwell who intense and brought out virulence that Orwell and his party were considers Gandhi's whole life as a sort of pilgrimage in which every taken as Trotskyite spies by the Spanish communist which was siding Stalin. The lust for power within the party brought out act was significant. Gandhi himself answers to all such queries in his disgust in Orwell. That is why he came up with aversion against all works and letters. He never plans to join the politics. He never forms of totalitarian regimes including socialism. He was especially operated a public office and any public title. In fact spirituality brings disillusioned regarding Stalian's Russia which claimed to be the him into politics since he considers that spirituality is an integral part champion of the oppressed. His lifelong distrust for the autocratic of human life and religion. Wadhwa explains, governments gets reflected inAnimal Farm and Nineteen Eighty 'If Gandhi made no compromise with the notion that ends justify Four.Rahman writes, “Orwell's Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty the means, it was simply because he could clearly see that Four are novels which attack the political dehumanization brought politics as the realm of human action is beyond all means ends about by the totalitarian power.Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty controversy -which is an essential attribute in Gandhian thinking. Four, not only attack the inhumanities and callousness brought by (78) communism and fascism but they remonstrate against all forms of Restructuring the Image of Gandhi 29 30 Dr. Anant Dadhich powers and dominions which oppress the downtrodden and the insignificant. The jobless economy promotes the ill-effects which common man (78). will finally degenerate the society. The core elements of Gandhi's economics are rooted in the theory which determines human nature But in the case of Gandhi the politics leaves no taint on him simply for it reflects the whole of the society at large. Gandhian economic because he considers ethics as the central force of all human model refers to the social justice with ethical values. He was behaviour including politics. His ethics is centrally rooted in the convinced that economics is untrue which ignores or disregards moral teachings of all religion. That is why spiritualization has been moral values. (Verma 123) Joshi puts the point clear, “Neo- the basic precepts of his doctrine. Anand says that Gandhi was liberalism, Neo–colonialism and unending consumerism have turned clearly a man of religion, and he believes that religion is always a man into a demon and intemperate. The voracious nature has part of politics. (159) Gandhi himself says, “… my devotion to truth sharpened the conflict between nature and man. The collaboration of has drawn me into politics'' (Autobiography 52). Fisher clarifies man, machine, technology and capital has been ready to devour the about Gandhi in Politics by saying, “Actually Gandhi's politics are known and unknown treasure of the earth… is Gandhi unfit to be indistinguishable from his religion. In politics he adhered to moral st disposed in the 21 Century since he had been hostile to machine in considerations, and as saint he thought his place was not in cave or the changed scenario of time, issues and challenges? He was also cloister but in hurly-burly of the popular struggle for rights and the averse to the glamour of Western civilization, industrialization and right. Gandhi's religion made him political and his politics were consumerism. (14-15) Prabhash Joshi focuses on the present machine religious. (56) and technology dominated society which does not afford to have Orwell himself appreciates Gandhi's ethics and values in the essay by small industry, small village, small hospital, small towns, and small saying that high standards of morality are to be applied to him while schools. The agricultural production is deteriorating day by day and judging a man like Gandhi who believed in the purity of means as people are forced to run towards cities and metros to live under well as ends. Orwell writes, horrible circumstances. The villages have become jobless. The indigenous jobs are nowhere seen. The artisans are condemned to Nobody ever suggested that he was corrupt or ambitious in any sell their labour instead of engaging themselves in the native jobs vulgar way, or that anything he did was actuated by fear or and practices. (190) malice. In judging a man like Gandhi one seems instinctively to apply high standards, so that some of his virtues have passed The author of The Flaws in the Jewel: Challenging the Myths of almost unnoticed. (2) British India(2010) comes up with another book Jinnah VS Gandhi in 2012. The author is Roderick Matthews who started taking interest The orientalist tone of Orwell becomes prominent while questioning in Indian history after knowing that his grand – mother lady Cecilia Gandhi's programmes medievalist in a country which is backward, Roberts had taken care of Mahatma Gandhi in1914 on his visit to starving and overpopulated. Somehow this attitude forms the part of London. Cecilia Roberts unknowingly broke the vow of Gandhi by European culture as the final standard to measure the other states and offering him cow's milk. Though Roderick Matthews in one of his cultures promoting the philosophy of eurocentrism and universalism. interviews claims that this was not the cow's milk rather it was beef The socalled medievalist programmes of Gandhi refer to his concept tea. Mathews writes, “There was always this family legend that we of development and industrialisation. His concept of economy does were meant to keep secret that she made him make drink beef tea or not believe in heavy industrialization by machines which create a something very significant”. (Times of India 2) Though Gandhi vast unemployment particularly in a country like India. Gandhi clarifies in his autobiography that Lady Cecilia made him drink promotes production by the masses over mass production by the malted milk. The family connection of Roderick Matthews is machines. Moreover he believes that process of industrialization if it responsible for his interest in Indian freedom struggle which brings leaves human labour helpless and unrequired then it is simply Restructuring the Image of Gandhi 31 32 Dr. Anant Dadhich out the publication ofJinnah VS Gandhi . The book explores the noticeable even in the worst possible circumstances, as in south similarities and differences between the two founders of their Africa, when he was making himself unpopular as the champion nations. The book is also an attempt to restructure the image of of the Indian Community he did not lack European friends.(3) Gandhi in the context of modern India which in the opinion of The charge of George Orwell with respect to Gandhi's entry into Matthews is muddled but very free, vibrant, diverse, and tolerant, politics has been refuted by Matthews in the book. It is argued that mostly. (Times of India 2) his conviction regarding human dignity, simplicity and modesty have The theme of the book may be summarised by the statement that got spoiled with his entrance into the harsh world of politics, in Pakistan got the worst of Jinnah and India got the best of Gandhi. which he sought to come out holy and untainted which he ultimately This best of Gandhi has been explored by Matthews. He projects failed to grasp. Gandhian model of politics and economy has Gandhi as one who defined himself to imperialism by his opposition. emerged as a subject of debate and discussion in the course of human India was fortunate enough to have inherited the best of Gandhi has predicament. Sankhdher observes “The contradiction appear when been the recurrent theme of the book. Matthews draws the line the interaction of the eastern and western influences on him is between these two political leaders in the book. He writes that viewed in the light of the viewer's own preconceptions and value – Gandhi proceeds from the personal level first. That is why he is preferences or ideological commitments.” (Introduction) concerned with diet and sexual behaviour. This particular aspect of diet and sexual behaviour has been mocked by George Orwell in his Roderick Matthews initiates this debate by saying that the view essay. Orwell is not able to penetrate into microscopic level of about Gandhi in politics is mistaken. He clarifies that Gandhi consciousness which promotes Gandhi to raise above the ordinary understood politics in a clear way but at the same time he also got human behaviour to the level of a saint even in worldly surrounding. the limitations of political actions as a means to bring out total Orwell says, change on the part of man and manners. To behold Gandhi in the frame of Politics with the assumption that he compromised his own This condition, it seems, is difficult to attain without a special principles is a western parameter in the opinion of Matthews. This diet and frequent fasting. One of the dangers of milk drinking is orientalist dimension of politics fails to assess Gandhi in western that it is apt to arouse sexual desire. And finally-this is a cardinal term which is denounced by Orwell as an abode of coercion and point-for the seeker after goodness there must be no close fraud. Matthews says that his whole approach to the study of man friendships and no exclusive loves whatever. (5) and manners, about man in action, society, economy and politics owe Roderick Matthews is of the opinion that likes most modern much to the adherence to timeless truths and experiences as recorded politicians Jinnah works backwards from grand notions having no in ancient scriptures. Gandhi says that the individual is not a myth concern with personal realm. He elaborates that Gandhi by the virtue but a part of the broader human consciousness. He believed that of simplicity and modesty could sustain warm friendships with many bestowed with divine spark a man can reach higher goals and people across the political bindings whereas Jinnah kept himself illumine what is low and dark within him. Gandhi's ideals refer to a quite reserve and aloof. This dimension of Gandhi's personality has karmyogi who devotes his life to actions governed by his conscience also been appreciated by Orwell in his essay. His consistent which is the appropriate guide to check the conduct and character of affiliation with people gives him the status of charismatic leadership. man. Matthew writes, Orwell writes, The idea that he had no politics is at heart a western view, born The governor of a province, cotton millionaire, a half-starved of an inability to classify his thinking in western terms. It would Dravidian coolie, a British private soldier, were all equally be an error rooted in chauvinism to assume that because he had human beings, to be approached in much the same way. It is no specific westerns political locus, he was not a proper Restructuring the Image of Gandhi 33 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 34-40 (2013)

politician. Gandhi stood as a good distance from any recognizable 'Western'–isms'. He was only concerned with personal and national reformation, which in his view were the same things… He listened inward to his conscience, not outward Modern Education: A Culture-Centric Assortment to his supporters… Most of the opponents consider him to be of Classics and Innovation either a saint who had stumbled into public life by mistake, or a crafty charlatan who could not be trusted because he was not Dr. S. S. Thakur and Dr. Anita Thakur trying to do the usual sorts of deals. (121) References: Abstract Anand, Jana. Gandhi's Leadership: The Oceanic Cricle Beyond Time and In this era of globalization, we are in yet another phase when the Geography. Mumbai: Bhartiya Vidhya Bhawan, 1999. Print. validity of the classics and culture, as the foundation of learning, is Bose, Nirmal Kumar.Studies in Gandhism . Colcutta: India Associates, being questioned and when there are many signs of erosion—as 1940. Print decline or outright rejection of ancient languages and culture in the Fischer, Lions.Gandhi His Life Message for the Wond . New York : The curriculum designed by various universities. The amount of New American Library, 1963. Print. classroom time devoted to these classics has in many institutions drastically diminished. There are several reasons for this. The Gandhi, Mahatma.My Experiment with Truth . Lucknow : Divyansh, 2012. th Print demand after the mid 20 century Cultural Revolution for contemporary “relevance” in the curriculum produced a relaxation Gauba, O.P.Political Theory and Thought. Noida: Mayur, 2007. Print in academic methods and a proliferation of courses oriented towards Joshi, Prabhash.Jab Top Mukabil Ho. New Delhi: Rajkamal, 2008. Print. the present. The present study will examine the popular culture that Joshi, Ramsharan. “Bapu Bharat ki Lokwadi Surat Gadhte.”Navneet (Oct has entered the classroom as teaching tool, a phenomenon towards 2012) : 13-19. Print. which there are quite different views. Kumarasamy, Anand.Gandhi on Personal Leadership. Mumbai: Jaico, 2006. Print Another reason for the turn from classics and culture in the past half Manimala, “The Only Way Left.”Kadimbini (Oct 2012) : 14-17. Print. century is the new interest in multiculturalism, which originated in the mid 20th century. What diseased the debate over educational Matthews, Roderick.Jinnah vs Gandhi. Gurgoan: Hachette, 2012. Print...., reform, however, was that many proposals for multicultural change “Pakistan Got the Worst of Jinnah and India got the Best of Gandhi.” Times of India 11 August 2012, Father's Day 2. Print. were explicitly political that polarized the campuses. Shortcuts were resorted to get rapid results in democratizing and universalizing the Orwell, George.Essay of Orwell . Ed. M.E. Nayar. Delhi: Macmillan, 1980. curriculum. The laudable mission of multiculturalism also got Print entangled with academic careerism and professionalism. Job Rahman, Adibur.George Orwell : A Humanistic Perspective. New Delhi: creation, recruitment, and promotion became attached to Atlantic, 2002. Print multiculturalism. Innovative programs and new departments Sankhdher, M.M.Understanding Gandhi Today . New Delhi: Deep and multiplied so that diversity was achieved not by genuinely revising Deep, 1996. Print. the curriculum but by turning the campus into an irrational quilt of Verma, PR. The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and Sarvodya. competitive fiefdoms. Furthermore, the promising multicultural Agra: Laxminarayan, 1972. Print. programs were more allied with campus administrators and Wadhwa, Madhuri.Gandhi between Tradition and modernity . New Delhi: professional trainers than with the scholarly professors with their Deep and Deep, 1997. Print classical erudition and academic merits. Modern Education: A Culture-Centric Assortment of Classics and Innovation 35 36 Dr. S. S. Thakur and Dr. Anita Thakur

In the light of above facts the paper will explore the importance of modern education in India. The missionaries started educational classics that contribute to modern education which in true sense institutions which along with imparting modern secular education should be a blend of culture and innovation. The paper will strongly also gave religious instructions. This way modern education had suggest all the students across the globe, a need to learn the general different orientation as compared to traditional education. It was contours of the world's major artistic and cultural traditions, without evident that, with the beginning of the Western system of education, sacrificing innovation and modernism. Within the limitations, the both the meaning and content of education underwent positive paper will attempt to evolve basic ideas for culture centric pedagogy changes. As a result of the exposure to western education, the Indian which acts as bricks in building a new educational process for intellectuals and visionaries like Raja Rammohan Roy and Sir Saiyed modern world. Ahmad Khan also felt the need for rational reconstruction of culture and tradition. Even Sir Aurobindo, who championed the cause of Introduction preserving the Indian culture thought of rationalistic reinterpretation The present study will be a careful account of the role of education of Indian culture. from colonial period to the current times. For a proper investigation As a matter of fact modern education in India was initially introduced of the role of education in modernization, it is essential to distinguish by British as a tool for colonial domination but astonishingly it played between the two major levels of modernization-organizational a liberating role leading to national independence. Thus besides modernization and attitudinal modernization. Organizational cultural regeneration, the third powerful agency i.e. progressive modernization refers to the modernization of various institutions in educated Indians also stirred and awakened the people to the ideal of terms of infrastructure and technological advancements and freedom from colonial rule. However due to some built in limitations attitudinal modernization refers to the modernization of minds and and constraints, modern education also had some failures. Following behaviour. The distinction lies in the possibility that the society may are the failures of modern education adopt organizational developments without modernizing the attitudes of its members. In wider sense modernization includes four aspects: 1. It created an urge for cultural regeneration but it did not lead to technological, infrastructural, value based and behavioral. These four renaissance as it did in Europe. aspects can form four different images of modern society: an urban - 2. It carved a way to independence but also created pressures for industrial society, a society marked by formal organizations, a partition sensible civil society and a dynamic global society. In order to assess 3. It served more as a source of cultural regeneration than of the role of education in modernization, the study will judiciously organizational modernization. trace its role from colonial period. Undeniably the British 4. It laid more stress on liberal education than on scientific and Government was the principal agent in disseminating modern technical education. education in India. It established a network of schools and colleges which generated educated Indians well-versed in modern knowledge. Impact of British Rule: Social Enlightenment and Cultural Change Education in British India The impact of the British rule and its influence changed the material For India, the commencement of modern education was an event of and cultural circumstances of the people and the way of life in such a great historical significance and unquestionably it was a progressive way as to lead to a total transformation. The change brought about act of the British rule. Three main agencies were responsible for the was not superficial but fundamental, not momentary but permanent. spread of modern education in India: the overseas Christian It influenced all the spheres of human endeavor–social, political, missionaries, the British government and progressive educated economic, religious and cultural. Basic changes in economic, Indians. These agencies did comprehensive work in spreading Modern Education: A Culture-Centric Assortment of Classics and Innovation 37 38 Dr. S. S. Thakur and Dr. Anita Thakur political, administrative and legal set up combined with the modern emphasizes on raw learning than developing analytical ability. In the education and formed a new awakening among the people, midst of all these functions the learning process got restricted to the particularly among the educated cream. This led to religious and academic careerism and professionalism that could lead to job social reforms. The urge for change or reform and spread of new creation and recruitment. Culture and value system got isolated and objective came through modern education initiated by the British. are put on life saving device. The purported values transmitted through the present system are neither medieval nor modern, it only Post Independence Scenario fosters the values of superiority of white collared jobs and elitism Modern education has experienced a phenomenal expansion since rather than adding value to dignity of labor and equity. From the independence. There were 19 universities, 650 colleges and about 2 above viewpoint it can be perceived that modern education in India lakhs students on rolls in 1947. The figures now mounted to 568 fails to instill attitudinal modernity in the young generation. This is universities and over 50,000 colleges. The present study investigates an evidence indicative of the weak political determination on the part how the phenomenal expansion of education affected modernization? of the Indian State to reorient education for modernization. Though the figures are commendable but modernization in India leaves something to be desired. Education has certainly facilitated Current Scenario the rise of modern institutions in India, yet our modern institutions As things rest at present, modern education is suffering from are known for their red-tapism, nepotism and factionalism. Even the multiplicity of objectives. On the one hand education is a means of trained officials and functionaries fail to run the modern employment and also a source of producing better human beings and organizations by the logic of modernism. It gives them skills but not on the other hand it needs to preserve culture and also modernize it at the sensibility. On careful diagnosis, it is observed that skill the same time. In the light of above facts it will not be an over component has gained momentum in the post independence era as statement to say that modern education is a victim of multiplicity of compared to value and culture components of colonial period. objectives and this is the reason why it leaves something to be Education has produced desired. In the light of the above facts, for reorienting both mind and · A bulky pool of scientific and technical manpower but not society we need to set our priorities. It is hopeless thought to clutter enough of scientific temper only with structural or stereotyped format of education that meet the requirements of irrational competitive fiefdoms without addressing · Produced modern institutions but not modern perception the question of cultural retention and values which are the classics of · Modern values but recast in a traditional mould British India as well as future India. Thus modernization is a mixed · Modern objectives but not modern ethics bag of technological advancement and classics i.e. scientific temper, secularism, universalism, civil society and culture. The substance of all this is that education in post independence India enhanced organizational modernization but lacked value and culture In the present context, the educational institutions and the students reorientation. The probable explanation for this disappointing should realize the fact that much more effective than curriculum performance of education as a modernizer of mind rests in the hands designed by the universities, is the setting and practice of education. of the leading universities who have failed to design the curriculum It must be remembered that the true spirit of globalization and that could help in bridging the gaps of the society. To much extent, liberalization cannot be acquired in an autocratic educational setting the blame rests on the inherent deficiencies of the education system nor there are any short cuts to reach the desired targets. It is also which stuffs the minds of the students with information rather than observed that in an attempt to procure the multifaceted career broadening the mental horizon of the students, it puts stress on students and the institutions are passionate towards new courses that scientific theories instead of cultivating scientific temper, it are believed to foster that needs of globalization and multiculturalism. Modern Education: A Culture-Centric Assortment of Classics and Innovation 39 40 Dr. S. S. Thakur and Dr. Anita Thakur

The Challenges at the forefront Conclusion Taking into account the multiple forms and manifestations of The present study on modern education has evolved a culture centric cultures, modernization requires sustained efforts. The multi cultural pedagogy with an emphasis on both classics and innovation. It is society of India is in itself a mini world that offers a great challenge intended to highlight the fact that the basic beliefs of human society to those involved in culture centric pedagogy for modern education. are still threatened by the society itself. Hence the search for Due to diverse cultures individual efforts might initially prove to be alternative pedagogy should start from serious focusing of our own insignificant but every effort in this direction can be the foundation observations and findings. Undoubtedly, culture probabilities are the of a new beginning. Secondly anthropological exoticism should not key components shaping life, society and relationships, and due to be viewed as a hurdle or a barrier preventing modernism. Such diversity their variations are extremely complex and challenging. barriers if taken in the right perspective can offer challenges to the Hence this paper strongly suggests the readers and the students to active and committed researchers. For implementing culture-centric exploit the complex diversity as raw material for developing a pedagogical propositions and improvising those schemes to suit a culture-centric pedagogy for modernization. Though cultures are particular culture, the task of training the students should be left on changing systems but they preserve certain highly useful elements of the eminent professors possessing in-depth knowledge and deep the past. The new pedagogies should take into account this factor as insight into the study of languages and cultures or the cultural a precondition. Thus the paper intends to strike a balance between activists who are well versed with the intricacies of particular the classics and the innovation on the cultural axis. culture. In any case such responsibilities should not rest with the pseudo professional trainers or commercial agencies working for the References: benefit of money. If the universities and the leading institutions do Bogoslovsky, B.B.The Ideal School. New York : The Macmillan Co.,1936. not take effective steps in this direction the entire educational system Hocking, W.B.Human Nature and its Remaking. New York : Yale will be at risk. The self styled educational institutions whose aim is University Press. to make easy and big money will soon mushroom in the markets and Horne, H.H.The Philosophy of Education. New York : Macmillan Co. will take over the responsibility of modernizing the society. Today, in th the society, there are many such visible examples of pedagogical Mitchell, Gibson.Introduction to Counseling and Guidance. 6 ed. New praxis emerged in response to the confrontation of students and the Delhi : Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006. government's prodigal educational policies. Uberoi, N.K. "Professional Competency in Higher Education." Centre for Professional Development in Higher Education, New Delhi, 1995. For productive results, the role of externals and the imported experts need to be properly examined before embarking upon a search for an altered pedagogy. In the midst of flashing slogans of globalization and privatization, it is however a tough time for the allied agencies of government and leading universities to maintain the decorum of education that would lead to modernization of both minds and society. These arresting slogans have left a magical impact on the students of this generation and these slogans are also providing necessary ventilation to oust their frustration against an increasingly irresponsible mechanism adopted by the states. If the states don't take constructive steps we may have to invite the foreign saviors i.e. the kith and kin of those colonial invaders who left India in 1947, for modernizing the society and the minds of the people. Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 41-49 (2013) 42 Prof. Nafisa Hatimi and Dr. Jyoti Tripathi

origin in society's interest in defining nation and national characters. After French Revolution events of national significance became themes of literature. In the nineteenth century, these novels provided an escapist motif that helped to endure the changing harsh conditions The Palace of Illusions: Revisiting an Epic Tale of the age.

Prof. Nafisa Hatimi and Dr. Jyoti Tripathi A historical novel epitomizes different approaches to history and as such contemporary literary periods are especially relevant and accordingly historical novels can be divided into three significant Past events can be altered. History gets rewritten. Well, we've phases. The Classical historical novel presents the authentic just found That this applies to the real world too…. May be the historical knowledge. It can be seen as the complimentary real history of the world is changing constantly? And why? publication to trustworthy historiography, the mimetic transcript of Because history is fiction. Its dream in the mind of humanity, past events and the mirror image of the bygone period. The main aim forever striving …towards what? Towards perfection. (Watson of the classical writers was the presentation of historical events and 174) the narrative styles which are used to present these facts are Our classicsal history has been aesthetically revisited over the period secondary to them. They project the protagonist in a genuine of time and in this way mythology has been a topic of vital historical setting and focus on his relation to the world for fulfilling relevance. The varied complex cultural attitude of modern India the noble deeds. The appearance of a mediocre hero and the other cannot be understood without an understanding of its myths and their historical figures of historical significance and the factual description collective impact on the belief of many people. The Mahabharata, of previous time are some key characteristics of Classical historical the Ramayana, the Purana and other ancient classics have always novel. been the source of inspirations for many writers. History covers these The classical historical novel defined by Scott has undergone masterpieces under one sphere of influence of factual history but in significant changes in the modern age which includes physiological fiction these magnum opus glorify all the relevant facts with fictional introspection and replaces realistic presentation of the outside world elements to regain the silenced voices of the past. with inward realism. The objective representation of history in the Historical fiction is a mingled version of literary production and the classical novels was switched to the subjective attempt in modern communication of literary knowledge. It is an amalgamation of age. The modern age writers thoroughly denied the exact mimetic factual history and literary form in which the novelists present their representation and focused the narrator's role. They focus on the vision of past actuality and at the same time make sense out of them. characters' inner lives that were affected by the historical It was at the end of the eighteen century when history and literature occurrences. They emphasized on self–reflexivity, multiple emerged as two supposedly distinct disciplines and the historical focalization and subjectivization. Woolf, Faukner and James are the novel emerged as the distinguished discipline with the publication of significant writers of modern historical fiction. Sir Walter Scott'sWaverley in 1814 who is often referred as the Postmodern historical fiction on the other hand does not emphasise father of the historical novel. Scott presents historical facts at a old certainties about the happenings but presents multiplicity of different level so that his readers could sense what it was like to live truths inherent in the account of the past events. According to in the times of past. Historical novel has its place among the tradition postmodernist writers the history should be based on the fictional of literary forms like the novels of Domestic Realism, the Heroic aspects and not on the historical facts and that's why the boundary Romance, Memoir and Historical Drama. Historical novel found its between factual history and fictional aspect gets blurred. They are The Palace of Illusions: Revisiting an Epic Tale 43 44 Prof. Nafisa Hatimi and Dr. Jyoti Tripathi interested in collective history. They have shattered the main be seen in Divakaruni's workThe Palace of Illusions. Divakaruni objectives of classical historical novel by critically reflecting on said once: “The art of dissolving boundaries is what living is all metahistorical processes. Jenkins has also explained Lyotard's about.” (Banerjee 2) In additionThe Palace of Illusions negotiates "incredulity towards metanarratives” (Jenkins 70) as one of the Indian past by transgressing the boundaries between fact and fiction. characteristics of postmodern historical fiction which means having The dominant voice of the male super heroes in the history is disbelief in all those great structuring stories of our development. It subverted and Divakaruni has renarrated the epic from a female point emphasises on the subjectivity of the fiction like modern historical of view. fiction but very unlike modern historical fiction, it appears less The Palace of Illusionsrevisits the Indian epic Mahabharata and the interested in the personal aspect of subjectivity but deals with whole novel centres round its epic heroine Draupadi. She reinterprets conventionalized subjectivity on a large scale, as can be found in the Mahabharata and tries to throw a new light upon the eminent traditional historiography. Indian classic and it is her voice that takes us through her birth from The postmodern writers use multiple narratives to reproduce each fire to the actual war and finally the ascent into Mount Meru towards historical detail. Instead of believing in the propagation of the past, Swarga. This novel is a mingled version of mythology, history and they produce highly reflective and individualized accounts of the imagination. Divakaruni has used myth in the novel to enhance the bygone period. They reject the linearity of time by projecting history artistic effect. As it is said by Baudrillard: “history has transmuted as not only compiling the past records but also as establishing new into myth in the modern era. (...) History is our lost referential, that is meanings out of them and they do it through metahistorical to say our myth” (Baudrillard 24). presentation. As White has definedhistory not as a set of past objects TheMahabharata , the greatest and the longest epic poem, has but as “a certain kind of relationship to the past mediated by a constantly been reinvented and revisited in a variety of forms; in distinctive kind of written discourse” (White 1). In this respect they Sanskrit, classical literature, folk literature; by village storytellers use the techniques like self – reflexivity, multiple focalization and and cartoon strips and each time a new perspective emerges. In the subjectivization which were used earlier by modern writers, to throw novel Draupadi remarks: “Every time I spoke it,.…, for a story gains light upon the marginalized perspectives. As the postmodernist power with retelling.” (POI 20) The original version which was historical fiction is characterised by Rozett: written in Sanskrit date back to fifth and sixth centuries BC. a resistance to old certainties about what happened and why; a (Buckingham 48) Then in recent time Ravi Chopra's 91 part TV recognition of the subjectivity, the uncertainty, the multiplicity of serial broadcasted by Doordarshan over two years is an unparalleled truths inherent in any account of past events; and a disjunctive, example of its reinvention. (Buckingham 48) The great epic has been selfconscious narrative, frequently produced by eccentric and/or reproduced here in the framework of contemporary narrative mode multiple narrating voices. (Rozett, 146) and fascinated television viewers in India. Even in the west, it has been exposed to the viewers through Peter Brook's theatrical Thus it can be seen as the most complex form of historical fiction. Its production and his six hour film. Later on David Buckingham main objective is to provide new interpretation of history and to free compared the two contemporary television versions produced in East historical discourse from hegemonic forces. and West in the third chapter of his book Reading Audiences: Young The Palace of Illusions by Chitra Divakaruni Banerjee is a People and the Media. In Brook's English version we see Vyasa the postmodern historical novel. It is a warp and woof of the epic narrator whereas in the Indian version the narrator is given a divine Mahabharata from a feminine perspective. The interaction between quality. Here the story is directly narrated by Vishnu who does not the ancient mythological stories and contemporary writing can easily appear in person but as a spiritual voice emanating from heaven. The Palace of Illusions: Revisiting an Epic Tale 45 46 Prof. Nafisa Hatimi and Dr. Jyoti Tripathi

(Buckingham 61) Passing through the postcolonial filter in Shashi The pious friendship of Draupadi and Krishna is known to us but tharoor'sThe Great Indian Novel, it uses the voice of Vyasa, like the Divakaruni has added more beauty with her poetic descriptions. original epic, to reflect upon the modern Indian political chaos in the When at the end she falls from the mountain and remembers Krishna pre-colonial historical set up. On the other hand, in Divakaruni's and he guides her from memories of earthly love to the spiritual love. postmodern creation the narrator has been replaced the divine voice Draupadi says to herself “If what I felt for Karna was a singeing fire, of Vyasa by Draupadi's voice. Krishna's love was a balm, moonlight over a parched landscape.” (POI 356) It has also been translated and transformed in various regional languages. As P.P. Raveendran's“ Fiction and Reception: The Novel revolves around these themes which have no place in the Reconstructions of theMahabharata in Malayalam” deals with some grand narrative. The original story ofMahabharata unfolds with the of the fictional readings of theMahabharata in present day great major theme of the battle between Kaurava and Panndava. Malayalam literature. Alf Hiltebeitel in his literary work Rethinking Draupadi's thought process during all these events that altered history the Mahabharata: A Reader's Guide to the Education of the Dharma remains purely untold in the epic. The marginalized voice of King describes the great epic by employing a wide range of literary Draupadi has been brought to the centerstage of the meta narrative. and narrative theory. Apart from several different interpretations of We all know Draupadi as the wife of five Pandava brothers but here theMahabharata this Postmodern metanarrative work of Divakaruni Divakaruni is basically concerned with the multifacets of her breaks the canon and reviews all the main themes through a different character as a daughter, a sister, daughter-in-law and above all as a viewpoint. woman. Draupadi and Kunti are acknowledged to us as great classical characters. On the one hand, the way Kunti has been The novel deals with Draupadi's destiny, her undisclosed love for portrayed here, with the commonly mother-in-law instincts, who Karna and her friendship with Krishna. It was prophesied that plays the tricky domestic games with her daughter-in-law. She says Draupadi, daughter of Drupad and wife of the five Pandavas would infuriatingly to Draupadi: “This is all there is. This isn't your father's be the reason for the bloodiest war in history. Draupadi, knows palace!”and mistakenly she asks her sons to share the spoils of their nothing about her destiny. As Dhai Ma says to her: “They (priests) victory equally and declares: “All five of you must marry this said, Behold, we give you this girl, a gift beyond what you asked for. woman.” This sarcastic response shows Draupadi's intense pathos Take good care of her, for she will change the course of history.” and she frustratingly says to herself: “This woman , as though I were (POI 4, 5) Likewise her love for Karna is another startling theme a nameless servant.” Divakaruni's interpretation of these characters which has no existence in the epic. Draupadi's great love for Karna is focuses the readers attention on vital hidden feminist concerns. well defined at the time of Swayamwar when she looks at him with great love and says to herself that: The hidden feminist concerns are highlighted by Draupadi. Though she plays an incidental role in the core epic yet, here she shares her Dhari didn't point him out, but I found him. Next to Duryodhan, own woeful experiences. Draupadi is generally known as a half hidden behind marble pillar. My heart beat so hard, I was devotional wife. We have no substantial reference which exhibits her sure Dhari would hear. I longed to look into Karna's face, to see anguishes and suffering as a wife of five husbands. We can sense if those eyes were indeed as sad as the artist had portrayed, but Draupadi's pain when she describes a soothsayer's verdict: “I would even I knew how improper that would be. I focused instead on be the wife to each brother for a year at a time, from oldest to his hands, the wrists disdainfully bare of ornaments, the youngest, consecutely.” (POI 120) And before her major insult in the powerful, battered knuckles. If my brother had known how badly court she mentions: “The wife is the property of the husband, no less I wanted to touch them, he would have been furious. (POI 92,93) so then a cow or a slave.” (POI 190) This shows Draupadi's intense The Palace of Illusions: Revisiting an Epic Tale 47 48 Prof. Nafisa Hatimi and Dr. Jyoti Tripathi agony for being trapped in a male chauvinistic world. The novel also (POI 145) Divakaruni's novel and Draupadi's palace share the same epitomizes the image of the nation and culture that emerges from name which is named out by Draupadi herself and she says: “This past to present through the postmodern narrative. History makes us creation of yours that's going to be the envy of every king in Bharat – acquainted with the war fought at Kurukshetra, the consequences of we'll call it the Palace of Illusions.” The altered name of the palace is which were not known to anyone except Vyasa. Presently Tharoor another example of postmodern metanarrativity. has compared the prolong war with the contemporary political Almost all the major incidents of Mahabharata are placed in a scenario and admits that 1977 election following the emergency is contemporary context. Draupadi's thoughts kindle a fire in today's not said to be the only most important event in the modern times: women. While the setting is an epic tale the characters and their traits Life is Kurukshetra. History is Kurukshetra. The struggle are very modern and relevant. Shashi Tharoor related its significance between Dharma and adharma is a struggle our nation, and each to today's war-torn political world and said: “There is hardly a one in it, engages in on every single day of our existence.That political controversy where there isn't somebody making some struggle, that battle, took place before this election; it will allusion to characters of the Mahabharata and describing a politician continue after it. (Tharoor 391) as Karna, as Duryodhana.” (Interview, 25) In a way different to Tharoor's interpretation, terrifying by knowing Thus, it can be said that Divakaruni has attempted this Herculean task of retelling the epic and bringing out all vulnerable facets of her own destiny, Draupadi asks the consequences of the war to Draupadi's character. Divakaruni has tried to reveal the diverse Vyasa: “You say you have already written the story of the war. Tell shades of this mythical tale. The grand narrative of the past gets me then who will win?” Was it in Vyasa's book? challenged and renarrated by the novelist. In this respect, the All these areas which were overlooked in history have been characteristics of postmodern historical fiction have deftly been emphatically exposed in Divakaruni's novel. Through her great employed by her. Hence, Divakaruni has recreated an epic within a endeavor, she has tried to justify the theme of history which is distinct postmodern historical framework that is both contemporary complex in itself like a lotus: “An inner petal would never know the and timeless. older, outer ones, even though it was shaped by them.” as time is References: visualized by Draupadi. (POI 188) It achieves both the goals of Abcarian, Richard and Marvin Klotz. "Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni." In representing history and putting it in the contemporary fiction Literature: the Human Experience. 9th ed. New York: Bedford/St. framework by bridging the gap between facts and fiction: Like Martin's, 2006. Mahabharata it pays a great tribute to Hinduism's central virtues and Aldana, Frederick Luis. “Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni: The Unknown Errors unlike the epic, it touches the other open-ended areas which makes it of Our Lives.”World Literature Today . University of Oklahoma. 1 Jan a remarkable postmodern attempt. Undoubtedly the male-centred 2002. story has been depicted with a female point of view, giving us a rich Baudrillard, Jean.Simulacra and Simulation . Trans. Sheila Faria-Glaser, tale of passion and love, power and weakness, honour and Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 1994. humiliation. This way Divakaruni presents the great psychological Brook, Peter. Dir. TheMahabharata . Produced by Michael Propper. depth. Screenplay by Peter Brook, Jean-Claude, and Marie-Helene Estienne. Great Performances. PBS. WFIU, Bloomington, IN. 1991 The title of the novel itself shows the metanarrative treatment of the Buckingham, David.Reading Audiences: Young People and the Media . 2nd great story. The palace is named after the much envied palace which ed. Manchester University Press, 1993. is full of impossibilities as said by Maya: “floors looking like rivers, waterfalls looking like walls. Doorsteps all glittery like melted ice.” Chopra, B.R. dir. and Ravi Chopra Producer. Mahabharata. Doordarshan. New Delhi. 1989. The Palace of Illusions: Revisiting an Epic Tale 49 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 50-53 (2013)

Divakaruni, Chitra Banerjee. Palace of Illusion. London: Picador, 2008. ---. “Dissolving Boundaries.” 1997. Web. Unearthing the Lost Voices : Hiltebeitel, Alf. Rethinking the Mahabharata: A Reader's Guide to the A Postcolonial Reading of Midnight's Children education of the Dharma King. University of Chicago Press, 2001. Holmstrom, Lakshmi.The Inner Courtyard Stories by Indian Woman . Rupa by Salman Rushdie and Co. 2002. Jenkins, Keith.Rethinking History . Routledge.1991. Dr. Manisha Sharma Raveendran, P.P. “Fiction and Reception: Reconstructions of the Mahabharata" in Malayalam.”Sahitya Akademi. Vol. 49, No. 1 (225) Born on June 19, 1947, Salman Rushdie's birth is itself marked with (Jan-Feb 2005), pp.152-16. 25 June 2013. end of a long colonial rule of British power. The year was significant Roberts, Geoffrey. “Narrative History as a Way of Life.” Journal of in many respects including Indo-Pak partition, emergence of two Contemporary History 31 (1996) : 221-228. independent nations and a further period of social and political Rozett, Martha Tuck. “Constructing a World: How Postmodern Historical upheavals and riots. The tumultuous and claustrophobic situation Fiction Reimagines the Past”. Clio: A Journal of Literature, History which engulfed the whole political and social set-up of two nations and the Philosophy Of History 25.2 (Winter 1996) : 145-150, 25 June with wide range of violence, turbulent ebbs of riots, bloodbath and 2013 chaotic view has formed the backdrop of Midnight's Children. Tharoor, Shashi. Interview. India Currents 4.8 (1990) : 18+ Being the bestseller and most applauded novel of Salman Rushdie it ---.The Great Indian Novel . New Delhi : Penguin Books India, 1989. has created a sensational wave all around the world, stirring up the "The Palace of Illusions.” Language in India . June 2011, Vol.11, Issue 6, minds of millions of people. p.150, 25 June 2013 independence, furthering emergence of Pakistan and calamitous Watson, Ian.Chekhov's Journey . London: Gollancz. 1983. situation of two bloodsued nations, resulting in epidemic of multiple White, Hayden.Figural Realism: Studies in the Mimesis Effect . Baltimore: wars and governmental anarchial abuses. The novel, written in 1981 The John Hopkins University Press, 1999. and is an awardee of most prestigious 'Bookers of Bookers', and 'all Zupancic, Metka. “The Power of Storytelling: An Interview with Chitra time best' grapple with the core issues of humanity and trust among Banerjee Divakaruni.”Contemporary Women's Writing 6.2 (Jul 2012) : people as birth of the protagonist Saleem coincides with Rushdie 85. himself. Born on the dawn of independence i.e. exactly at midnight 24 June 2013. . Nair,L. Kavitha. “Agency, Aug 15, 1947, Saleem's birth itself, is a seamless question of identity Narrativity Gender in Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni's crisis, a state of flux and confused allegory of a quest-seeking 25 June 2013. homeland. All the events of his life are closely linked with parallel 25 June 2013. violence and civil wars and ruthless upheavals in politics are the 24 June 2013. backlash of the novel. The life of the protagonist Saleem Sinai is a graphic representation of the time of partition when multitude of people were dragged into political and social tensions, the ever entangling question of cultural, religious, political and linguistic differences as a diverse nation is Unearthing the Lost Voices : A Postcolonial Reading of Midnight's... 51 52 Dr. Manisha Sharma entwined with the text as the story moves with the child Saleem All the children born on the same date at Midnight are bestowed with watching the city of Bombay on the verge of division on political and special magical abilities attempt to know the meaning of their gifts, linguistic lines. The individual life of Saleem and collective life of a Shiva 'of the knees', Saleem's nemesis, Parvati called 'Parvati the nation are drawn in parallel ways only to decipher the relationship of witch' are symbolic of Hindu Gods and goddesses. microcosm merging in macrocosm. Saleem is an embodied character Saleem is considered as a political prisoner for defaming Indira of many experiences and sensitivity, just an antidote of the protestors and anti-nationalists who demand their own region, a total separation Gandhi. Rushdie also had to face the fury of Indira Gandhi for his from the roots. Themagical realism embedded and used scathing criticism of her overattempt during Emergency period and scrupulously in the main story adds spice in the flavour as the her personal ambition of power. Emergency is symbolically end of protagonist uses his telepathic power to transcend the man made potency of Midnight children. barriers of language and territories. His entity as sensitive human The narrative of the novel closely knits with the Indian cultural being with poor background, well to do affluent upbringing, English history, the characters are named with Indian classical and blood and religious fervor mirrors and represents India's common mythological texture and they are blended with western culture also. man. The characters of Shiva, despite poverty is gifted with strong knees The midnight children's conference or meeting from where the title is and Parvati's having relationship with Shiva, Padma for patience are derived, presents a tableau like image of a diverse nation and also the the Indian mythological representations mingling with other western natural, inbuilt potentiality of a person belonged to diversity. The characters. William Methwold, being biological father of Saleem, self-centred outlook for separation and individualism at different owes a big estate and his selling of his estate to Ahmed is symbolic planes like religion, culture, language breeds contempt among people of a nation's transfer to sovereign power, also handing over the and aggravates intolerance resulting in violence and repression. The cultural, linguistic and political legacy to independent nation after a fantastic fantasy which Saleem narrates to all children is a linear long rule. Also the switching of nametags of babies in nursing home documentation of a series of events like Gandhiji's death, Indo-Pak by Mary Pereira, the aaya of Saleem corelates with the malintention division, Pakistan as a monotheist nation, emergency, Kashmir issue, of the British rule by dividing India into two separate nations and the all are in a seamless continuity of past and present, personal and further social gulf between rich and the poor. public, static and dynamic. Saleem's personal compulsions are All the events in the novel are dexterously interwoven to present a inexplicably intricated with national enigmas. Saleem's fragmented kaleidoscopic view of India's history through the magical ability of body symbolically draws parallelism between an individual's suffering and nation's fragmentation with partition. His body is the protagonist Saleem as it is closely related to the divine insight or swelled up with cracks due to deterioration and past memories are capability of Sanjay inMahabharata who envisions the events of chilling out, oscillating back and forth and further denoting partition Kurukshetra war and lively documents them to Yudhisthera. and its aftermath. The undercurrent of postcolonialism runs throughout the novel as it Saleem's family faced migration and multiple wars which plagued postulates an objective world of historical events of post British rule, the subcontinent. Saleem's amnesia or temporarily memory loss is demasking the impact or aftermath of Indo-Pak partition on very significant and it signifies distorted state of mind amidst chaos, individuals and nations. The novel has a hypnotic grip on the he enters a quasi mythological exile state in Sundarbans area where framework when one undergoes the past, relives present and reality he restored his memory again and had reminiscences of childhood in illusionary form is so well seminated that a uniform whole is friends. He got involved in emergency period proclaimed by Prime brought out. Minister Indira Gandhi and again disputed 'cleaning' movement of At the end, Saleem picks up few pieces of his life to write chronicle Jama Masjid slum by her son Sanjay Gandhi. of his personal life and still young nation for his son. Through his Unearthing the Lost Voices : A Postcolonial Reading of Midnight's... 53 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 54-60 (2013) uncanny sense of smell, he smells the past political events, moulding personal lives and this interplay of personal and public, past and The Voice of a Freedom-Fighter in present melts at a juncture-beautifully dynamic. The loveless lives of Aadam Aziz with his wife or Amina's with her husband Ahmed also Makhan Lal Chaturvedi's Hindi poem corelate with the lack of feelings among people being divided into 'Qaidi and Kokila' various sects and two nations. The novel ends up with open-ended postcolonial influences where Prof. Asha Arora the midnight children, born on special time are both masters and victims of their time as they stumble upon individualism or “Martyrdom does not end something, it is only a beginning”. universalism. These 'children must not become.... 'the bizarre –Indira Gandhi creation of a rambling diseased mind' (200). 'Indian Independence Movement' is related to a wide range of These children are constantly on a springboard of identity crisis areas like political organisations, philosophies and movements which within the polarities of the postcolonial. 'They are the last throw of aimed to end the company rule (East India Company), and then everything antiquated and retrogressive in our myth ridden British imperial authority. This movement saw various national and nation...... or as the true hope of freedom...... (200). The freedom is regional campaigns, agitations and efforts, and some nonviolent attained at the cost of many ambiguities and individual's voice is lost actions. The freedom fighters kept the national struggle alive in and submerged in collective mass. Unable to live or die in peace" many phases during the 19th and the 20th century. The revolutionary (463). This sentence encompasses a question of belongingness and freedom-fighters, literary persons and artists gave shape and content homeland, whether one can survive with perfect peace without to the concept and vision of a free nation. The poetry of the age was turbulent state of mind, where individuals have not to pay the cost of thoroughly stepped in fervent patriotism mixed with the finest political upheavals and where a mind is without fear...... elements of Indian culture. Most of the poets of this time were References : spurred by this new spirit to a stirring expression of anger about the Ashcroft, Bill.The Post Colonial Studies Reader . Ed. Gareth Griffiths and way their countrymen were being exploited by the British masters. Helen Tiffin. London : Routledge, 1995. Their poetic word kept the spirit and the flame of the national Durix, Jean-Pierre. "Salman Rushdie Interview."Kunapipi 4.2 (1982):17-26. struggle alive. The anger with which they had been seething from the Hutcheon, Linda. "Circling the Downspout of Empire." very dawn of national awakening, burst into a long-drawn struggle Loomba, Ania.Colonialism / Postcolonialism, London : Routledge, 1998. for independence. Indian poets played an important role in the Mishra, Vijay. "The Texts of Mother India." Ed. Stephen Slemon and Helen freedom struggle. There were hundreds of known and unknown poets Tiffin, Sydney : Kangaroo P., 1989. who gave immortal words to freedom struggle. Many of them are Monaco, James. ed. The Virgin International Enclyclopaedia of Film dead and unknown, but their word lives. In fact, their verses have London : Virgin. become part of the collective memory of the nation. Whenever the flag of Independent India flutters in celebration and triumph, Pattayanak, Chandrabhanu. "Interview with Salman Rushdie." Literary Criterion 18.3 (1983). thoughts would go to the poets of freedom in tribute, gratitude and pride. Rushdie, Salman.Midnight's Children. London : Vintage, 1995. Said, Edward W.Culture and Imperialism. London : Vintage, 1994. Many of them were folk bards and wandering minstrels who walked Slemon, Stephen. "Magic Realism as Post-Colonial Discourse." Canadian from village to village and street to street to spread the tales of Literature, 1988. heroes and martyrs. But there are known names and songs of The Voice of a Freedom-Fighter in Makhan Lal Chaturvedi's... 55 56 Prof. Asha Arora freedom which can be remembered as some of the landmarks in the march, telling them 'Once more awake, for sleep it was, not death, to poets' contribution to freedom struggle. In the north, the freedom bring the life anew.' poetry of Ajit Singh, Nandlal Noorpuri and Ram Prasad Bismil The Hindi stream of freedom poetry perhaps began with Bhartendu became the immortal words of revolt and freedom that inspired mass Harish Chandra'sBharat Durdasha. It was taken up by great poets movements and revolutionary activities of the great Punjabi freedom like Maithli Sharan Gupta, Ram Dhari Singhm Dinkar, Balkrishna fighters. Ajit Singh's Pagri Sambhal O Jatta, Pagri Sambhal Oye, Sharma Naveen, Hari Vansh Rai Bachchan and Subhadra Kumari Loot Leya Maal Tera, Haal Behal Oye, stirred the peasants by Chauhan who wrote Khoob Ladi Mardani Woh To Jhansi Wali Rani depicting their plight of land exploitation. It depicts the plight of men Thi,meaning she fought so well like a man, for, she was the Rani of and women of Punjab under the British rule. And then, there was yet Jhansi. The great poem of Tagore which shall ever remind the another songMera Rang De Basanti Chola , meaning "O Mother! Indians what kind of India the poet dreamed of: 'Where the mind is Dye My Robe the colour of spring. This song gave birth to one of the without fear and the head is held high'. greatest and glorious freedom myths. It became Bhagat Singh's song of the gallows. He was said to have marched to the hangman's Pandit Makhanlal Chaturvedi, called afterwards as 'Panditji' was chamber with this song on his lips. For him death in the cause of born on 4th April, 1889 in a village located in Madhya Pradesh freedom was like a celebration. With the poetic word as their called Bavai. This was a time when the British reigned over India weapon, poets from north, south, east and west raised their voice and the freedom struggle was gaining impetus. He pursued a career against exploitation of India by the foreign rulers. The partition of of a school teacher during the period 1906-1910 but soon found his Bengal, the indigo revolt, India's first battle form freedom in 1857, real calling in the freedom fight for his motherland. He participated along with the glorious deeds of warriors and martyrs of yore in the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Quit India Movement became their themes. In the 19th Century, the poetry of Wajid Ali among the many others during that time. He was repeatedly Shah in Lucknow and Ghalib and Bahadur Shah Zafar in Delhi, of incarcerated by the British rulers. But the British could not bend the the 'Young Bengal' movement poet Madhusudan Dutt in Bengal and will of the valiant patriot-poet, who, once out of jail, indefatigably the Gujarati poet Dalpat Ram set the tone for the poets of freedom in restarted in his journals to mount assault against the British the later period. The 20th century saw the poets emerging out of imperialists as well as inner weaknesses and evils of the Indian reformism and revivalism to confront the alien ruler directly and society. support the freedom fighters and mass movements. From Bengal After 1910, he became the editor of various nationalistic journals came two immortal songs of freedom, which are still alive and stir such as 'Prabha' and later, 'Karmaveer'. Possessing a great patriotic the blood of every Indian.Bande Mataram, out of Bankim Chandra's fervour, he had the spark to instigate the masses with his dynamic revolutionary novelAnand Math and Jana Gana Mana Adhinayak speeches and writings. He presided over the All India Hindi Sahitya Jaye Hey of Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore, which was later to be Sammelan held at Hardar in 1943.He was a son of India whose 'true honoured as the National Anthem of India. They inspired the Bengal Indian spirit' infused hope and anticipation in the masses. His poets to create immortal songs of freedom. Sarojini Naidu, one of the sensitive portrayal of the common man's plight in works such as few great Indian poets writing in English, called Motherland 'the 'Him Kirtini', 'Him Tarangini', 'Kaisa Chhand BanaaDeti hei', 'Amar sovereign empress of the past' and eulogised India in her poems Rashtra' and 'Pushp ki Abhilaasa' find an audience even till date. published in three collections,The Golden Threshold (1905), The With notable contribution to the Hindi literature, he earned an Bird of Time(1912) and the Broken Wing (1917). She was so honorary 'D.Lit.' from Sagar University and was the first individual shocked by the Jallianwala massacre that she stopped writing poetry to win the prestigious Sahitya Academi Award in the year 1955.After after that. Swami VivekaNanda, the great reformist saint, was also a him, the Makhanlal Chaturvedi Rashtriya Patrakarita Vishwavidyalaya, poet. Inhis 'Awakened India' he exhorted the people to resume their of Bhopal has been named. He had acquired nation-wide renown not The Voice of a Freedom-Fighter in Makhan Lal Chaturvedi's... 57 58 Prof. Asha Arora only for the excellence of literary creativity and might of his pen, but workers in jail also mistreat with them. In spite of their being also for his undaunted participation in the national struggle for freedom-fighters, they are being kept in a common cell among other freedom of India. He was a true disciple of Lokmanya Tilak and prisoners. He feels unhappy at this mistreatment. He expresses the Mahatma Gandhi. Through his journals, he emitted fire at the British hard condition in this way- imperialism and inspired the contemporary generation to throw off “Å¡ph dkyh nhokjksa ds ?ksj esa] the yoke of alien slavery. After freedom was won in 1947, Pandit Mkdw] pksjksa] cVekjksa ds Msjs esa] Makhanlal refrained from seeking a share in power and pelf of the ruling set and continued to exhort the people through speech and Tkhus rks nsrs ugha isV&Hkj [kkuk] writing to remove social evils and build an exploitation-free, ejus Hkh nsrs ugha] rM+i jg tkuk! equitable society as envisioned by Mahatma Gandhi. Tkhou ij vc fnu&jkr dM+k igjk gS] Makhanlal Chaturvedi's Hindi- poem, “Qaidi and Kokila” (The 'kklu gS] ;k re dk izHkko xgjk gS\ Prisoner and the Cuckoo Bird) is an expression of the hardships fgedj fujk'k dj pyk jkr Hkh dkyh] suffered by the revolutionaries who desired to make their country bl le; dkfyeke;h txh D;w¡ vkyh\” free from slavery of the British rule. It is lit up by a burning ardour, discreetly guided by an edifying and utilitarian purpose. In it, can be As he hears the sad note of the cuckoo bird, he again asks to it why it is heard the voice of a revolutionary (the poet himself) who has been not sleeping till late night, what has been looted of it. It has the charge of imprisoned for his fight against British Imperialism, is a case in taking care of melodies of Spring Season, then why it is so sad. The poet point. In it, he describes the pitiable condition of Indian jails, and thinks that the cuckoo bird also sees the country as a prison; it is why it analyses the mental state of an imprisoned freedom-fighter. He tries is screaming rather than singing at the night time.The cuckoo bird's to stir the feelings of revolt in his countrymen against the British singing, at night time near the jail, seems very unnatural to him. But he rulers. He expresses the feelings of sorrow, dissatisfaction and anger wants to know whatis troubling to the cuckoo bird as it is singing at the against the British Empire through a dialogue with a cuckoo-bird. He night time. He ponders if it wants to sow the seeds of revolt in people's is isolate and depressed in jail. He hears a song of cuckoo-bird in the heart. He asks to the cuckoo bird- dark night. He feels stirred. He asks the bird what it is singing, and “bl 'kkar le; esa] whose message it has brought with it as in the following lines- va/kdkj dks cs/k] jks jgh D;ksa gks\ “D;k xkrh gks\ dksfdy cksyks rks! D;ksa jg&jg tkrh gks\ pqipki] e/kqj fonzksg&cht dksfdyk cksyks rks! bl Hkk¡fr cks jgh D;ksa gks\ D;k ykrh gks\ dksfdy cksyks rks!” lans'kk fdldk gS\ The poet tells the cuckoo bird that due to the freedom struggle, the dksfdyk cksyks rks!” revolutionaries are put into jail and tortured. But they tolerate the He describes it the hard circumstances which the freedom-fighters hardships. The poet calls the shackles of the prison as the jewels of the have to face in jail. The jail is the home of the dacoits, thieves and British Rule. While suffering the rotating yoke, its sound appears to him evil-doers. It is surrounded by high black walls. In it, they are not as music of life. While drawing water from the well dragging his body, given even the sufficient food to eat. They neither live nor die. They he feels as if he ends the pride of the British people. He is grateful to cuckoo bird, as the revolutionaries have no hope of sympathy from the bear the hard blows of fate. They lose all the hopes of life. The British people; the bird's song is like a balm for their emotional wounds. The Voice of a Freedom-Fighter in Makhan Lal Chaturvedi's... 59 60 Prof. Asha Arora

^^D;k\& ns[k uk ldrh tathjksa dk xguk\ ctk jgh frl ij j.kHksjh! gFkdfM+;k¡ D;ksa\ ;g fczfV'k&jkt dk xguk bl gqad`fr ij] dksYgw dk pjZd pw¡\& thou dh rku] viuh d`fr ls vkSj dgks D;k dj nw¡\” fxV~Vh ij v¡xqfy;ksa us fy[ks xku! The poet tries to find out the ways with which he can help to Mahatma gw¡ eksV [khaprk yxk isV ij twvk] Gandhi in the great cause of freedom struggle. For this, he is ready to [kkyh djrk gw¡ fczfV'k vdM+ dk dq¡vk sacrifice himself. fnu esa d:.kk D;ksa txs] :ykus okyh] Dksfdyk cksyks rks] blfy, jkr esa xt+c s feyh gfj;kyh Mkyh] biography.html> eq>s ulhc dksBjh dkyh] esjk nl QqV dk lalkj! rsjs xhr dgkosa okg] jksuk Hkh eq>s xqukg! ns[k fo"kerk rsjh&esjh] Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 61-71 (2013) 62 Dr. Navras Jaat Aafreedi

being oil pressers and abstaining from work on Saturdays. It is worth quoting here the best known Indian Jewish writer Esther David from The Evolution of the Indian Jewish Identity her autobiographical novelBook of Esther (2002): The arrival of the Bene Israel in the Konkan was associated under the British with a shipwreck in Navgaon. The oral tradition had come down to them from generation to generation. In the process Dr. Navras Jaat Aafreedi some stories were added, some were deleted. Bathsheba's great-grandfather had told her: 'We were running away from While Muslims are India's largest religious minority with their the Greek ruler Antioch. He wanted to destroy us. We fled in proportion in India's population at thirteen per cent, its smallest is the a ship with our families and belongings. For months we were Jewish community, whose proportion stands at less than 0.01 per at sea. One stormy night, we were sure we would drown and cent. Because of their small numbers, the Jews may not be as diverse the fish would eat us up. Suddenly the ship rocked as the Muslims are, but they are certainly not monolithic in nature, dangerously and crashed on the islands of Chanderi and and are represented by two Judaizing movements, the B'nei Menashe Underi. Some of us swam to the shore, some died, but we in northeastern India and the B'nei Ephraim in southern India, and lost our ark and the books. three communities, the Baghdadi, the last to settle in India, the 'We do not know detailed prayers or stories about our Cochini, numerically the smallest, and the Bene Israel, numerically religion or prophets. The little we know has come down to us the largest, which owes its consciousness of being Jewish largely to from our ancestors. We try to remember and follow the code the British, for before their interaction with the British they did not of law set by them. Although we do not know the meaning of even call themselves Jewish, in spite of religiously following all the the Hebrew words, we recite them regularly. These words basic tenets of Judaism at least for centuries, even if not for keep us together and protect us from other influences. Yet millennia. According to their own traditions, the Bene Israel have some rituals from other religions have seeped into ours.' been resident in India for millennia, estimates varying from three millennia to one millennium, but the oldest extant documentation Whenever the men of the Jewish community collected in the dates only from the seventeenth century. thatched prayer house in Nandgaon, they discussed their lineage. The women prepared snacks in the next room and The Bene Israel make up more than eighty per cent of the Jewish the children went back and forth with bowls of food. In bits population in India. Until a Jewish renaissance took place among and pieces, the women heard all that was being said. them as a result of the lessons in theology they received from a mid- eighteenth century Cochini Jewish agent of the Dutch East India Some Bene Israel believed that there were seven couples Company, David Rahabi, their practice of Judaism was limited to the when their ship had crashed on the Konkan coast. They said, abstinence from work on the Jewish Sabbath, circumcision, the 'The shipwreck was known to have taken place near Chaul, observance of Jewish dietary laws and festivals, and the recitation of the port near Navgaon. It is mentioned in the Puranas that Shema, the most important prayer of the Jews, on these and other while Parshuram circled the earth to exterminate the important occasions. They even preferred the term Bene Israel or Kshatriyas and give more power to the Brahmins, he had 'Children of Israel' over Jew to describe themselves, though in the seen fourteen corpses on the Konkan coast. The bodies were colloquial local language Marathi they came to be known as burnt and charred. They appeared to be foreigners. He Shanwar Telis or 'Saturday Oilpressers', because of their traditionally realized that they belonged to an ancient race. Parshuram brought them back to life by chanting some mantras. These The Evolution of the Indian Jewish Identity under the British 63 64 Dr. Navras Jaat Aafreedi

were supposed to be the Bene Israel. It is surprising that the Israel were taught Hebrew at the many schools established by the Chitpavan Brahmins have a similar story! Perhaps we American Marathi Mission (Congregational) and the Free Church of adopted a similar story so that we would find acceptance in Scotland, for lessons in Hebrew were seen as a means to lure Jews the communities around us. (29-30) into converting to Christianity. They even translated books of the so- The Bene Israel transformation from a predominantly rural called Old Testament into Marathi and developed Hebrew grammars community to a predominantly urban one coincided with the in Marathi to familiarize the Bene Israel with the religion and emergence of Bombay as a metropolis under the British from the language of their ancestors, in the hope that the Bene Israel, already mid-eighteenth century onwards, when the Bene Israel left their monotheists, could eventually be persuaded to accept Christ as the villages in the Konkan for Bombay and the neighbouring towns of Messiah Jews have traditionally been waiting for. However, the Bene Pen, Panvel and Thane, to take up jobs as carpenters, masons, Israel proved to be very selective consumers. They took lessons in mechanics, and skilled tradesmen and artisans of all kinds. They built Hebrew and the Bible from them but refused to convert to their first synagogue in Bombay in 1796 and called it Sha'ar ha- Christianity. The lessons given by the missionaries only strengthened Rahamim (Gate of Mercy). By 1833, a third of their total population, the Bene Israel sense of belonging to a larger Jewish community, two thousand of them had moved to Bombay. Soon they found gradually reducing their isolation and their dependence on other employment in the army of the British East India Company when it Jewish communities and missionaries in India for religious decided to expand its regiments there. Their induction under the instruction and sustenance. While the English language learnt from caste name of Israel reached its apogee when at one point of time the missionaries enabled the Bene Israel to familiarize themselves about half of the Indian officer strength of the Bombay army with books of Jewish interest published in England and America, the consisted of the Bene Israel, benefiting from the British policy of knowledge of Hebrew acquired from the missionaries, led them to favouring the minorities who were too small to pose a political threat publish and translate from Hebrew into Marathi in a rash in the to their supremacy. The Bene Israel were employed by the British second half of the nineteenth century. “They had been Jewish in a also as clerks in government service. Eventually they became clerks particularly Indian way; now they adopted the beliefs, practices and in private firms too and also found work in the mills of the Sassoons, concerns of Jewish communities elsewhere,” as Joan Roland puts it. Iraqi Jews. The development of Bombay as a bigger city saw the It is suspected that the British proclivity for naming and counting multiplication of the Bene Israel population in it, which spread out groups of people triggered the development of voluntary caste into several neighbourhoods, where they established additional associations in India in the late nineteenth century. Caste synagogues and prayer halls. consciousness became strong with the proliferation of caste Acquaintance with their Jewish heritage through the lessons in associations and the Jews in India could not stay untouched by the Jewish ritual and ceremonials received from Jews from Cochin phenomenon for long. The Indian Jews were influenced by it to form brought about a second religious renaissance among the Bene Israel a number of organizations for communal improvement by the end of in the initial decades of the nineteenth century. The Arabic speaking the nineteenth century, such as the Bene Israel Association, the Bene Jews from West Asia, who came to be known as Baghdadis in the Israel Benevolent Society, the Association for the Right Guidance of colloquial language, soon joined ranks with the Cochini Jews in the People, and the Society for the Protection of the Jewish Religion, bringing about this Jewish awakening among the Bene Israel. But it and to publish their own periodicals for the expression of their was the Christian missionaries from Britain who ended up playing communal concerns, such asSatya Prakash (Light of Truth), Friend the most important role in this religious revival. They strongly of Israel, Lamp of Judaism , Israel Dharmadeep , and the Bene influenced the Bene Israel through their educational endeavours after Israelite. These publications gave expression to the ambivalence the the ban on missionary activity in India was lifted in 1813. The Bene Bene Israel faced, in spite of their undoubted loyalty to the British, The Evolution of the Indian Jewish Identity under the British 65 66 Dr. Navras Jaat Aafreedi as to how much they should identify with Indians culturally and order to strengthen Jewish identity, the periodicals tried to present politically while at the same time trying to maintain their Jewish portraits of outstanding Jewish, particularly Anglo-Jewish, identity. personalities. “Under the British, the Indian Jews were encouraged to The Bene Israel had assimilated in so many ways with the non manifest and articulate an ethnic identity that could not be defined Jewish Indian population that when their quarrels were taken to within the caste network. Religious differences became the focal court, local (sometimes Hindu, sometimes Muslim) law was applied point in defining ethnic identity and the markers for social to them, and they often suffered a great loss. We get an idea of the interaction,” as Jael Silliman points out. The cultural and religious extent of their acculturation from the following excerpts from the autonomy that the Jews had come to enjoy under the caste system Bene Israel writer Esther David's novelBook of Rachel (2006): acceptable to Hindus in the pre-modern period helped them undergo the transformation from a caste like designation to an ethnic Rachel swept the floor, singing a bhajan to the child Moses identification, encouraged by the British in the colonial period. floating in a basket on the river Nile. It was a popular Marathi song about the child Krishna. An unknown Jewish The situation posed far less ambivalence before the Baghdadis for poet had changed the name from Kishna to Moses, but the they had never Indianised to any degree even after decades of having tune was similar to the one sung by Krishna devotees all settled in India and now stood even more firmly in the British camp over Maharashtra. Rachel preferred Marathi bhajans to the as it seemed wiser to them to identify with the rulers than with the complicated Hebrew prayers. She knew their tunes and the ruled, aware as they were of British racism against Indians. As the occasions for which they were sung…While rolling the first Baghdadi Jew from India to write a novel on her community, matzos, one of the women would start humming a kirtan to Jael Silliman points out in her maiden novel The Man with Many the Prophet Moses, set to the tune of a popular Marathi kirtan Hats (2013): “The Calcutta Jews had come to the city from Iraq and about the birth of Krishna, which was picked up by the others. Syria when the British first came to trade in India, and had grown They sang about the parting of the sea and the Exodus, as the and prospered under the Raj. Favoured by the British and matzos were rolled, roasted, stacked, packed in wicker baskets, commercially successful, many were unsure of their economic covered with cloth and divided equally. (49) futures when India gained Independence. Since they were a tightly knit community, once a few Jews chose to leave, other family However, British law had been applied to a couple of Bene Israel members soon followed suit. By the sixties the community had cases of adoption that had reached the High Court, which left the dwindled precipitously.” In her book Jewish Portraits, Indian Bene Israel journal wondering whether the British law of inheritance Frames: Women's Narratives from a Diaspora of Hope (2001) was applicable to them. In 1895,Israel Dharmadeep observed that Silliman writes: the community had been acquiring higher standards of modern civilization and showing an increased interest in “higher education, The ambivalent position of Baghdadi Jews in the colonial literature, science and the fine arts, which was leading to better structure worked to their advantage. They were neither appointments and higher positions,” but also distinctly, if gradually, Indian nor Western, brown nor White, but sandwiched drifting the community away from the natives of the country among between the two, at once insiders and outsiders. They whom they had been living. “The time seems not far distant partnered both European and Indian commercial interests. As when…[the Bene Israel] will entirely throw off their manners, business flourished, some of the wealthier Jews transferred customs, dress and language. We have too long mixed with and their business headquarters and moved to England, though become, as it were, one with the gentiles. And today, we hear the the more conservative elite made Calcutta their base. The voice saying, 'come out of her, oh my people, and be separate.'” In Baghdadi Jews' relationship with India was complicated. They played an exploitative role as outsiders in the The Evolution of the Indian Jewish Identity under the British 67 68 Dr. Navras Jaat Aafreedi

economic colonization of India, while facilitating the which in its small way has enriched its multi-faceted culture. colonial project from the inside. They were loyal to, but More important, they have provided living evidence that, in never considered themselves, British – nor were they so at least one country in the world, Jews can exist with pride regarded by the colonial powers. They clamoured and honour and without any need for self-consciousness or unsuccessfully for European status, which the British never protective withdrawal into a self-created ghetto. granted them…Neither British nor Indian, the Baghdadi The British missionaries tried to convert the northeastern Jews clung tenaciously to their Jewish identity. (36) tribes of Chin, Lushai and Kuki by starting with lessons in The identification of the Baghdadi Jews with the Europeans, the Old Testament as they had with the Bene Israel, and here particularly at a time when the British-Indian relationship was that of they succeeded in doing what they had failed to do with the superior-inferior, and the doubts expressed by them about the purity Bene Israel. They soon converted their entire populations to of descent and religious observance of the Bene Israel, estranged the Christianity. However, decades later, in post-colonial India, Bene Israel from their coreligionists, the Baghdadis and led them to emanated from this conversion that had happened in colonial strengthen ties with the Jews abroad and engage with the Zionist India, a Judaizing movement, which has been identified as a movement. phenomenon of dual conversion by anthropologists. The British refusal to recognize the Bene Israel as a special minority Influenced by the Christian missionaries' stress on the for recruitment to the services before the Second World War and their supposed similarities between the practices described in the refusal to include the Baghdadis on the European electoral rolls Bible and the Mizo tribal traditions, the Mizos were disappointed the Bene Israel and the Baghdadis respectively and convinced of their Israelite origin. The Judaizing movement made all Indian Jews fear about safeguarding their interests. in these Christian people began in 1936 with the revivalist Attraction to the Holy Land and uncertainty about postcolonial India Saichhunga's declaration that the Mizos were one of the Lost led them to migrate en masse to Israel and the English speaking Tribes of Israel. The idea was further developed in 1951 by world. Mela Chala, the Head Deacon of the United Pentecostal Church in Buallawn, north of Aizawl in Mizoram. The The very survival of their community with their dwindling numbers movement picked pace with the Mizo Uprising that started in has emerged as the main concern of the Jews that remain in India 1966. By 1972 the notion of descent from Menasseh, one of today. With no more than five thousand in India today, if the Jews the progenitors of the twelve tribes of Israel, had become so that have emerged as a result of the two Judaizing movements are not widely accepted that some of the groups adopted the name included, and seventy to eighty thousand Indian Jews now settled in B'nei Menashe, the Hebrew for the 'Children of Menasseh'. Israel, their institutions in India are struggling to sustain themselves. In 2005, the B'nei Menashe population was estimated to be Their synagogues, priceless reminders of an India diverse yet around six thousand in India and eight hundred in Israel. (60) inclusive, are gradually closing or finding their membership shrinking. The apprehension of the Jewish life coming to an end was The religious Jewish scholars come into the picture when in the very poignantly expressed by the Bene Israel historian Benjamin J. 1970s the Shinlung/Chikim or B'nei Menashe, as they call Israel: themselves, sought contact with the Israelis. Rabbi Eliyahu Avichail, President of Amishav, came forward to facilitate their emigration to This will be a loss to India, if not to world Jewry. However Israel. In 1980-81, Rabbi Avichail brought three B'nei Menashe to insignificant a part the Bene Israel played in the general life Israel for Jewish theological studies, and in 1988 he arranged for the of India, by their very existence in sizeable numbers on the formal conversion of twenty-four B'nei Menashe in Mumbai and a West coast, they have constituted a Jewish presence in India year later their emigration to Israel. In 1993, Rabbi Avichail was lent The Evolution of the Indian Jewish Identity under the British 69 70 Dr. Navras Jaat Aafreedi moral support by the farmers of Gush Katif in the Gaza strip in his their ancestors settled in India passing through Afghanistan and endeavour to bring the B'nei Menashe to Israel, as the farmers felt North India in the ninth or tenth century. The brothers renamed that the B'nei Menashe could replace the Arabs labourers, who could themselves Shmuel, Sadok and Aaron, with Yacobi as the last name, no more be trusted, while the financial support came from Dr. Irving and started observing Sabbath, Jewish holidays and life-cycle events. Moskowitz of Florida, who bore the expenses of the immigration of Shmuel established an open university in Vijaywada from where he two groups of young B'nei Menashe to Israel in 1993 and 1994. offered correspondence courses in Jewish theology to Christian Supported by right-wing groups, who saw the B'nei Menashe as the seminary students. He secretly used the funds from Christian donors means to boost Jewish population in disputed territories, the Chief to build a synagogue in 1992, and persuaded about thirty families in Sephardic Rabbi Shlomo Amar recognized the B'nei Menashe as a his native village Kottaredipalam to practise Judaism. The Madiga Lost Tribe of Israel in 2005 and sent rabbinical judges to northeast aspiration to be recognized Jewish by descent stems from their desire India to formally convert the B'nei Menashe to Judaism to overcome to shed away their untouchability, imposed upon them as Dalits. The official hurdles in their immigration to Israel. However, the first attempt in this direction was their conversion to Christianity conversions were brought to a halt when the Indian authorities from Hinduism, which did not bring about the desired rise of their expressed their objections to it to the Foreign Ministry of Israel, as social status. Now their claim of Israelite descent is yet another they feared it might annoy the predominant Christian population of attempt on their part to accomplish the same objective, but this time northeast India where the evangelists had been vehemently opposing it involves not just conversion to another religion but also an effort to these mass conversions. prove foreign origin, that is Israelite. This phenomenon of conversion to Christianity followed by Judaism was termed “dual It was only in the year 2004 that that the scientists succeeded in conversion” by Weil in her study of the B'nei Menashe. What Lesser obtaining DNA samples from the B'ne Menashe, who had been writes regarding ethnicity would be helpful in understanding this: resisting genetic research for many years, as they feared that it may deflate their claim of Israelite descent. The mtDNA and Y Ethnicity is not 'natural' but constructed and as individuals chromosome analysis of 414 B'nei Menashe individuals from move among different spaces, the ways in which ethnicity is Mizoram, done by the National DNA Analysis Centre in Kolkata, expressed is ever changing. While such constructions are found traces of genetic relatedness between them and Near Eastern often implicit, that is not always the case. At times ethnicity/ lineages. However, the research was considered unreliable by the identity/home seems to be a resource that is deployed in Haifa Technion scientists in Israel, according to whom the Kolkata response to specific circumstances. (8) team had not done the complete sequencing of the DNA. References : Another group among which a Judaising movement emerged as a David, Esther.Book of Esther. Penguin-Viking, 2002. byproduct of Christianity, as considered by anthropologists, is the ---.Book of Rachel. Penguin-Viking, 2006. Madiga of the Guntur district in Andhra Pradesh. In the early 1980s, Egorova, Yulia.Jews and India: Perceptions and Image. Oxon, USA and the leader of the Madiga, a Christian preacher attended a conference Canada : Routledge, 2006. of Evangelical Christians in Jerusalem, where he saw living Judaism Israel, Benjamin J.The Jews of India. 2nd ed. Mosaic Books, 1998. for the first time, which generated his interest in the religion. Upon Lesser, Jeffrey. “How the Jews became Japanese and Other Stories of his return, he and his brother undertook an in-depth study of the Old Nation and Ethnicity.”Jewish History 18 (2004) : 8. Testament and saw in Judaism means to liberation from their economic plight. Suddenly they became conscious of their alleged Parfitt, Tudor and Yulia Egorova. Genetics, Mass Media and Identity: A Case Study of the Genetic Research on the Lemba and Bene Israel. tradition of Israelite descent, according to which they had descended London and New York : Routledge, 2006. from the lost Israelite tribe of Ephraim. As per their alleged tradition, The Evolution of the Indian Jewish Identity under the British 71 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 72-82 (2013)

Roland, Joan G. “Indian Jewish Identity of the Bene Israel during the British Raj.”Studies of Indian Jewish Identity. Ed. Nathan Katz. Delhi : Manohar, 2004. 121. ---.The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era. 2nd Ed. New Brunswick (U.S.A.) and London (U.K.) : Transaction Publishers, North-East India: Target of British Apartheid 1998. 38. Silliman, Jael. Jewish Portraits, Indian Frames: Women's Narratives from a Dr. (Mrs.) Indu Swami Diaspora of Hope. Hanover and London : University Press of New England, (in arrangement with Seagull Books, Calcutta) 2001. ---.The Man with Many Hats. Kolkata : Jael Silliman (Distributed by Abstract Atlantic Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd, New Delhi) 2013. North-East India is home to more than 70 major population groups Weil, Shalva. “Lost Israelites from the Indo-Burmese Borderlands: Re- and sub groups, speaking approximately 400 languages and dialects. Traditionalisation and Conversion Among the Shinlung or Bene A large variety of conflictual dynamics can be seen in the region Menasseh.”The Anthropologist 6.3 (2004) : 219-233. ranging from insurgency for secession to insurgency for autonomy, from sponsored terrorism to ethnic clashes, the problem of continuous inflow of migrants and the fight over resources. The fire of insurgency has long engulfed this strategic region making it one of South Asia's most disturbed regions. Socio-political instability, economic backwardness, isolation and inaccessibility further compound the problem. The root cause of these problems is the conditions set in place by British rule in the North-East India since 1826 and the formation of East Pakistan in 1947, which became the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971. With the partition of Bengal, North-East India became practically isolated, hanged to the mainland through a 14 kilometer 'chicken neck' between Nepal and Bangladesh. New Delhi's inability to integrate the region stems from its failure to recognize that the British raj had converted North-East India into a human zoo, where each tribe was allowed to roam free within its 'own territory', but was not allowed to cross the boundaries set forth by their British masters and establish contact with the rest of India by passing the Inner Line Regulation in 1873. Surprisingly enough this system is still continuing in some hill states even today. Imbued with the British ideology of encouraging ethnic, sub-ethnic, religious, and linguistic identities-as opposed to the identity of a citizen of a sovereign nation-state-both New Delhi and the residents of North-East India are marching recklessly along the very path prescribed by the British raj by laying down the law of apartheid to isolate 'the tribals'. North-East India: Target of British Apartheid 73 74 Dr. (Mrs.) Indu Swami

Since India's independence, North-East India has been split up into citizen of a sovereign nation-state-both New Delhi and the residents smaller and smaller states and autonomous regions. The autonomous of Northeast India are marching recklessly along the very path regions of Karbi Anglong, Bodo Autonomous Region, and Meghalaya prescribed by the British raj in 1862, when he laid down the law of were all part of pre-independence Assam. The divisions were made to apartheid to isolate “the tribals” (Das 1989, 1993: 28). While it is not accommodate the wishes of tribes and ethnic groups which want to clear how long this fateful road is, there is little doubt what awaits assert their sub-national identity and obtain an area where the diktat them at the end. of their little coterie is recognized. New Delhi has yet to comprehend British mindset at work that its policy of accepting and institutionalizing the superficial Since India's independence in 1947, Northeast India has been split up identities of these ethnic, linguistic, and tribal groups has ensured into smaller and smaller states and autonomous regions. The more irrational demands for even smaller states and 'ethnic divisions were made to accommodate the wishes of tribes and ethnic cleansing' in their respective areas by ouster of 'foreigners' from groups which want to assert their sub-national identity and obtain an their soil. It has also virtually eliminated any plan to make these area where the diktat of their little coterie is recognized. New Delhi areas economically powerful, and the people scientifically and has yet to comprehend that its policy of accepting and technologically advanced. institutionalizing the superficial identities of these ethnic, linguistic, A situation has now arisen in which New Delhi's promised carrot of and tribal groups has ensured more irrational demands for even economic development evokes little enthusiasm in the North-East. smaller states. It has also virtually eliminated any plan to make these Money from New Delhi for 'development' serves to appease the areas economically powerful, and the people scientifically and 'greed' of a handful and to maintain the status quo. On the other technologically advanced. hand, fresh separatist movements bring the area closer to the A situation has now arisen in which New Delhi's promised carrot of precipice. economic development evokes little enthusiasm in the Northeast. Key words: British rule, New Delhi, North-East India, Law of Money from New Delhi for "development" serves to appease the Apartheid and Insurgency. "greed" of a handful and to maintain the status quo. On the other North-East India is home to more than 70 major population groups hand, fresh separatist movements bring the area closer to the and sub groups, speaking approximately 400 languages and dialects. precipice. A large variety of conflictual dynamics can be seen in the region Assam has been cut up into many states since Britain's exit. The ranging from insurgency for secession to insurgency for autonomy, autonomous regions of Karbi Anglong, Bodo Autonomous Region, from sponsored terrorism to ethnic clashes, the problem of and Meghalaya were all part of pre-independence Assam. Moreover, continuous inflow of migrants and the fight over resources. The fire there have been peace initiatives as the ongoing peace talks of the of insurgency has long engulfed this strategic region making it one of Government of India with the insurgent groups like NSCN (I-M) and South Asia's most disturbed regions. Socio-political instability, ULFA (Baruah 2005; Basu 2008; Basu Ray Chaudhury, Das and economic backwardness, isolation and inaccessibility further Samaddar 2005). compound the problem. In short, this region forms a special category. Citing the influx of Bengali Muslims since the 1947 with formation The North Eastern Council (NEC) was constituted as the nodal of East Pakistan, which became Bangladesh in 1971, the locals agency for the economic and social development of the region demand the ouster of these "foreigners" from their soil. Two violent (Samaddar 2004). movements in Assam, the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) Imbued with the British ideology of encouraging ethnic, sub-ethnic, and the Bodo Security Force (BdSF), are now practically demanding religious, and linguistic identities-as opposed to the identity of a "ethnic cleansing" in their respective areas. North-East India: Target of British Apartheid 75 76 Dr. (Mrs.) Indu Swami

To fund their movements, both the ULFA and the BdSF have been forth by their British masters and establish contact with the rest of trafficking heroin and other narcotics, and indulging in killing sprees India by passing the Inner Line Regulation in 1873. Surprisingly against other ethnic groups and against Delhi's law-and-order enough this system is still continuing in some of the hill states even machinery. Both these groups have also developed close links with today. other major guerrilla-terrorist groups operating in the area, including The British came into the area in the 1820s, following the Burmese the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Muivah) and the conquest of Manipur and parts of Assam. The area had become People's Liberation Army in Manipur. unstable in the later part of the eighteenth century following the Assam, unlike most other areas of the Northeast, was better over-extension of the Ahom kingdom, a Burmese-based kingdom integrated with mainstream India prior to independence; Assam that reached into Assam. The instability caused by the weakening of participated in the national independence movement and contributed the Ahom kingdom prompted the Burmese to move westward to much to India's intellectual and cultural wealth. Today, however, secure their flanks. But the Burmese action also helped to bring in instead of encouraging its sons and daughters to train themselves in the British. The British East India Company was lying in wait to see science and technology, and entrepreneurship, Assam has engulfed the Ahom kingdom disintegrate. itself in mindless bloodletting. The Anglo-Burmese war of 1824-26 ended with the British emerging In 1972, Meghalaya was carved out of Assam through a peaceful victorious. By the peace treaty signed at Yandabo on Feb. 24, 1826, process. Unfortunately, peace did not last long in this "abode of the the British annexed the whole of lower Assam and parts of upper clouds." In 1979, the first violent demonstration against "foreigners" Assam (now Arunachal Pradesh). The Treaty of Yandabo provided resulted in a number of deaths and arson. The "foreigners" in this the British with the foothold they needed to annex Northeast India, case were Bengalis, Marwaris, Biharis, and Nepalis, many of whom launch further campaigns to capture Burma's vital coastal areas, and had settled in Meghalaya decades ago. By 1990, firebrand groups gain complete control of the territory from the Andaman Sea to the such as the Federation of Khasi, Jaintia, and Garo People (FKJGP) mouth of the Irrawaddy River. and the Khasi Students' Union (KSU) came to the fore, ostensibly to What were London's motives in this venture? The British claimed uphold the rights of the "hill people" from Khasi, Jaintia, and the that their occupation of the northeast region was required to protect Garo hills. Violence erupted in 1979, 1987, 1989, and 1990. The last the plains of Assam from the "tribal outrages and depredations and to violent terrorist acts were in 1992. maintain law and order in the sub-mountainous region." British Similar "anti-foreigner" movements have sprouted up across the historians campaigning on behalf of two ex-viceroys, Lord Minto Northeast, from Arunachal Pradesh in the east and north, to Sikkim and Lord Curzon, assert that the defense of the British Empire in the in the west, and Mizoram and Tripura in the south. Along the northeast frontier was no less important than the northwest frontier, Myanmar border, the states of Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram the scene of the so-called Great Game between Britain and Czarist remain unstable and extremely porous. Russia. London's legacy But the tribal territories in the northeastern borderland cover 700 The root cause of the problem is the conditions set in place by British miles of the Indian frontier. These tribal belts, from 70 to 100 miles rule in the Northeast since 1826 and the formation of East Pakistan deep, are almost impenetrable by any force from the north, e.g., in 1947. New Delhi's inability to integrate the region stems from its China. The Indo-Burmese border, though crossed by the conquering failure to recognize that the British raj had converted Northeast India Ahoms to capture Upper Kamarupa in upper Assam in 1228, was into a human zoo, where each tribe was allowed to roam free within mountainous and heavily forested. There is little doubt that the its "own territory," but was not allowed to cross the boundaries set British were not concerned about the enemy; crossing such difficult North-East India: Target of British Apartheid 77 78 Dr. (Mrs.) Indu Swami and hostile terrain was simply not possible for either Russia or In 1838, the East India Company assumed charge of the government China. of Assam, in order to enhance trade and commerce, and sacked the But for the British East India Company, gaining control in the Ahom king, who had been its "protected prince" since 1826. In the northeast of India aided in gaining access to southern China's natural early years, the company had often run into trouble with the tribals, wealth. Significantly, in the Treaty of Yandabo it was mentioned that and clashes between the two were routinely reported. the British East India Company would have access through upper The decision to isolate the tribals came about in 1873 through the Burma to chart out a direct trade route between India and China promulgation of the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation. However, through Assam. As early as 1826, a member of the Governor the policy of declaring the Northeast Frontier Agency (NEFA) a General's Council said: "We may expect to open new roads for secluded area had been advocated long before. Section 2 of the commerce with Yunan and other southwestern provinces of the regulation empowered the company "to prescribe and from time to Celestial Empire through Assam and Manipore." time alter by notification, a line to be called the Inner Line and to The annexation of Assam was also designed to "fix" the situation in prohibit any subject living outside the area from living or moving Bhutan, Sikkim (an independent kingdom till 1975 before it merged therein." Thus, the British policy of apartheid in Northeast India was with India), Nepal, and Tibet. The British role in Tibet, as reflected in implemented in the tribal area of the District of Lakhimpur in Francis Young husband's armed invasion of Tibet during 1901-04, September 1875, and in the District of Darrang in March 1876. the subsequent invasion of Tibet by the Manchu dynasty rulers for Civil officers could extend their administrative jurisdiction no further the first time in 1910, the fleeing of the 13th dalai lama, and the than the Inner Line, and the governor-general-in-council prohibited subsequent influence exerted by the British over the Tibetan and all British subjects from crossing the Inner Line without a pass Mongolian lamas, will be treated in future EIR reports. But it should obtainable from the deputy commissioners of districts. be noted that the accession and isolation of Northeast India was Then, in 1880, the Frontier Tract Regulation was enacted, which designed to infiltrate Tibet, as part of London's greater geopolitical stated that it was expedient "to provide for the removal of certain plan to upset China-which remains London's aim today. frontier tracts in Assam inhabited or frequented by barbarous or The 'apartheid law' semi-civilized tribes from the operation of enactments in force Following annexation of Northeast India, the first strategy of the therein." It was stated that the regulation would extend to such British East India Company toward the area was to set it up as a frontier tracts in Assam as the governor general might designate. The separate entity. At the outset, British strategy toward Northeast India regulation was subsequently extended to cover wider areas in the was: Northeast. Ø to make sure that the tribals remained separated from the plains The Palmerston crowd at work people, and the economic interests of the British in the plains The British plan to cordon off the Northeast tribals was part of their were not disturbed; policy of setting up a multicultural human zoo during 1850s under Ø to ensure that all tribal aspirations were ruthlessly curbed by the premiership of Henry Temple, the third Viscount Palmerston. keeping the bogey of the plains people dangling in their faces; Lord Palmerston, as Henry Temple was called, had three "friends"- and, the British Foreign Office, the Home Office, and Whitehall. With the Ø to ensure that the tribal feudal order remained intact, with the help of these offices and such close associates as Giuseppe Mazzini, paraphernalia of tribal chiefs and voodoo doctors kept in place. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, and David Urquhart, Palmerston began Part of this plan was carried out through the bribing of tribal to establish British assets throughout Europe and elsewhere. Young chiefs with paltry gifts. Italy was set up in 1831, attracting Garibaldi and Louis Napoleon. North-East India: Target of British Apartheid 79 80 Dr. (Mrs.) Indu Swami

Young Poland and Young Germany followed. And in 1834, Mazzini headquartered in Khasi and the Jaintia Hills. British Baptists were founded Young Europe, billed as the "Holy Alliance of the Peoples." given the franchise of the Mizo (Lushai) and Naga Hills, and the By 1835, a Young Switzerland and Young France were created. Baptist mission was set up in 1836. There was also Young Corsica, which was the mafia. Along with this peaceful religious proselytizing, the strength of the The underlying motive behind setting up these groups was evident in Frontier Constabulary was increased. During Ahom rule, only nine Mazzini himself, to whom nationality meant race, an ethnic group companies of police were used to keep the bordering tribes under with a fixed array of behavior. Mazzini's organizations would control, but under the new regime each company was raised to demand immediate national liberation on the basis of aggressive battalion strength. chauvinism. Each was obsessed with borders and territory, and each By the time the nineteenth century came to an end, the British were found a way to oppose the concept of a sovereign nation-state. This deeply involved in the "Great Game." At this point, Northeast India was Mazzini's racist gospel of universal ethnic cleansing, which was became the theater of a new gambit. The British plan was to set up a implemented in full in Northeast India in 1873. buffer state between China-Central Asia-Russia, and British India. The apartheid program eliminated the Northeast Frontier Agency The British split Bengal and joined part of it to sparsely populated from the political map of India and segregated the tribal population Assam, in order to form a Muslim-majority state as the western flank from Assam, as the British had done in southern Africa and would do of the buffer state. later in Sudan. By 1875, British intentions became clear even to The ill-effects of the partition of 1905 began to show up in those Englishmen who believed that Mother England's intervention subsequent years. There was a large-scale migration of people from in India, and the Northeast in particular, was to improve the Bengal into Assam. The Census Report of 1931 says: "Probably the conditions of the heathens. In an 1875 intelligence document, one most important event in the province during the last 25 years-an operative wrote: "At this juncture, we find our local officers frankly event, moreover, which seems likely to alter permanently the whole declaring that our relations with the Nagas could not possibly be on a future of Assam and to destroy more surely than did the Burmese worse footing than they were then, and that the non-interference invaders of 1820 the whole structure of Assamese culture and policy, which sounds excellent in theory, had utterly failed in civilization-has been the invasion of hordes of land-hungry Bengali practice." immigrants, mostly Muslims, from the districts of Eastern Bengal Apartheid also helped the British to function freely in this closed and in particular Mymensingh." environment. Soon enough, the British Crown introduced two other Under this British set-up, enormous animosity was fostered between features-proselytization of Christianity among the tribal population the Bengalis and the Assamese, as the "tribals" now had reason to and recruiting units of the Frontier Constabulary. The Land of the harden their stance against the "plains people." In the 1911 census, Nagas was identified as "virgin soil" for planting Christianity. the Muslim population of the Assam Valley was only 355,320. This "Among a people so thoroughly primitive, and so independent of number had grown to 1,305,902 by 1941, according to the Census religious profession, we might reasonably expect missionary zeal Report, the last taken by the British. Bangladesh war resulted in over would be most successful," according to the 1875 document, as 10,00,000 'refugees' taking shelter, who never returned. Modern quoted in the Descriptive Account of Assam, by William Robinson Bangladeshi “infiltration” is however said to be a more severe and Angus Hamilton. Missionaries were encouraged to open phenomenon. It was alleged that Bangladesh Char area dialects government-aided schools in the Naga Hills. spoken by the migrant Muslims, were declared as Assamese dialect Between 1891 and 1901, the number of native Christians increased to the census enumerators. Politicians too encouraged the 128 per cent. The chief proselytizers were the Welsh Presbyterians, Bangladeshi Muslims and other minorities into Assam, giving voting North-East India: Target of British Apartheid 81 82 Dr. (Mrs.) Indu Swami rights. This was a narrow exercise in electoral politics (Dixit 1998, democracy in India. Partition would also prevent a free India from 2003). A large number of violent incidents in Assam and Meghalaya taking her due place in the world as a great Asiatic power; for it in recent years are directly related to this settlement issue, and would probably mean disruption into several States ranking with tensions have been further exacerbated by a large wave of Muslim Egypt or Siam." migrants fleeing into Assam from instability in neighboring References : Bangladesh. Baruah, Sanjib. Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics of Northeast The ultimate apartheid in the Northeast came with the partition of India. New Delhi : Oxford University Press, 2005. India and the formation of East Pakistan, which in 1971 became the Basu Ray Chaudhury, Sabyasachi, Samir Kumar Das and Ranabir independent nation of Bangladesh. With the partition of Bengal, Samaddar, eds.Indian Autonomies: Keywords and Key Texts. Kolkata: Northeast India became practically isolated, connected to the Sampark, 2005. mainland through a narrow corridor running between Nepal and Basu, Sibaji Pratim. ed. The Fleeing People of South Asia: Selections from Bangladesh. The southern Northeastern states have no railroads and Refugee Watch. New Delhi: Anthem, 2008. are accessible from the mainland by road, air, and sea. There is no Das, N. K. Ethnic Identity, Ethnicity and Social Stratification in North-East railroad in Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, and India. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications, 1989. Arunachal Pradesh. The hilly terrain, and New Delhi's continuing ---.Kinship, Politics and Law in Naga Society. Memoir No. 96, Calcutta : faith in the British policy subsumed under a blanket of security Anthropological Survey of India, 1993. concerns, makes the building of railroads extremely difficult. Broad- gauge railroads exist up to Guwahati in truncated Assam, and a Dixit, J. N. “Back to Square One.”The Telegraph 12 March, 2003. meter-gauge railroad is presently under construction to connect ---. “No Suitors for Seven Sisters.”The Telegraph 26 October, 1998. eastern Arunachal Pradesh with the mainland by rail. However, all Samaddar, Ranabir, ed. “Peace Studies: An Introduction to the Concept, the other Northeastern states, which are now without railroad, will Scope, and Themes.” South Asian Peace Studies I. New Delhi: Sage, continue to depend on roads, air, and sea to link up with the 2004. mainland. These British policies provide a clue to why Northeast India has remained a bubbling cauldron and vulnerable to secessionist movements. Why the British continued supporting such a policy can only be understood from their own stated policy, as formulated in 1944 by Prof. Reginald Coupland, a fellow at All Souls College in Oxford, three years prior to the partition of India. In a three-volume study of British Indian history, Coupland, a student of Lords Palmerston and Curzon, said: "India is a geographical unity, it is not divided by such physical barriers as have fostered the growth of separate nations in Europe. Its unification under British rule has not only made all Indians feel themselves to be Indians; it has saved India from the fate which political and economic nationalism has brought on Europe. The Partitionists threaten to throw India back to the condition it was in after the break-up of the Mughal Empire, to make another Balkans. This would negate the development of Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 83-93 (2013) 84 Dr. P.K. Sahu

Background Quality Education and RTE Act 2009: Education is one of the key factors that helps in the comprehensive A Case Study of Government Primary School, growth and prosperity of any country. The scholars, thinkers, and Mahaling, Kalahandi eminent personalities, at different point of time, have given utmost priority to education for creating and disseminating knowledge, skills, ideas and values. Defining education, the great Philosopher Dr. P.K. Sahu and Saint Swami Vivekanand said “Education means that process by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, and The education system of India during colonial rule was almost intellect is sharpened, as a result of which one can stand on one's negligible. The biggest challenge for the independent India was to own feet.” Gandhiji, too, could internalize the significance of make the people realize the real value of democracy. For that, education and said, “In a democratic scheme, money invested in the education was considered as the panacea to strengthen the country promotion of learning gives a tenfold return to the people even as a in holistic perspective. Since time immortal, education has been seed sown in good soil returns a luxuriant crop.”Thus, India after playing a vital role in theharmonious and holistic development of the independence started the journey of providing free and compulsory individual that automatically take the country into new elementary education by putting it under Art.45 of the “Directive height.Keeping in view the significance of education, numerous Principles of State Policy (DPSP)”. It stated- “the State shall efforts have been made by the government to provide education for endeavor to provide within a period of ten years from the the future citizens of the country. The founding Fathers of the Indian commencement of this constitution, free and compulsory education constitution made elementary education compulsory and free under for all children until they complete the age of 14 years”. Later on, a article 45 of the “Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)”. It combination of forces from different quarters, viz, support from the stated- “the State shall endeavor to provide within a period of ten judiciary, greater international attention and increased civil society years from the commencement of this constitution, free and and grass-roots level campaigns exerted tremendous pressure on the compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of Government to introduce a fundamental right to education. Thus, by 14 years”. With increasing demand of education the Parliament of way of Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002, the right to India passed 86th Amendment Act 2002 making education as a education has been explicitly declared as a fundamental right by fundamental right under Article 21(A) and it became an act i.e. Right inserting a newly Article 21-A which states “the State shall provide to Education Act in 2009. The year 2010 was a landmark in the free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to history of India for education as The Right of Children to Free and fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, was enforced with effect st determine.”As a follow up legislation in terms of Article 21-A of the from 1 April, 2010. The RTE Act secures the right of children to free Constitution of India, the Indian Parliament enacted Right of and compulsory education till completion of elementary education in Children to Free and Compulsory Education (Popularly known as a neighborhood school. Odisha, after the implementation of RTE Act RTE) Act, 2009 on 1st April, 2010. is putting tremendous efforts to ensure quality education to the mass of children. Some of the significant steps taken by the Govt of Odisha After the enactment of the Act, it has become mandatory for the are-beautification of the school campus, uniforms for teachers, toll government to provide eight years of free and compulsory education free helpline number to redress the grievances of the school, and so to all the children between the ages of 6 to 14 at a neighborhood on. In light of that the investigator has made a case study of school. All the states and UTs were directed to ensure good quality Government Primary School, Mahaling village of Kalahandi District education with requisite facilities to the children within three years of Odisha which has been reflected in the present paper. of the implementation of the act. This Act serves as a building block Quality Education and RTE Act 2009: A Case Study of... 85 86 Dr. P.K. Sahu to ensure that every child has his or her right (as an entitlement) to average of 74.04 percent. In 2001, the literacy rate of Odisha was get a quality elementary education, and that the State, with the help 63.08%. of families and communities, fulfills this obligation. There is no After the enactment of RTE Act 2009, Odisha, under the aegis of the direct (school fees) or indirect cost (uniforms, textbooks, mid-day able leadership of the Hon'ble Chief Minister, is committed to the meals, transportation) to be borne by the child or the parents to Universalisation of Elementary Education in the State with the aim obtain elementary education. The government will provide schooling of fulfilling the constitutional obligation with the assistance of free-of-cost until a child's elementary education is completed. Central Government. The state government is putting optimum RTE Act has given special place to School Management Committee efforts to provide education of substantial quality to all children (SMC). Schools shall constitute School Management Committees between the ages of 6-14 years. There are 35928 Primary and 20427 (SMC) comprising local authority, parents, guardians and teachers. Upper Primary schools to provide education at elementary level. The SMC shall form School Development Plans and monitor the More 491 New Primary and 490 New Upper Primary schools opened utilization of government grants and the whole school environment. under SSA to provide schooling in un-served areas. 66 lakh children It also mandates the inclusion of 50 per cent women and parents of of 6 to 14 years age group are in-school, out of which 12 lakh are SC children from disadvantaged groups in SMC. Such community and 17 lakh are ST. Besides, some of the remarkable initiatives taken participation will be crucial to ensuring a child friendly “whole by the state, such as quality infrastructure, beautification of schools, school” environment in the school. Besides, the members of the toll free student help line telephone number; uniforms for the committee have to ensure separate toilet facilities for girls and boys teachers, etc. have become widely popular. Schools all over the state, and to give due attention to health, water, sanitation and hygiene even the schools located at forest and remote areas, are looking issues. The community and civil society will have an important role gorgeous with uniformity of colour, decoration and beautification. to play in collaboration with the SMCs to ensure school quality with equity. The state will provide the policy framework and create an So far the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at elementary school level enabling environment to ensure RTE becomes a reality for every is concern; Odisha has already crossed to 100 per cent. child. All schools must comply with infrastructure and teacher norms for an effective learning environment. Two trained teachers will be ______GER of India and Odisha at Elementary level in 2006 provided for every sixty students at the primary level. Teachers are ______Classes I- VIII(6 – 14 years) required to attend school regularly and punctually, complete Sr No States/Nation curriculum instruction, assess learning abilities and hold regular ______Boys Girls Total parent-teacher meetings. The number of teachers shall be based on 1 Odisha 103.75 101.64 102.72 the number of students rather than by grade. The state shall ensure 2 India 102.36 98.02 100.28 adequate support to teachers leading to improved learning outcomes ______of children. Source: Selected Educational Statistic 2007-08 Education in Odisha The table given above reveals the improved condition of GER of the Odisha is a beautiful state situated at the Bay of Bengal extending schools ofOdishaas compare to the GER at national level.The state is over an area of 1.56 lakh square kms accounting about 4.87 of the now putting efforts to bring back the drop out children to school. The total area of India. The population of the state is 4.19 crore (2.12 Government has shown seriousness towards education much before crore Male and 2.07 crore female) which feeds 3.47 per cent of the the enactment of RTE Act 2009. The state notified the act total population of the country. As per report of Census 2011, Odisha immediately after it came into force and at present deliberately has literacy rate of 73.45 per cent which is below the national working on this direction. Quality Education and RTE Act 2009: A Case Study of... 87 88 Dr. P.K. Sahu

______Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) in 2006 The Government Primary School of the village, one of the oldest schools of Kalahandi District of Odisha, was established in 1910. It Sr No. States/Nation Primary Middle ______is situated at the centre of the Mahaling village. The school has 1 Odisha 42 35 produced many great personalities at local level and it was widely 2 India 47 35 popular in the region for the strenuous efforts and commitment of the ______previous teachers who provided quality education to the children. Source: Selected Educational Statistic 2007-08 Unfortunately, the school lost its reputation during last few years. As per the norms of the RTE there must be two trained teachers for The implementation of RTE Act 2009 has become a ray of hope and every sixty students at the primary level. The PTR of Odisha is 42:1, it is expected that the school will resurrect the past glory by proper and it is comparatively better than the PTR of India, i.e. 47:1. But, caring and attention of the govt. and the local people. Presently, there lot many teachers are to be recruited to improve the PTR and provide are 255 children enrolled in the primary school of Mahaling out of quality education to the children. In middle schools, there is which 142 are boys and 113 are girl students. On April 1, 2012, RTE satisfactory number of teachers in both Odisha as well as in India will complete its two years of journey and the present case study with the PTR of 35:1. aimed to see how far RTE has become succeeded in providing quality education in Govt. Primary School Mahaling. ______Average number of Teachers per School Achievement after the implementation of RTE ______Primary Schools Sr No. States/Nation The Odisha Govt. follows inclusive approach in providing various ______2008-09 2009-10 facilities to all the schools including the schools locate in the remote 1 Odisha 2.6 2.4 and isolated region. Notwithstanding the backwardness of the region, the govt. has treated equally to the Primary school of Mahaling 2 India 3.0 3.1 ______village. Source: DISE 2009-10 Flash Statistics Beautification of School: Like other schools of the state, The average number of teachers in the primary schools of the state Government school Mahaling attracts people for the beautifully has decreased to 2.4 in 2009-10 to 2.6 in 2008-09 which is below the painted building. Besides the painting of the map of Odisha, list of national average, i.e. 3.1. There are also numbers of single teacher students' cabinet bodies, height measurement scale, chart of the mid- schools in the state which place the state at the bottom in the day meal expenditure and a picture of a wall clock; the outer Educational Development Index of the country. In fact, as per the decoration of the school reflects the culture of Odisha. Thirty five Educational Development Index (EDI) 2011 prepared by the thousand rupees had been given for the whitewash of the school. National University of Educational Planning and Administration Trees have been planted in the school campus and the children (NUEPA), Odisha is at the bottom in teachers parameters in the friendly interior decoration of the school is under process. country. The quality of education has become a matter of great Uniforms for teachers: It has become mandatory for the teachers to concern. The present work was the case study of the Government come to the schools with proper uniform as determined by the govt. Primary School, Mahaling, which is also the alma mater of the The male teacher has put on black pant and light green shirt, whereas investigator himself. female teachers have to come to the school with pinksaaree. Now, a Case Study of Government Primary School, Mahaling layman also can identify teachers, looking to their uniforms. The Mahaling is one of the remote country side located in Kalahandi teachers of Mahaling School put on the uniform regularly. The district which is widely known for its poverty and backwardness. people of the locality say that after making the uniform compulsory Quality Education and RTE Act 2009: A Case Study of... 89 90 Dr. P.K. Sahu for the teachers, they have become punctual and staying at school well equipped. The condition of the old building is not very sound full time during the school hours. Reflecting upon the compulsion of and since its construction, renovation of the building has already uniform, the teachers of the school say that they are happy with this been made for number of times. Blackboards of all the classrooms stratagem as it stimulates them to understand their role and are not usable and school environment has failed to attract the little responsibility for the welfare of the society. children towards education. Toll Free Student Helpline Number: The idea of writing toll free Teacher related Problem: The internal and external beautification student helpline number on the walls of the schools of Odisha is of the school campus creates a good impression among the people becoming popular and seems to be more effective mechanism to about the school education of the village. But the inside story can redress the grievances concerning to school. The primary school of better be understood after making a careful observation of the school. Mahaling has also displayed the toll free number. Even a lay man can Inter-alia, the shortage of teachers is a serious problem of the school. dial the number and register complains relating to school. There are only 3 teachers for 250 students with the Pupil Teacher Unfortunately, the number displayed on the wall has not been used so Ratio (PTR) of 83:1. Only one teacher is serving on regular basis far. It does not mean that the school is free from any problem, rather whereas the rest two have been appointed as Siksha Sahayak. It the direct or indirect stakeholders are either living with ignorance or seems to be elusive to achieve the norm of RTE which tells that there the school does not come under priority. must be one trained teacher for every thirty students. As per the Supply of Free Textbooks and Uniforms: Free text books have norms 5/6 more teachers are required for the school which the state been supplied under the scheme ofSarvaSikshaAbhiyan (SSA) to all government is not going to recruit in near future. the all students at elementary level up to Class-VIII. While Attendance Problem: The students were not at all serious about the admission to Class – 1 or promotion to higher classes, the school did school education. Twice in a week, the school serves egg in the mid- not take tuition fee or any other fees from the students. Uniform day meal and it is on those days the attendance of the students is constitute an expense which the poor family are not able to afford, more than the other days. There was around 40 per cent attendance in and thus becomes a barrier for many children to pursue and complete the normal days whereas the number of students present in the egg elementary education. In order to persuade such children for days were around 70 per cent. While asking few students for the education, all girls, SC, ST and BPL children are provided four sets causes of their irregularity in school, they replied that they did not of uniform. Besides, the school also provided regular mid-day meals want to go to school because it is quite boring and they prefer to play to all the children. with friends instead of seating and eating at the school. Problems of the School Authenticity of Record: Universal access and inclusivity in Despite of the efforts put by the Govt., the Primary school of education is the key objective of the government. The teachers need Mahaling failed to provide quality education to its children. to ensure that all children irrespective of their caste, creed, language Following are some of the important problems of the school which and religion are getting mid-day meal as well as proper education. require immediate attention. Maintaining authentic record is a herculean task. There was a wide gap between the actual presence of students and the attendance Infrastructure Facility: As per the RTE Act, there should be, at mentioned in the registrar. The attendance of the students was written least five class rooms and an office in a primary school. But, in the more than 90 per cent. Similar was the case of maintaining the record Primary school of Mahaling village, there are three classrooms in the in the mid-day meal registrar. If the teachers had not maintain the old building and an additional classroom has been constructed under fake registrar, they would have to give explanation to the monitoring theSarva Shikhsha Abhiyan scheme . Though the beatification of the officers and disciplinary action could be taken against them. front of the school is well appreciated, but the classrooms are not Quality Education and RTE Act 2009: A Case Study of... 91 92 Dr. P.K. Sahu

Monitoring: The govt. has appointed Block Resource Centres elementary education in India. Most of the children studying in (BRCs) and Cluster Resource Centres (CRCs) to monitor the Mahaling Primary School belong to SCs, STs and sub-altern groups. schools, provide proper guidance to the teachers whenever they feel Throughout the day the parents go for work either on daily wages, required and acquaint the teacher with latest update vis-à-vis farming or go to forest. Many parents of Mahaling engage their different curriculum, methods of teaching and policies of the children in household activities. The girl children assist their mothers government. Their main objective is to ensure that the schools are in the domestic works, whereas the male children either work with running smoothly ensuring quality education to the children. The their parents or waste their time by loitering with friends. CRC was making regular visit to the Mahaling School but he also Conclusion accepted that the quality of education could not be augmented unless The overall educational scenario of the government school of the govt. recruit more teachers for the school. The teachers were Mahaling is not very inspiring and immediate attention is required to directed to complete the paper works and maintain discipline in the address various problems to uplift the quality of education. It cannot school. be ignored that the basic facilities like classrooms, toilets, drinking Poor Education of students: The beautification of schools could not water, mid-day meal, uniform for the students, and the overall help the students to get substantial quality of education at the school. infrastructure facilities play a prominent role in creating an academic The students of class IV and V are not able to do simple addition, ambience, but children cannot achieve good education without the multiplication and subtraction. Most of the students are not able to active involvement of the teachers. Thus, there is an urgent need to read the text books of their classes. While asking the questions such recruit more qualified and experienced teachers. The idea of as, “What is the capital Odisha ?”, “Who is the Chief Minister of community participation for school improvement through School Odisha?”, “How many Districts are in Odisha?”, “When did India Management Committees (SMC) as envisioned in the RTE Act is yet get Independence?”, etc., most of the students showed their inability to show the expected results. The members of the SMC are neither to response the correct answers. One of the important reasons of their interested on the proceedings of the school nor they are aware of ignorance may be the shortage of teachers in the school. Due to the their role which they need to perform for the school. Such members, scarcity of teachers the students of more than one class has to seat villagers and local authorities should be sensitized to understand together. Sometime, out of three teachers, if one goes for leave or their role and responsibility towards the school of their own. any official duty, it becomes difficult to the rest two teachers to Monitoring of the resource person in the form of Cluster Resource concentrate on teaching learning process. In such deteriorating Centre (CRC), appointed by state government, is of less meaning conditions the quality of education cannot be expected in the school. without the availability of teachers. Immediate attention is required SMC's less involvement: A school cannot grow without the support to minimize the non-academic workload of the existing teachers due of the local people. Therefore, RTE Act 2009 has given priority to to various government schemes such as maintaining registers for the formation of School Management Committee (SMC) in every mid-day meal, uniform distribution and other materials, etc. The school. The school of Mahaling, too, has an SMC, but their teacher with the help of the CRC should develop healthy relationship involvement in school activities is marginal. They are ready to put with the villagers and exhort them to deliberate keenly for the signature while it is required but at the same time they are less progress of the school. bothered about the records, expenditure of the school or other References : activities of the school. They are also less concerned about the causes Government of India.Selected Educational Statistics 2007-08 . New Delhi: of students' absenteeism as they rarely visit to the school. Ministry of Human Resource and Development, 2008. Lack of Awareness: Lack of awareness among the parents has ---. Education and National Development: Report of the Education become the biggest hurdle on the way to universalization of Commission. New Delhi: Ministry of Education, 1966. Quality Education and RTE Act 2009: A Case Study of... 93 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 94-102 (2013)

---. National Policy on Education, 1986, and Programme of Action 1986. New Delhi:Report of the Education Commission. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development, 1986. Bifocal Biography in Altaf Tyrewala's ---.Annual Report 2009-10. New Delhi: Dept. of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2010. No God in Sight ---. Census of India 2011, Provisional Data. New Delhi: Government of India, 2010. Dr. Arpit Kothari ---. DISE Flash Statistics: 2009-10, Elementary Education in India Progress towards UEE. National University of Educational Planning Even a cursory stroll through a bookstore or a passing glance at the and Administration (NUEPA), New Delhi: Ministry of Human kiosks that line the pavements in big bazaars, it is evident that there Resource Development, 2010. has been a market boom of new literature, especially that written by ---. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009. young writers. Simultaneously along with this publishing enterprise New Delhi: Ministry of Law and Justice, 2010. there is an accompanied emergence of literary platforms where this Government of Odisha.Status of Elementary Education in Odisha . literature can be voiced from and an upsurge of audience who can Bhubneshwar: Department of School & Mass Education, 2011. take cognizance of it. This makes for a thrilling time for all things literary-what with the book festivals, literary awards and prizes Kumar, Ravi, ed.The Crisis of Elementary Education in India. New Delhi: gaining currency by the day. The excitement is obvious with the Sage Publications, 2006. increased opportunities of speaking with writers, publishers and Mehendale, A. “Right to Education and Constitutional Amendment: A Case literary critics. Since, the cream of young talent makes its way into of India.” Revised Final Project Report, Global Development the IT industry, the young Turks are buzzing to using their imaginary Network's Bridging Research and Policy Programme, available at 2005. and entrepreneurial skills in making name and fame through this new avenue that has opened up. Mehrotra, Santosh, ed. The Economics of Elementary Education in India: The Challenge of Public Finance, Private Provision and Household This has indirectly given rise to a large and consumer oriented Costs. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2006. middle class with an unprecedented purchasing power. Also, this has UNESCO. The hidden crisis: Armed Conflict and Education. EFA Global triggered the acceptance of English as the Indian language that can Monitoring Report 2011. Paris, 2011. help one participate in the global market and those writing in it Vaidyasubramanyam, S.It is Time We Rewrote India's Research History . consider themselves as cultural ambassadors of India who can The Hindu, July 24, 2011. present to the world a new picture of the sub-continent. The differentiation of lived experience is accompanied by a corresponding differentiation on the book market - a reliable index of the growing professionalism of the business as a whole. New genres are conquering the market-the comic book, and especially the fantasy and science fiction genres. And Samit Basu, born in 1979 and currently a resident of Delhi, has certainly performed a service by providing Indian literature with its first fantasy novel, The Simoqin Prophecies(2004) . Here, we find an arresting and innovative mélange of myths new and old, Indian fables and Western pop culture, theMahabharata and James Bond. Bifocal Biography in Altaf Tyrewala's No God in Sight 95 96 Dr. Arpit Kothari

All in all, a new level of freedom is in evidence. This is also radically transformed by the Hindu fundamentalist Shiv Sena (Army confirmed by 34 year old literature critic Nilanjana Roy, also a of Shiva) party. resident of Delhi, who has followed the development of Indian Indirectly then, a novel such asNo God in Sight gives voice to English language literature for years. This freedom, she emphasizes, critical dissent in relation to the one-sided success story the country can only mean that prior obligations to specifically "Indian" content seeks to narrate about itself in campaigns such as "India Shining" or have ceased to apply: "I'm delighted to see that today's authors, at "India on the rise". Such counter images are frequently found in the long last, are writing out of a sense of freedom that they're doing works of this young generation of authors. exactly as they please. They can live in India and write about Of the nearly half a dozen novels set in Bombay by Indian writers in Bulgaria. They can write about their own world, and in which Bob English Altaf Tyrewala'sNo God in Sight (2005) is yet another Dylon and jazz are just as prominent as Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and attempt to delineate the complexities of new millennium India Bollywood Songs. through the eyes of its youth. The young generation writers coming It is in this context that we see Aravind Adiga's The White Tiger from varied classes and creeds bring to their writing a critique of (2008) as a representative fiction of the new millennium. It is a story their times through a spacio-temporal interrogation. Bombay as a about the toils and turmoil of today's youth trying to make it good in cosmopolitan metropolis with its struggles and strife is a favored the cosmopolitan metropolis which is the throbbing heart of India locale to reflect on the loves and lives of new India. The multi and a heart throb for the aspiring new man. layered conflicts present an insight into life itself. However, unlike Vikram Chandra's three novels – Love and Longing in Bombay Altaf Tyrewala represents Bombay though another dimension of it. (1997), Red Earth and Pouring Rain (1995) and Sacred Games 30 year old Altaf Tyrewala wrote his debut novelNo God in Sight in (2006), and Suketu Mehta's Maximum City: Bombay Lost and Found 2005. Just 170 pages in length, the slender novel is a slap in the face (2004), No God in Sight shifts its focus to religious extremism, a of the tradition of the "Great Indian Novel", the favored form of theme so integorral to our ethos and yet kept at bay with a pair of Anglo-Indian literature. Within its restricted dimensions and in a tongs. Altaf Tyrewala coming from a liberal middle class Muslim language that is as plainspoken as it is condensed Tyrewala succeeds family, though not himself actually a victim of communalism of in capturing the psychic inner life of Mumbai, India's most religious discrimination, picks up certain nuances of the daily frequently portrayed city. Tyrewala himself was born in Mumbai in interaction between Hindus and Muslims that become eye openers of 1977, where he continues to make his home, having made a guest how religious affinities can viciate into paranoia. appearance in New York City. For, as he says himself, he needs the Altaf Tyrewala was there when the religious riots took place in 1992- city in order to write: "It's incredibly important for me to live with 93 and left at least 1400 people dead. Of course there had been my own culture, in the location I'm writing about. I can't imagine sectarians riots in Bombay earlier but 1992 was different for there living abroad and visiting my country once a year to stock up on was a lot of venom and vehemence towards each other which material before returning to the comfortable First World, where I became more pronounced as one went down to the lower level of the would live while writing about the Third." (Rediff) economic strata. Moreover it was in 1992 that the lines were drawn By means of brief vignettes, he anatomizes the underside of the more cuttingly between the majority and the minority communities glittering capital, where ordinary – and at first glance inconspicuous and it was an unequal fight. Altaf Tyrewala makes an attempt here, as – individuals move about in the shadows of brilliance and glamour. a Muslim himself to capture the angst and the restlessness, the Above all, his Mumbai is a city of the Muslim middle classes, whose prejudices and the inherited beliefs of his own community and makes members (and here is the novel's un-stated framework) struggle for an attempt to humanize the milieu and thus present a different picture survival and dignity within a political landscape that has been of Bombay, more detailed and real, more bifocal. Bifocal Biography in Altaf Tyrewala's No God in Sight 97 98 Dr. Arpit Kothari

From the stories of about two dozen characters, nameless, faceless, He is happy because he thinks he spreads relief; he saves family lives Tyrewala culls out a whole graphics of the Muslim community. An and marriages. But he needs to be saved himself from all the unborn abortionist, a small shoe shop owner, a riot escapee, a convert, a baby voices in his head. He yearns for children, several children who seventy year old unmarried woman, a disinherited salesman, a will hopefully drown out the unborn baby voices in his head. paralyzed young man, a gluttonous matchmaker, a chain smoker, a Moreover he is not qualified but of course very careful because that corruptHawaldaar, a waiter in an Irani hotel, a paanwala , a good for is his only qualification and to boot at all he is a Muslim whose nothing Urdu tutor, a butcher, an aspiring lawyer, a news channel mother had to pay the dues of his irreverence right there in Mecca correspondent, a bar dancer and a beggar comprise the motley. for her Haj. We move from him to his father, who works at a shoe Through the voices of the array of characters, Altaf displays how store. Kaka believes that religion killed his wife that she was visited widely the Muslim population has percolated in all layers of the by paralyzing worries of sin and all other no-good dogmatic clap Indian society an how most of them, if not all, still prefer living in trap. He says Muslim colonies for the sake of safety or for plain brotherhood; how There is a no Allah, no heaven, no hell. No life after death. No theyare a part of this country and how they aren't; how they've sense in wasting precious hours of life inside mosques and become used to the subtle sorrows of the poverty in their lives and temples and churches. When the stomach buckles and the skin the constant fear of the fanatics. sizzles, money is the only god who answers prayers. How to tell And none of these weave in and out of each other's lives but perhaps the idiots in the world this? How to have told the idiots in my connect in a linear line from one to the next. There is no interrelation family this? (NGS 18) but mere vignettes. Each of the fifty chapters are not more than two His boss Amin Bhai wants to leave India forever and is lucky in to five pages long but collectively comprise a kind of a central juggling a Visa out of frustrated embassy personnel. It is character, the citizen of Mumbai. There are no epiphenic movements, Rukhshana's sympathy for the slavish and impudent behavior of his simply portrayals of the human condition. It begins with Mrs. Kwaja, seniors that wins their day and he leaves the ungrateful city, the a one time poetess who has long exchanged her metaphors for a life nation of his ancestors and fades away into the distance. of cooking. A woman silenced by 'the hum of air-conditioned rooms and twenty four hour TV'. From her voice, we move to that of her It wasn't worth it, I will tell myself. And I will repeat, like a mantra, like adua , it wasn't worth it, it wasn't worth it. And even husband, Mr. Kwaja, a man who knows the poetry no longer exists. then, if my idiot nostalgia refuses to die, I will remember the Their son Ubaid spends hours online, chatting with strangers, protection money demanded, the covert and blatant religious looking for a place to belong. Their daughter Minaz has other slurs, the riots, the aftermaths, the newborn niece named Nidhi, demons to fight. She's pregnant, and grappling with the idea of an the rewritten history books, the harassment at the passport office. abortion. Through these eyes, and with these thoughts, we take our Wasn't it enough, wasn't it enough that we lived in our ghettos first, hesitant steps into Altaf Tyrewala's Mumbai. and worked in our holes and paid our taxes and demanded The first pages plunge one into what feels like a strange place. Our nothing in return? focus shifts constantly, forcibly, from Minaz to her abortionist. He The aircraft's projection screen will show a blue India, with our runs a nursing home in a seedy by lane of Colaba and his badly spelt plane's route so far outlined in white like an anemic tapeworm in fliers get him a customer or two everyday. It reads the belly of a diseased nation. Get rid of Unwanted Pregnuncy in hour I will sit back in my seat and pretend to breathe easy.Forget it, I Rupee 300 absolutely secretive will tell myself,let go . Let them have it, let them have what they Shamma Nursing home have clergymen for, razed mosques for, driven out fellow Indians Opp. Janvi Manzil (Bahind Colaba Post Ofice) (NGS 8) for. Let them have their Hindustan for Hindus." (NGS 28) Bifocal Biography in Altaf Tyrewala's No God in Sight 99 100 Dr. Arpit Kothari

It is at this point when one realizes that it isn't a strange place at all. ply God knows what business and are crushed by giant feet into It's home. What we've all grown up with. Home turned inside out. insignificance. This other side of the picture, the irony of megacities, Tyrewala is more than equipped to try and map out the consciousness is the inevitable outcome of the process of globalization. Whenever, of the city. He was born in January 1977 at Byculla's Masina one tries to draw a circle on a square or rectangle sheet of paper there Hospital, schooled at St. Mary's in Mazagaon, and studied commerce are scraps that fall a sunder because the axis has its limitations of at HR College for three years before moving to New York in 1995 holding things together, the centre can only hold a certain amount for a bachelor's in business administration. "I hardly had any interest and what it cannot falls apart. The rich and the beautiful, the in books before I went abroad," he tells me, by e-mail. educated and the employed, the mainstream religions all survive, In NYC, homesickness turned me into a reader, especially of rise, ascend to a needed importance while the other half of humanity fiction from the subcontinent. Over the years, I became is distorted, disintegrated into nothingness, it continues to live the convinced, unfortunately, that I could 'do India' better than the flesh out meaninglessly. Tyrewala's array of protagonists more than Rushdies and Roys. I returned to Mumbai in 1999 and tinkered amplifies the non-existent existence of this other half of humanity. around as an instructional writer for a few years before taking Most fiction of the recent times, in one way or the other, try to throw the plunge into full time writing. (Pereira 2005) up into sharp relief, this adverse grayness that has gotten out of focus when the camera zooms in on India shining. In the next chapters characters are piled up, all from the lower class Muslim society who lives on the periphery of the great thronging All the lives that Tyrewala has captured are disparate; the only thread city. As a novel about Bombay the story does not map the central that binds them together is of tension. Tension is the running theme contours but dwells on the collective psychologies of the books of how these non-descript eek their lives in a Hindu dominated narrators. Everyone is a type and infuses a complexity of people world. Here to be a convert, a pervert, a subvert, a nincumpoop 'sab plagued by the faith they belong to. Whosoever's voice Tyrewala chalta hai' as a matter of fact only these can survive for the righteous uses, the nauseated matchmaker or the obese runaway daughter, the and the well meaning can never with hold, it is the survival of the person who has dialed a wrong number, Tyrewala seems to become fittest and only the 'fallen angels' can withstand the fires of hell. vulnerable to examination because of his own familiarity with the Hamida for example who had set her herat at being Rafiq's fourth woes of his innumerable protagonists. No God seems to extend any wife even compromises to marrying a rich cripple and divorcing him joy or relief to these destined to live life on the fringes of existence. to take his money and come back to be Rafiq's fourth wife. And What is remarkable that Tyrewala opens our eyes to people whom Nawaz, the self proclaimed poet who in order to look one dresses up we take for granted and not even lend them a flicker of a question as in a baggy sherwani, bunching pajamas and a dark brown to why they are there and how to they survive – Theasli Kasaai, the embroidered skull cap with a pile of faded books and leaves in his oblivious beggar, the immigrant slum dweller or even the convert arms. And guess who he gets for a patron, the paanwala and for a who quietly dies with a Hey Ram, Ram Ram on his lips. Tyrewala's student Abhay who believes his Guru when he says that "Urdu half baked personalities however are capable of throwing up burning poetry is to be secreted like a silk' and basking in its beauty one must questions that unsettle the mind and after even sixty pages of reading allow it to invade one like a tan. The irony was that Nawaz was as open unknown windows in the far from comfortable shanties in ignorant as his student and when pressed into answers all he could do Mumbai's slum. was to escape “I crumpled my face.'I cannot do this!' I stood up. 'Sorry, the mood is gone. I cannot teach poetry today.' I shivered my Far from the madding crowd of Cuff Parade, Marine Drive and hand over my skull. 'I feel frazzled!' I stormed out the door, ram Nariman Point, a continuous discomfort besets the reader as he down the stairs, and cycled like a maniac all the way home.” (NGS ventures deeper into the heart of darkness. These often nameless, 94) faceless protagonists remind one of the hordes of moving ends who Bifocal Biography in Altaf Tyrewala's No God in Sight 101 102 Dr. Arpit Kothari

This then is the truth about the other Bombay, the Bombay that does world- singularization on the one hand and the phenomenology of not throng coffee houses and clubs, that does not live in penthouses the global on the other. As Rao so neatly put it: with air conditioning, the Bombay of incalculable bliss but a The moments that are centralized as moments of crisis in the Bombay that is being 'aborted' day and night with infidelity and context of Bombay (and other cities like it) are thus no longer demise, where the Azan rings out loud and clear but where the heads merely tied to any local story as such nor can they stand in as that bow do not bow in faith but in hunger and want and pain. teleological proxies for the conditions of modernity. Rather they In the literature that seeks to diagnose global conditions by serve as platforms for the sorts of intersections that reveal the generalizing from particular urban dilemmas, a city like Bombay is fundamentally elusive nature of global flows. (Rao 2005) an exemplar of a “perverse” sort of urbanism (urbanism without References : economic growth). Bombay is notat risk but also constitutes a risk Patel, Sujata. “Bombay/Mumbai: Globalization, Inequalities, and Politics.” in and of itself to ideas and forms of global justice, equity and World Cities Beyond the West: Globalization, Development and conviviality. In the interpretation of scholars who write from within a Inequalities. Ed. Gugler. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. national paradigm, however, Bombay appears as the subject of the 330. Print. construction of the national modern. Its cosmopolitan culture and Pereira, Lindsay. “Terrorists, Riots andNo God in Sight.” 7 Dec., 2005, 17 artistic productions are seen as products and symbols of the Dec. 2012. . “achievements of colonial and post-colonial India.” (Patel 2004, 328) Rao, Vyjayanthi. “Risk and the City: Bombay, Mumbai and other The nomenclatural transformation of this national symbolic terrain Theoretical Departures.” International Affairs Working Paper 2005-08. and therefore constitutes a risk of national self-understanding, Dec. 2005, 03 Dec., 2012. . relations amongst various groups. Tyrewala, Altaf.No God in Sight. New Delhi: Penguin, 2005. Print. Abr. But both these positions, which involve specific interpretations of NGS. what constitutes risk, are tried to particular moral and political projects that animate their readings of the city and an interpretation of its malaise. Within the particular moral-theoretic terrains of such generalizations, the specificity and material qualities of city life often seem to disappear. When they do appear, they do so under the sign of new political frameworks of 'resistance' largely having to do with a new intersection between politics and religion.” (Patel 2004, 330) Connecting these various literatures, however, is an underlying sense of the shift from the cityof risk, which causes the city to appear as a different sort of a theoretical subject. This is perhaps the most general answer that can be provided for why particular, singular and excessive urban conditions have historically been the focus of modern social and cultural theory from Walter Benjamin to Mike Davis. To conclude it can be said that work such as No God in Sight captures the two apparently contradictory movements of today's Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 103-111 (2013) 104 Sanjiv Kumar

… the dialects commonly spoken among the natives of this part of India contain neither literary or scientific information, and are, Revisiting Macaulay moreover so poor and rude that, until they are enriched from some other quarter, it will not be easy to translate any valuable in the Contemporary Indian Scenario work into them. (91) However, the time passed and entire socio-cultural and even political Sanjiv Kumar context underwent a change and this change is now visible in all spheres of life in India. Macaulay who was considered a villainous Lord Macaulay created stir among the people at the moment while figure erstwhile seems to have become more relevant today when India was striving to identify its socio-cultural identities in terms of entire Indian society is obsessed with acquiring or borrowing English celebrating its literature, languages, cultures and prowess in certain idiom, grammar and way of life at any cost. Indians who held him other spheres. Macaulay's minutes came as a blow to identity of responsible for robbing India of its rich cultural, literary and India as a unique land cherishing the ideals like tolerance, linguistic heritage seemed to have now started revisiting their brotherhood, pluralism, harmonious co-existence and the heritage of position after observing the discouraging attitude of the people a rich past. There is no denying the fact that culture and language are towards the language which thwy earlier used to celebrate as the the two human attributes ensuring the uniqueness of a nation or an 'mother of all languages'. Reasons are many and so are the individual and therefore it is generally observed that no human being contestations to this opinion and therefore the present paper is an is easily willing to shed off his/her cultural or linguistic identities. No attempt to contextualise Macaulay in today's Indian context with doubt, Indians were fed up with the political colonisation and special focus on social and cultural transformation which has already subsequent subjugation in the hands of the colonising power but they taken place. were more troubled to realise that more than political domination, Britishers were interested to colonise their minds through education, In the first half of the paper, an attempt is made to highlight the language, literature and culture. Assuming the role of civilising major denunciations of Macaulay against Indian culture, literature mission, he realised: and education while the second half of the paper somehow intends to locate Macaulay's Minute in present socio-cultural context of India. “… we ought to employ them in teaching what is best worth The paper explores as to how post-independence India has witnessed knowing; that English is better worth knowing than Sanskrit or phenomenal transformations in all the spheres of life-cultural, social, Arabic; that the natives are desirous to be taught English… that it literary, linguistic and educational, and most of these transformations is possible to make natives of this country thoroughly good which we seem to celebrate today are the replica of Macaulay's English scholars….” (102) recommendations in his Minute some 180 years back. The nationalists strongly opposed Macaulian agenda of creating a I class of people, Indian in blood but English in taste, flavour and culture to serve as the mediators between the rulers and the ruled. Macaulay has been branded as a typical representative of Western Obviously, unrest prevailed among Indians who were most of the ideology propagating the cultural, linguistic and social superiority of time embracing or propagating the agenda of 'swadeshi' in one form the Britons over native Indians. His Minute was an attempt to or the other. They were utterly disappointed to notice the humiliating demean the foundation of Oriental education, language, literature and remarks of Macaulay about their language, culture and literature. culture. Edward Said's definition of 'Orientalism' gets justified in They could hardly digest the disparaging comments regarding Indian Macaulay's Minute as “A way of coming to terms with the Orient languages, which according to Macaulay were: that is based on the Orient's special place in European Western Revisiting Macaulay in the Contemporary Indian Scenario 105 106 Sanjiv Kumar

Experience” (Said 1). He projected that all the historical information un-employability of the educated youth. Defending his argument, he which was collected from all the books written in Sanskrit language asserted that these scholars represent their education as an injury was less valuable than what might be found in the paltriest which gives them a claim on the Government for redress, as an abridgements used at preparatory schools in England (91-92). He injury, for which the “stipends paid to them during the infliction were didn't even find it relevant to consider the opinion of the Indians a very inadequate compensation…. They have wasted the best years while imposing Western language and education. He underestimated of life in learning what procures for them neither bread nor respect” the natives and found their opinion as worthless. He observed: (98). He went to the extent of saying that when Indians didn't require … when a nation of high intellectual attainments undertakes to to be paid for rice when they were hungry or for woollen cloth in the superintend the education of a nation comparatively ignorant, the cold season, then why it should be necessary to pay people to learn learners are absolutely to prescribe the course which is taken by Sanskrit or Arabic (96). His attack on Indian education system was the teachers…. It would be bad enough to consult their quite massive and objected to the excessive reliance on the use of mother tongue. He made it a point that some foreign language should intellectual taste at the expense of their intellectual health. (95) be introduced as the medium of instruction in schools, and obviously Similarly, he was repulsive towards the idea of promoting Oriental by foreign language he meant 'English' only because he found that languages, literature or culture in general. He went to the extent of the existing literature in English was of greater value than all the recommending the discontinuation of funds allocated for the printing literature which existed three hundred years ago in all the languages of books in Sanskrit or Arabic because according to him “these of the world together. He observed: “The claims of our own books are of less value than the paper on which they are printed was language… stands pre-eminent among the languages of the West. It while it was blank…” (103-4). He found these books as the carrier of abounds with works of imagination not inferior to the noblest which 'artificial encouragement to absurd history, absurd metaphysics, Greece has bequeathed to us…. (92) absurd Physics, absurd theology' to serve the breed of scholars who Macaulay's outburst against Indian heritage further led him to be find their scholarship a burden and blemish. critical of Indian culture and literature. Ignoring the sentiments of Macaulay established the superiority of English education, culture, Indians he considered our literature as mean and hollow, devoid of language and literature through his Minute while being conscious of 'intrinsic value', and full of superstition and 'hereditary prejudices'. the fact that to bring the desired change it was imperative to overhaul He didn't even hesitate to superimpose Western culture, literature and Indian education system which was essentially Oriental in nature and language as the best while castigating Sanskrit literature and content. Mayhew has rightly attempted to locate Macaulay as one of language as the representation of 'false history, false astronomy, false the pioneers but not the only force to initiate phenomenal medicine… in company with false religion' (100). He claimed that he transformation in Indian education: could not even find an Orientalist who could deny that a single shelf Macaulay by his eloquence and wealth of superlatives has often of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of been made solely responsible for cutting off Indian education India and Arabia. The literature of England is now more valuable from the roots of national life. Let it be remembered here that he than that of classical antiquity. I doubt whether the Sanskrit literature was not the prime mover, that his intervention was late and that be as valuable as that of our Saxon and Norman progenitors. (94) the forces which he represented would probably have been II successful without his singularly tactless and blundering After going through the document of Macaulay's Minute, a close championship. (Mayhew, 1926: 12-13) scrutiny is required to understand as to how Macaulay's To discourage Oriental learning, he recommended the withdrawal of recommendations have stood the test of time. Once considered as a scholarships granted to Sanskrit and Arabic scholars in the pretext of Devil's brainchild, his recommendations have today become an Revisiting Macaulay in the Contemporary Indian Scenario 107 108 Sanjiv Kumar ordinary affair. Whether we observe our culture, education, language, middle class aspirations in India. Quite recently Mark Tully, BBC literature or society as a whole, everywhere Macaulay's line of action correspondent captured the overwhelming engagement of Indians to has gone deeper into Indian lifestyle-knowingly or unknowingly. The English language and subsequent threat posed to Indian languages first and the foremost example which validates Macaulay's through a news headline “Will English kill off India's languages?”: observations is the fact that Sanskrit language is at the verge of English is one of the advantages India has which are said to be extinction with the least number of speakers among 22 scheduled propelling it to economic superpower status. There are all those languages. No doubt, Macaulay's condemnation of a language very Indians who speak excellent English. It's the mother tongue of close to our heart was taken as an attempt to demolish our entire the elite and effectively the official language of the Central cultural construct in 1835, but today his seemingly fierce Government. Then there is the growing number of parents who observations seem justified as we as an independent nation could not now aspire to give their children an education through the protect the language of our rich cultural and literary heritage. medium of that language. (Tully) Astonishingly, according to Census data on Language 2001, Sanskrit is left with only 14135 speakers with constant negative decadal There is no denying the fact that entire scenario of languages has growth rate. Surprisingly, among the 22 scheduled languages, undergone a change with English occupying primary slot for certain Sanskrit is at the bottom of pyramid in terms of its users (Data on reasons, one among them being the legacy of Macaulay's Minute. Language, Census of India 2001). The perceptible apathy towards the Now, the question arises as to why even in post-independence period classical Indian language in post-independence India reflects upon India failed to celebrate, promote and nourish her languages Indians' neglect towards the indigenous languages perhaps under the especially the one which was earlier the bone of contention i.e. spell of English language. Sanskrit. There are numerous other examples suggesting the lingering presence of Macaulay even at the moment when India Similarly, Macaulay's idea of imposing English language as the claims to enjoy the status of a nation outshining the erstwhile medium of instruction in educational institutions was initially political and economic superpowers. indigestible for the majority of Indians but the history is the witness to the fact that passion for English language has grown over the time Similarly, Indian education system has now embraced Macaulay's to the extent that today India takes pride in becoming the country recommendations not to ignore English language at any stage of with the second largest English speaking population, next only to education. Realising the importance of English, most of the Indian America. Recently, The Hindu published English Proficiency Index states have introduced it even at pre-primary level schooling. Those placing India at 14th position by comparing the average language who were earlier averse to the agenda of Anglicisation of education abilities of adults. The paper reported that “while India's slot in the have now come to the agreement that education without proficiency first EPI (2007-2009) was 30, it climbed to the 14th place in 2009- in English will lead the gen-next to unemployability and perpetual 2011…. Both India and Pakistan have large groups of English darkness. In this case, 'ghostly presence of Macaulay' seems to be speaking adults, thanks to the English legacy” (The Hindu). Besides, more convincing than 'Macaulay alive' because the sweeping we are observing encouraging trends for growth of English in India influence of English in the age of economic globalisation has given so much so that other Indian languages are facing threat due to the rise to the privatisation of education at large scale and mushrooming obsession for English for certain reasons including-mantra for of spoken English and proficiency building centres at every nook and employability in multinational companies, BPOs and trade and corner. On the rise of English-medium schools, The Times of India commerce across the globe; academic accomplishments; global reported: lingua-franca; language of upward mobility, market and glamour; For the fourth year in a row, English is the second-largest language of ICT; and of course as the dominant language implying medium of instruction in India, ahead of Bengali and Marathi, Revisiting Macaulay in the Contemporary Indian Scenario 109 110 Sanjiv Kumar

according to a yet-to-be released report on countryside school getting metamorphosed as the 'commercial fiction' or 'chic literature'. enrolment by the National University of Education, Planning and Suman Gupta reflects upon this development in the words: Administration (NUEPA) under its District Information System … the condition of English language commercial fiction in India for Education…. While Hindi, Marathi, Bengali and English has something to do with the English-speaking middle-class have all seen a rise in enrolment in 2010-11 when compared with youth, and something to do with global awareness or globalisation the previous year, the rate of increase is the highest for English. in relation to a changing sense of national awareness or local (The Times of India) lives. (Gupta 48) The love-hate relationship between East and West seems to have Likewise, we Indians have travelled a long journey towards turned into 'love-love' relationship because in every sphere of life, be becoming a land where the aspiring middle class (though only 14%) it cultural, legal, economic, linguistic or literary, colonial impact is deconstructs Indian past with different set of attributes suiting to perceptibly visible. The land ofVedas, Upanishadas , Puraans or their passion for upward mobility, may be at the cost of ethical scriptures likeMahabharata and Ramayana is today immersed into values. The emerging 'young India' with average age of 29 in 2020 is the ocean of Western impulse. Instead of celebrating our rich all set to redefine its culture, literature, cinema and society. Impact of heritage, culture and literature, we are all the time engaged in the Anglicisation of Indian culture may be best observed in the movie process of 'mimicking' the West in one pretext or the other. The English-Vinglish where the protagonist's traditional Indian culture has now become a thing of past because the spellbinding influence of West is hypnotising the Indians to the … entire existence is undermined because she doesn't speak extent that we are now oblivious of our value system which used to English. Her teenager daughter and husband treat her with an guide us in every walk of life. As a result even the institutions of affectionate disdain. It's almost as if they consider her to be less family and marriage are now losing their sanctity while live-in intelligent because her language of communication is Hindi. At relationships and nuclear families are thriving like anything. one point of time, Shashi, the heroine ruefully asks her husband: Surprisingly, the change is swift and overpowering in spite of there 'Important batein sirf English mein hi hoti hain?'. (The Hindustan being no imposing colonial force like that of Macaulay, today. Times) Macaulay's soul must be rejoicing today on finding the Indians Its 'demographic dividend' may further add to India's image of a adopting the path shown by him with excessive zeal and enthusiasm. nation taking long strides towards becoming a global giant but for Pavan K. Varma observes: “The creation of a native elite in its own different reasons which were not ever imagined by our forefathers image was the most spectacular and enduring achievement of British while they were suspecting Macaulay as the cultural invader. With colonialism in India. The intention to do so was stated without the the coinage of the catchy phrases like 'India positive', 'India: A slightest ambivalence by Lord Macaulay as far back as 1835” (Varma Success Story' or 'India Shining', we have started relishing the starry 2). image of India with its westernised soap opera, glamorous cinema, Impact of market economy, along with westernised culture, has given corporatized media, anglicised education and literature, and a different colour to Indian festivals, literature, fashion, architecture, exclusive mall/BPO culture. tourism, cinema, media and other manifestations of Indian culture. Though the debate is difficult to be summed up, it may be pointed Surprisingly enough, even the literature produced in India is getting out that Macaulay who was considered as a Devil for questioning the more and more glamourised and corporatized with the emergence of depth and relevance of Oriental culture and literature, gets justified the terms like “glitterature” and “twitterature” to replace the in the present Indian scenario where everything Indian and Oriental conventional literature representing the masses. Today, Indian is being replaced by the new set of cultural artefacts borrowed from literature in English (which serves the 'great Indian middle-class') is the west. What pains a sensitive nationalist is the dual and Revisiting Macaulay in the Contemporary Indian Scenario 111 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 112-118 (2013) ambivalent approach of Indians towards its history wherein Macaulay and Charles Grant are studied in the light of their aversion Role of English Language Education in towards Indian heritage while on the other hand the activists like Social and Economic Upliftment of Children of Raja Ram Mohan Roy who propagated Western philosophy, education and culture, are idolised as the pathfinders for the Labour Community awakening India. If Macaulay was really a villain to initiate cultural invasion, why then we pursue the model suggested by him even after Dr. Rekha Tiwari sixty six years of availing freedom. The question arises whether the present 'love-love' relationship with English culture and language is The world has shrunk and become a smaller place with the rapid the outcome of our rooted mimicking tendency or the tendency of technological advancements today. In the context of these perpetual slavery. Perhaps, the best justification lies in our developments, very few communities have remained monolingual. admittance that we Indians have accepted English way of life as the Being bilingual or knowing another language may mean getting a best while compromising with our commitment to celebrate our job; a chance to get educated; the ability to take a fuller part in the indigenous identity. life of one's own country or the opportunities to emigrate to another; References : an expansion of one's literary and cultural horizons; the expression of one's political opinions or beliefs. A second language affects people's Census of India. “Data on Languages.” careers and possible futures, their lives and their very identities. Thus Gupta, Suman. “Indian 'Commercial Fiction' in English, the Publishing being able to speak more than one language achieves much beyond Industry and Youth Culture.”Economic & Political Weekly XLVII. 5. mere artistic achievement or simple pleasure: the acquisition or (4 February 2012). Print. learning of a second language, using the two words interchangeably, Macaulay, Thomas Babington. “Lord Macaulay's Minute (1835).” becomes vital to the life of millions of people in the world around. University of California-Digitised by Microsoft. Therefore, the role of the teacher or the educator becomes more Mayhew, A.The Education of India . London: Faber and Gwyer, 1926. important now. Said, Edward.Orientalism . London: Penguin, 1978. Print. Any "whining schoolboy", to use Shakespeare's words, is expected to The Hindu. “Despite Big Leap, India's Englsh Proficiency is Just Moderate: learn the second language and ever since the first schoolboy "crept Survey.” (27 October, 2012) : 7. Print. like a snail unwillingly to school" the harassed teacher has had to The Hindustan Times. “Anupama Chopra's Review: English Vinglish.” deal with not only the brilliant aspiring titan but also with the 2 November 2012. "educationally subnormal" (Burt, 1961) or in simpler terms the "backward child." The individual learner-disadvantaged or not, is The Times of India. “2 Crore Indian Children Study in English-Medium Schools.” 2 March 2012. unique and so are his problems and the obstacles he faces in language learning. This is more acute in the children coming from Tully, Mark. “Will English Kill off India's Languages?”BBC News Asia 29 the labour community characterized by poverty and illiteracy in November 2011. which they are the first generation learners. Varma, Pavan K.The Great Indian Middle Class . New Delhi: Penguin, 2007. Print. Whether one is for or against it, one cannot deny that English as a language has been playing a major role in India, since the time of the British colonizers. Even the Constitution of India has accorded English the status of the Associate Official Language- whereby every official document has to use the English language wherever it uses Role of English Language Education in Social and Economic... 113 114 Dr. Rekha Tiwari the national language-Hindi. India is a vast country with its tongue. English is also used as a medium of instruction in courts, and population speaking a variety of languages. Further, each language as the chief means of communication of the government in its has a number of dialects and sub-dialects, many of which do not dealings with foreign govermnents. What we cannot overlook is the even have their own scripts. The Constitution of India has recognized fact that for Indians, it is a reality that the Englishknowing sections, 15 local languages as official languages. Even though Hindi is which are ever increasing, command control over the Indian scenario declared as the national language, its use is restricted to a very few in all working scenes. states of Northern India, with the entire southern, eastern and the With the globalization of the Indian economy and the open trade north-eastern states being more comfortable using English as their agreements, the world is recognizing the power and efficiency of the official language. In fact, today there are more English teachers, advancing Indian economy to occupy a leading position. Indian more English students and more Indian English writers, a stronger professionals are creating a great impact on every sector of the global English press and a powerful media than the time when the British scenario of science and technology, media and communication, and left the country. With the growth of literacy, urbanity, and art and culture. English language being the key factor in achieving technological advancement, the scope and intensity of all these, there is a strong need for the learning of English as a very communication in English for intergroup contact is getting radically important second language not only for the urban Indian community transformed. In many urban situations a minimum acquaintance of but also for the remotely situated tribal populace. English is taken for granted and it is regarded as an essential part of the middle class baggage. In fact, in states like Meghalaya, Nagaland In the early stage of British colonialism, there was a major need to and Mizoram, English is accepted as the sole official language and in have a class of English-speaking or comprehending group for the the rest of India, there exists, in the words of Khubchandani (1997), British to discharge their daily functions in India. That was how the the "English caste" who show a distinct obsession with Western English language percolated into the lives of the higher classes in values and act as gatekeepers to upward mobility. He calls this as the India. But, today, with the existing English teaching programmes for "brown saheb mentality." ethnic and subethnic minorities, it has become clear that the learning of English has ceased to be the privilege of the rich and higher But, it cannot be denied that the root reason of introducing English in classes. All the schools in India have courses in English for students India - of creating a class of 'clerks' to make handling official works possessing a wide range of abilities, with different styles of learning in India easier - has today, under the changing times, adapted itself to and different foci of interests. A growing number of who are from the suit the times. Today, a fluent speaker of English can see that the socio-economically backward classes. language is marked by many material advantages associated with learning it. Besides, all major educational establishments - including The marked differences in the learning output of the students and all technical and non-technical institutes use English as the only their divergent school performances have led to the question of medium of instruction. Students with less exposure to the English variable successes and the concept of the disadvantaged child. The language face a major hurdle in comprehending the educational term 'disadvantaged' is used to direct one's attention to someone who input. Again, with new job opportunities like the call centre industry, is deficient in some way and feels a major handicap in meeting the the hotel industry, the airlines and travel agencies etc., offering human potential (Fantini, 1968). It is a relative term that has been so alluring job alternatives, English as a language has started to enjoy a far used to include those who are economically in the low-income booming sense of prestige. Though not generally used as a mother group, physically handicapped or belong culturally to that stratum'of tongue, English is an additional subject and under the Three society, which is a diversion from the mainstream. Thus, in a Language Formula, English is one of the three languages a school nutshell, the term disadvantaged includes the lower classes, ethnic goer needs to know - the other two being Hindi and the mother minorities, immigrants and refugees. Role of English Language Education in Social and Economic... 115 116 Dr. Rekha Tiwari

When the disadvantaged learner comes to the classroom, starting Assam, Kerela, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The plantation from his kindergarten days, he misses out about eighty-five percent workforce, that is the TGL community, has been amongst the most of what goes on in a formal classroom as such children have not been exploited workforce in the organized sector. Their wages are trained to listen (Silberman, 1964). It is because, that the amongst the lowest when compared to workers in other industries, disadvantaged learners are those who come from low-income and their working and living conditions are most dismal. Most of the households where the basic concern revolves around food and plantations are located in remote and isolated areas. The workers are clothing and thus very little or no time remains for other interactions mainly dependent on plantations as there are hardly any other ready with their parents. The parent of the disadvantaged child has little or employment avenues. They are illiterate and are migrants from no time, to talk with his child. More often than not, he is the first Orissa to Assam, with no knowledge or information about their generation learner who comes to the classroom with a completely rights. The fact that the plantation areas do not come under the different set of values in comparison to his middle class classmates. purview of rural development and other antipoverty programmes of All these make it difficult to become involved because they cannot the government has also prevented their conditions from improving. see the relationship between what they study and their personal The tea-garden-labourer child (henceforth TGLC) who evolves out world. He comes from a world, which has no access to the of a generation of tribal culture is mostly the first-generation learner. newspapers, no books, no pictures and no magazines, which form a The social and economic conditions that make up his home major source of knowledge for the middle-class children. Yet, environment marks him off as culturally disadvantaged. ironically, it is the printed page, which is the mainstay of the school The TGLC is viewed as a disadvantaged child. The attempt of this days he has just begun to make a part of his life. Learners who have paper is to analyze the importance of the English language as a tool had little or no contact with these media in their early years are at a for social mobility of the TGLC. This paper aims :- disadvantage as soon as they enter learning situations which depend on oral and written language. Middle class values like thrift, 1) To identify the factors impeding language learning and the role parsimony, practice of social amenities and a concern about a better of attitudes and motivation in the learning of the English future often perplex the disadvantaged learner and leaves him in a language by the TGLC. confused state. The term disadvantaged thus stands out mainly 2) To identify the problems inherent in the setup in which the because of its distinctive differences from the mainstream. It, thus, TGLC gets educated in general and learns to use the English becomes mandatory to take up the cause of the education of the language in particular. disadvantaged as a special cause of concern and look at the role that 3) To attempt an empirical study and arrive at the root causes that English language learning can play to change his whole life set-up lead to the lack of motivation towards the learning of the English for the better. language. The children of the tea-garden-labour (henceforth TGL) community 4) Finally, to study the role of the English language education in are considered as the disadvantaged learners in the context of this social and economical upliftment of the children of tea garden study. The tea gardens in Assam are a legacy of the British colonizers labour community. and perhaps as old as the language itself. Just like English in India has attained the official status of being the Associate Official The TGLC is well aware of the place of importance that English Language, similarly the tea plantations that the English have left holds in one's professional life today. He has a positive attitude behind play a major part in the Indian economy. With the towards the English language but he is very clear in his mind of the employment of over one million, the tea plantation industry is among fact that English is necessary only if one wants to move out of the the largest private employers in India. It is spread across the states of TGL community. Within his own community, learning of English is Role of English Language Education in Social and Economic... 117 118 Dr. Rekha Tiwari of no immediate use. English for them can be seen to be synonymous reserving seats in all premier educational institutions and jobs in the with intelligence and they associate the English language and an country. ability to speak fluently in English with upward social mobility. They References : also have a positive attitude towards themselves. But given the home atmosphere they come from and the illiteracy of their parents, they Burt, S.C.The Causes and Treatment of Backwardness . England: U of London P., 1961. are not properly motivated to take up seriously the learning of the English language. Besides, in their own opinion, they do not get Fantini, M.D.The Disadvantaged-Challenge to Education. London: Harper much English language as input. They do not feel that their English and ROW, 1968. teacher makes a study of the English language easier for them. Khubchandani, L.M. English as a Contract Language. Second Language Acquisition: Sociocultural and Linguistic Aspects of English in India, Thus it can be concluded that the TGLC can be termed as the research in Applied Linguistics. Ed. R.K. Agnihotri and A.L. Khanna. economically disadvantaged child. He meets all the conditions that Vol. 1. New Delhi: Sage. typify him as the disadvantaged child- from an economically poor home, the first generation of 'active' learners in the TGL community. With the workforce of more than one million, the Plantation industry in India is considered as one of the largest employers. Yet, unlike other industries, the labourers in the tea industry are an exploited lot - amongst the lowest wage earners. Remotely situated, the tea gardens in Assam do not offer any other employment opportunities apart from the Plantations. Illiterate immigrants, they have no knowledge or awareness of their rights. The fight for the raising of wages and bettering the social and economic conditions is today a long fought unending battle. Given the circumstances that the TGLC is today placed into and the changing economic scenario both at home and the society around, one prime tool that can come to his rescue is the learning of the English language. Equipped with the English language, he can carve for himself a niche in this fast changing world where there is a potential for different job opportunities apart from what his forefathers had taken up. The situation seems optimistic as today the English language is no longer an alien language for the tea garden workers. Besides, with the spread of education opportunities, there are a number of English schools that have penetrated the remotest part of India and the tea gardens in Assam are no exceptions to the rule. A learning of the English language not only opens up a scope for a better means of livelihood but can also serve as a boost towards growing into a universal, race-less, culture-free identity. Besides, the Government of India has taken up initiatives in this respect by placing the TGLC in the category of the backward, minority section in the community and Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 119-133 (2013) 120 Dr. Haris Qadeer

The poetic collection is divided into three sections. The first section deals with the poems of the moments and memories of the daily life. Reflection of Colonialism It describes the rendezvous with the living people while the second section, the title sequence itself, deal with a number of encounters in Seamus Heaney's Station Island with the dead and the last section 'Sweeney Redivivus' is an amalgamation of the two as the seventh-century king, transformed Dr. Haris Qadeer into a bird, surveys and meditates over the philosophies of love, art and war. Despite the divisions of different modes and moods, the The Nobel Laureate Seamus Heaney (1939-2013) hails from presence of Sweeney provides unity to different sections of the Northern Ireland. His poems are marked with the awareness of anthology. relationships between the personal, the political and the historical. The first poem of the opening section is 'The Underground' He evokes his Irish identity with different strategies and writes back suggesting the entrance to the inferno. He talks of the political against the dominant discourse. The allusion to myths and history reality, of his own self being the political outsider, in the poem and local Irish places are some of the over powering concerns of his 'Sandstone Keepsake'. The stone which was lifted from the beach at poetry. He registers intimacy with Irish identity, culture, language, Inishowen, which is located at the northern tip of the Co. Donegal people and places. Heaney's quest for reclaiming his original Irish and is at the opposite direction of Lough Foyle from Magilligan identity is profoundly imbedded in native Irish culture. The desire internment camp, gains a mythological perspective. and need of a single reliable version of the past and the need to revise It was ruddier, with an underwater past in the light of new historical circumstances are among the hint of contusion, when I lifted it, strategies employed by Heaney to re-write history and scrutinize the wading a shingle beach on Inishowen, misrepresentations of Irish culture and traditions in hegemonic Across the estuary light after light records. came on silently round the perimeter He sees himself as the custodian and celebrant of lost culture, of the camp. A stone from Phlegethon forgotten history and diminishing heritage. Thus, he makes Bloodied on the bed of hell's hot river? imaginary rendezvous with the familiar and filial in his poetry. Evening frost and the salt water The conceptual model of Heaney'sStation Island (1984) is loosely (ll 5-12, Sandstone Keepsake,SI ) structured on Dante'sThe Divine Comedy . From the very beginning The Lough separates the free Republic of Ireland from British of his career, Heaney used different Christian and pre-Christian, controlled Northern Ireland. The struggle for an independent nation Greek, Irish and European myths in his poetry to reflect the politics, had gone through a period of violence and turbulence. In April 1916, history and personal plight of the Irish people. InStations Island , he Ireland witnesses Easter Rising and Foundation of Irish Republic follows Dante's technique of using of myths as embodiment of Army. The struggle was crushed by the British Army and rebels were personal experiences. In an interview he comments: forced to surrender. In May 1916, the rebels were executed and Poetry, lets us say, whether it belongs to an old political imprisoned by the Empire. The Government of Ireland Act was dispensation or aspires to express a new one, has to be a working introduced in 1920 in which Ireland was divided with the model of inclusive consciousness. It should not simplify. Its introduction of two parliaments- one in Dublin to serve twenty-six projections and inventions should be a match for the complex counties and other in Belfast to serve six northern counties. The reality which surrounds it and out which it is generated. The twenty-six counties were given the status of a free states known as Divine Comedy is a great example of this total adequacy… [1] Irish Free State whereas the Empire claimed the jurisdiction over six Reflection of Colonialism in Seamus Heaney's Station Island 121 122 Dr. Haris Qadeer northern counties. The description of Lough implies topographical as Like lovely freehand they curved for miles well as political divisions between colonizer and the colonized. The East and miles west beyond us hostile image of the concentration 'camp' and the myth of “hell's hot (ll 4-5,The Railway Children,SI ) river”, Phlegethon, reflects the barbarity of the wars. The poet, being The universe is reflected is the childhood activity. In the small rain a political outsider, can hardly undo the political victimization. His drops they could see the whole universe. own inactivity and mental vacuum makes him aware of his inability to bring about major changes. He blames on the “free state” of In the shiny pouches of rain drops, Ireland which prompted the civil war. He is not against the freedom Each one seeded full with the light of Ireland but denounces cruelties of the wars. The poem underlines Of the sky, the gleam of the lines, and ourselves the marginalized position of the political victim. In order to escape (ll 9-11,The Railway Children,SI ) the savagery and bloodthirstiness of the wars, Heaney makes a The poem is about the innocent world of childhood but it is written ritualistic “morning offering” to absolve the world of the curse of through the lens of a scrutinical adult vision. Heaney re-enters his war. childhood days and confronts the painful and deprived past. The I make morning offering again: turmoil in Northern Ireland resulted in the disturbance of the routine that I may escape the miasma of spilled blood' of Irish life. The schools were closed most of the time. The poem Govern the tongue, fear hybris, fear the god puts on record the impact of colonialism on Irish children and the (ll 3-5, Stone from Delphi,SI ) denial of the basic human rights to them. His prayer is for a peaceful society where the world is not choked In 'Making Strange', Heaney talks of class mobility which results with blood, gore and decaying dead bodies. In the narration of each from education. The binary opposition between the “unshorn and incident and occurrence he is conscious of the plight of Ireland. A bewildered” rural peasant “in the tubs of his wellingtons” and the badly injured wild duck in the poem 'Widgeon' triggers the memory sophisticated “stranger” “with his traveled intelligence” is the of the killing of the Irish in sectarian violence. The bird is “badly consequence of education. The visitors have to be introduced to the shot” and the poet laments for its damaged “voice box”. The voice of old familiar world of “puddles and stones”. Heaney borrows the title the poet serves as a compensation for the innocent creatures. from Russian Formalist Victor Scklovsky's concept of The impact of violence is seen everywhere in divided Ireland, which 'defamilarisation' or 'ostranenie '. Schlvosky adovacated that we can is torn apart by colonial forces. Heaney takes up the theme of never retain the freshness of our perception of objects that we deprived childhood, which is another marginal group, in the poem perceive. 'The Railway Children'. The thread bare existence of Irish children In 'Art as Technique' (1917), Schlvosky stated: indulging in unsupervised undesirable activities is earlier dealt with The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are in the poem 'Blackberry-Picking' in the first collection of poems perceived, and not as they are known. The technique of art is to 'Death of a Naturalist '. Education and supervision play a vital role in make the objects 'unfamiliar', to make forms difficult, to increase bringing up of children but the underprivileged Irish children were the difficulty and length of perception, because the process of neglected on account of the constant turbulence. They simply played perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. near the railway tracks. The railway was an invention that connected Art is a way of experiencing the artfulness of an object; the the world. In the violence-infested Northern Ireland it provided the object is not important. (Schlvosky's emphasis) [2] children with a training ground for the worst of activities. Deep in their hearts the children desired to learn and the electric wires 'Making Strange' is a poetic process of enlarging and reshaping reminded them of the four-ruled exercise books. experience from known world. The Muse, referred as “a cunning Reflection of Colonialism in Seamus Heaney's Station Island 123 124 Dr. Haris Qadeer voice”, persuade the stranger to explain the natural world. The consciousness labours under in this country. The main tension is simplicities of the rural world of large lavish stretching green “field between two often contradictory commands: to be faithful to the across the road”, of the smell of “wind coming past the zinc hut”, of collective historical experience and to be true to the recognitions the pleasant beauty of “sweetbriar after the rain” and the loveliness of the emerging self. I hoped that I could dramatize these strains of “snowberries cooled in the fog” has to be translated for the by meeting shades from my own dream-life who had also been stranger. inhabitants of actual Irish world. They could perhaps voice the Then a cunning middle voice claims of orthodoxy and the necessity to recognize those claims came out of the field across the road [3] saying, 'Be adept and be dialect, 'Station Island' is peopled with the ghosts of 'inhabitants of actual tell of this wind coming past the zinc hut Irish world' known to Heaney personally or they are famous writers (ll 9-12, Making Strange,SI ) whom Heaney came to know through their works. There is a journey through Irish literature, through the poetry of Sweeney to the prose The sophistication and education of urbanity has always been of William Carleton to James Joyce and finally to Heaney himself. contemptuous of the unsophisticated and unlettered rural existence. Dante is exemplary for Heaney as both of them reanalyzed and re- Rural life has its own unrivaled and mesmerizing charisma but its imagined traditions. They never compromised with the prevailing magic and hypnotizing beauty has to be brought forward before the traditions and compensated them by standing for their individual world. Heaney's poem serves to compensate for the unsung and voice. Like Dante, Heaney has also been made into exile from the exotic beauty of country life colonial divisions of the country. The second section is the title sequence named after a place of Heaven is a place of blessings, glad tidings and the rewards and pilgrimage of Irish Catholics. Station Island or St. Patrick's Purgatory compensations of the sufferings in the earthly life whereas hell is a is a small rocky isle in the middle of Lough Derg in Co. Donegal. It place of curse and sufferings where there are no compromises. has been a destination of pilgrimage since medieval times. The Purgatory is a place where there is some possibility of transformation 'stations' or 'beds' are considered to be the remains of ancient through repentance which can clean the soul. Heaney as a noble soul monastic cells. 'Station Island' associates with the religion, traditions concerned with the betterment of his people in the life hereafter as and culture of Irish Catholics. The twelve sections of the sequence well. Hence he wishes them to see in the purgatory. are around the stations in which Heaney makes his journey. Dante's In the curtain raiser of the sequence, a prelude to the pilgrimage rendezvous with the ghosts inPurgatorio serves as a model for itself, Simon Sweeney is encountered on Sunday. He is a figure from Heaney's poem. Heaney learned from Dante how to make advantage Heaney's childhood. For the child Heaney, he was a figure of anxiety of what could otherwise be regarded as a disadvantage. Heaney in as well as fear. At the very outset of the pilgrimage Heaney receives the sequence makes imaginary pilgrimage to the Stations where he advice from him. encounters a number of ghosts as Dante meets inPurgatorio , which As I drew behind them is a book about the resurgence of art. Heaney praised Dante in one of I was a fasted pilgrim, his essay: light-headed, leaving home The way in which Dante could place himself in an historical to face into my station. world yet submit that world to scrutiny from a perspective 'Stay clear of all processions!' beyond history, the way he could accommodate the political and (ll 61-65, Station Island I ,SI ) the transcendent, this too encouraged my attempt at a sequence Sweeney's advise is for the “crowd of shawled women” but “the of poems which would explore the typical strains which the murmur of the crowd / and their feet slushing” “opened a drugged Reflection of Colonialism in Seamus Heaney's Station Island 125 126 Dr. Haris Qadeer path” for Heaney. In section II, the poltergeist is of William Carleton, Catholics. Carleton sounds apologetic when he advises Heaney to the writer of sectarian prose, who renounced Catholicism after learn a lesson from his mistake. Carleton repentant of his faux pas visiting Station Island in his youth. The “aggravated man” or desires to be unsoiled from his sins. He wishes for “another life that Carleton encounters Heaney on the road. cleans our element”. Heaney, at this juncture, by placing Carleton, Someone walking fast in an overcoat the blasphemous, in purgatory for cleansing his soul so that he can And boots, bareheaded, big, determined relish the fruits of heaven, raises himself to status of the embodiment In his sure haste along the crown of the road of supreme virtue of Christian forgiveness. (ll 4-6,Station Island II ,SI ) In the Section III of the sequence, the ghost of Agnes, sister of Carleton wroteLough Derg Pilgrim , a prose account of the Heaney's father, who died of consumption when Heaney was still a superstitions and barbarities of the pilgrimage as the three-day child, is encountered. Heaney compensates for the loss of filial pilgrimage involves a self-punitive routine of prayers, fasting and relations with his imaginary rendezvous with the deceased aunt. walking barefoot on the stones of the remains of monastic cells. In Heaney has always been close to his family. He grew up in the the prose, Carleton mocked these rituals and called them unnecessary farmhouse at Mossbawm along with his nine siblings. The only and futile. Heaney, in his imaginary encounter, acts in response. books in the farmhouse belonged to his Aunt who had done a clerical course in type-writing. He celebrated festivals such as St. Patrick's I said, as the thing came clear. 'Your Lough Derg Pilgrim Day with his family members and other people from his community. Haunts me every time I cross this mountain- Time has passes and he has become 'Famous Seamus', yet he longs (ll 15-16,Station Island I ,SI ) for the singing, recreation and festivals of his united family. Carleton justifies his stand: In the IV segment, Heaney encounters the spirit of a “young priest, hard-mouthed Ribbonmen and Orange bigots glossy as blackbird” who died on a foreign mission soon after his made me into the old fork-tongued turncoat ordination. Heaney knew him since he was “a clerical student”. The who mucked the byre of their politics. clerics in Catholicism play an important role of ratification of the (ll 31-33,Station Island I ,SI ) society. The people “would be ratified / when they saw you [the The hardships of the pilgrimage were not only the reason for priest] at the door in your [his] black suit”. In this section Heaney renouncement of Catholicism by Carleton but the bigger factor was mediates over the religious responsibilities of the priest in the Irish the contemporary political scenario. The Orangism, the Protestant society. The Section V introduces Heaney's school teacher “Master colonizer's policy of giving preferences to their sect had influenced Murphy”. With the figure of Barney Murphy, Heaney recollects the Carleton. He writes: locale of his bygone days. He recreates his own old school at Anahorish, which he regards as “purgatory enough for any man”, and If times were hard. I could be hard too. his uncle's farm at Toome. He travels down the memory lane and I made the traitor in me sink the knife. recollects the advice: And maybe there's a lesson there for you. (ll 34-36,Station Island I ,SI ) When you're on the road Give lifts to the people, you'll always learn something. Everybody on this planet has some weaknesses. Carleton was no (ll 54-55,Station Island V,SI ) exception. Heaney, on one hand, tries to dilute the charges on Carleton by explaining the circumstances under which Carleton In a healthy society, everybody has an individual and imperative committed the blasphemous deed of writing against Catholicism and function to perform. Be it the role of a religious or educational on the other hand he compensates for the injured sentiments of Irish mentor, a better society requires everybody to perform their function Reflection of Colonialism in Seamus Heaney's Station Island 127 128 Dr. Haris Qadeer honestly. In these sections Heaney, through his imaginary meetings, friend with “face smiling its straight-lipped smile”, who died at the contemplates the role of supervision in a society. Sexual curiosity age of thirty two and Colum McCartney, his murdered cousin a and love in the early phase of Heaney's life finds a place in the “bleeding, pale-faced boy”, the subject of his poem 'The Strand at confessional segment. Lough Beg'. Heaney is haunted with a sense of “guilt and empty Until the night I saw her honey-skinned [ness]” on his compromised attitude towards politics. He feels that he “had somehow broken/covenants and failed an obligation”. He seems Shoulder-blades and the wheatlands of her back to fall short of any kind compensation for them. McCartney Through the wide keyhole of her keyhole dress reprimand for his failed obligations (ll 32-34,Station Island VI,SI ) You were there with poets when you got the word The fulfillment of erotic desires and feelings by looking through the and stayed there with them, while your own flesh and blood keyhole at women's bodies highlight the repressions within the old was carted to Bellaghy from the Fews. society and hint at a complex and nasty psychological compensations They showed more agitation at the news than you did. of a curious young boy. Heaney lays bare the skeleton in the closet. (ll 56-60,Station Island VIII,SI ) The next encounter is with the ghost of an “unthinkable victim”, of a sectarian murder in Northern Ireland, in section VII. The wounds Heaney tries to wash the blame from his head by giving excuses. were still fresh on his body, “His brow / was blown open above the I was dumb, encountering was destined. eye and blood/had dried on his neck and cheek”. The victim yearns (ll 64,Station Island VIII,SI ) for a healing touch. He needs no medical assistance but compensation However no justification could compensate for the trauma of from Heaney. He is none other than William Strathearn who played Heaney's cousin. He accused Heaney of “confused evasion with football with Heaney in his youth. He was murdered by two policemen artistic tact”. The cousin looks upon Heaney's political stand as one in Co. Antrim. Heaney develops ambivalent feeling. He nostalgically of the reasons behind his “sectarian assassination”. portrays appearance of Strathearn. The protestant who shot me through the head Through life and death he had hardly aged I accuse directly, but indirectly, you. There always was an athlete's cleanliness (ll 71-72,Station Island VIII,SI ) shinning off him, and except for the ravage forehead and the blood, he was still that same Heaney makes the assassinated victims speak for themselves. He returns their voices but the words belong to Heaney himself. The rangy midfielder in a blue jersey confessional self-reflexive writing of Heaney shows that deep in his and starched pants, the one stylist on the team. heart he is conscious of the guilt of his dumbness and wants to (ll 70-75,Station Island VII,SI ) provide compensations and compromises through his poetry. These Heaney blames his compromised and “timid circumspect involvement” confessions are the compromises which he makes to himself, to in politics and apologizes as a compensation. unburden his heart, to compensate for the loss and to clean his soul in the hypothetical purgatory. 'Forgive the way I have lived indifferent- forgive my timid circumspect involvement,' The IX segment begins with the spirit of Francis Hughes, one of the ten IRA hunger-strikers who died in Long Kesh prison. The political (ll 77-78,Station Island VII ,SI ) suicide was one of the tactics of the IRA to free their country from The rendezvous with filial and familiar continues in the section VIII the colonial divisions. The last words of tragic suffering invoke of the sequence. He comes across Tom Delaney, his archeologist empathy. Reflection of Colonialism in Seamus Heaney's Station Island 129 130 Dr. Haris Qadeer

When the police yielded my coffin, I was light him to “Read poems as prayers” and to translate “something by Juan As my head when I took the aim. de la Cruz”, or St. John's of the cross, who was a sixteenth-century (ll 13-14,Station Island IX,SI ) mystic from Spain. The poet compensates for his sins in purgatory by The 'lightness' of the “coffin” and the “head” can be read literally as translating a version of 'Cantar del alma que se huelga de conoscer well as metaphorically. For the colonizers, the lives of natives are Dios por fe', or 'Song of the soul which delights to know God by worthless. For a colonized person who wishes to sacrifice for his faith.' The hymn glorifies the 'fountains' of the Christianity- the motherland, the aim of life becomes focused and other burdens Trinitarian existence of The Father, The Son and The Holy Spirit, the become light. The horrifying images such as “blood on wet grass”, sacraments of the church, the sacrament of the Eucharist which is the “shrouded feet”, “mucky, glittering flood”, “rose in a cobwebbed insignia of believing in the harmony of the religion and a way 'to space” and stone “eroding in bed” hints towards a decaying society know God by faith'. but these are to be purified in the purgatory through repentance and The final section XII of the segment brings in James Joyce's spirit. Heaney cries for repentance. Heaney meets him on the mainland. He holds “the hand / stretched And I cried among night waters, 'I repent down from the jetty” and sensed “an alien comfort” in the company My unweaned life that kept me competent of the “helping hand”. Joyce counsels him to do things “on your To sleepwalk with connivance and mistrust.' [Heaney] own”. (ll 35-37,Station Island IX,SI ) Lets go, let fly, forget. Heaney desires to be purged of “connivance and mistrust”. The You've listened long enough. Now strike your note. repentance is a psychological as well as spiritual compensation for (ll 29-30,Station Island XII,SI ) his soul. As a result of repentance his “feet touched bottom” and his Heaney, now purged, can strike his own note. Heaney possibly now “heart revived”. The realization of servitude of the mores of the needs no “helping hands”. Hence Joyce's phantom leaves him and society develops a sense of dislike for it. He begins to “hate where I “moved off quickly”. was born, hate everything/That made me biddable and The presence of Sweeney can be felt nowhere better than in the unforthcoming”. The association with the native land is not to establish identity with a particular community or country, which is concluding section 'Sweeney Redivivus'. Heaney translated the Irish celebrated very often as an asset in his poetry, but the detestation is a legend of Sweeney, the Ulster king, who is transformed into a bird as part of his confessions and rejections to certain morals and norm of a curse of offending St. Ronan. Driven mad after being transformed the society which is responsible for Heaney's dumbness. into a bird, he flies, exiled from family and tribe, over Ireland. Heaney's association with Sweeney can not only be traced in their In section X, the spirit encountered is anonymous. Heaney's drinking similar rhyming names but Heaney was also in exile like Sweeney mug is taken away from his childhood home by the actors to use it as but it was not a forced political exile rather a voluntary one. Heaney's a “prop” in a play and later the child Heaney is compensated through exile was a compromising and compensating move against the the miraculous return of the mug in the same way as “Ronan's pressures of a divided Irish society. It was a compromise to retain the pslater” is “miraculously” returned by an “otter” inSweeney Astray . sovereignty of his poetic voice and the exile removes him from the The emblem of sin and redemption is central to section XI of the noise of sectarian politics. sequence. In the next encounter, Heaney meets the apparition of a Heaney's exile was essential for his work and his intellectual poetic monk with whom he had “spoken years ago”. Heaney made some freedom. Edward Said writes in his article "Intellectual Exile: confessions “from behind the grille” “about the need and chance” of Expatriates and Marginal": his sin. As a compensation and penance for his sin, the monk requires Reflection of Colonialism in Seamus Heaney's Station Island 131 132 Dr. Haris Qadeer

Exile is a model for the intellectual who is tempted, and even Heaney recompenses and “mastered new rungs of air / to survey out beset and overwhelmed, by the rewards of accommodation, yea- of reach”. The flight, which connotes his move from Belfast to saying, setting in. Even if one is not actual immigrant or Glanmore, was to save him from the adversaries. In the poem 'The expatriate, it is still possible to think as one to imagine and Scribes', Heaney shows a sense of awkwardness in the company of investigate in spite of barriers, and always to move away from his critics, who in his absence “perfect[ed] themselves against me the centralizing authorities towards the margins, where you see [Heaney] page by page”. Heaney believes that his works will speak things that are usually lost on minds that have never traveled for itself and he is not prepared to turn a blind eye and a deaf ear to beyond the conventional and the comfortable [4] the adverse criticism. He compensates, in the guise of Sweeney by Sweeney in 'Sweeney Redivivus', is the alter ego of Seamus Heaney. throwing the poem itself on their faces. In one of his interviews, he put in plain words that in the figure of Let them remember this is not inconsiderable Sweeney, he found a presence, a fable which could lead to the contribution to their jealous art. discovery of feelings in him which would cast a dream of possibility (ll 23-24, The Scribes,SI ) or myth across the swirl of private feelings: an objective correlative. Heaney amalgamates the myth with his own schema. The ecclesiastical supremacy of Catholicism is reflected in the poem 'The Cleric' who “overbore / with his unction and orders”. For a The poem 'The First Gloss', recollect Heaney's poem 'Digging', from devout Catholic, the individual freedom is judged through the the collection,Death of a Naturalist . Heaney “Take[s] hold of the shaft of the pen” to subscribe “to the first step taken”. The title poem yardsticks of the church which sometime leave the people “skulking 'Sweeney Redivivus' narrates people's indifferent attitude towards and whingeing”. The voice of still-pagan Sweeney compensates for Sweeney. the skulking and whingeing. And there I was, incredible to myself, Give him his due, in the end among people far too eager to believe me He opened my path to a kingdom and my story, even if happened to be true. Of such scope and neuter allegiance My emptiness reigns at its whim. (ll 13-15, Sweeney Redivivus ,SI ) (ll 24-27, The Cleric,SI ) In the process of combining myth, Heaney never looses sight of Heaney envisages Catholicism as a language that has lost the power nature which has always nourished and fostered his imagination. In to speak in the poem 'In Ill o Tempore', and it “hardly tempts me fact the figure of Sweeney lived in unison with nature. In this section [him] to credit it. The last poem of the section is 'On the Road', it he has written a number of poems which can be termed very aptly as possibly symbolize the road to salvation. The poem speaks about the tree-poems. The migrant Sweeney wonders amidst the trees, in the rich young man's question: poem 'In the Beech', he sees tanks and planes of World War II. The unambiguous reference is to the planes, tanks and the air force bases Master, what must I of Northern Ireland. The poem 'Holly' is about a natural world with do to be saved? domestic sensibility. 'In the Chestnut Tree', celebrates a resilient old (ll 17-18, On the Road,SI ) tree. In his collection of essays, Heaney includes an essay called 'The The reply comes from Christ: God in the Tree' on Irish nature poetry. Sell all you have 'The First Flight' celebrates Heaney's outmaneuvering of harsh And give to the poor. criticism. They pronounced him as “a feeder off battlefields” and (ll 26-27, On the Road,SI ) Reflection of Colonialism in Seamus Heaney's Station Island 133 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 134-140 (2013)

For attaining salvation, the young rich man has to leave the luxuries and richness of his life and compromise with his status and as a Revolt, Violence and Bloodshed: compensation for his early life he needs to be charitable. Reaction against the References : British Rule in Sadat Hasan Manto's Short Stories All the quotations of the poems are from Seamus Heaney'sStation Island , cited here as SI. Dr Jamsheed Ahmad and Nafisa Zargar Heaney, Seamus. "Envies and Identifications: Dante and the Modern Poet." Irish University Review 15.1 (Spring 1985) : 18-19. At the time of Partition of the country, Manto lived in Bombay. He ---.The Redress of Poetry . New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1996. felt a kind of nervous collapse under the stipulations created out by Said, Edward W. "Intellectual Exile: Expatriates and Marginals." Grand the Partition. He thought himself to be the heir of Great India where Street 47 (1993) : 124. his ancestors, both Hindus and Muslims, had lived as one for Selden, Raman. A Reader's Guide to Contemporary Literary Theory. centuries, shared ecstasies and grievances and cherished the Great Lexington: The U P of Kentucky, 1985. Indian ethnicity and traditions. But with the Partition of the nation the idea of oneness was broken into pieces in the name of religion. Man had become insane and inhuman on both sides. In Manto's own words: I cannot understand whether I belong to India or to Pakistan. And whose blood is being wasted so brutally? Where are the bones to be cremated or buried which are being stripped off the flesh of religion by vultures and eagles? Hindus and Muslims were dying, how were they dying? There are several answers to these questions; the Indian answer, the Pakistani answer, the British answer, every answer was there. But there was no answer to the question of reality....(Premi 73) Such was the extent of the desolation brought about by the Partition of undivided India that it was, and is a mammoth undertaking for the writers to deal with it. Historians, for one, talked in collectiveness: ten million expatriates, two million of them dead, seventy-five thousand women raped and so on and so forth. Even today these statistics fall short to communicate even a portion of the terrible nature of the catastrophe that is the Partition. Statistics do not present the picture how women must have undergone while drenching themselves in wells lest they should be abducted by men of the other commune. Statistics fall short to notify how for most individuals the deciding part in choosing India or Pakistan was not politics or religious conviction but insecurity. Statistics not come up to scratch to even indicate the distress of husbands and wives, sons and Revolt, Violence and Bloodshed: Reaction against the... 135 136 Dr Jamsheed Ahmad and Nafisa Zargar mothers separated by the borderline. And after everything else “It Happened in 1919” is a story of a character, named Thaila Kanjar, statistics or historical narratives can ever do, is to mirror the identity who brawls, among many Indians, in opposition to the Britishers and predicament of guiltless individuals at a time when individuality ends up a martyr by valiantly facing the bullets of the British could be altered by ransack or rioting. As Jaswant Singh describes it: soldiers. This story is related to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre that This, in reality, is amongst the mound of residues of our took place in year 1919, when the whole country was retorting 'fractured freedom'; the vivisection of 1947 has left us no peace, against the Rowlatt Act and the related custody of Gandhiji in and it has not left behind any settled peace in the separated Bombay. The speaker of the story happened to meet a stranger while portions either; primarily because the central problem of travelling in a train and the stranger started narrating some stories to relations between Hindus and Muslims remains, as partition had him. come escorting a permanent divide between our people. It is the Thaila's blood ridden body was handed over to his family and when land, (admittedly) that we had accepted to partition, but in the his sisters saw his body they lost their consciousness. This was an process had we not also agreed to a simultaneous cutting of appalling incident. The stranger felt pity for Thaila's pathetic death as human societies too? (477) his name was certainly not included amongst the martyrs and his Whereas the freedom of India and Pakistan has been celebrated with death was taken granted. The stranger admired Thaila's spirit of a national holiday, there is not a solitary memorial in both the patriotism despite the fact that he was the son of a prostitute. The countries for the sufferers. The only writer and journalist who has stranger further said that when the Britishers came to know about his rested them a legendary memorial in the shape of short stories is sisters they called upon them to castigate them for their brother's act. Saadat Hasan Manto. Manto not only depicted the revulsion, he also Shamshad and Almas went to the Britishers and there was drinking tried to process it, along with other means, with a sarcastic, and merry-making throughout the night. In the words of the stranger: distressed sense of absurdity which was always directed at the Well, my friend, it is said that someone who was trying to make executors and defended the dignity of the sufferers. He kept his his number with the British told them about Thaila's sisters and expanses, supporting neither the Muslims nor the Hindus. In his how beautiful and talented they were. So it was decided that to short stories about communal violence, Manto's narrative talent avenge the death of that English woman . . . what was the name sweeps up his readers all along with the course of events; he lets of that witch? Miss Sherwood i think . . . the two girls should be them endure, panic, provides them respite and tackles them all over summoned for an evening of pleasure. You know what I mean. again in the end with the discouraging viciousness of spiritual (Manto 53) fanaticism, which repeatedly surpasses his characters. Salman Rushdie comments: Another story which brings to light the Indian freedom struggle against the British Raj is “The Price of Freedom”, wherein Manto Manto's masterly narrated short stories draw attention to a part of narrate the story of his friend Ghulam Ali, who played an active role the history of the subcontinent which marks the height of the estrangement between Hindus and Muslims and has not yet been in the very struggle. It was the time when there was remarkable processed. By so clearly depicting the horrors of religious activist enthusiasm among the Indians and 'Inqilab Zindabad' (long fundamentalism in his stories, he has made an important live Revolution) was the slogan of the day throughout the country, contribution to our understanding of it. few years after the pathetic Jallianwala Bagh tragedy. This enthusiasm could be best realized through Gandhi's speech: In this paper I have selected those stories that depict a vivid picture of Indian freedom struggle and the communal violence during the I, therefore,want freedom immediately, this very night, before Partition of India. There is a strong reflection of the revolt and hatred dawn, if it can be had….Fraud and untruth are stalking the world against the British rule and the consequent violence. …..I am not going to be satisfied with anything short of complete Revolt, Violence and Bloodshed: Reaction against the... 137 138 Dr Jamsheed Ahmad and Nafisa Zargar

freedom . . . Here is a mantra, a short one, that is give you. You and thus they never looked back. Thus the hopelessness on the part may imprint it on your hearts and let every breath of yours give of the central character reflects the hopelessness in general in the express to it. The mantra is: “Do or Die”. We shall either free mind of every Indian before Partiton. India or die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the Yet another short story which explores the revolting minds of the perpetuation of our slavery....(Chandra 9) Indians against the British Raj is “The New Constitution” which was People were protesting against the British rule by raising slogans written in the late 1930's and is set in Punjab. It focuses on a against the suppressors and holding anti-Raj meetings and deprived coach driver's bitterness against the British rule-personified processions. Subsequently, the Englishmen were also arresting in a discourteous soldiers- and misplaced expectation for change. It thousands of protestors every day but releasing them after the conveys the driver's psychology through discussion and is adequately imprisonment of few days or even months. As the story goes: ironic. Beneath the irony is hidden hopelessness and confusion. The year I don't remember, but there was great revolutionary One day he picked two fares from the district courts and came to fervour in Amritsar. 'Inqilab Zindabad' –long live revolution-was now from their conversation about the enforcement of the the slogan of the day. There was excitement in the air and a Government of India Act of 1935 on 1st April that year. He also got to feeling of restlessness and youthful abandon. We were living know from them that Indians would be free from the interests and through heady times. Even the fearfull memories of the other debts. That day Mangu was very happy and did not beat his Jallianwala Bagh massacre had disappeared, at least on the horse out of joy. After dropping his fares he came to the Anarkali surface. One felt intensely alive and on the threshold of shop, ordered a glass oflassi and looked for his friends to celebrate something great and final, “People marched through the streets the forthcoming happiness. Mangu was of the opinion that all these every day raising slogans against the Raj” (Manto 57) changes in the constitution might be due to the influence of the then He suddenly told something to Nigar, stood up and announced that Russian King. Nigar would not bear a child unless and until India would be freed Then on another he picked two barristers on histonga who were from the British rule because they never wanted their child to be the talking about the Indian federation under the Act of 1935. They were slave of the foreigners like them. Ghulam Ali's remarks got him having a contrary view about the act because of which Mangu felt arrested the next day and he was sent to the jail. annoyed at their negative attitude regarding the freedom of India. As the writer stepped out of the shop he recognized Ghulam Ali Again after three days he picked three students and got the carrying a little child and both embraced each other out of affection. information about the elected assemblies and opportunities for all the The writer observes a total transformation in Ghulam Ali and he Indians in government jobs. Mangu was extremely thrilled and seemed to have become a homely man. When he told the writer that excited and took the new constitution to be highly prospective. he had two children, the writer got confused because of Ghulam Ali's Mangu waited eagerly for 1st April to come so that he could see his promise years back and he started expecting that Ghulam Ali might dream come true. He woke up early in the morning on the appointed have married a second time. Ghulam Ali admitted that he was still day and set up histonga on the road. He wanted to see the colours prepared to sacrifice his life for his country but his promise was not and light of new constitution but it was early morning and most of the price of freedom. He described his paralyzed life of their the shops were closed. He waited till nine and thought that the courts marriage because of their decision not to have children. There was would open and launch the new constitution. Suddenly a soldier something missing in their relationship. But one day their plight came and asked him to take him toHira Mandi . Mangu's first changed and there came a hope into their lives. They came to know reaction was to throw the monkey out because of his hatred for the from a religious text that it was necessary for a couple to procreate Englishmen. Soon Mangu started beating him with all his might. The Revolt, Violence and Bloodshed: Reaction against the... 139 140 Dr Jamsheed Ahmad and Nafisa Zargar white could not believe what was happening and started shouting for again. He was holding a bag in his hand. Of the same kind help. There gathered a large crowd of people and two policemen Gurmukh Singh used to bring. (Manto 116) came to save the Englishman. Mangu's mouth was foaming and he References : was uttering “new constitution” again and again. Chandra, Bipin.Modern India. New Delhi: National council of Research The story which makes the understanding of the atrocities that took and Training, 1990. Print. place during the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 is “The Lapierre, Dominique and Larry Collins.Freedom at Midnight. New Delhi: Assignment”. It revolves around the theme of communal riots which Vikas, 1997. Print. were prevalent in Amritsar during the time of partition. Train to Manto, Sadat Hasan. Kingdom's End and Other Stories. Ed. Khalid Hasan. Pakistan by portrays a similar kind of ambience: London: Verso, 1987. Print. The summer before, communal riots, precipitated by reports of Premi, Brij.Manto Katha. Ed. Premi Rumani. Jammu: Deep Publications, the proposed division of the country into a Hindu India and a 1994. Print. Muslim Pakistan, had broken out in Calcutta, and within a few Singh, Jaswant.Jinnah: India-Partition- Independence. New Delhi: Rupa hours the death toll had mounted to several thousand. Muslim Company, 2009. Print. said the Hindus had planned and started the killing. According to Singh, Khuswant.Train to Pakistan. New Delhi: Ravidayal, 1998. Print. the Hindus, Muslims were to blame. The fact is, both the sides killed. Both shot and stabbed and speared and clubbed. Both “Stories about the Partition of India and Pakistan”Qantara.de.com. 27 Nov. tortured. Both raped. (Singh 9) 2010. The central concern of the story is the family of a retired judge, Mian Abdul Hai. He had a motherless daughter, Sughra and a son, Basharat living with him in a Hindu locality. Every evening Sughra used to go to the roof and spot the conflagration and firestorm coming out of the burnt properties of the city. This picture is somewhat identical with what Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins represent inFreedom at Midnight : ...the sounds and sights rising through the dark horizon surrounding the Punjab Club's lawns: an occasional shower from the burning bazaar; the wail of sirens; the piercing war cry of the city's rival factions-'Sat Sri Akal' for the Sikhs, and 'Allah Akhbar' for the Moslems...in the hostile night. (297) The story reflects the breach of trust. How Santokh Singh hands over a bag full of explosives to Shugra instead of the home made noodles which his father used to present to Abdul Hai's family on the eve of Eid underlines the terror of the story. Suddenly there was a knock at the door. Sughra's heart began to beat violently. She looked at Basharat, whose face had turned white like a sheet of paper...this was a young fellow. He knocked Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 141-151 (2013) 142 Dr. Bir Singh Yadav

in peaceful way .Pramod K. Nayar rightly asserts that “Gandhi's satyagraha system of protest was a local and indigenous form of Burning and Balmy Impact of British Rule on struggle that was based on a larger idea of non-violence.”(Nayar,155) Indian Psyche: A Pragmatic Reflection As Robert Young observes that his notion ofSwaraj (self-rule) asserting moral superiority was “Gandhi's masterstroke”. (Young,320) His conviction that fearlessness is associated with truth Dr. Bir Singh Yadav and fear is associated with falsehood was not only an eye-opener experience to the British but also a torch light to modern India. The dark cloud of British domination threatened the Indian psyche Romain Rolland, the world famous French philosopher hailing with its thundering sound in numerous ways, consequently made it Gandhiji for his creative power states that he “aimed at the fear-ridden as no ray of hope was visible in the gloomy night full of regeneration of man” ( Iyenger,251) and J. B. Sethi comments that fear and weakness; but the flash of lightning hidden in the “Gandhiji suddenly emerged as a possible answer to the global crisis frightening and disgusting murky cloud of slavery was also of human values and numerous other unresolved contradictions perceptible to educated and optimistic Indians who were dreaming of between affluence and poverty, freedom and repression, technology getting the best out of the waste. The light came with Mahatma and man's social relation and alienation.”(Sethi's Lecture, Dec.10, Gandhi who emerged as a symbolic figure suggesting many things to 1979) Gandhi was in favor of assimilation of cultures as in Hind many people, thereby, influenced the life and literature in such a Swaraj he declared, “The introduction of foreigners does not mysterious way that the impact of which is still in continuous flow in necessarily destroy the nation, they merge in it.” (Gandhi,1909) In the modern India. Taking the high philosophy with pragmatic the political field, Gandhiji also stressed the importance of the means approach accessible to the common masses, his struggle against to achieve the desired noble goal, hence he infused moral and unjust and undesirable system of British Rule assumed political, spiritual values to the amoral world of politics. Being pragmatically economic, social, spiritual, moral and cultural dimensions in such a astute with idealistic vision, he exercised the strongest weapons of magical way that Gandhi was accepted as an ideal icon not only by Truth, Nonviolence and Satyagraha in a skilled and careful way as he the common people but even the literary bards started projecting advocated that only the brave could use them effectively. In his him as a divinely incarnated being born to end all kinds of injustice; autobiographyThe Story of My Experiments with Truth he states that: and the flow of this impact was so potent and powerful that its waves My uniform experience has convinced me that there is no other are still influencing the modern Indian psyche in one way or the God than other. His idealized and incarnated figure cast such a spell on the minds of the people that even after a long time he is regarded as a Truth…I can say with assurance as a result of all my guiding force through literature influencing the life of the people experiments, that a Perfect vision of Truth can only follow a within the country and even in abroad in numerous ways. Gandhi's complete realization of Ahimsa. vision of–'freedom from and freedom for', apart from political To see the universal and all- pervading spirit of Truth face to face freedom, is taken for a divine creative power moving towards the one must be able to love the meanest of creation as oneself. realization of higher values in different spheres always pursuing the ..That is why my devotion to Truth has drawn me into the field of path of truth, nonviolence, peace, justice as well as moral, spiritual politics; and I can say without the slightest hesitation, and yet in and cultural values. His powerful weapons of truth, nonviolence and all humility, that those who say that religion has nothing to do satyagraha used against British Rule of the day are still considered with politics do not know what religion means. forceful in the modern India to bring about a desired and just change Identification with everything that lives is impossible without Burning and Balmy Impact of British Rule on Indian Psyche: A... 143 144 Dr. Bir Singh Yadav

self-Purification; without self-purification the observation of the independence periods. But as those burning experiences led to the law of Ahimsa must remain an empty dream; God can never be balmy effect of unity as they started realizing two classes-the so realized by one who is not pure of heart…But the path of self called exploited and the exploiters at socio-economic and political purification is hard and steep. To attain to perfect purity one has level; the same kind of feeling is emerging in modern India as the to become absolutely passion-freein thought, speech and action; gulf between the rich and the poor is becoming wider and deeper, to rise above the opposing currents of love and hatred, hence people forgetting their caste and creed are going to be united attachment and repulsion….Ahimsa is the farthest limit of against the ruling people and the rich –the exploiting class as this (Gandhi 510-511) unity is seen in the novelUntouchable when Gandhiji appears on the He perceived Truth, Nonviolence and Satyagraha closely stage people cry, “Mahatma Gandhi ki jai, Hindu-Mssalman-Sikh ki connected to one another as he made it clear in his address to a jai.” (Anand,159) and Gandhiji stressing social and economic meeting on Chaupati : freedom says: “Satyagraha is essentially a weapon of the truthful. A Satyagrahi As you all know, while we are asking for freedom from the grip is pledged to nonviolence, and unless people observe it in of a foreign nation, we have ourselves for centuries trampled thought, word and deed, I can not offer mass Satyagraha”. A underfoot Millions of human beings without feeling the slightest Satyagrahi obeys the laws of society intelligently and of his own remorse for our Inequity. For me, the question of these people is free will, because, he considers it to be his sacred duty to do so. moral and religious when I undertook to fast unto death for their (Gandhi,474) sake., it was in obedience to the call of my conscience. (Anand 162-163) Gandhiji's views had a tremendous influence not only on the life of the people but on the contemporary men of letters like Mulk Raj Gandhi, who was more of a humanist than a politician, more of a Anand, Premchand, J. L. Nehru and Rabindra Nath Tagore. Almost saint than a statesman, more of a spirit than of a thought and action, all the writers of Indian languages were directly or indirectly turned out in life and literature an apostle of truth and light which influenced by this legendry figure. Through the unhindered flow of was reflected through his character in lucid simplicity. He wanted to literature this impact of Satyagraha, Nonviolence and Ahimsa is also set free the 'enslaved and colonized Indian mind' to put an end of all prevalent in today's Indian Movements whether it is Anna Hazare's kinds of evil. He was deeply concerned about the exploitation of man Movement against corruption or Baba Ramdev's Movement against by man as he believed that any exploitation whether of the Indians at black money or Arvind kezariwal's agitation against political the hands of the English masters or of the untouchables at the hands scandals and land grabbing. of the caste Hindu was sinful, hence he took the social and economic themes to spiritual heights whose echo is still audible in modern In the social arena Gandhian concept of untouchability and ignominy Indian life and literature. In modern India Dalit and marginalized of the unprivileged and the plighted found expression in two novels vote-bank based politics is in full swing. His view that greed is one of Anand-Untouchable and Coolie. The story of Bhakha in of the greatest evils and hoarding something, which one does not Untouchable depicts the life of untouchables who have been the need, is immoral and sinful still finds expression in modern Indian victims of social injustice, oppressions and ill-treatment since ancient culture, politics and literature. Anand's attack on political , social and times and the novel, through the life of a particular untouchable economic institutions on behalf of the poor is an attempt to build a highlights the life and suffering of untouchables as a class. Anand world of freedom and equality where human potential can flourish using the device of 'the general through particular' with his inner and the same is being done by the scholars and reformers in modern anguish has raised Bakha's suffering to epic dimension. The Tribal India. and the Dalit literature of today is also getting its flow from pre- Burning and Balmy Impact of British Rule on Indian Psyche: A... 145 146 Dr. Bir Singh Yadav

Coolie deals with class struggle, social injustice and psychological not only a way to avoid political and economic subjugation but also conflict of the poor as it highlights the denial of right to happiness to equipped them with a rational outlook to self cultivation to rise a simple 'landless orphan', exploitation of underprivileged', the above the dross of fatalism, superstition and beaten track of old impact of capitalism, industrialism, and colonialism as well as traditions. Writers like Raja Rao and Ram Mohan Roy started religious and political hypocrisy of Indian society. Unjust social synthesizing East and West in their creative writings in order to system, social and sexual degradation of human mind as well as the enlighten and broaden the Indian minds. Through Western Education relationship of the Indians and the British in pre-independence and English language Indian intellectuals acquired the skill of logic period; hateful and harmful relationship between Hindu and Muslim and reasoning in argument. Raja Ram Mohan Roy's logical and are still reflective in socio-political scenario of modern India as K. N. rational argument in English to the English (his letter to Lord Sinha comments: Amherst) in favor of English Education is speaking evidence to it. The tragedy of Munoo is an indictment of evils of capitalism. To Raja Rao creative writings became spiritual discipline demanding But the purpose of the novelist is not to present a gloomy picture total concentration into the depth of impersonality as it was in case of life. On the contrary, he wishes to arouse the conscience of of T.S. Eliot and W.B. Yeats. Influenced by the Vedas and the humanity against the ruthless exploitation of the weak. He Upanishads as well as byThe Ramayana and The Mahabharata, he handles in the prose epic the realities of the human situations as turned to the West and in the language of the West through mythical he sees and understands them. narration, he started his battle at political, social, economic, Anand reflects the miserable picture of the down trodden through religious, ethical and cultural fronts. InKanthapura Raja Rao Munoo, an orphan, who imagines : presents Mahatma Gandhi like a “whirwind” bringing forth social, political and psycho-ethical revolution as C.D. Narasihmaiah The sight of his mother grinding grain between the scarred comments that “Kanthapura is India in microcosm; what happened surfaces of mill-stones which she gyrated round and round, by there is what happened everywhere in India during those terrible the wooden handle, now with her right hand, now with her left, years of our fight for freedom.” (249) Gandhi is presented as an day and night, had become indelibly imprinted on his mind. Also incarnation–an 'avataric ' presence in the novel. By its very nature of the sight of her as she had laid dead on the ground with horrible, composition the novel, as Jahawar Lal Nehru remark, “aims at yet sad, set expression on her face, had sunk into his subconscious transforming the national self of the countrymen and ,in the process, with all its weight of tragic and utter resignation. (68) virtually rediscovers the Indian soul through Gandhi; a pilgrim on his In this way, enslaved and colonized Indian mind subjected to quest of truth, quiet peaceful, determined and fearless who could political and economic exploitation made Indians culturally and continue that quiet pilgrimage regardless of consequences.” socially inferior and placed them on the verge of identity collapse. (Nehru,39) Moorthy, who never met Gandhi in person but only saw The British education system introduced by Macauley reduced them him in vision, has such a deep impact of Mahatma on his psyche that to the level of mere assisting agency to the great empire, socially and in slumber he hears Mahatma's message intently and takes a vow to morally they were staggering as they started realizing themselves spread it in countryside telling, “There is but one force in life that is insignificant and hollow. But the untiring and sustained efforts of the Truth, and there is but one love in life that is love to mankind and dedicated Indian intellectuals with their penetrating insight into the there is but one God in life and that is the God of all.”(40) Moorthy system turned the table by converting weakness into strength and is also conscious of the deep rooted faith of the villagers in religion, fear into fearlessness. Politically, 'divide and rule' policy led to the therefore , he highlights the religious significance of the freedom unity into diversity to gain political freedom, economic exploitation struggle because he knows that in India religion had been and still is took them to the love of indigenous things, education provided them the most powerful means of winning mass support. M.K. Naik. Burning and Balmy Impact of British Rule on Indian Psyche: A... 147 148 Dr. Bir Singh Yadav rightly remarks: the impact of the West beginning with British Rule in India. “Living Raja Rao goes to the very roots of the transformation, by is a continual adjustment to changing conditions” says Nehru and demonstrating how the new nationalistic fervour in rural India in further he asserts: the 1930s blended completely with the age-old rooted spiritual The new liberal thought of the West and industrial processes faith and thus revitalized the spiritual springs within and helped began to affect the mind and the life of India. A new nationalism rediscover the Indian soul.”(Naik,365) developed, which was inevitably against colonialism and sought Comparing the Italian novelist Ignazio Silone'sFontamara to Raja independence, and yet which was being progressively affected Rao'sKanthapura, M. K. Naik also observes that “ Fontamara is a by the new industrial civilization as well as the language, story of the exploitation of the poor by the rich as seen through the literature and ways of the West. Rammohan Roy came seeking eyes of an anti-Fascist and socialist of the1930s,Kanthapur a is an of some kind of a synthesis between old India and modern account of the renaissance of Indian spiritual life under the impact of trends. Vivekanand brought back something of the vigour of old the Independence movement.” (Steinbeck,76) In the light of the Indian thought and dressed it in a modern garb. Political and aforesaid remarks, it is clearly seen that the renaissance of Indian cultural movements grew up and culminated in Gandhiji and spiritual life inspires all the religious activities in Kanthapura and Rabindranath Tagore. (Nehru., Synthesis Is Our Tradition) also becomes the philosophical foundation of the political As Nehru opines that two forces-the growth of nationalism and the renaissance. As the Civil Disobedience Movement begins, Moorthy, urge for justice-developed in India, consequently Socialism and known as the little Gandhi, exhorts his followers to take the path of Marxism became the symbol of this urge for social justice and apart the spirit and add to the harmony of the world with truth, non- from their scientific content, had a tremendous emotional appeal for violence and love as Anna Hazare in his Movement against the masses.. Nehru as Prime Minister and as a writer wanted to bring corruption was appealing to his followers. The sublime ideal is the a change in the ways of thinking and the doing of the people as well spiritual and moral regeneration of the people and through them of as his desire was to maintain a proper coordination and integration the country and the world, hence the ideal of regeneration radiates in between thought and action of the people of the country, therefore, several directions reaching out from the village to the world. The his assertion that 'Action without thought is a folly and thought novel exhibits the patriotic consciousness moulded by the Gandhian without action is an abortion that is always painful without any fruit creed of Truth and Non-violence and is transmuted into the actions of provided a new rationalistic outlook in every field of life. Dr. Satyagraha movement which is still popular and powerful in modern Radhakrishnan in the light of the science of the West highlighted India. Therefore, this experience of British Rule reflects the tragedy spirituality as he found that 'most of the Indians were irreligiously and glory of Indian life with compassion and understanding which religious'. This bridge between the science and religion has India continues to follow it. contributed a lot in the inculcation of scientific thinking in modern The Serpent and the Rope, a rare metaphysical composition, on the India. Swami Vivekanand contributed significantly to make Indian one hand reflecting the discrimination between illusion and reality National Movement more dynamic by assimilating new things suited shows that illusory world vanishes with the dawn of true knowledge, to the need of the hour as he emphatically stated; especially the knowledge of the Self and its relation to the divine In the remote past our country made gigantic advances in spiritual which is possible through a trueGuru, but on the other hand it is what ideas, Let us today bring before our minds's eye that ancient history. Uma Parameswaran calls, “an intellectual treatise on East-West But the one Great danger in meditating over the long past greatness cultural tensions” (Parameswaram,151) Thus the novel also exhibits is that we cease to exert ourselves for new things and content the evolving social, cultural and ethical values in Indian Society with ourselves with vegetating upon that bygone ancestral glory and Burning and Balmy Impact of British Rule on Indian Psyche: A... 149 150 Dr. Bir Singh Yadav priding ourselves upon it. We should guard against that. (Vol.III,219) Where knowledge is free; Swami Vivekanand infused a new hope and courage in Indian Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by hearts and minds Like Gandhi , observing the disease of the Indian narrow domestic walls; mind he stated that 'The main tragedy with my country men is that Where words come out from the depth of truth; they always kiss the hand that beats them' and he also made them realize that 'Think you are strong , strong you will become, think you Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection; are weak, weak you will become' He also pulled them out of the poor Where clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary and narrow thinking through his message of physical mental and desert sand of dead habit; spiritual strength with his articulation that 'Our bones must be of where the mind is led forward by thee into ever widening steel, our muscles be of iron; our minds must be as vast as the sky thought and action-Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let and our hearts must be as deep as the ocean'. He led the floating my country awake (Song XXXV) Indians from the dross of pessimism to the brightness of optimism by In this way, all the aforementioned thinkers and activists, through stating that 'An optimist always perceives a chance in every difficulty their sustained and dedicated efforts realizing the burning and balmy whereas a pessimist perceives a difficulty in every chance'. His impact of British Rule on Indian psyche, awakened people to a better words that 'Give me a few persons of characters and I can change the position ;and the imprint of the influence they created on their minds whole world ' are still inspiring to modern India. was so deep and indelible that its flow is still visible in Indian life Rabindra Nath Tagore, an ambassador of Indian culture equipped and literature. Undoubtedly, the experience of British Rule was a with great Vedic knowledge was advocating for all kinds of freedom painful burning but it also proved balmy in the churning process as it with knowledge and fearlessness. Besides political freedom, he brought forth some unseen hidden blessing in various sphere of became a great champion of social, moral and cultural freedom not Indian life. The lessons taught by pain and suffering always prove only for the sake of our people, but for the sake of Humanity as in more beneficial and eye-opener than the dreams of the restful rusty “The Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech” he expressed his sleep and the same has been experienced by modern India. determination “to establish an international institution where the References : Western and the Eastern students could meet and share the common feast of spiritual food.” (Tagore, 96) He highlighted a filtered and Anand, Mulk Raj.Untouchable. New Delhi: Arnold Associates, 1935. fresh concept of spirituality in the light of the vedic knowledge of ---.Coolie. New Delhi :Arnold Assocoiates,1981. rpt.1988. East and the scientific knowledge of the West as he states that “the Gandhi M. K.The Story of My Experiments with Truth. New Delhi: Maanu West has need of the East, as the East has the need of the West, and Graphics, 2008. so the time has come when they should meet.” ( Tagore, 96) This ---.Hind Swaraj or The Indian Home Rule. 24 April 2009 synthesis of the East and the West, led him to uproot traditional Iyenger, K. R. Srinivasa.Indian Writing in English. Bombay: Sterling insignificant conventions and social rituals pushing people to the Publishers,1962. quagmire of fatalism and pre-determinism as his slogan 'Dead is Naik, M. K. “Gandhi and Indian Writing in English.” Criitical Essays on death-dealing' got a new impetus at the time; and still in modern Indian Writing in English. Ed. M.K. Naik. Dharwar: Karnataka U P, times it appeals to Indian psyche as his articulation has become the 1974. song of everyone: Narasihmaiah, C. D. “Raja Rao's Kanthapura: An Analysis.” Critical Essays Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high; in Indian Writing in English. Ed. M. K. Naik, S. K. Desai and Amur. Madras : Macmillan India Ltd.,1977. Burning and Balmy Impact of British Rule on Indian Psyche: A... 151 Journal of Rajasthan Association for Studies in English9: 152-158 (2013)

Nayar, Pramod K.Contemporary Literary and Cultural Theory. New Delhi: Longman, 2010. Nehru, Jawahar Lal. “A Radiant Figure.” Intermediate English Prose Against the Colonial Hegemony: Selections. Ed. Kamata Charan Srivastava, et. al. Calcutta, 1977. Change in Uses of English ---. ”Synthesis Is Our Tradition.” Panditji's Azad Memorial Lectures (Feb., 1959). Ed. Sarvepalli Gopal. Parameswaran, Uma. A Study of Representative Indo-English Novelists. Dr. Sunita Agarwal New Delhi: Vikash Publishing House, 1976. Language has always been used as a powerful medium to perpetuate Rao, Raja.Kanthapura. New Delhi: Oriental Paperbacks, 1970. the hierarchical power structures in politics. During colonial period th Sethi, J. B. “Gandhian Values and 20 Century Challenges.” Two Lectures English was primarily introduced for inflicting imperialism over Delhi. Broadcast from All India Radio, Dec.10, 1979. India. Consequently, today, India is the second largest English Sinha, K. N.Mulk Raj Anand. New Delhi: Kalyan Publishers, 1989. speaking country in the world. Nevertheless, the objective of Steinbeck, John.The Grapes of Wrath. Harmmondsworth: Penguin, 1951. Colonial Regime to establish centre/periphery paradigms through Tagore, R. N.Gitanjali. New Delhi: Rupa Publication, 2010. language has been subverted by Indians by appropriation of English for their own needs. Indian English with its code mixing with Hindi Vivekananda Swami.Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Vol. 3. and other regional dialects facilitates their interaction with the outer Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama P.,1992. world. This counter hegemonic language is now widely used by ---.Lectures form Colombo to Almora. Calcutta: Advaita Ahrama P., 1992. Indians for their day today communicative purposes. Indian English, Young, Robert J. C.Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Oxford: with its lexical, morphological and phonological changes, has Blackwell, 2000. acquired recognition nationally and internationally. The present paper will investigate the diverse uses of Indian English in promoting lexical innovations with code mixing i.e. Hindi and English giving rise to Hinglish that deviates from the standard British norms. India has literally turned its English-speaking ability, a once embarrassing legacy of its colonial past in its own competitive advantage. English is now rapidly changing because three out of four English speakers are now non native. All these users will have a share in the future of English. As David Crystal writes, “language is an immensely democratizing institution (23).” In future English will be influenced by these non native speakers and usage which was previously rejected and criticized as foreign' can become a part of standard educates speech. Even Mikhail Bakhtin has defined language as a dynamic phenomenon. He further writes,” Language is not a stable system and not a scientific abstraction, but a living dynamic process of the society which is continual working toward dialogical relationship ( ). In this globalised world, when the paradigms of power structures are established de established and Against the Colonial Hegemony: Change in Uses of English 153 154 Dr. Sunita Agarwal reestablished according to the equation of strength and when the (1998) notes that if code alternation occurs at or above clause level, erstwhile colonies have come to forefront decentering the once it is considered code switching, but if it occurs below clause level powerful European countries, the question is will Standard English then it is considered code mixing Muysken (2000) defines three continue to be lingua franca or do we need to adept/ invent a new types of code mixing: insertion, alternation, and congruent variety of language for the purpose of global communication? lexicalization. In his view, insertion occurs when lexical items from Hinglish is now the fastest-growing language in the country and its one language are incorporated into another. The notion of insertion, impact can be visible on the selection of the words in the according to Muysken (2000), corresponds to what Clyne (1991) advertisement of MNC's like Macdonald and Coke. McDonald's terms as “transference” and Myer-Scotton as “embedding”. campaign in 2004 had as its slogan 'What is your bahana?' (What's Indian English, like other South Asian varieties of English, has your excuse?), while Coke also had its own Hinglish strapline 'Life moved beyond the stage of mere lexical borrowings. Looking into its ho to aisi' (Life should be like this).Another TV commercial of syntactic manipulation of the English lexicon, we come across a Cadbury Gems has also coined such a phrase “raho umarless (Stay number of interesting processes that transform a purely English word young) .Jab We Met , a 'blockbuster' Hindi film released in 2007, is into a hybrid of Hindi and English. Sometimes a borrowed word is interesting for its use of language and in, for the manner in which given a new shape by―hammering sometimes on its head, and Hindi–English code-switching is used throughout the film. Similar sometimes twisting its tail (Bapsi Sidhwa, 1992, p.212). For clippings and coinage of hybrid language – Hinglish are in abundant example, words like―'goondas', 'chapaatis' that are taken from local use on TV Hindi-language channel, in Bollywood films, in print languages have been used with English suffix—s, whereas the plural media newspapers, magazines and digital media. There are divergent forms of these words in Hindi would rather take a suffix in their own views about the role of Hinglish in India. Some see it as a sure sign way. The plural form of ―goonda will be―goondey and the plural of Hindi acquiring the status of a real lingua franca accessible for use form of ―chapaati will be chapaatiyan. The Hinglish that developed by all in a rapidly changing India .For many it is the language of in England differ to the Hinglish of India. Words likebalti , a form of subversion which has displaced colonial English. cooking, and the ubiquitous question taginnit appeared from the However code mixing and code switching are two distinct concepts intermingling of different immigrant groups and native speakers in in linguistics. Code mixing refers to blend of two languages in the UK. various ways. It might be morphological, syntactical or phonological. The adoption of the words people borrow when mixing languages Bilingual speakers, mainly tend to develop it either out of their habit can be very revealing about what their lives are like and how they're or for better comprehensibility. The reason of code switching is changing. Professor Rita Kothari, the author ofChutnifying English , related to discourse. Sridhar and Sridhar define code-mixing as "the met a woman who told her in Hindi about how someone's mind transition from using linguistic units (words, phrases, clauses, etc.) of wasn't working properly and needed a “recharge,” using the English one language to using those of another within a single sentence” word. Prepaid mobile phones have become so ubiquitous in India They note that this is distinct from code-switching in that it occurs in that English words to do with their use – “recharge,” “top-up” and a single sentence (sometimes known asintrasentential switching ) “missed call” – have become common, too. Now, it seems, those and in that it does not fulfill the pragmatic or discourse-oriented words are transforming to take on broader meanings in Indian functions described by sociolinguists. Romaine (1995) views code languages as well as in Hinglish. There are lots of examples of switching as a phenomenon that occurs in a continuum where both English tech words that have traveled in this way, such as “hi-fi. inter-sentential and intra-sentential code alternation takes place. When Hindi speakers talk about the self or the individual, they Other researchers make the distinction between code switching and usually turn to English word to make her more comprehensible and code mixing based on the place where the alternation occurs. Wei secondly many times it becomes difficult to find equivalent of those Against the Colonial Hegemony: Change in Uses of English 155 156 Dr. Sunita Agarwal words in Hindi language. A girl told her parents that she needed more described as a mode of communication rather than a language” (p. personal space-with the whole sentence in Hindi except for the 64). She also, rather surprisingly, tries to position this as a new words “personal space. “This concept of 'space' would always be phenomenon: for example, later on in the essay, she says: “Hinglish said in English. This strategy has resulted into the formation of a is in fact one of many half-Indian, half-English argots to have somewhat different variety of the language which- can be identified mushroomed in the past five or 10 years. While evidence suggests by certain distinctive linguistic features of grammar, word formation, that [Hinglish] may have begun as soon as Hindi and English began lexical variation (Baumgardner, 1993, p. xvi). With assembly to inhabit the same geographical space-with the coming of the elections coming up, the newspapers are full of the jargon of India's British to India electoral politics. 'Vote Bank' is one such phrase, which refers to a Words do not become Hinglish words just by their Devanagari bloc of voters from a social group - a caste or community or religious spelling. Sean Coughlan wrote inBBC News Magazine that Indian minority say - which can be counted on to back a specific party or words “are borrowed and reinvented to make Hinglish”. Timepass, candidate consistently. airdash, cousin brother, and eve teasing are parts of Hinglish, and are Hinglish is continuously evolving and dissolving. A British expert likely to be marked as such in dictionaries. recently said that Hinglish – a mixture of Hindi and English, widely UK diplomats told to learn 'Hinglish' (ANI London, October 12, spoken in India – may soon become the most common form of the 2012). This headline of the newspaper explicitly points towards the Queen's language. A female Indian teacher in Derby, England, acceptance of this new variety across the world. According to the named Baljinder Mahal (2006) published a dictionary called The paper, this hybrid language 'Hinglish' is spreading so fast in India Queen's Hinglish. She writes that more people speak English in that British diplomats posted to India without some understanding of South Asia than in Britain and North America combined, with India the Hindi words will feel alienated at some point of time. alone accounting for more than 350 million English speakers. She writes, “Although the practice was previously frowned upon by Hinglish is an interface of Hindi and English words, of sentence purists, people there are becoming more and more comfortable with structures and even of sentences. Binoo K. John's (2007) new study mixing words from languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi with of the language,Entry from Backside Only celebrates this changed English," (32). Predicting the future of Hinglish she says, "This attitude towards Hinglish. "My idea was not to sneer at Indian means that Hinglish, as this modern blend of Standard English, English but to look at the way it is growing and becoming a language Indian English and South Asian languages is popularly known, could in its own right, like American English( )," John writes. The book is soon become the most widely spoken form of English on earth (48).” a history of how English continued and evolved after Indian independence. It also traces Gandhi's decision to use it as a nation- Indeed, Hindi's creolization with English is marking the true break building tool (having first rejected it as the language of slavery) and between the two languages. The encroachment of English into Hindi how it was vital to its survival. Emphasizing communicative function has produced all kinds of changes in everyday, spoken Hindi. In of language, he writes, "More and more people will use it without India, the outright importation of a great deal of English vocabulary fear of being laughed at. We are not afraid of speaking in the way is accelerating and such expressions peculiar to English in India are that we want to anymore. There is no longer any fear of grammatical proliferating along with the growing tendency to write Hindi in puritans coming and telling us it should not be like that (78)”. Roman letters, and the coining of hybrid words that are native neither to Hindi nor to English. The cumulative result of all these The Ministry of Delhi adopted a pragmatic approach by issuing a developments is Hinglish-a word that many find as distasteful as the circular in October, 2011, with directives to use English words in phenomenon it captures. Anderson-Finch, (2011) writes that place of obscure Hindi words. The circular gave several reasons for Hinglish, as Hindi-English code-switching, can be more accurately the new approach. Firstly the demand for Sanskritized equivalents Against the Colonial Hegemony: Change in Uses of English 157 158 Dr. Sunita Agarwal for words can be costly, as officials will have to spend their time in to fulfill the global communicative requirements. Hinglish as an libraries or research centers struggling to find pure Hindi terms. The accommodating, dynamic and flexible code mix is continuously whole exercise represents recognition by the ministry that evolving and dissolving but cannot replace Standard English which effectiveness of communication is vital, and if necessary, a mix of continues to reach and engage an extensive audience. two or more languages should be encouraged. Familiar words such References: asadalat , kanoon , muqadma and dafter from Arabic and Farsi sources can be also freely used. Similar approach was adopted by the Baumgardner, J. "The Indigenization of English in Pakistan." The English Language in Pakistan. Ed. J. Baumgardner and J. Gardner. Karachi: doctors in Delhi who decided to speak with patients in the language OUP, 1993. 41-54. they are familiar with for the better comprehensibility. Binoo K John.Entry from Backside Only . New Delhi: Penguin, 2007. English newspapers, published in India, have been effectively Dent, Susie. The Language Report: English on the Move, 2000-2007.New performing their function (transmission of messages, information, Delhi: OUP, 2007. views, perceptions etc.) all over the country since long. Concerning the promotion of any variety of the language, these newspapers have Kachru, Braj B. "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle." English in the World: Teaching not adopted any uniform policy, as they are focused more on and Learning the Language and Literatures. Ed. Randolph Quirk and communicating the message to the society in general. It has been Henry Widdowson. CUP, 1985. 11-30. found that these newspapers appropriate English language incorporating indigenous linguistic features in it. The frequent and Kothari, Rita and Snell. Chutnefying English: The Phenomenon of Hinglish New Delhi : Penguin Books India, 2011. increasing use of English words in the print media, TV and digital media is symptomatic of globalization and localization of English to Li Wei. School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences, reach out and connect to larger people in society. The aim of such an Joseph Cowen House, University of Newcastle. appropriation is to facilitate and attract people. Use of English word Mahal, B. K.Collins the Queen's Hinglish. Canada: Harper Collins, 2006. for obscure and difficult Hindi word increases the comprehensibility. Muysken, Pieter.Bilingual Speech: A Typology of Code-Mixing. CUP, 2000. It is in a way English vernacularised in Hindi and this renders Hindi Myers, Scotton Carol.Contact Linguistics. Oxford : OUP, 2002. a high position to subvert English. Payack, Paul J. J. A Million Words and Counting: How Global English Is The deviations from native norms of English, of course, have impact Rewriting the World. Citadel, 2008. on the both the languages. Purists reject the fusion of these two Sridhar, S.N. and Kamal K. Sridhar. "The Syntax and Psycholinguistics of distant languages Hindi and English, as they are merely borrowing Bilingual Code-mixing."Canadian Journal of Psychology 34.4 (1980) : words from one another making certain lexical, morphological and 407-16. phonological variation with undisturbed syntax and refer to it as a Suzanne, Romaine.Bilingualism. 2nd ed. Oxford : Blackwell, 1995. languid and uncreative activity. Au contraire, Enthusiasts find the future of Hindi as a national language not in the Sanskritized variety but by adopting from the indigenized English. In spite of the popularity of Hinglish increasing manifold it cannot function as the medium of ELT at higher level of acquiring education, though at primary level the bilingual methodology facilitates in the second language learning process. Prof. Kachru (1986) had termed these outer circle varieties as “cline of bilingualism' which will serve local and national purposes but cannot transcend the political boundaries 160 Our Contributors

● Dr. Jyoti Tripathi, Lecturer in English, Techno India NJR Institute of Technology, Udaipur (Raj.)

OCUR ONTRIBUTORS ● Dr. P. K. Sahu, Prof. of English, University of West Indies

● Dr. Arpit Kothari, Lecturer in English, JECRC, Jaipur ● Dr. Haris Qadeer, Dept. of English and Modern European languages Gautam Buddha University, Greater NOIDA, U.P ● Dr. Nafisa Zargar, Res. Scholar, Aligharh Muslim University, Aligarh

● Jamsheed Ahmad, Ph.D Scholar, Dept of English, AMU, Aligarh ● Dr. Bir Singh Yadav, Lecturer in English, Central University, Haryana 202002, India; [email protected] ● Dr. Sunita Agrawal, Asstt. Professor, Rajasthan University, Jaipur ● Dr. Gautam Sharma, Lecturer in English, SPU PG College, Falna, (Raj.) Distt. Pali, Rajasthan

● Dr. (Mrs.) Indu Swami, Post Graduate Department of English, Assam University, Diphu Campus, (A Central University) Diphu-782 460, Karbi Anglong, Assam, India; [email protected]

● Dr. Sanjiv Kumar, Assistant Professor, Dept. of English, Central University of Haryana; [email protected]

● Dr. Anant Dadhich, Lect.in English, MLV Govt.College,Bhilwara, [email protected]

● Dr. Rekha Tiwari, Lecturer & Head, Dept. of English, Guru Nanak Girls’ PG College, Udaipur (Raj.)

● Sana Niazi, Associate Professor of English, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

● Dr. (Mrs.) Munni Pareek, Lecturer in English Government College, Alwar

● Dr. Anita Thakur, Asso. Professor of English, Devi Ahiliya University, Indore

● Dr. S. S. Thakur, Asso. Professor of English, Devi Ahiliya University, Indore

● Dr. Nafisa Hatimi, Professor of English, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur (Raj.)

● Dr. Manisha Sharma, Lecturer in English, Government College, Pali

● Prof. Asha Arora, Assoc. Professor of English, Govt. College, Alwar

● Dr. Navras Jaat Afreedi, Asstt. Professor of English, Gautam Buddha University, Greater Nodia, Delhi