Empirical Analysis of Networks of Contributors in American Electoral Campaigns in the 1990

Jakub Langr April 21, 2013

Contents

1 Introduction 2

2 Statistical methods 2 2.1 Data ...... 2 2.2 Data processing ...... 3 2.3 Exploratory Analysis ...... 3 2.4 Hypotheses and Explanation ...... 4 2.5 Metrics ...... 4

3 Results 5 3.1 Visual ...... 5 3.2 Numeric ...... 6 3.3 Hypothesis ...... 7

4 Conclusion 7

5 Appendix A: Vector Graphic Figure 9

6 Appendix B: Unrefined R Code 10

List of Figures

1 Distribution of Closeness Centrality ...... 6 2 Image of the network of contributions ...... 7 3 Log distribution of donations - USD amounts ...... 8 4 Vector Graphic Figure – only for fast PCs! ...... 9

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1 Introduction

American politics was the first one to run such huge budgets merely on cam- paigning. A lot of interesting literature has been written on the matter, ev- erything from how has recently used social networks to his ad- vantage to lack of empirical testing in the use of the accumulated money. One of the aspects, that are tremendously interesting is partisanship hidden in the networks. While politicians frequently, on the outside, purport their strong ad- herence to the core values, these actions might be guided by someone completely different – contributors. This paper will examine their influence. Just a note to the reviewer, however, I would very much appreciate any addi- tional comments you might have as the rubric, although meaningful for grad- ing purposes, does not give me any feedback. If I happen to grade your pa- per, I would be delighted to reciprocate. So feel free to send any thoughts to: [email protected]; thank you!

2 Statistical methods 2.1 Data The data was downloaded from http : //datacommons.s3.amazonaws.com/subsets/td−20120424/contributions.fec.1990.csv.zip and unzipped into a 223 MB file, which turned out to be a bigger issue than it previously seemed. This was a nice, pre-packaged record of all contributions to politicians in the year 1990: everything from an individual contributors to large corporations. I chose the 1990 dataset, because of it (a) smaller size, (b) meaningful insights, as the newer datasets are more frequently discussed. The data consistent of almost 800,000 datapoints and had 42 variables, some of which empty, so the data had to be cleaned. This is an overview of the variables:

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Overview: All variables in the original dataset

[1] ”id””import reference id” [3] ”cycle””transaction namespace” [5] ”transaction id””transaction type” [7] ”filing id””is amendment” [9] ”amount””date” [11] ”contributor name””contributor ext id” [13] ”contributor type””contributor occupation” [15] ”contributor employer””contributor gender” [17] ”contributor address””contributor city” [19] ”contributor state””contributor zipcode” [21] ”contributor category””organization name” [23] ”organization ext id””parent organization name” [25] ”parent organization ext id””recipient name” [27] ”recipient ext id””recipient party” [29] ”recipient type””recipient state” [31] ”recipient state held””recipient category” [33] ”committee name””committee ext id” [35] ”committee party””candidacy status” [37] ”district””district held” [39] ”seat””seat held” [41] ”seat status””seat result”

2.2 Data processing The data was loaded to GoogleRefine, after numerous problems with memory, only to find out that the file was, for the most part, cleaned. The only major transformation necessary was to remove non-positive donations, which is an odd artifact of the dataset. So I returned to R 2.15.1, where the file was cleaned of unnecessary columns or those that were too incomplete to provide any meaningful insight. Next, the data was converted to graph, so that it can be further exported to Gephi 0.8.2 beta, which has better tools for network analysis. As for creation of the graph, the nodes were the contributors and the edges were contributions. The transformation was done thanks to igraph. Raw code for the transformation can be found in the appendix. Typesetting was done in LATEX.

2.3 Exploratory Analysis The file was loaded into Gephi. The graph file produced in R was already reduced to only approximately 85 MB in size by (a) removing unnecessary variables (b) removing heavily incomplete variables or (c) removing small and medium contributors. Small contributors were those who made “less than 100 contri-

3 Langr Contribution networks 4 out of 10 butions”. It was interpreted as follows: nodes: candidates/contributors; edges: contributions. It was loaded as a graphML file with attributes. This dataset was then colored by party, nodes differentiated by size by degree so that the larger ones can be easily spotted. Layout ForceAtlas2 was used to visualize the results better.

2.4 Hypotheses and Explanation Let me firstly say the whole hypothesis and then give full explanation: Con- tributors will tend to donate to candidates of both parties as to hedge against the risk of their favorite losing and hence will give money both to Republicans and Democrats; hence these donors gain influ- ence over the candidate regardless of income. Now, there are number of obvious issues with this: 1. What if these large donors genuinely want to donate to both parties, because few have preferences aligned perfectly along party lines and so it is normal to give money to both since you agree with both on some points? If that is the case, then this supports the hypothesis, because donors are not so focused on the party divide as they are focused on the policy. 2. Does money actually mean influence? Now, this is hard to measure, but it is the assumption of the model. After all, we always hear “follow the moneyrq’, right? 3. Why only the large contributors? Because only the people who have made more than 100 donations are (a) wealthy enough to actually influence any given candidate – because only they are important enough so that candidates care, (b) they have provided us with sufficient data to actually show some partisanship or lack thereof. Hence the variables I am going to be interested in are only: (a) candidate- donor connections, (b) party of the candidate, (c) InDegree of the candidate, (d) donor’s consistency in giving to candidates.

2.5 Metrics Now that I have set out what we want to know, how does this hypothesis actually translate into measurable a − priori metrics that we could check by testing the dataset? I have identified the following: 1. High degree of clustering: we would expect the average clustering coeffi- cient to be at least above 0.02, otherwise the null-hypothesis (i.e. contrib- utors hold party line) is true. Average clustering coefficient for directed graphs, such as ours is defined as:

|{ejk : vj, vk ∈ Ni, ejk ∈ E}| Ci = ki(ki − 1)

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For a directed graph, eij is distinct from eji, and therefore for each neigh- bourhood Ni there are ki(ki − 1) links that could exist among the vertices within the neighbourhood (ki is the number of neighbors of a vertex). This definition as well as further resources can be found at Wikipedia. (See: Clustering Coefficient) 2. We would expect a small average shortest path (ASP) to be below 3.5, as we expect this network to perfectly mimic a small world network, as contributions should, in theory, mimic population. Hence we would expect a low ASP as is in the general population. 3. We would expect the connected component to be over 95%: there will be no niche donors who only want to donate to a small set of people, but will donate to most. 4. Relatively high average degree: again, we would expect that the degree would be over 20.

The last condition almost follows from the previous three, but we can leave it there, just as another benchmark.

If all of the above hypotheses are true, then we would proclaim the initial hypothesis true and conclude that donors genuinely consider the influence they can get from a candidate over party considerations.

3 Results 3.1 Visual This section includes interesting results, not just related to the hypothesis: Figure 1 is the distribution of closeness centrality: on the x-axis is the num- ber of nodes with corresponding number of . It seems generally hard to interpret, however, whether it supports or goes against the hypothesis, since it actually hard to compare. A computer model to simulate the two scenarios for closeness centrality would be necessary in order to judge this. I am just adding it for completeness.

Figure 2 is only a PNG screen-shot added for convenience, because the full vector graphics image takes long to load; however, it is added at the end of this PDF for you to explore. Figure 2 is the map of the network with contributions to Democrats in blue, contributions to Republicans in red and contributions to Independents in yellow. To visualize it I used ForceAtlas 2; yet, there are no visible clusters–with the notable exception of “lonesome” anonymous donors. Those cannot be identified as individual entities and hence have contributions to both Democrats and Republicans (more often the latter than the former). One interesting snippet is that highest InDegree goes to MaxBaucus(D) and highest outdegree goes to AT &T .

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Figure 1: Distribution of Closeness Centrality

More interesting facts are that 119, 631 of these 160,000+ contributions were to a winning candidate and most generous district in 1990 was OR−05. Democrats, however, overall received more donations from these “elite” donors: 95, 626, as compared to Republican’s 68, 230. (The rest went to independents). Figure 3 is a vectorized version of dollar amounts of donations. Republican (in red) and Democrat (in blue) donations are overlayed in a rough form of points. Be warned however, the figure is misleading, for instance, because not all donations in the right part of the curve are Republican! The color just dominates so the blue points seem to be missing.

3.2 Numeric For convenience, the results are summarized in the following table:

Table 1: Summary of results Variable Result Fulfilled criteria? Number of nodes 2530 – Average clustering coefficient 0.032 Yes Average shortest path 2.879 Yes Connected component, rel 0.977 Yes Connected component, abs 2472 Yes Average degree 31.243 Yes

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Figure 2: Image of the network of contributions

3.3 Hypothesis From information above, we can conclude, that the hypothesis seems to be true. Admittedly, this was very superficial analysis, but the predictions were tested and it seems that it would be valid. Yet, I have to admit that choice of some of them was rather arbitrary–clustering coefficient could be much different. Again, this is because the metric is not very intuitive and to test our intuition an agent- based model would have to give us the respective coefficients for models that would be pre-programmed with or without hedging. Other than that, I think that it is clear from the picture that there are no two distinct communities–nor was it possible to separate the two parties in any meaningful way. Ergo, there is some overlap, though, obviously, it is not a seamless transition, simply because we would expect some degree of partisanship even with hedging.

4 Conclusion

In the end, the hypothesis seemed to be confirmed and it seems that even as far back as in 1990s contributors were looking to be always on the winning side. Obviously, the benefits are not clearly visible, but simply giving a lot of money to a candidate, I would imagine would surely secure you at least one meeting with him when he finally reaches office to plead your case for whatever might be troubling you. This sort of political quid-pro-quo was obviously happening ever since the beginning of politics and hence is hardly scandalous. It just

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Figure 3: Log distribution of donations - USD amounts

●● Log plot of density of contributions

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0 5 10 15

N = 168011 Bandwidth = 0.06356 interesting to note that people are aware that perhaps money does buy you friends and those friends then can help you. The unsurprising, but perhaps more interesting fact is that companies are purely calculating (as well as the fact that they can contribute at all!, but that is for another discussion), for instance, AT &T seems to have no partisan allegiance: of its 1,578 independent contributions, 886 went to Republicans and 673 went to Democrats. A perfect example of hedging. Also note that bellow the conclusion is the vector-graphic figure, but be warned– only fast PCs will display it reasonably.

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5 Appendix A: Vector Graphic Figure

Figure 4: Vector Graphic Figure – only for fast PCs!

Lana Pollack (D)

Teamsters Local 1/Carolina Ed Bates (R) John S Dyson (D)

Mary Lou Kearns (D)

Ironworkers Union Local 272 Operating Engineers Local 825

Brooklyn Democrats West AFL-CIO

Teamsters Local 557

Alerted Democratic Majority AFSCME District Council 37

American Dietetic Assn

Plumbers/Pipefitters Union Local 467

Vermont AFL-CIO

Thomas Joseph Hickey (D) Kenneth G McMillan (R) Operating Engineers Local 103 Plumbers/Pipefitters Union Local 337

Clyde Eugene Owens (D) California Democratic Hispanic Caucus Modern PAC

Peter G Doukas (D)

Ohio Freeze Voter Robert Dean Gray (D)

New Jersey Industrial Union Council

Harwood (Woody) Koppel (D) Evelyn Pratt (D)

Claiborne (Clay) Sanders (R) Teamsters Union/Washington State

Tenth Congr District Democratic Cmte Kansas Republican State Cmte

Democratic Cmte Of Onondaga County Tom Tierney (R) Teamsters Joint Council 94 Eighth District Democratic Cmte

Mark R Waterfill (D) Clyde R Lewis (R) Democratic Victory Fund of Summit County

Maryland & DC AFL-CIO American Soc Cataract/Refractive Surgery National Farmers Union PAC Peter Welch (D) Democratic Party Cmte Abroad 14th Democratic District Cmte/Michigan James R Jones (D) Political Accountability Cmte Bethune-Dubois Institute

Ray Mitchell (D) Railway Labor Executives' Assn William Yacobozzi Jr (R) Democratic State Central Cmte/Fed Accnt Operating Engineers Local 37 Peggy L Murray (D)

Jose E Clay (R) Jim Stone (D) Thomas M Trzybinski (D) '90 Gary Steven Foster (I) Art PAC National Assn of Arab-Americans Kathy Helling (D) John M Baine (D) Democratic Candidate Fund

Teamsters Local 238 Ironworkers Union Local 402 Tom Benavides (D) Jay Wolfe (R) Dudley Wayne TaylorSheet (D) Metal Workers Union Local 130 David P Mcknight (D) Reese Malcolm Lindquist (D) Joan L Wollin (D) Paul A Kulas (D) Jack Brookshire (D) Second District Congressnl Dem Cmte-Iowa IBEW Local 41 Operating Engineers Local 12 Samuel S Beard (D) Teamsters Union/Philadelphia Area Rainbow Coalition Political Cmte Julian Bond (D)

SpacePAC Edward R Garvey (D) Katie Hall (D) Richard Rhorer Hill (D)

Kenneth P Hayes (D) Don Bonker (D) Keep Hope Alive PACScott E Sidwell (D) WOMEN'S POLITICAL FUND Bernard Tomkin (D) Don Edgar Burris (D) Oakland Democratic Campaign Cmte

Byron Stephen Georgiou (D) Dean Leroy Bristow (R) Anthony Patrick Puca (D) Charles Herbert Gifford III (D) RICHARD S (BUCK) Obrien (D) Juanita WatkinsUnited (D) PaperworkersOttawa County Democratic Party

Kathleen Kennedy Townsend (D) TeamstersTeamsters Local Union/Minnesota 42 Mark Alan Siegel (D) Jane Wisdom (D) Jim Jay Johnson (R) Geraldine Greene (D) Charles Benjamin (D) Robert (Bob) Krueger (D) Marv Hanson (D) Phillip Wayne Cryts (D)

Anthony Scully Earl (D) Edward J Markey (D) Rod Johnson (R) Teamsters Local 523 USA Cmte Galen Afton Martin (D) Joseph H Herzberg (D) Washington AFL-CIO Whimsical Alternative Coalition

Hollywood Women's Political Cmte

Thomas E Burkhart (D) Hubert H Humphrey III (D) Queens County Democratic Organization Operation Real Security District Of Columbia Dem State Cmte Third Congressional Dist Democratic Cmte Cmte for a Progressive Congress Democratic Volunteer Action Cmte Teamsters Joint Council 53 American Society for Medical Technology Official 17th District Democratic Party Robert Palmer (D) Mike Earll (D) Mark Green (D) Jeff Wentworth (R) Ralph Applegate (D) Douglas Paul Peterson (D) North Carolina Democratic Executive Cmte Service Station Dealers of America Michael A Gelpi (D) Peter Franchot (D) Neighbor to Neighbor PAC Bernie Sanders (I) Kirby Jiles Roberts (D) Democratic County Cmte of San Francisco James Francis Cole (D) Roger D HartstoneFaye Williams(D) (D)Eni F H Faleomavaega (D) Michael Patrick Lawlor (D) John H Brock (D) National BipartisanCitizen Action PAC PAC

Congressional Agenda 80's Gunn Mckay (D) James A Starke Jr (D) Cmte for America's FuturePaw PAC Michael L Crozier (D) Cleo Fields (D) Penn Mutual Life Insurance (D) Participation 2000 Teamsters Local 745 Warner D Mendenhall (D) Teamsters Union/Ohio Americans for Democratic Action Robert J Nichols (R) David Bayer (D) Bill Orton (D) Teamsters Local 577 Melvin M Richardson (R) Gregory V Jolivette (D) Mike Moore (D) Glenn Thomas Carberry (R) Kamber Group John Melcher (D) California Democratic '88 Victory Cmte Teamsters Local 886 National Womens Political Caucus George Thomas Hamilton (R) Texas Machinists/Aerospace Workers Union

Alaska Democratic Party Thomas Patrick Deaton (D) John H Adler (D) Open Challenge Candidate Fund PAC William J (joe) Mcpherson Jr (D) Modern Woodmen of America Washington State Democratic Central Cmte Dan McGrath (D) Oregon Education Assn William D Nielsen (R) Charles C Vincent (D) Vicente C Pangelinan (D) IBEW Local 716 Delaware DemocraticMissouri Party Democratic State Cmte James E Tierney (D) Larry M Hall (D) Tom Udall (D) Machinists Bean Feed Cmte Victory 89 Robert A Baron (D) Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament Jack R Lousma (R) Bayless Lynn Greer (D) Kevin Patrick Gaughan (D) Donald Sykes (D) Patricia Malberg (D) Metropolitan Women's Democratic Club James Lawrence Ziegeweid (D) Spark M Matsunaga (D) Thomas Vincent Erney (D) Anita Perez Ferguson (D) National Council of Senior Citizens Kent Hodges (R) Democratic Cmte of Santa Clara County Frances L Reiter (D) Democratic State Central Cmte/ Mike Lowry (D) James W Donchess (D) Walter Ulrich Weber (R) Northwestern National Life John Knox Purcell (D) Democratic Party of Idaho Calvin Durant Harris (D) Mark Alan Kaplan (D) Democratic Party of Arkansas

Leroy Jones (D) Ray F Robbins II (R) Ron Paul (L) Kyle Kenley Kopitke (R) Democratic Party of Nevada North Dakota Dem-Nonpartisan League Prty Michael F Easley (D) Maine DemocraticVermont State CmteState Democratic Cmte Democratic PartyWyoming of South State Carolina Democratic Central Cmte Pax Americas DSCC Federal Candidates Fund Clement E Burns Jr (D) 3rd Congr Dist Democratic Party of Wisc Guy Campbell Kimbrough (D) DemocraticStateRosario Democratic Party Kennedy of ExecVirginia (D) Cmte of Alabama Elizabeth Dianne Richards (D) Kansas Democratic State Cmte John D Bouchard (R) John E Jackson (I) Michael Nicholas Kavouklis (R) John G Dow (D) James M French (D) Joseph Alan Strohl (D) James A Traficant Jr (D) Thomas W Ward (D) Minnesota Democratic Farmer Labor Party Fund for Effective Leadership Democratic Party of Cook County Craig W Yates (D) IBEW Local 349 President's Dinner Cmte Elmer White (D) Graphic Communications Union DemocraticNew Cmte Jersey of Utah Democratic State Cmte Congressional Black Caucus PAC Montgomery County Democrat Central Cmte Bakery, Confectionery & Tobacco Workers Democratic State Central Cmte/California New Hampshire Democratic State Cmte Dick Swett (D) William Andrew II Dyson (R) North Carolina Unity 90 Democratic Party of Oklahoma Rebecca Vigil-Giron (D) Joseph Adam III Sevario (D) Assn of State Dem Chairs/Dollrs for Dems Chester G Atkins (D) Pete Maxfield (D) Democratic Party Teamsters Local 20 Majority Congress Cmte Edward P Beard (D) State Dem Central Exec Cmte United Food & Commercial Workers 342-50 John P Vinich (D) Trucking Industry PAC Women's Campaign Fund Democratic Executive CmteIndiana of Florida Democratic Congresl Victory Cmte United Steelworkers of America Ron de Lugo (D) Mark S Setaro (D) C&S/Sovran Corp Democratic PartyDemocratic of OhioPennsylvania Party of Texas Democratic State Cmte Joseph Phillip Yeldell (D) Clean Up Congress Nebraska Democratic Future Fund Cmte Democratic Party of November Fund Nebraska 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Andrews (D) Myron Edward McKee (R) David J Worley (D) Sheila Jones (D) CommunicationsDemocratic Party of Iowa Workers of America John S Devens (D) Ronald V Dellums (D) Republican Associates of Orange County Louis G Demars (D) Bryce Baggett (D) DNC Services Corp Independent Action Clothing & Textile Workers Union Campaign For A New Majority John William Sr Riley (D) Amalgamated Transit Union Carlton R Sickles (D) Jim Moran (D) John Michael Hoffmann (D) Ted Weiss (D) Boilermakers Union James W Tibbs (R) Schroeder Fund for The Future Eaton County Republican Cmte Mike Kopetski (D) Operating Engineers Union Fund for a Conservative Majority J Scott Wolf (D) Erwin E (Bill) Rush (D) Noland Mackenzie Canter (D) Ron Jesse Twilegar (D) B Joanne McfarlandUnited (D) Auto Workers Democratic Study Group Campaign Fund Evelyn Craig (D) Stephen T Gregg (R) James B Lewis (D) Bill Bradbury (D) Gerald F Richman (D) Bricklayers Union Gerry E Studds (D) Louisiana ACRE Katherine E Sasseville (D) Wright Appreciation Fund Jim Wright (D) Service EmployeesCmte International for Democratic UnionReid Opportunity Hughes (D) Michael Gordon (D) Democratic Party (D)

Lenton Malry (D) Foster L Campbell (D) Intl Brotherhood of Electrical Workers NARAL North Carolina Richard J Allen (R) United Mine Workers Jeanne Givens (D) American Fedn of St/Cnty/Munic Employees Barbara A Mikulski (D) Al Smith (D) GOODSPEED, ELINOR Harvey I Sloane (D) International Assn of Fire Fighters Republican Party Of Alaska Democratic County Cmte of the Bronx Cal Dooley (D) AFL-CIO Bldg/Construction Trades Dept Jerry Apodaca (D) EMILY's List Robert J Gigante (D) Patrick K McGowan (D) Sandra Kay Scofield (D) Machinists/Aerospace Workers Union Peace PAC Georgia Federal Elections Cmte Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers National Assn of Social Workers Martha M Ezzard (D) Maryland Citizen Action Coalition James William Nichols (D) Multi-Issue PAC Intl Ladies Garment Workers Union Jeffrey A Barach (R) NARAL Tennessee Augustus F Hawkins (D) National Assn of Wheat Growers American Federation of TeachersCollin C Peterson (D) Ottawa County Republican Cmte American Federation of Govt Employees AFL-CIO Johnny Ford (D) Louis Stokes (D) Andrew Jacobs Jr (D) Lanier M Cansler (R) Rosa L DeLauro (D) Transport Workers Union Pennsylvania State Education Assn Human Rights Campaign Plumbers/Pipefitters Union Peter DeFazio (D) David J Swarts (D) Joe Keefe (D) Gary Ackerman (D) (D) National Assn of Postal Supervisors Gus Yatron (D) Cmte for Democratic Action Edward R Roybal (D) John W Cox Jr (D) JACPAC Voters for Choice/Frnds of Fam Planning Baron Hill (D) John A Budagher (R) Joe Earl Forrest Jr (D) United Food & Commercial Workers Union Lew Y Levin (R) Joseph S Incarnato (D) Robert Garcia (D) Joseph M Gaydos (D) Bob Borski (D) 8th Congressional Dist of VA Repub Cmte Richard A Licht (D) Josephine Heath (D) Barbara Osborn Kreamer (D) Patsy T Mink (D) Maxine Waters (D) Sidney R Yates (D) Maintenance of Way Employees Transportation Communications Union Dale E Kildee (D) Theodore R Muenster (D) Joseph D Early (D) Tom Sawyer (D) Pat Swindall (R) 24th Congressional Dist of Calif PAC Massachusetts Democratic State Cmte Howard Wolpe (D) Toby Moffett (D) Fund for a Democratic Majority Matthew G Martinez (D) Dan Stephan (R) Gary K Hart (D) Monica Elizabeth Bauer (D) National Wool Growers Assn Nicholas Mavroules (D) James McClure Clarke (D) Citizens for a Competitive America Edmundo R Delgado (D) Robert J Mrazek (D)

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Wood (R) Robert Kent (D) Campaign for A Republican Majority Arizona Cotton Growers Assn (R) Champion International Corp Bill Grant (R) E-Systems/Corporate DivisionNational Pest Control Assn John Randall Patchett (R) Vin Weber (R) Sheila C Bair (R) Thad Cochran (R) Pat Roberts (R) Druie Douglas Barnard Jr (D) Rodney Frelinghuysen (R) Jones, Day et al E Thomas Coleman (R) Carolina Power & Light Billy Stoudenmire (R) Richard C Freeman (R) Ralph O Williams (R) Walter Fox Mckeithen (R) Paul E Gillmor (R) (R) Hoechst Celanese Corp California Bankers Assn Johnson & Johnson Jesse Helms (R) John Buechner (R) Bob Smith (D) Chase Manhattan George McGovern (D) FMC Corp Demilt Morse (D) Travelers Group Rod Chandler (R) Jim Leach (R) American Financial Services Assn Tom Campbell (R) Howard CobleMilk (R) Industry Foundation Bill Emerson (R) Dick Williams (D) Columbia Gas System Dan Burton (R) Edison Electric Institute James P Krapf (R) Nancy L Johnson (R) National Soc of Professional Engineers Mark D Siljander (R) Republican Party of Wisconsin Fred Grandy (R) Natl Assn of Private Psychiatric Hosp Ronnie G Flippo (D) Southern Co Michael Duane Patterson (D) (D) Dean Witter Reynolds Cmte for Quality Orthopedic Health Care Thomas J Bliley Jr (R) Jim Courter (R) Samuel Ray Jones Jr (R) Jim Bunning (R) Warner/Nickles Cmte Contel Joe Skeen (R) Hoffmann-La Roche General Mills American Gas Assn John R Kasich (R) Tom DeLay (R)Tommy F Robinson (R) John H Chafee (R) (D) WN 1990 Cmte Bob Smith (R) Christopher Cox (R) Larry J Hopkins (R) Chris Tremblay (R) Glaxo Inc Michael Bilirakis (R) Sonny Callahan (R) Insurance Assn of Connecticut Daniel K Inouye (D) New Leadership Fund Pfizer Inc Norman F Lent (R) Christopher "Kit" Bond (R) Betty Ann Kane (D) Dan Coats (R) Wendell H Ford (D) BP America Denny Smith (R) Georgia-Pacific Corp Ned M NorrisRobert (D) C Scott (D) Roy Dahlson (R) Strom Thurmond (R) James M Inhofe (R) Jim Lightfoot (R) Richard T Schulze (R) Phil Gramm (R) (R) Jon L Kyl (R) (R) Professionals in Advertising PAC US Fidelity & Guaranty Hank Brown (R) Eleanor F Burlingham (D) Merck & Co Robert Thomas (Bob) Ellis (R) Dan Schaefer (R) Greyhound Dial Democratic Cmte of Monroe County Louis Anthony Russo (R) Jim Kolbe (R) National Forest Products Assn Hillhaven Corp Sam Gibbons (D) Steven H Schiff (R) Jim McCrery (R) Marine Midland Banks Cigna Corp SmithKline Beecham Porter Goss (R) James P Eynon (R) Frederick W Lenz (R) Gerald Oscar Dial (D) A Tribute To Fred Upton (R) Dan Corcoran (D) Bill Brewster (D) Tom Lewis (R) James R Harris (R) Banc One Indiana Corp BellSouth Services Mitch McConnell (R) (R) J Alex McMillan Bill(R) Paxon (R) Mickey Edwards (R) Lindy (Mrs Hale) Boggs (D) Conservative Victory Cmte Amoco Corp Ron Marlenee (R) LA Citizens For Fairness & Sharing Fireman's Fund Insurance Doug Bereuter (R) (R) Banc One Wisconsin Republican Party of North Dakota W Douglas Scamman Jr (R) Republican Majority Fund Florida Power & Light Jan Meyers (R) Charles H Adams (D) Carl Edward Mobley (I) Republican Party of Harris County Sovran Financial Corp National Republican Senatorial Cmte Cass Ballenger (R) Assn of Data Processing Service Orgs Clyde C Holloway (R) Bob Packwood (R) Steven D Symms (R) Edward R Madigan (R) Marvin Key Blount Jr (D) Catch the Spirit PAC Reynolds Metals Andy Ireland (R) William V Roth Jr (R) Intl Assn of Drilling Contractors Jack Fields (R) (R) Delaware Bankers Assn Don Ritter (R)Stan Parris (R) Robert E Messerli (D) David Edward Landau (D) Enron Corp Society of American Florists Quentin N Burdick (D) (R) American Nuclear Energy Council Robert Ralph Mcmillan (R) Salomon Brothers Associated General Contractors Robert S Walker (R) John Michael Kerry (D) Buddy MacKay (D) Corning Inc Bill Thomas (R) Lynn Martin (R) Chevron Corp (R) James H Mclaughlin (R) E Clay Shaw Jr (R) Auto Dealers & Drivers for Free Trade Bill Schuette (R) Continental Airlines National Coal Assn David Dreier (R) (R) Chuck Douglas (R) (R) Michael K James (R) NYNEX Corp Torchmark Corp Robert J Lagomarsino (R) Mel Hancock (R) Bob Cunningham (D) Cliff Stearns (R) Tom Tauke (R) Mead Corp Baron Reed (D) Chalmers P Wylie (R) Marriott Corp Eli Lilly & Co David L Boren (D) Quentin D Dastugue (R) Republican Party of Kentucky Craig Thomas (R) Nabisco Brands Inc Cyprus Minerals Ashland Oil Shell Oil Richard Haynie Snelgrove (R) Ohio Bankers Assn Jake Garn (R) Bluegrass Cmte Morgan J III Goudeau (D) Howard Dewitt Moye Jr (R) John Edward Porter (R) Carlos J Moorhead (R) Barbara F Vucanovich (R) State Mutual Life Assurance Bill Cabaniss (R) Don Sundquist (R) United Telecommunications Sterling Tucker (D) National Machine Tool Builders Assn JJ Pickle (D) Campaign America Alan K Simpson (R) ConAgra Inc Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R) D French Slaughter Jr (R) ITT Corp Howard C Nielson (R) Richard Baker (R) William E Dannemeyer (R) National Tooling & Machining Assn Dana Rohrabacher (R) Donald G Holmes (D) Rainier Bancorp Owens-Corning Fiberglass National Assn Industrial & Office Parks RepublicanAmerican Party Home of IowaProducts National Republican Congressional Cmte Craig Taylor James (R) David Anthony Gingerella (R) Albert Clyde Mcdonald (R) Motorola Inc Bowling Proprietors Assn Florida Bankers Assn Massachusetts Republican State Cmte McDonald's Corp Patricia Saiki (R) F James Sensenbrenner Jr (R) Sid Morrison (R) Frank H Murkowski (R) Manville Corp Exxon Corp Scott Paper Co Pete Fields (D) Amo Houghton (R) Henry Dargan McMaster (R) Allstate Insurance Bristol-Myers Squibb Abbott Laboratories Sundstrand Corp Don Nickles (R) Susan Molinari (R) NewNational Majority LeadershipAssn of Independent PAC Insurers International Council of Shopping Cntrs Santa Fe Southern PacificTexas Utilities Co Terry Owen Hayes (R) Centel Corp Weyerhaeuser Co Pete Wilson (R) Hulbert Henrique James (D) Oregon Dan Marriott (R) Norman D Shumway (R) Republican Party of Alabama Romano L Mazzoli (D) Entergy Services Victory '88 Cmte Chuck Grassley (R) Connie Mack (R) John Hiler (R) Hal Rogers (R) Massachusetts Bankers Assn Mary Ellen Lobb (R) Reuben D Franco (R) Wayne Allard (R) American Furniture Manufacturers Assn Gordon S (don) Curtis Jr (R) Holiday Inns Petroleum Marketers Assn John G Rowland (R) Don Ewen (R) RobertAlan C Lee Anderson Cropsey (R) (R) (R) M JaneRepublican Brady (R) Senatorial Inner Circle 1990 STONE, STANLEY MRS Charles S Robb (D) Larkin I Smith (R) John T Wrzesinski (R) Nancy Landon Kassebaum (R) American Bakers AssnSteve Bartlett (R) Bill Boerum (R) Ralph M Hall (D) Union Oil National Fedn of IndependentGeorge W Gekas Business (R)Virginia Smith (R) Texaco Louisiana Republican Party Victory 90 Monsanto Co Animal Health InstituteJim Salomon (R) International Assn of Holiday Inns Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Assn Smokeless Tobacco Council Carroll A Campbell Jr (R) Mortgage Insurance Companies of America John W Vogt (R) Natl Structured Settlements Trade Assn Brown-Forman Corp National Soft Drink Assn Dave Camp (R) Randy (Duke) Cunningham (R)

Bob Kasten (R) Bob Allen (R) Ben Bagert (R) Indiana Republican State Central Cmte Al McCandless (R) Douglas R Hughes (D) Campaign for Maryland's Future Montana Republican State Central Cmte Dave Hobson (R) Harris W Fawell (R) Alan H Nichols (R) Bob Eckhardt (D) Americans For Clean Water National Assn of Water Companies Jim Ramstad (R) Jerry D Rucker (R) Michigan Bankers Assn Henry J Hyde (R) Thomas N Kindness (R) John Heinz (R) Sandoz Pharmaceuticals Ed Jenkins (D) Commodity Exchange Inc Connecticut Republican Campaign Cmte Bill McCollum (R) (R) Michigan Republican State Cmte US Chamber of Commerce American Clinical Lab Assn North Carolina Republican Executive Cmte 15th District Cmte Sheet Metal/AC Contractors Assn Bill Barrett (R) Dresser Industries Ralph Regula (R) Illinois Republican State Central Cmte National Republican Party Michael G Oxley (R) Illinois Bankers Assn Tenneco Inc Victory 90 Natl Republican Women's Senatorial FundRepublican Party of GeorgiaMutual of Omaha Rick Santorum (R) National Restaurant Assn

National Commercial Finance Assn David G Thibodaux (R) Michael Schaefer (R) Republican Party of Tennessee Republican Party of Duval County George Bush (R) PepsiCo Inc Phillips PetroleumAssociated Builders & Contractors Ron Wilson (D) Independent Republicans of Minnesota Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing (3M) Bill Zeliff (R) Arizona Bank Jack Coleman (R) General Mills Restaurants Republican Party of California John McCain (R) David Grier Martin (D) (R) International Paper RepublicanJohn Christian Central Yoder Cmte (R) of South Dakota Miles S Rapoport (D) Slade Gorton (R) Conrad Burns (R)John W Hallock Jr (R) Sean Daniel Mcdevitt (R) Republican National Cmte Printing Industries of America Republican Party of Idaho Mike DeWine (R) National Wholesale Grocers Assn Douglas Nebel Jewett (R) Jack W Ross (D) Daniel G Heath (R) Nevada Dental Assn Richard G Lugar (R) John T Doolittle (R) National Assn of Wholesaler-Distributors Heartland PAC of Missouri Charles A (Skip) Smyser (R) David L Robinson (D) Colorado Republican Campaign Cmte Rhode Island Repub State Central Cmte Nebraska Republican Campaign Cmte Bill Frenzel (R) Mapco Inc New Hampshire Republican State Cmte Malcolm Wallop (R) Allen C Kolstad (R) JohnAtoka Rice County (R) Supper Cmte New York Mercantile Exchange Debt Before Christmas Cmte Texas Republican Congressional Cmte American Supply Assn David F Emery (R) Republican Senatorial Inner Circle 90-91 May Department Stores Karl N Snow Jr (R) National Electrical Contractors Assn Mobil Oil National Right to Life James Paxton (Corky) Morris (R) Van Heffner (R) Eagle Forum Business Industry PAC Bob Williams (R) Bill Goodling (R) Utah Dental Assn John Charles Eastman (R) Thomas H Anderson Jr (R) Cosmetic, Toiletry & Fragrance Assn Caterpillar Inc Richard Allen Waterfield (R)Ally Milder (R) Orrin G Hatch (R) Mitch Irwin (D) Oliver Francis Luck (R) Richard Franklin Colburn (R) Republican Leader's Fund Washington Mutual Gary A Franks (R) Senate Majority Fund Bruce Vorhauer (R) Bob Butterfield (R) David Karnes (R) Vermont Repub Federal Elections Cmte Manny Hoffman (R) Deere &John Co Linder (R) James J Needham (R) Republican Party of Hawaii Maurice M Meyers (R) Tom Scott (R) (R) K Mart Corp Jerry Schenken (R) National Security PAC Walter W Dudycz (R) Republican Federal Cmte of Pennsylvania Republican Party of Ohio Hugh Dunham Shine (R) George S Robinson (R) James W Rappaport (R) Larry Brady (R) Public Service Research Council Bill Archer (R) Rick Hawks (R) (R) Richard D Nichols (R) James M Jeffords (R) J Kenneth Blackwell (R) John Arthur Johnson (R) William R Tolley (R) National Assn of Chain Drug StoresIndependent BakersClark Durant Assn (R) (R) Morrison Inc Occidental Oil & Gas Scott Ellingwood Morgan (R) 1988 Repub Senate/House Dinner Cmte Health Industry Manufacturers Assn Charles H Taylor (R) Paul A Kapalko (R) Howard Scott Shore (R) Howard M Metzenbaum (D) Oklahoma Leadership Council Dan Lee (R) First Congressional District Repub Cmte Wall & Ceiling/Gypsum Drywall Contr Robert Carl Dickinson (R) Sovran Bank/Maryland Wayne T Gilchrest (R) Republican Party of Arkansas Bob Lanier (R) Public Securities Assn Inc Bob Edgar (D) Mark R Frazer (R) Chic Hecht (R) Sun Co Carol Louise JillGordon Houghton Whiteside Emery (R) (R) William Thompson (Will) Scott (R) Perry Weed (R) Scott L Klug (R) Clare L Berryhill (R) Robert L Hammock (R) Harris Corp Sears, Roebuck & Co

Michael Minoru Fawn Liu (R) J Vincent Chase (R) Steve Stockman (R) ColumbiaGeorgia Gas of Houston Ohio Webb (D) Ted Blanton (R) Republican Party of Maine Barry Joseph Sullivan (R) Fertilizer Institute John F Macgovern (R) Proprietary Association Edward J Roitz (R) Deborah R Cochran (R) Terry EdwardGenevieve Haskins Atwood (R) (R) Joseph Burt Dial (R) Policy Innovation PAC Peter Miller Dawkins (R) Cooper Industries

Douglas Wayne Carl (R) Eaton Corp United Conservatives of America Arthur F Jones (R) WyomingRepublican Republican Party State of CmteUtah Kenneth Davis Bell (R) Ralph T Grant Jr (D) Sovran Bank (R) Campaign for America Simeon Golar (D) Bradley James Haskins (R) Donna Peterson (R) Glen Daniel Bellitto (R) Lyons Gray (R) Louis H Gallegos (R) Missouri Republican State Cmte John D Rogers (R) Richard E Mourdock (R) Wine Institute South Carolina Republican Party New York Republican Campaign Cmte Audrie Zettick Schaller (R) American Wood Preservers Institute Mark Baughman (R) Capitol Cmte National Assn of Business & Educ Radio Steven Martin Dickson (D) Asa Hutchinson (R) Nestle Enterprises Bill Moorhead III (D) Right to Work PAC Ruff PAC Andrew K Poepoe (R) New Jersey Republican State Cmte Iowa First Cmte Terry Michael Gorham (R) James H Dingeman (R) United Republican Fund of Illinois Warren G Sarasin (R) Lane Harvey (R) Bill Gradison (R) Daniel J Mangini (R) Westchester Republican Chairmans Club Donald Melvin Temple (D) Republican Party of Illinois 22 District AT Massey Coal Co Stan Mcdonald (R) James Holland (Jim) Keet III (R) Joseph Daniel Malone (R) Mortgage Bankers Assn of the Carolinas Chambers Development Co Bradley Sundell Johnson (R) Donald L Frankenfeld (R) National Congressional Club 7th District Republican Cmte Ohio Savings Assns League George V Voinovich (R) Harold H Hodges (R)

Susan S Engeleiter (R) Fifth Horseman PAC 1988 Republican National Convention Cmte Republican State Cmte of Delaware Prochoice Voter American Feed Industry Assn San Bernardino County Repub Central Cmte Alan L Keyes (R) (R) North Carolina Right to Life Earl S Strinden (R) Kent Hance (R) Edwin W III Eisendrath (D) CRC Victory '90 American Leadership Council Plaid PAC Luis A Luna (R) Tom Fetzer (R) Alexander Haig (R) Pro Hispanic PAC Kent County Republican CmteFinance Cmte Power-PAC Computer & Communications Industry Assn Jaime B Fuster (D) Phillip J Mcconkey (R) Virginia Bankers Assn Mary Margaret Collins (R) Washington State Repub Fed Campaign Cmte Mid-Continent Oil & Gas Assn John Loren Harmer (R) A Tribute To Phil Gramm National Food Processors Assn Mississippi Rep Pty Capitol Foundation

Conservative National Cmte New JerseyVermont Pro-Life Pro-Life PAC PAC Sam Wilson Russell (D) Montana Right to Life Howard Bell (R) Arkansas Right to Life

Potato Chip & Snack Food Assn Republican State Central Cmte/Maryland Dana Stevens (D) Ed Bryant (R)

J C Helms (R) Robert A Davis (R) Ronald Lee Staskiewicz (R) Sen John Warner Golf Tournament Cmte Edgar L Chase III (D) Gerald R Ford New Leadership Cmte

Citizens for Responsible Government/Colo West Virginia Republican State Exec Cmte Henry Speir Md Jordan Jr (R) Ike Andrews (D) California Pro Life Council MissouriSouth Right Carolina to Life Citizens for Life Illinois Right ToTexas Life Right to Life

Free Congress PAC Massachusetts Repub State Cmte/Commit 80

Republican Campaign Cmte of New Mexico IMPAC 88 (R) Robert Wallace Blake (R) Lancaster County Republican Party Robert B Harris (R) Calvin Jerome Allgaier (R) Republican Challengers' Cmte Paul Eugene Jurgens (R) Maurice A Dawkins (R) Joseph A Ghougassian (R) Republican Party of Virginia

Houston Regional Mobility Assn

John S Mccormick Jr (R) Arizona Right to Life Paul A Thomas (D) North Dakota Right to Life Maryland Right to Life David Eugene Bath (R) Minnesota Citizens Concerned for Life West Virginians for Life NC GOP Campaign Election Cmte National Fisheries Institute International Franchise Assn Wyoming Pro-life Pac Foodservice & Lodging Institute Maine Right to Life Jorge T Gallo (R) National Right to Work PAC

Ohio Right to Life Society Republican Party/Hawaii Joint Fundraiser Rhode Island State Right to Life Virginia Society for Human Life Conservative Leadership PAC

Jackson M Andrews (R)

Phil T Archuletta (R)

Pressler-Frankenfeld Cmte Multnomah County Republican Cmte Michael Patrick McGinn (R) Carl R Sr Edwards (R)

Nevada State Republican Central Cmte

Potomac Electric Power David J Shestokas (R)

Ron Fuller (R) Charles Joseph Hoffman (R) Kansans for Life

Jim McWilliams (D) Patricia Lee Williams (R) Knox Haynsworth White (R)

Americans For Constitutional Action Kenneth L Maddy (R)

Oregon Right to Life Dennis W Smith (R)

Pennsylvania Pro Life Federation John Milton Ragsdale (R) John M Regan Jr (R) Scott T Schultz (R)

Ron Menor (D) American Retail Federation

Republican Central Cmte of Orange County

California for America American Frozen Food Institute Daniel B Crane (R)

Calvin Oscar Hultman (R) Robert H Gaffner (R) Martin Victory '90

Massachusetts Citizens for Life Kentucky Pro-Life PAC National Confectioners Assn Mark Steven Patrosso (R)

Bernard A Zimmermann (R)

Martin A Tori (R)

9 Langr Contribution networks 10 out of 10

6 Appendix B: Unrefined R Code

Note that the data were loaded as “cont”.

FreqCon <- table(cont$contributor_name) FMI <- names(FreqCon)[FreqCon > 100] LC <- subset(cont, contributor_name %in% FMI)

LC[,1] <- LC$contributor_name LC[,2] <- LC$recipient_name

LC = LC[,c(1,2,3,5,13,14,15,17,20,22,24,25)] GLC <- graph.data.frame(LC) write.graph(GLC,"Large_donations.graphml",format="graphml") plot(density(log(LC$amount)),lwd=2.5, main="Log plot of density of contributions") lines(density(log(LC$amount[LC$recipient_party=="R"])),type=’p’,pch=21,lwd=1.5,col="red") lines(density(log(LC$amount[LC$recipient_party=="R"])),type=’p’,pch=21,lwd=1.5,col="red") lines(density(log(LC$amount[LC$recipient_party=="D"])),type=’p’,pch=21,lwd=1.5,col="blue") dev.copy2pdf(file="Density_plot.pdf")

The rest was done in Gephi, using standard GUI.

10