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Indigenous Resurgence As Revitalization

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Indigenous Resurgence As Revitalization CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by University of Waterloo's Institutional Repository Idle No More: Indigenous Resurgence as Revitalization by Tamie Coleman A thesis presented to the University Of Waterloo in fulfilment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Arts In Sociology Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2016 © Tamie Coleman 2016 AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that this thesis may be made electronically available to the public. Tamie Coleman ii Abstract North American Indigenous people throughout contact have resisted the paternalistic and assimilationist policies of colonization. In recent history, Indigenous peoples resistance has been predominately localized in nature. However, the current resistance is widespread. Despite the fact that Bill C-45 was the catalyst for Idle No More (INM), the resistance encompasses deeper meanings for those standing against the current status quo than the solely political concerns covered by the media. In order to fully understand contemporary Indigenous resistance this thesis will be the result of a collaborative research effort that will challenge the mainstream research and theoretical models when seeking to understand Indigenous people and their acts of resistance. In this thesis I will argue that, in taking a cue from Alfred’s concepts of Wasasé and Indigenous resurgence, modern Indigenous resistance may be interpreted as a contemporary expression of classical revitalization movements. Thus, by engaging the work of Indigenous academics and the grassroots people at all levels of inquiry: methodologically and theoretically this thesis argues that we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the motivations and choices of resistance actors. The focus for understanding the motivations and strategies of the actors in INM will reflect the work of Taiaiake Alfred, whose concept of Wasasé has given Indigenous people a framework for a theorized and effective form of resistance at political, economic, spiritual, and cultural levels. Additionally, the peoplehood matrix that has its origins in the work of Edward Spicer will provide a framework for understanding some of the not so apparent meanings, goals, and messages in Indigenous resistance. iii Acknowledgements I would first and foremost like to thank the participants (Rae Marie Crawford, Shannon Thunderbird, Amy Smoke, Mary Lou Smoke, Pauline Moon, Theresa McGregor, and the many others who choose to remain anonymous) in this study who graciously shared their personal stories of pain, adversity, joy, and triumph with me. This research could not have been possible without your time spent teaching me about your experiences and knowledge. Secondly, I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Myeengun Henry whose guidance and insight proved to be invaluable to understanding the lived experiences of the Original peoples when struggling to preserve their rights as sovereign peoples under colonial encroachment. Furthermore, I would like to express my deep appreciation for your belief in my abilities to accurately represent the Original peoples in this study. Thirdly, I wish to thank my advisors Dr. Adie Nelson and Dr. Augie Fleras (University of Waterloo), along with committee member Dr. Suzan Ilcan (University of Waterloo) whose mentorship, guidance, support, and belief in my research goals made it possible for me to successfully complete my research when I faced the challenges that arose during my education. Fourthly, I would like acknowledge the assistance I received from my friends Virginia Pecjak, Alexandra Foster, and Jennifer Werezak, that provided me with support and encouragement during my research. Fifthly, I would also like to acknowledge the ongoing support and encouragement from my son Kyle Dell whose faith in me and assistant allowed me to complete my educational goals. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the inspiration for this research project Sylvia McAdam Saysewahum, Sheelah McLean, Nina Wilson, and Jessica Gordon. Your courage and efforts have been a guiding light and source of strength to continue to stand up for the rights of Indigenous peoples worldwide. iv Dedication I would like to dedicate this thesis to the many Indigenous Warriors who continue the struggle of decolonization, the youth who have reawakened the spirit of their peoples, and the women who carry the responsibility of holding the knowledge of the people in their stories, and all of those who are committed to protecting their nations, the land and water, and strengthening their communities. v Table of Contents Author’s Declaration ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Dedication v Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Trying to Convey the Indigenous Perspective within Mainstream Academia 2 Brief History of Resistance on Turtle Island 6 Uniqueness of the Movement 9 Purpose of Study 16 The Research Questions 22 How Does this Research Add to the Discipline of Sociology? 24 Chapter 2 Methods 27 Challenges in the Field 35 Researcher’s Role 38 Chapter 3 Social Movements as Revitalizations 42 Indigenous Revitalization Past, Present, and Future 42 History of Theory 42 Search for Meaning 47 Reframing Indigenous Revitalization: Defining Contemporary Indigenous Revitalization Movements 49 Studying Revitalizations as they are Taking Place 50 Chapter 4 Gaining the Perspective of Those Acting in Resistance 54 The Peoplehood Matrix 57 Discussion of the Data and Analysis 66 Chapter 5 Data and Discussion 68 Language 68 Linguistic Choices: The Term Aboriginal 68 Analysis 70 vi Indigenous Language Revitalization as Acts of Resistance 71 Analysis 77 Connections to the Land 81 Analysis 90 Ceremonial Cycle 94 The Round Dance 98 Meaning of the Dance 99 Smudging Ceremony 102 Water Ceremony 103 Analysis 106 Sacred History 108 Residential Schools 109 Analysis 119 Treaties and Wampums 121 Analysis 134 Roles and Responsibilities of Gender 139 Analysis 153 Roles and Responsibilities of Warriors 156 Analysis 164 Chapter 6 Ideology of Indigeneity in Research of Resistance 171 Gaining the Indigenous Perspective 171 Re-Storying: Unsilencing the Past 172 Revitalization as Indigenous Resurgence 176 Chapter 7 Discussion and Conclusions 184 Conclusion 189 What I Would Do Differently 204 Limitations 206 Areas for Further Study 208 Bibliography 211 Appendix 1 233 vii viii CHAPTER 1 Throughout North American history, the Original peoples have resisted1 the efforts of colonialists to take over their culture, spirituality, language, and lands. Over time, their forms of resistance have varied. For example, children in the residential schools resisted the assimilationist practices and policies of the schools by running away, burning the schools’ buildings, and secretly speaking to each other in their mother languages (see Haig-Brown, 1988; Miller, 2003, 369; Milloy, 1999). Historically, First Nations people have also organized so that they can work together by creating both political alliances and special interest advocacy groups such as the National Indian Brotherhood (NIB), American Indian Movement (AIM), Assembly of First Nations (AFN), Iroquois Confederacy, Federation of Saskatchewan Indians, Sisters in Spirit, Defenders of the Land, etc). Furthermore, First Nations people have responded to threats against their lands and treaty rights through both peaceful protests and more violent confrontations as they arose, such as in the cases of Gustafson Lake, The Oka Crisis, The Burnt Church Crisis, Ipperwash, the Caledonia Crisis, Attawapiskat Housing Crisis, and First Nation Education Act (see Chief, 2013; Fennel, 1995; Furniss, 1999; Howorwitz, 2009; Marketwire, 2013; Morden, 2013; Obamaswin, 1993, 2002; Palmeter, 2001). Although progress has been made to achieve recognition of their rights to their traditional lands, use of their Native languages, and ability to practice their culture and spirituality has been limited. Alternatively, since the time of global colonization, explorers and researchers have endeavoured to study and understand Indigenous people who live in the areas that Europeans sought to colonize (see Boas, 1911: Compte, 1844 (1856); Evans-Prichard, 1937, 1940; 1 When I speak of resistance, I am referring to actual acts of resisting governmental laws, policies, intrusion, and/or resource extractive activities by Settlers. Settler Corporations, or International Corporations activities that the Original people of Canada see or saw as negatively affecting their rights. Malinowski 1913, 1922, 1923, 1926; Mauss, 1990 (1922); Morgan, 1877; Tyler, 1920). Although their reasons for seeking this knowledge may have varied, there was a universal problem at the core of how they sought to accomplish their goal. This problem resides in the fact that Europeans sought to understand those they saw as ‘primitive’ within a European perspective (Alfred & Corntassel, 2005; Anderson, 2000; Holm et al., 2003; Martin-Hill, 1995:1-21; Smith, 2002). As a consequence, mainstream academic methods and theories have resulted in the production of knowledge that marginalizes the people within the researchers' gaze economically, sociologically, culturally, spiritually, and politically (Alfred & Corntassel, 2005; Alfred, 2005; Martin-Hill, 1995:1-21; Smith, 2002). For instance, early theories of social evolution informed the production of policies that justified the subjugation of people considered to be less evolved than
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