ISSN 1026 2881

journal of the African Elephant, African Rhino and Asian Rhino Specialist Groups

July–December 2009 No. 46

1 Chair reports/Rapports des Présidents 1 African Elephant Specialist Group report/Rapport du S p e c i e s Groupe Spécialiste des Eléphants d’Afrique S u r v i v a l Holly T. Dublin C o m m i s s i o n 7 African Rhino Specialist Group report/Rapport du Editor Groupe Spécialiste des Rhinos d’Afrique Bridget McGraw Martin Brooks

Editorial Board 14 Asian Rhino Specialist Group report/Rapport du Julian Blanc Groupe Spécialiste des Rhinos d’Asie Martin Brooks Holly Dublin Bibhab K. Talukdar Richard Emslie Esmond Martin 18 Research Robert Olivier Diane Skinner 18 Assessment of habitat change and threats to the Bibhab K. Talukdar Lucy Vigne greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, using multi- Design and layout temporal satellite data Gordon Arara Pranjit Kumar Sarma, Bibhab Kumar Talukdar, Kiranmay Sarma, Mrigen Barua Address all correspondence, including enquiries about 25 Rhino poaching in Assam: challenges and subscription, to: opportunities The Editor, Pachyderm Esmond Martin, Bibhab Kumar Talukdar, Lucy Vigne PO Box 68200–00200 35 Portugal’s long association with African ivory Nairobi, Kenya T: +254 20 890605-12 Esmond and Chryssee Martin W: +254 20 249 3561/65/70 M: +254 724 256 804 + 254 734 768 770 47 Field notes F: +254 20 890615 email: [email protected] 47 Using dung bolus diameter for age estimation in web site: http://african-elephant.org an unstudied elephant population in Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania Reproduction of this publication for Katarzyna Nowak, Trevor Jones, Phyllis C. Lee educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for Cover: A savannah elephant in a montane forest of the Udzungwa resale or other commercial purposes is Mountains,Tanzania. prohibited without written permission of Photo: Michele Menegon the copyright holder. journal of the African Elephant, African Rhino and

July–December 2009 No. 46 Asian Rhino Specialist Groups

53 MIKE-ETIS updates

53 ETIS update number two: Progress in the implementation of the Elephant Trade Information System Tom Milliken and Louisa Sangalakula

56 Wildlife management data needs assessment workshop for Southern African Range States Russell Taylor and Tapera Chimuti

66 Status of elephant population in Bangassou MIKE site, Central African Republic Sébastien Luhunu and Martha Bechem

69 Sapo Forest survey: progress, challenges and lessons learnt Massalatchi M. Sani and Yaw Boafo

72 Guidelines for contributors

Acknowledgements

The production of this issue of Pachyderm was only possible through contributions from a number of organizations and individuals. In particular, we would like to thank the following:

Views expressed in Pachyderm are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN, the Species Survival Commission or any of the three Specialist Groups responsible for producing Pachyderm (the African Elephant Specialist Group, the African Rhino Specialist Group and the Asian Rhino Specialist Group). CHAIR REPORTS RAPPORTS DES PRESIDENTS

African Elephant Specialist Group report Rapport du Groupe Spécialiste des Eléphants d’Afrique

Holly T. Dublin, Chair/Président

IUCN/SSC African Elephant Specialist Group, PO Box 68200–00200, Nairobi, Kenya; e-mail: [email protected]

This has been a very exciting period for the Af- Cela a été une période très passionnante pour le GSEAf. rican Elephant Specialist Group. In November En novembre 2009 nous avons tenu notre première réun- 2009 we held our first meeting of the members ion des membres depuis 2003. En présence des nouveaux since 2003. With new members and new staff, membres et un nouveau personnel, c’était merveilleux it was wonderful to be together in one room d’être ensemble dans une salle et de se connaître de and get to know each other again, as well as to nouveau, ainsi que de partager les détails de notre travail share details of our work and consider our role et examiner notre rôle dans la conservation de l’éléphant in elephant conservation in the future. A full set dans le futur. Un ensemble complet des débats sera publié of proceedings will be published in due course, en temps voulu, mais pour le moment, il suffit de dire que but for now, suffice it to say that the five-day le programme de cinq jours a couvert une grande gamme agenda covered a wide range of topics, includ- de sujets, y compris l’abattage et le commerce illégaux, ing illegal killing and trade, human-elephant le conflit homme-éléphant, la gestion de l’éléphant à conflict, elephant management at all scales, tous les niveaux, la gestion des données sur le nombre management of data on elephant numbers et la distribution des éléphants, le financement de la and distribution, conservation financing, and conservation et une session extrêmement stimulante sur an extremely invigorating session on climate le changement climatique et le paiement pour les services change and payment for ecosystem services de l’écosystème tant qu’ils se rapportent à la conservation as they pertain to elephant conservation in de l’éléphant en Afrique. La réunion s’est tenue à Nairobi, Africa. The meeting was held in Nairobi, and et le Service de la Faune du Kenya nous a invités à faire the Kenya Wildlife Service treated us to a game une promenade dans le Parc du National de Nairobi, et drive in Nairobi National Park, and the IUCN le Secrétariat de l’UICN a organisé une belle réception Secretariat hosted a lovely reception for us at pour nous au siège du bureau régional de l’Afrique de the IUCN ESARO Headquarters. l’Est et Australe. It was very important to interface with each C’était très important de se connecter pendant cette other during this meeting because the elephant réunion parce qu’en 2010 le monde de l’éléphant fait world faces yet another potentially divisive year encore face à une autre année qui pourrait faire surgir in 2010 with the upcoming CITES CoP15 in des divisions lors de la prochaine CoP15 de la CITES en March 2010. With three elephant proposals on mars 2010. Avec trois propositions relatives à l’éléphant the agenda, there will again be a large focus on sur l’ordre du jour, les éléphants vont encore susciter elephants during the CITES CoP in Doha. While un grand intérêt pendant la COP à Doha. Alors que les the two down-listing proposals from Zambia and deux propositions de déclassement de la Zambie et de la

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 1 Dublin

Tanzania will be analysed by the Panel of Experts, Tanzanie seront analysées par un panel d’experts mandaté as mandated by the Parties, IUCN has prepared its par les Parties, l’UICN a préparé sa propre analyse de la own analysis of the third proposal (from Kenya, troisième proposition (du Kenya, du Ghana, du Libéria, Ghana, Liberia, Mali, Sierra Leone, Togo, Repub- du Mali, de la Sierra Leone, du Togo, de la République lic of Congo and Rwanda). du Congo et du Rwanda). Formal and informal discussions at the Les discussions officielles et non officielles lors AfESG meeting highlighted current concerns de la réunion du GSEAf ont mis en exergue les préoc- about the observed increase in poaching in a cupations concernant l’augmentation observée du bra- number of Range States in 2009. Members connage dans plusieurs états de l’aire de distribution exchanged observations from their personal en 2009. Les membres ont échangé des observations experience on the ground in an effort to better d’après leur expérience personnelle sur le terrain dans understand the current dynamics. The apparent un effort de mieux comprendre la dynamique actuelle. growth in demand for ivory in China and the ex- L’augmentation apparente de la demande pour l’ivoire en pansion of syndicated-type illicit trade in this and Chine et l’expansion du commerce illicite syndiqué en other wildlife products is creating notable cause ivoire et d’autres produits de la faune constituent un sujet for concern. There must be greater vigilance and d’inquiétude. Il faut une plus grande vigilance et on doit new ways must be found to support the Range trouver de nouveaux moyens pour soutenir les états de States to enhance their law enforcement efforts l’aire de distribution pour qu’ils améliorent leurs efforts at the site level as well as their ability to control de mise en vigueur de la loi au niveau du site ainsi que leur illegal trade. The escalating decline in funds for capacité de contrôler le commerce illégal. La diminution the conservation of biodiversity across the world des fonds pour la conservation de la biodiversité dans le is also being felt by those working to conserve monde se fait aussi sentir par ceux qui travaillent pour Africa’s elephants and making these tasks all conserver les éléphants d’Afrique ce qui rend ces tâches the more difficult. encore plus difficiles. It saddens me that rather than a spirit of Cela me donne de la peine qu’au lieu de joindre pulling together to take on the growing chal- nos efforts pour s’attaquer au défi croissant qui est lenge before us, a divisive tone has yet again devant nous, un ton de division s’est encore glissé dans crept into the dialogue among the many people le dialogue parmi les nombreux gens qui partagent le who share the common goal of conserving Af- but commun de conserver les éléphants d’Afrique. Je rica’s elephants. I am convinced that if we turn suis convaincue que si nous tournons le dos au vieil our backs on the old adage ‘united we stand, adage « l’union fait la force » cela reviendra nous divided we fall’ it will come back to haunt us. hanter. Nous devons travailler plus dur pour trouver We must work harder to find the mutually agree- des solutions mutuellement acceptables ce qui nous able solutions, which currently elude us. Many échappe à présent. On a essayé beaucoup de solutions solutions have been tried and just as many have qui ont échoué. Nous devons faire face à la réalité que failed. We must face the reality that no one has personne n’a trouvé « une formule universelle » qui found a ‘universal formula’ that can work at all peut marcher à tout moment et en tout lieu. Il n’y a times and in all places. There is no indisputable aucune solution « correcte » ou « fausse » incontest- ‘right’ or ‘wrong’. So surely conserving Africa’s able. La conservation des éléphants d’Afrique ne sera elephants will not be served by another heated sûrement pas servie par une autre bataille animée dans battle in the CITES arena as the species faces l’arène de la CITES alors que l’espèce fait face aux the ever-more-intractable challenges which are défis encore plus insolubles qui se jouent maintenant now playing out across the continent. à travers le continent. Although it is not possible for the AfESG to Bien que ce ne soit pas possible que le GSEAf délivre single-handedly deliver a way forward, it remains lui seul la voie à suivre, c’est mon espoir fervent que my fervent hope that in the ‘heat of battle’ our dans la « chaleur de la bataille » nos membres peuvent, members can, as they always have, work together comme ils le font toujours, travailler ensemble comme as a synergistic force to help secure a future for une force synergétique pour aider à trouver un avenir pour the African elephant across its range. l’éléphant d’Afrique à travers son habitat.

2 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 African Elephant Specialist Group report

Pachyderm Le Pachyderme This is the 46th issue of Pachyderm, and we are C’est la 46ème publication de Pachyderme, et nous sommes very pleased that we have managed to find funding très contents d’avoir réussi à trouver le financement pour com- to complete this issue. The Editorial Board has spent pléter cette publication. L’année passée, le comité de rédaction a lot of time and energy over the past year examin- a passé beaucoup de temps et d’énergie à examiner les op- ing the options available to us to allow Pachyderm tions qui nous sont disponibles pour permettre à Pachyderme to survive, and while we do not yet have a clear de survivre, et tandis que nous n’avons pas encore trouvé le way forward, we will be making some adjustments chemin à suivre, nous ferons des ajustements pour réduire les to reduce current costs. One clear conclusion is coûts actuels. Une conclusion évidente est que les exemplaires that hard copies of the journal are simply not cost- imprimés de la revue ne sont pas rentables vu le nombre de effective for the size and readership of the journal lecteurs de la revue et que nous dépendrons de plus en plus and we will increasingly rely on delivering our de la mise en ligne de notre contenu - une tendance répandue content online—a trend that is rapidly taking place pour la plupart des médias imprimés. Comme un début, nous for most print media. As a start, we have made each avons rendu chaque article disponible pour téléchargement article available for individual (and therefore much individuel (et par conséquent beaucoup plus petit) à partir de smaller) download from http://pachydermjournal. http://pachydermjournal.org dans une tentative de réduire le org in an attempt to reduce the burden on scant or fardeau sur la largeur de bande insuffisante ou surtendue. Nous overstretched bandwidth. We are keenly aware that savons bien que pour beaucoup de lecteurs de Pachyderme, en for many readers of Pachyderm, particularly those particulier ceux en Afrique, l’accès à la connectivité adéquate in Africa, access to adequate Internet connectivity de l’Internet reste un défi. Pour au moins ce numéro nous remains a challenge. For at least this issue we will ferons de notre mieux pour fournir des copies imprimées à do our best to deliver hard copies to those without ceux qui n’ont pas l’accès mais il n’y a pas de garanties pour access but there are no guarantees in future and we l’avenir et nous pouvons seulement espérer que la connectivité can only hope that connectivity will, indeed, rapidly sera, en effet, rapidement améliorée sur tout le continent. improve across the continent. Nous sommes aussi heureux d’accueillir deux nou- We are also happy to welcome two new mem- veaux membres au comité de rédaction - Kees Rookmaker bers to the Editorial Board—Kees Rookmaker et Debbie Gibson qui seront les éditeurs des sections and Debbie Gibson—who will act as section rhinocéros et éléphants, respectivement. La presta- editors for rhinos and elephants, respectively. The tion de leurs connaissances à cette tâche soutiendra le delivery of their knowledge to this task will stand Pachyderme dans sa bonne place pendant que nous nous Pachyderm in good stead as we strive to continue efforçons à continuer à améliorer le contenu de la revue. improving the content of the journal. La base de données de l’éléphant The African and Asian Elephant d’Afrique et d’Asie Database Le travail sur la nouvelle Base de Données de l’Éléphant Work on the new African and Asian Elephant d’Afrique et d’Asie (BDEAA) progresse extrêmement bien. Database (AAED) is progressing extremely well. Suite au développement d’une spécification fonctionnelle détail- Following the development of a detailed functional lée pour la nouvelle base de données, nous avons sélectionné specification for the new database, we selected a un développeur de logiciel pour rendre notre vision une réalité. software developer to turn our vision into a reality. Le développeur a tenu des réunions très productives avec les The developer had very productive meetings with membres du groupe de travail de GSEAf sur la révision des members of the AfESG Data Review Working Group données et avec Simon Hedges, Co-président du Groupe de and Simon Hedges, Co-Chair of the Asian Elephant Spécialistes de l’Eléphant d’Asie en novembre et une version Specialist Group in November and a beta version of bêta de la base de données sera bientôt prête à être testée, et le the database will soon be ready for testing, with the lancement officiel anticipé vers la mi-2010. La nouvelle base official launch anticipated by mid-2010. The new de données basée sur le serveur aura une interface sur l’Internet server-based database will have a web interface for pour que les utilisateurs puissent soumettre, demander et voir users to submit, request, and view data. While there les données. Alors qu’on aura encore besoin de « corps chauds

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 3 Dublin will still need to be ‘warm bodies’ to verify data and » pour vérifier les données et préparer des analyses, le nouveau prepare analyses, the new system will automate at système automatisera au moins quelques-unes des tâches, en least some of the tasks, allowing the African and Asian permettant aux Groupes de Spécialistes de l’Éléphant d’Afrique Elephant Specialist Groups to focus on providing et d’Asie de se concentrer à fournir des analyses mises à jour updated analyses for use in decision-making. pour l’usage dans la prise de décisions. Human-elephant conflict Conflit homme-éléphant Building on the AfESG’s vertical integration En se basant sur le modèle d’intégration verticale du model and with the help of an FAO-funded con- GSEAf et avec l’aide d’un consultant financé par la sultant, Simon Anstey, we now have a design for FAO, Simon Anstey, nous avons maintenant le modèle a programmatic framework to help ameliorate d’un cadre programmatique visant à améliorer le conflit human-elephant conflict in Tanzania and Mo- homme-éléphant en Tanzanie et au Mozambique. Le zambique. Funding and implementing this design financement et la mise en pratique de ce modèle seront will be a priority as we move forward into 2010. prioritaires pendant que nous avançons en 2010. The Human-Elephant Conflict Working Group, Le groupe de travail sur le conflit homme-éléphant, co-chaired by members Noah Sitati and Richard co-présidé par les membres Noah Sitati et Richard Hoare, Hoare, had an opportunity to consider its future dur- a eu l’occasion d’examiner son avenir pendant notre ing our meeting in November. It goes without saying réunion en novembre. Il va sans dire qu’il faut obtenir un that new funding must be secured but I anticipate nouveau financement mais j’anticipe un rajeunissement et rejuvenation and innovative action as the Group une action innovatrice au fur et à mesure que le Groupe further reflects on past experience and confronts the réfléchit aux expériences passées et qu’elle affronte les growing challenges posed to elephant conservation by défis croissants posés à la conservation de l’éléphant par increasing human-elephant conflict across the range. le conflit homme-éléphant à travers l’habitat. Illegal killing and ivory trade Abattage illégal et commerce de l’ivoire Update on the CITES-MIKE and ETIS programmes Mises à jour sur les programmes de la I am extremely pleased to have both CITES-MIKE CITES-MIKE et ETIS and ETIS continue to contribute to Pachyderm, as you Je suis extrêmement heureuse que la CITES-MIKE et will read in this issue. Both CITES-MIKE and ETIS l’ETIS continuent à contribuer à Pachyderme, comme vous held their Technical Advisory Group (TAG) meetings lirez dans cette publication. La CITES-MIKE et l’ETIS in Nairobi in December 2009. Although I was unable ont tenu leurs réunions du Groupe Consultatif Technique to attend, a number of AfESG members who also (GCT) à Nairobi en décembre 2009. Même si je ne pouvais serve on the TAGs did attend, and it was reportedly pas y participer, plusieurs membres du GSEAf qui siègent a very productive three days. Just prior to the TAG aussi aux GCT y ont participé, et on a rapporté que c’était meetings, AfESG member Russell Taylor facilitated trois jours très productifs. Juste avant les réunions des an ‘Efforts Workshop’ for CITES-MIKE; his report GCT, Russell Taylor un membre du GSEAf, a facilité un on that workshop can also be found in this issue. « Atelier des Efforts » pour la CITES-MIKE; on peut aussi In the face of increasing reports of poaching in trouver son rapport sur cet atelier dans cette publication. various parts of the elephant range, the findings of Face à des rapports croissants de braconnage dans both these programmes, in addition to the knowl- plusieurs parties de l’habitat de l’éléphant, les conclu- edge coming in from researchers and practitioners sions de ces programmes, en plus des connaissances qui on the ground, particularly in Central Africa, will viennent des chercheurs et des praticiens sur le terrain, en be extremely important in motivating conservation particulier en Afrique Centrale, serviront à motiver l’action action for the species. The AfESG will continue to de la conservation de l’espèce. Le GSEAf continuera à work closely with both CITES-MIKE and ETIS to travailler étroitement avec la CITES-MIKE et l’ETIS pour help ensure that the information reaches those who s’assurer que les informations atteignent ceux qui en ont most need it and can put it to best use. le plus besoin et qui peuvent mieux les utiliser.

4 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 African Elephant Specialist Group report

Updates on conservation and Mises à jour des stratégies de management strategies and conservation et de gestion et les plans action plans d’action Central Africa L’Afrique centrale There is broad-based agreement that Central Africa’s Il y a un large accord que les éléphants d’Afrique Centrale elephants face a growing crisis. Like so many of the font face à une crise croissante. Comme beaucoup des parcs national parks of the sub-region, the 2005 Central nationaux de la sous-région, la Stratégie de la Conserva- African Elephant Conservation Strategy, which tion de l’Éléphant d’Afrique Centrale de 2005 qui a mis highlighted concerns about the escalating illegal en exergue les préoccupations concernant la flambée du ivory trade, sadly remains primarily a paper exercise. commerce illégal de l’ivoire reste tristement avant tout There has been no success in securing meaningful un exercice sur papier. On n’a pas réussi à obtenir des resources or serious political will in support of its ressources significatives ou à voir une volonté politique implementation. Perhaps not surprisingly, therefore, sérieuse en faveur de sa mise en œuvre. Ce n’est peut-être there has been little success in efforts to curb the pas étonnant qu’il y a eu donc peu de succès dans les efforts high levels of illegal killing of elephants, which is de réprimer le niveau élevé d’abattage illégal des éléphants happening alongside the dramatic and often illegal ce qui va de pair avec l’exploitation dramatique et souvent exploitation of other resources in the region. illégale d’autres ressources dans la région. At our members’ meeting in November, we Lors de la réunion de nos membres en novembre, worked hard to find a way forward and while there nous avons travaillé durement pour trouver une voie à is potential for collaboration with IUCN’s Forest suivre et tandis qu’il y a un potentiel pour la collaboration Programme to examine the relationship between avec le Programme de Forêts de l’UICN pour examiner the illegal trade in ivory and timber, it is not clear le rapport entre le commerce illégal de l’ivoire et du what contribution we can make to the underlying bois, il n’est pas clair quelle contribution nous pouvons situation. In fact, it is hard to see what tangible faire à la situation sous-jacente. En fait, c’est difficile de role a voluntary group of technical experts like voir quel rôle tangible un groupe volontaire d’experts the AfESG can play in realizing conservation techniques comme le GSEAf peut jouer pour réaliser des outcomes in a sub-region where there is, in effect, résultats de conservation dans une sous-région où il y a, such poor governance over the use of natural re- en effet, la mauvaise gouvernance concernant l’usage sources. Perhaps the outputs from our impending des ressources naturelles. Peut-être les résultats de notre study of the elephant meat trade in Central Africa, prochaine étude sur le commerce de la viande d’éléphant which will be taking place in 2010, can help us en Afrique Centrale qui aura lieu en 2010 peuvent nous to gain the attention of and garner support from aider à attirer l’attention et le soutien de ceux qui ont le those with the power to act. pouvoir d’agir.

Southern Africa L’Afrique australe The AfESG has been assisting the National Di- Le GSEAf a aidé la Direction Nationale des Aires de rectorate of Conservation Areas in the develop- Conservation dans le développement du Plan d’Action ment of the Mozambican Elephant Management de Gestion de l’Éléphant du Mozambique qui est main- Action Plan, which is now nearly completed. The tenant presque complété. Le processus a impliqué une process has involved broad consultation across consultation générale dans tout le pays et parmi tous les the country and throughout governmental depart- départements gouvernementaux responsables des dif- ments responsible for different facets of elephant férents aspects de la gestion de l’éléphant dans le pays. management in the country. West Africa L’Afrique de l’Ouest Following the resignation of the Programme Suite à la démission du Chargé de Programme pour Officer for West Africa, and without funding to l’Afrique de l’Ouest, et sans le financement pour remplac- replace the position, the AfESG Secretariat’s work er le poste, le travail du Secrétariat du GSEAf en Afrique

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 5 Dublin in West Africa has slowed down significantly. de l’Ouest s’est ralenti considérablement. Cependant, nos However, our members in West Africa continue membres en Afrique de l’Ouest continuent à travailler to work and collaborate to keep momentum go- et à collaborer pour garder l’élan en faveur de la mise ing on the implementation of the West African en œuvre de la Stratégie de Conservation de l’Éléphant Elephant Conservation Strategy. We are looking d’Afrique de l’Ouest. Nous essayons de voir comment to see how we can continue providing support nous pouvons continuer à fournir le soutien à nos mem- both to our members and to the co-ordination of bres et à la coordination de la Stratégie et le Protocole the Strategy and Convention on Migratory Species d’Accord sur la Convention des Espèces Migratrices. Memorandum of Understanding. L’Afrique de l’Est East Africa A la demande des états de l’aire de distribution de la At the request of the Range States of the sub- sous-région, nous continuons à chercher un financement region, we continue to search for funding assist- pour le développement d’une Stratégie de Conservation ance for the development of and an East African de l’Éléphant d’Afrique de l’Est. Comme nous avons Elephant Conservation Strategy. As we have appris de notre expérience en Afrique de l’Ouest et en learned from our experience in West and Central Afrique Centrale, une stratégie sous-régionale elle-même Africa, a sub-regional strategy in and of itself ne peut pas améliorer la conservation de l’éléphant; une cannot enhance elephant conservation; once fois écrite et adoptée, elle exige un soutien continu pour written and adopted it requires ongoing support la coordination et la mise en œuvre. Au niveau national, for co-ordination and implementation. At the le Kenya et la Tanzanie sont sur le point de compléter national level, both Kenya and Tanzania are close leurs plans nationaux de gestion. Le GSEAf a participé to completing their national management plans. au séminaire de rédaction finale du Kenya en septembre, The AfESG participated in Kenya’s final draft- et nous continuons à fournir un soutien aux rédacteurs ing workshop in September, and we continue to du plan tanzanien quand on cherche notre contribution. provide support to the drafters of the Tanzanian Dans le domaine de la conservation de l’éléphant plan as and when our input is sought. d’Afrique toujours plein de défis, il y a toujours beau- In the ever-challenging realm of African coup à faire; nous ne paraissons vraiment jamais être au elephant conservation, there is always so much to devant de la vague. Encore une fois, nous faisons face do; we never truly seem to get ahead of the wave. aux défis de financement pour faire fonctionner notre Once again, we are faced with funding challenges Secrétariat très réduit. Heureusement, la réunion des just to keep our greatly reduced Secretariat afloat. membres a rechargé mes batteries - les énergies étaient Thankfully, the members’ meeting recharged vibrantes et l’engagement des membres palpable. Nous my batteries—the energies were vibrant and the avons encore beaucoup de défis importants devant nous commitment of the members palpable. We still et je me réjouis des contributions de tout et chacun pour have many important challenges ahead of us and planifier ensemble la voie vers l’avenir. I welcome input from any and all in charting the way forward—together.

6 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 African Rhino Specialist Group report Rapport du Groupe Spécialiste des Rhinos d’Afrique

Martin Brooks, Chair/Président

59 Silverdale Crescent, Chase Valley, Pietermaritzburg, 3201, South Africa; email: [email protected]

Joint AfRSG, AsRSG and Rapport conjoint du GSRAf, du GSRAs TRAFFIC Report to CITES et de TRAFFIC à la CITES During the reporting period, the AfRSG, AsRSG Pendant la période du rapport le GSRAf, le GSRAs et and TRAFFIC submitted their joint report on TRAFFIC ont soumis leur rapport conjoint sur La Situ- African and Asian Rhinos—Status, Conservation ation du Rhinocéros d’Afrique et d’Asie, la Conserva- and Trade for CoP15 to the CITES Secretariat, as tion et le Commerce pour la CoP15 au Secrétariat de la mandated by the parties by way of Resolution Conf. CITES, comme mandaté par les Parties par voie de ré- 9.14 (Rev. CoP14) and Decision 14.89. This useful solution Conf. 9.14 (Rév. CoP14) et la Décision 14.89. report can be downloaded from the CITES web site On peut télécharger ce rapport utile du site Internet de (http://www.cites.org/eng/cop/15/doc/E15-45-01A. la CITES (http://www.cites.org/eng/cop/15/doc/E15-45- pdf) and the AfRSG web page (http://rhinos-irf.org/ 01A.pdf) et la page de la toile du GSRAf (http://rhinos- afrsg). A WWF press release on the report resulted irf.org/afrsg). Un communiqué de presse du WWF sur le in much international coverage of the trends and rapport a donné lieu à une large couverture internationale issues it raises. In Africa, the escalation of poaching des tendances et des questions qu’il soulève. En Afrique, in South Africa and Zimbabwe is of particular l’intensification du braconnage en Afrique du Sud et au concern. I would like to commend the authors Tom Zimbabwe est un souci particulier. J’aimerais bien faire Milliken, Richard Emslie and Bibhab Talukdar for l’éloge des auteurs Tom Milliken, Richard Emslie et Bib- a job well done and would encourage you to read hab Talukdar pour un travail bien fait et je vous encour- the report if you haven’t already done so. agerais à lire le rapport si vous ne l’avez pas déjà fait. Northern white rhino strategy Stratégie du rhinocéros blanc du nord There have been a number of important Il y a eu plusieurs développements importants dans le pro- developments in the progress of implementing the grès de la mise en œuvre de la stratégie du rhinocéros blanc northern white rhino strategy since we reported in du nord depuis notre dernier rapport dans le Pachyderme Pachyderm 45. One of the most important resulted 45. L’un des plus importants a résulté d’une meilleure ap- from a better appreciation of the high degree préciation du degré élevé d’affinité des quatre générateurs of relatedness of the four remaining potential potentiels restants au zoo de Dvůr Králové en République breeders held at Dvůr Králové Zoo in the Czech tchèque. Le Dr. Kathy Traylor-Holzer du Groupe de Spé- Republic. Dr Kathy Traylor-Holzer of IUCN’s cialistes d’Elevage pour la Conservation de l’UICN (GSEC) Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) était très utile dans la détermination de l’Equivalent du Gé- was most helpful in determining the Founder nome du Fondateur (nombre de fondateur efficace) de ces Genome Equivalent (effective founder number) rhinocéros qui a été calculé comme 1,71. C’était bien en of these rhinos, which was calculated as 1.71. dessous des quatre fondateurs n’ayant aucun lien de parenté This was well below the four unrelated founders indiqués par le modèle antérieur du vortex pour être le nom- indicated by previous vortex modelling to be the bre minimum ayant une chance raisonnable de viabilité minimum number with a reasonable chance of génétique et démographique à long terme sur une période de long-term genetic and demographic viability over 50 ans. Ces conseils du GSEC et les discussions suivantes a 50 year period. This CBSG advice and following avec plusieurs membres du GSRAf et d’autres experts, ont discussions with a number of AfRSG members conduit à la conclusion que le but de conserver le rhinocéros

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 7 Brooks and other experts, led to the conclusion that the blanc du nord comme une sous-espèce « pure» à long aim of conserving the northern white rhino as a terme n’était plus réalisable de façon réaliste à moins ‘pure’ subspecies in the longer term was no longer qu’on ne trouve des rhinocéros dans la nature dans le realistically achievable unless some rhinos were Parc National de la Garamba, en RDC ou au Soudan et to be found in the wild in Garamba National Park que le pays intéressé consente à intégrer ces animaux (NP), DRC or Sudan and the country concerned avec les animaux de Dvůr Králové. Malheureusement agreed to integrate these animals with the Dvůr le rhinocéros blanc du nord (Ceratotherium simum cot- Králové animals. Unfortunately the northern toni) peut avoir maintenant disparu de la nature. Quatre white rhino (Ceratotherium simum cottoni), may animaux ont été observés pour la dernière fois dans le now be extinct in the wild. Four animals were last Parc National de la Garamba en 2006 et on en a trouvé seen in Garamba NP in 2006 and spoor was found leurs traces en 2007. Cependant, il n’y a pas eu de signes in 2007. However, since then there have been no rapportés de rhinocéros ou de leurs traces depuis lors reported signs of either species of rhino or their en dépit des recherches intensives au sol, à l’exception spoor despite intensive ground-based searches, d’une vieille carcasse braconnée deux ou trois ans aupar- with the exception of a two- to three-year-old avant trouvée en 2008. Alors qu’il y a des rumeurs qu’on poached carcass found in 2008. While there have aurait vu des rhinocéros blancs du nord au sud Soudan been rumours of possible sightings of northern au cours des années, ces rapports n’ont pas encore été white rhinos in southern Sudan over the years, confirmés. but these reports have not yet been confirmed. Le défi de la conservation est par conséquent de The conservation challenge therefore is to conserver des gènes du rhinocéros blanc du nord qui conserve northern white rhino genes that may peuvent conférer des adaptations ayant évolué sous des confer adaptations that have evolved under conditions existantes et des risques de maladie dans prevailing conditions and disease risks in their leur ancien habitat; et finalement réintroduire des rhi- former range; and eventually to re-introduce rhinos nocéros ayant ces gènes adaptatifs dans les zones sûres with these adaptive genes back into secure areas de leur habitat précédent (ou à défaut, un habitat sem- in their former range (or failing that to similar blable avoisinant). Si l’on ne trouve aucun rhinocéros range nearby). In the absence of finding any blanc du nord dans la nature, la seule possibilité qui more northern white rhinos in the wild, the only reste pour conserver autant de gènes blancs du nord possibility left for conserving as many adaptive adaptatifs que possible est d’essayer de croiser les rhi- northern white genes as possible is to attempt nocéros blancs du nord restants avec les rhinocéros to intercross the remaining northern whites with blancs du sud. Les biologistes de la conservation tels southern white rhinos. Conservation biologists que le Dr. Bob Lacy, président du GCES, ont conseillé such as CBSG Chair, Dr Bob Lacy, have advised que les descendants de ces animaux auraient une meil- that descendents of these animals would have leure chance de se rétablir avec succès dans leur habitat a much better chance of being successfully re- précédent ou près de cet habitat qu’un descendant con- established in or close to their former range than sanguin du rhinocéros blanc du nord pur. La réalisa- an inbred remnant of pure northern white rhino tion que le croisement est maintenant la voie à suivre ancestry. The realization that intercrossing is a représenté un changement stratégique et a formé le now the way forward represented a strategic shift point crucial de nos recommandations au zoo de Dvůr and formed the crux of our recommendations Králové et à d’autres pour leur considération. to the Dvůr Králové Zoo and others for their On se soucie de savoir si les deux sous-espèces consideration. seront capables de croiser avec succès ou en effet si les Concerns have been raised about whether deux sont maintenant peut-être des espèces séparées. the two subspecies will be able to interbreed Le GSRAf a consulté le Professeur Eric Harley qui, successfully or indeed whether the two are now en faisant des remarques sur une étude de microsatel- perhaps separate species. The AfRSG consulted lite génétique qu’il a faite, a noté que le niveau de var- Professor Eric Harley, who, whilst commenting iation de la sous-espèce parmi les rhinocéros blancs on a genetic microsatellite study he has conducted, était faible, et beaucoup moins qu’entre des espèces noted that the level of subspecies variation in white congénères typiques. Il a conseillé au GSRAf que les rhino was small, and far less than that between niveaux de différences génétiques qu’il avait enregis-

8 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 African Rhino Specialist Group report typical con-generic species. He advised the AfRSG trés correspondaient au fait que les rhinocéros blancs that the levels of genetic differences he had recorded du nord et du sud étaient des sous-espèces et pas des were consistent with northern and southern white espèces séparées. Dans ces circonstances le Profes- rhinos being subspecies and not separate species. seur Harley a appuyé le croisement proposé. Under the circumstances Professor Harley Comme recommandé à l’origine par ceux qui étai- supported the proposed intercrossing. ent présents à la réunion de Dvůr Králové, les quatre As originally recommended by those animaux d’élevage potentiel restants étaient récemment present at the Dvůr Králové meeting, the four transférés de la République tchèque en Afrique. Ils sont remaining potential breeding animals were allés à l’Aire de Conservation d’Ol Pejeta au Kenya qui recently translocated from the Czech Republic to a une excellente expérience d’élevage des rhinocéros Africa. They have gone to Ol Pejeta Conservancy blancs ainsi que la réputation d’une bonne gestion et in Kenya, which has an excellent track record d’une bonne sécurité. En dépit de l’âge de certains ani- of breeding white rhinos and has a reputation maux et le climat froid en République tchèque, la trans- for good management and security. Despite the location a continué sans entrave. La campagne et la re- ages of some animals and the cold weather in the location réussie ont été coordonnées par Fauna & Flora Czech Republic, the move proceeded without a International, le Zoo de Dvůr Králové, Back to Africa, hitch. The campaign for and successful relocation l’Aire de Conservation d’Ol Pejeta et le Service de la of these rhinos has been co-ordinated by Fauna Faune du Kenya avec l’appui de la Conservation de la & Flora International, Dvůr Králové Zoo, Back Faune de Lewa. Les animaux subissent actuellement un to Africa, Ol Pejeta Conservancy and Kenya processus de réintroduction aux conditions sauvages. Wildlife Service with support from the Lewa Alors que cette stratégie n’a pas été universelle- Wildlife Conservancy. The animals are currently ment soutenue, beaucoup de gens l’ont soutenue. Une undergoing a process of being introduced back préoccupation soulevée était qu’une telle action pour- to wild conditions. rait détourner le financement précieux d’autres projets While this strategy has not been universally de conservation du rhinocéros d’importance critique supported, many have backed it. One concern tels que la lutte contre le braconnage accru au Zimba- raised was that such a move might draw valuable bwe et en Afrique du Sud. Cependant il s’est avéré que funding away from other critically important la plupart des fonds mobilisés pour la translocation de rhino conservation projects such as working to ces rhinocéros sont venus d’un seul donateur qui n’avait combat increased poaching in Zimbabwe and jamais fait un don précédemment à la conservation du South Africa. However it turned out that most of rhinocéros. Donc cette démarche a probablement eu peu the funds raised for the move of these rhinos came d’impact sur le financement disponible pour d’autres ac- from a single donor who had never previously tivités prioritaires de conservation du rhinocéros. donated to rhino conservation. Thus, this move Le soutien pour cette translocation a été principale- has probably had little impact on the funding ment fondé sur le contraste entre la performance géné- available for other priority rhino conservation ralement mauvaise des rhinocéros blancs en captivité et activities. les taux de croissance très rapides observés chez beau- Support for the move was primarily coup de populations de rhinocéros blancs sauvages (où predicated upon the stark contrast between the les rhinocéros sont élevés en dessous de la capacité de generally poor performance of white rhinos in charge dans les aires sûres jouissant d’un bon habitat). captivity, and the very rapid population growth Il doit y avoir une raison ou des raisons pour la dif- rates shown by many wild white rhino populations férence marquée de performance entre les populations (where rhinos are stocked below carrying gérées intensivement et les populations sauvages. On a capacity in secure areas with good habitat). supposé que les explications les plus plausibles seront la There must be reasons for the marked difference différence entre l’un ou plusieurs des facteurs suivants: in performance between intensively managed l’alimentation, le climat, la situation sociale/comporte- and wild populations. It has been hypothesized mentale et le niveau de perturbation. Ceux qui favorisent that the most likely explanations will be due to la translocation vers la nature ont avancé que les rhinoc- differences in one or more of diet, climate, social/ éros peuvent se reproduire mieux s’ils restent dans des behavioural situation and levels of disturbance. conditions plus naturelles, y compris l’exposition aux

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 9 Brooks

Those favouring the move to the wild have argued nouveaux rhinocéros peu familiers et s’ils ont accès à that the rhinos may breed better if kept under more une alimentation naturelle des herbes tropicales. Ils ont natural conditions, including exposure to new donné l’exemple d’une vieille femelle (plus de 30 ans) unfamiliar rhinos and with access to a natural diet de rhinocéros blanc qui ne s’était pas reproduite pendant of tropical grasses. They have drawn attention to plus de 20 ans, mais qui s’est reproduite avec succès et an old (>30 yr old) female white rhino that had a donné naissance à un veau suite au mouvement à une not bred for over 20 years, but which successfully nouvelle réserve. Le soutien pour l’hypothèse que la situ- bred and gave birth to a calf following a move ation reproductive des femelles de rhinocéros blancs est to a new reserve. Support for the hypothesis influencée par leur alimentation vient des observations that the reproductive status of white rhino cows du Prof. Norman Owen-Smith dans l’iMfolozi. Il a trou- is influenced by their diet came from Professor vé que le comportement des rhinocéros mâles envers les Norman Owen-Smith’s observations in iMfolozi. femelles variait selon l’habitat, avec les males étant at- He found that the behaviour of white rhino bulls tirés aux femelles pendant la saison des toutes premières towards cows varied with habitat status, with bulls poussées d’herbes et ne montrant aucun intérêt pour les being attracted to females during early growing- femelles pendant les périodes de sécheresse. season grass flushes and not showing any interest Il n’y a aucune garantie que la translocation vers in females during drought periods. la nature et le croisement (ou en fait n’importe quelle There is no guarantee that the move to the stratégie proposée) réussira à cette étape tardive étant wild with intercrossing (or indeed any proposed) donné la situation reproductive, la performance et strategy will succeed at this late stage given the l’âge des animaux restants. Le temps nous le dira si le reproductive status, performance and ages of the déplacement a réussi ou pas, et certains pensent que remaining animals. Time will tell whether or not cela ne réussira pas. Cependant, c’est probablement the move is successful, and some believe it won’t « le salon de la dernière chance » pour les gènes du be. However, this is probably the ‘last chance rhinocéros blanc du nord et nous espérons le mieux. saloon’ for northern white rhino genes and we La conservation réussie d’autant de gènes adap- hope for the best. tatifs de rhinocéros blanc du nord que possible exige The successful conservation of as many que toute progéniture produite des quatre animaux re- northern white rhino adaptive genes as possible stants soit élevée aussi rapidement que possible pour also requires that any offspring produced from minimiser la perte de la diversité génétique à cause de the remaining four animals are bred up as rapidly la dérive génétique. Les données montrent clairement as possible so as to minimize the loss of genetic que la nature est le meilleur endroit pour élever rapide- diversity through genetic drift. The data clearly ment toute progéniture; et avoir les animaux au Kenya show that the wild is the best place to rapidly permettra que cela se produise de façon rentable. breed up any offspring; and having the animals Le Secrétariat du GSRAf a aussi soutenu les ten- in Kenya will enable this to occur on a cost- tatives complémentaires proposées d’insémination effective basis. artificielle (IA) du rhinocéros blanc du sud en uti- The AfRSG Secretariat has also supported lisant le sperme du rhinocéros blanc du nord et il proposed complementary attempts at the a encouragé ceux qui sont impliqués dans la trans- artificial insemination (A.I.) of southern white location au Kenya de communiquer avec l’équipe rhino cows using northern white rhino semen, d’experts de l’Institut pour la Recherche sur les Zoos and has encouraged those involved with the et la Faune en Allemagne qui est à l’avant-garde des move to Kenya to communicate with the expert méthodes d’IA pour le rhinocéros blanc avec une team at the Institute for Zoo and Wildlife vue d’explorer les possibilités d’un tel travail. Research in Germany, which has been pioneering Le Zimbabwe A.I. methods for the white rhino, with a view to exploring possibilities for such work. La mission de suivi de la CITES par le GSRAf au Zimbabwe et un atelier financé par le WWF à Harare Zimbabwe pour examiner la stratégie nationale du rhinocéros The AfRSG Zimbabwe CITES monitoring mission du Zimbabwe ont découvert plusieurs faiblesses

10 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 African Rhino Specialist Group report and a WWF-funded workshop in Harare to review dans le programme de suivi du rhinocéros au Zimba- Zimbabwe’s national rhino strategy uncovered bwe. C’était particulièrement évident parmi les popu- a number of weaknesses in Zimbabwe’s rhino lations dans les parcs gérés par le Service de Gestion monitoring programme. This was especially des Parcs et de la Faune du Zimbabwe (ZPWMA). Cela evident among populations in parks managed by a donné lieu à l’incertitude concernant l’exactitude du the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management nombre estimé de rhinocéros dans ces régions. Authority (ZPWMA). This resulted in uncertainty Pour résoudre ce problème, et dans le cadre du mandat concerning the accuracy of estimated rhino numbers de rapport du GSRAf à la CITES, le Chargé du programme in these areas. scientifique du GSRAf, le Dr. Richard Emslie, avec le sout- In order to address this issue, and as part of ien du Secrétaire Général de la CITES et le ZPWMA, a the AfRSG’s reporting mandate to CITES, the entrepris une Mission Technique avec le Coordinateur Na- AfRSG’s Scientific Officer Dr Richard Emslie, tional du Rhinocéros du ZPWMA pour examiner la situa- with the support of the Secretary General of tion de suivi et d’estimation et les tendances de population CITES and ZPWMA, undertook a Technical chez les populations sélectionnées. Plusieurs évaluations Mission together with ZPWMA’s National Rhino de population ont dû être réduites en conséquence, et c’était Co-ordinator to examine the status of monitoring clair que le suivi et la qualité de certaines évaluations de la and population estimates and trends in selected population pourraient être améliorés. populations. A number of population estimates Les besoins de formation au suivi ont été identi- have had to be reduced as a result, and it was fiés. Sur la demande du ZPWMA, et d’après les discus- clear that monitoring and quality of some of the sions avec le Coordinateur National du Rhinocéros au population estimates could be improved. Zimbabwe et le Chef des services de gestion, Mr. Geof- Monitoring training needs were identified. freys Matipano, le Chargé de programme scientifique du At the request of the ZPWMA, and in discussion GSRAf a développé un plan pour un cours de formation with the Zimbabwe National Rhino Co-ordinator initiale. Les fonds pour cette formation ont été obtenus and Head of Management Services, Mr Geoffreys du WWF, et le cours s’est tenu avec succès au Parc de Matipano, the AfRSG Scientific Officer developed Loisirs à Kyle au Zimbabwe en septembre 2009. Cette a plan for an initial training course. Funds for this formation visait les formateurs locaux qui pourraient al- training were secured from WWF, and the course ors former le personnel dans les parcs et mettre le suivi was successfully held at Kyle Recreational Park in basé sur l’identification individuelle sur terrain dans le Zimbabwe in September 2009. This training was contexte d’un système général standardisé de contrôle aimed at local instructors who could then train staff de la qualité des données, de la saisie des données et in parks, and put the individual identification (ID) des rapports. Donc le cours devait fournir un paquet in- based monitoring in the field into the context of a tégré et non pas simplement la formation des gens dans standardized overall system of data quality control, l’identification des rhinocéros. En tout 21 participants data capture and reporting. Thus the course sought ont pu recevoir l’accréditation du GSRAf comme des to provide an integrated package and did not simply formateurs de suivi à l’identification individuelle. focus on training people in rhino identification. Le cours a aussi appris à gérer un programme de A total of 21 participants achieved AfRSG suivi, y compris mettre en place les dossiers principaux du accreditation as rhino ID monitoring instructors. rhinocéros, le contrôle de la qualité des données des obser- The course also covered how to manage vations, la saisie des données (sur le papier en utilisant les a monitoring programme—including setting livres du registre des observations spécialement conçus et up rhino master files, sightings data quality en utilisant des outils simples du Tableur Excel) et quelques control, data capture (in paper form using rapports de base. On a aussi donné aux participants le specially designed sighting register books and matériel nécessaire pour faire la formation et la collecte using simple Excel spreadsheet tools) and some des données quand ils retournent à leurs stations. Dans une basic reporting. Delegates were also provided session dirigée par le Coordinateur National du Rhinocéros with the materials necessary to undertake the du ZPWMA, on a donné la tâche à des individus spéci- training and data collection when back on fiques au sein du ZPWMA d’être responsables de la ges- station. In a session led by the ZPWMA Rhino tion des programmes de suivi, de la gestion des données et de la formation du personnel dans des régions spécifiques.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 11 Brooks

Co-ordinator, specific individuals in ZPWMA De manière encourageante, après deux semaines du cours, were tasked with responsibility for running the quelques formateurs zimbabwéens récemment accrédités monitoring programmes, data management and avaient déjà commencé à enseigner à leur personnel de ter- staff training in specific areas. Encouragingly, rain. Si le programme du cours est complètement mis en within two weeks of the course some of the newly œuvre, la qualité et la précision des évaluations de la popu- accredited Zimbabwean instructors had already lation s’amélioreront considérablement. started teaching their staff on the ground. If the TRAFFIC, comme partie de son mandat de rapport curriculum of the course is fully implemented, the à la CITES, a aussi tenu un atelier avec le personnel du quality and reliability of population estimates will ZPWMA et d’autres intervenants au Zimbabwe lequel improve significantly. a examiné les niveaux de braconnage, l’efficacité de la TRAFFIC, as part of its CITES reporting mise en vigueur de la loi, le succès des poursuites judi- mandate, also held a workshop with ZPWMA staff ciaires et les niveaux du commerce illégal. and other stakeholders in Zimbabwe that reviewed Ces initiatives se faisaient suite aux soucis sur le niveau poaching levels, law enforcement effectiveness, élevé de braconnage au Zimbabwe (enregistré dans la dé- prosecution success and illegal trade levels. cision 14.90 de la CITES CoP14 et le Document 54 de la These initiatives stemmed from concern CoP14) et les rapports plus récents de son intensification over the high levels of poaching in Zimbabwe et l’incertitude sur le nombre de quelques populations. Un (recorded in CITES CoP14 Decision 14.90 braconnage accru dans les aires de conservation de Lowveld, and CoP14 Document 54), recent reports of suivi de la diminution du nombre des rhinocéros blancs et its escalation and uncertainty over numbers in noirs dans d’autres régions, et les préoccupations concernant some populations. Increased poaching in the l’efficacité de la mise en vigueur de la loi et le faible taux de Lowveld Conservancies, along with declining condamnation, représentent une menace sérieuse au succès numbers of both white and black rhinos in other de plus d’une décennie de travail pour rétablir les popula- areas, and concerns over the effectiveness of law tions de rhinocéros du Zimbabwe à un niveau sain. enforcement and the low conviction rates among Les conclusions clés des missions du GSRAf et de poachers, represent a serious threat to the success TRAFFIC ont été incluses dans le rapport conjoint du of more than a decade of work bringing back GSRAf/GSRAs/TRAFFIC à la CITES CoP15 (voir ci- Zimbabwe’s rhino populations to healthy levels. dessus). Les conclusions de ces missions ont aussi été The key findings of the AfRSG and TRAFFIC présentées à une réunion tenue pour les représentants missions have been included in the joint AfRSG/ sélectionnés de l’UICN et le personnel cadre des Parcs AsRSG/TRAFFIC report to CITES CoP15 (see et de la Faune au Zimbabwe. above). Findings from these missions were also Le programme de conservation du rhinocéros presented at a meeting held between selected IUCN representatives and senior Parks and Wildlife staff d’Ouganda in Zimbabwe. A la demande du Service de la Faune d’Ouganda (UWA), le Secrétariat du GSRAf a visité l’Ouganda Uganda’s rhino conservation programme pour les conseiller sur l’élaboration de leur programme At the request of the Uganda Wildlife Authority de conservation des rhinocéros. On a tenu des réunions (UWA), the AfRSG’s Secretariat visited Uganda avec le personnel cadre de l’UWA et le Fonds du Rhi- to advise them on the development of their nocéros d’Ouganda, et les visites de terrain ont été faites rhino conservation programme. Meetings were aux chutes de Murchison et au Parc National de la Val- held with senior staff from UWA and Rhino lée Kidepo dans l’habitat historique du rhinocéros noir Fund Uganda, and field visits were made to d’Afrique de l’Est, et aussi au Ranch de Ziwa. Ce derni- Murchison Falls and Kidepo Valley NPs within er contient une petite population de rhinocéros blancs du the historical range of the East African black sud, extrêmement bien protégée. Ces rhinos - les seuls rhino, and also to Ziwa Ranch. The latter holds dans le pays- ont été introduits en 2005, principalement a small, but extremely well protected population pour montrer la capacité locale de protéger et gérer des of southern white rhinos. These rhinos—the only rhinocéros suite au décès du dernier rhinocéros noir en ones in the country—were introduced in 2005, 1983. Ce but initial a été accompli et d’une manière en-

12 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 African Rhino Specialist Group report primarily to demonstrate local capacity to protect courageante, la population a récemment produit sa tr- and manage rhinos following the demise of the oisième naissance. last black rhino in 1983. This initial goal has La prochaine étape dans le programme se concentre been achieved and encouragingly the population principalement sur le développement et l’adoption d’une recently produced its third birth. Politique Nationale du Rhinocéros, un Plan National de The next stage in the programme is likely to Conservation du Rhinocéros et l’évaluation des régions focus mainly on the development and adoption potentielles pour le rétablissement du rhinocéros noir de of a National Rhino Policy, a National Rhino l’Afrique de l’est au sein de leur habitat antérieur au nord Conservation Plan and the assessment of potential du Nil Victoria et à l’est du Nil Albert. En outre, la popu- areas for re-establishing East African black rhinos lation des rhinocéros blancs du sud sera probablement within their former range north of the Victoria agrandie en utilisant ou bien les rhinocéros blancs du Nile and East of the Albert Nile. In addition, the sud purs ou, plus tard, le croisement du rhinocéros blanc southern white rhino population will probably be du nord et du sud si ceux-ci sont produits avec succès à enlarged using either pure southern whites or later l’Aire de Conservation d’Ol Pejeta au Kenya. using northern/southern white rhino intercrosses Nous avons souligné l’importance d’appliquer if these are successfully produced at Ol Pejeta les meilleurs principes de pratique internationaux tels Conservancy in Kenya. que développés par les membres du GSRAf dans tout We stressed the importance of applying ce processus, et la désirabilité de s’inspirer des com- international best practice principles as developed pétences du groupe pour s’en assurer. Si nos recom- by the AfRSG membership throughout this mandations sont adoptées et toutes les analyses sécu- process, and the desirability of drawing on the ritaires et écologiques s’avèrent positives, alors nous group’s expertise to help ensure this. Should our croyons qu’avec un financement suffisant, l’Ouganda recommendations be adopted and all the security a la possibilité de développer un programme de con- and ecological assessments prove positive, then we servation du rhinocéros capable de faire une con- believe that Uganda, given sufficient funding, has tribution considérable à la survie des rhinocéros a good chance of developing a rhino conservation d’Afrique. programme capable of making a significant contribution to the survival of Africa’s rhinos. Directives sur la réintroduction et la translocation des rhinocéros Rhino reintroduction and translocation guidelines Ces directives ont été imprimées dans la période du rap- port. On peut télécharger ce document utile de la page These guidelines were printed in the reporting Internet du GSRAf (voir ci-dessus) ou http://www.rhi- period. This useful document can be downloaded noresourcecenter.com/ref_files/1236876187.pdf. from the AfRSG web page (see above) or from http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/ Appréciation ref_files/1236876187.pdf. Une grande partie de l’information utilisée pour prépar- er le rapport conjoint de la CITES a été rassemblée à la Appreciation 9ème réunion du GSRAf qui s’est tenue grâce au Service Much of the information used to prepare the de la Pêche et de la Faune des Etats-Unis et au WWF. joint CITES report was collected at the AfRSG’s Nous apprécions aussi le soutien fondamental du WWF 9th meeting, which was held with the support of pour la mission de suivi au Zimbabwe et le cours de for- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and WWF. We mation. Nous remercions également le programme du also appreciate WWF’s primary support for the WWF du Rhinocéros africain (avec le soutien du WWF Zimbabwe monitoring mission and follow-up Hollande), la Fondation Internationale du Rhinocéros training course. WWF African Rhino Programme et le WWF Afrique du Sud pour leur soutien à certains (with support from WWF Netherlands), the frais du Secrétariat du GSRAf. International Rhino Foundation and WWF South Africa are also thanked for their support of some of the AfRSG Secretariat’s core costs.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 13 Asian Rhino Specialist Group report Rapport du Groupe Spécialiste des Rhinos d’Asie

Bibhab Kumar Talukdar, Chair/Président

Aaranyak, 50 Samanwoy Path (Survey), PO Beltola, Guwahati—781 028, Assam, India email: [email protected]

Update on current state of Asian Mise à jour sur l’état actuel du Rhinos rhinocéros d’Asie Le grand rhinocéros unicorne Greater one-horned rhino L’Inde India En Inde, on trouve actuellement ce rhinocéros au Parc Within India, the rhino is currently found in National de Kaziranga, au Parc National de Rajiv Gandhi Kaziranga National Park (NP), Rajiv Gandhi Orang et au Sanctuaire de la Faune de Pabitora; en outre, Orang NP and Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS); les rhinocéros transférés habitent au parc National de Manas additionally, translocated rhinos live in Manas NP dans l’Assam. On trouve aussi les rhinocéros dans le sanc- in Assam. Rhinos are also found in Jaldapara WLS tuaire de la Faune de Jaldapara et au Parc National de Goru- and Gorumara NP of West Bengal and Dudhwa mara du Bengale Occidental et au Parc National de Dudhwa NP of Uttar Pradesh. The Indian rhino population d’Uttar Pradesh. La population totale de rhinocéros indi- overall is on an increasing trend with a current ens a une tendance croissante avec une population actuelle population of about 2364. The AsRSG sponsored d’approximativement 2364. Le GSRAs a sponsorisé un a rhino census in Assam during 2009 with recensement des rhinocéros dans l’Assam en 2009 grâce à financial contribution from the International Rhino une contribution financière de la Fondation Internationale du Foundation, WWF and Aaranyak. According to this Rhinocéros, le WWF et Aaranyak. D’après ce recensement census in Assam, Kaziranga NP has 2048 rhinos, des rhinocéros dans l’Assam, le Parc National de Kaziranga Rajiv Gandhi Orang NP has 64 while Pabitora WLS a 2048 rhinocéros, le Parc National de Rajiv Gandhi Orang is has a population of 84. An earlier census carried en a 64 alors que le Sanctuaire de la Faune de Pabitora a out in Assam during 2006 calculated a population une population de 84. Un recensement précédent fait dans of 1855 in Kaziranga NP, 68 in Rajiv Gandhi Orang l’Assam en 2006 a estimé une population de 1855 au Parc NP and 81 in Pabitora WLS. National de Kaziranga, 68 au Parc National de Rajiv Gandhi In West Bengal, Jaldapara WLS has a Orang et 81 dans le Sanctuaire de la Faune de Pabitora. population of 108 while the Gorumara population Au Bengale Occidental, le Sanctuaire de la Faune stands at 31 as of 2008. Both populations are de Jaldapara a une population de 108 alors que la popu- stable and increasing slowly. The Dudhwa NP in lation de Gorumara était à 31 en 2008. Les deux popula- Uttar Pradesh, which borders Nepal, has a current tions sont stables et augmentent lentement. Le Parc Na- population of 29 of which there are 7 males, 15 tional de Dudhwa dans l’Uttar Pradesh qui fait frontière females and 7 calves. avec le Népal a une population actuelle de 29 dont 7 mâles, 15 femelles et 7 veaux. Nepal Le Népal Rhino estimates in Nepal were carried out in Le Département des Parcs Nationaux et de la Conservation April 2008 by the Department of National Parks de la Faune avec l’assistance technique du Fonds National and Wildlife Conservation with technical support pour la Conservation de la Nature (Népal), la Société Zo- from the National Trust for Nature Conservation ologique de Londres et le WWF-Népal a fait une évalua- (Nepal), the Zoological Society of London and tion des rhinocéros au Népal en avril 2008. Pendant cette WWF-Nepal. During that estimate 408 rhinos

14 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Asian Rhino Specialist Group report were found in Chitwan NP, 31 in Bardia NP and 5 évaluation on a trouvé 408 rhinocéros au Parc National in Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve. However, since de Chitwan, 31 au Parc National de Bardia et 5 dans la then poachers have eliminated some rhinos and Réserve de la Faune de Suklaphanta. Cependant, depuis the current population at Bardia NP stands at 20. lors les braconniers ont éliminé plusieurs rhinocéros et la Nepal has suffered a lot with regards to its population actuelle du Parc National de Bardia est à 22. rhino population due to socio-political unrest Le Népal a beaucoup souffert quant à sa population prevailing in the country and its rhino population des rhinocéros à cause des troubles sociopolitiques qui has declined by about 15% when compared to prédominent dans le pays et sa population de rhinocéros a 612 rhinos in early 2000. Bardia NP continued to décliné d’environ 15% par rapport à 612 rhinocéros début suffer because of poaching. However, the good 2000. Le Parc National de Bardia a continué à souffrir news is that the Chitwan population is slowly à cause du braconnage et on rapporte que sa population increasing from 372 in 2005 to about 408 in 2008. actuelle est approximativement 20. Cependant, la bonne nouvelle est que la population de Chitwan augmente len- Sumatran rhino tement de 372 en 2005 à environ 408 en 2008. Malaysia Le rhinocéros de Sumatra The status of the Sumatran rhino in Peninsular Malaysia is unclear and needs confirmation. La Malaisie Although the authorities in Peninsular Malaysia La situation du rhinocéros de Sumatra en Malaisie Pé- believe there to be about 50–70 rhinos, a camera ninsulaire est vague et doit être confirmée. Bien que les trapping exercise carried out in various parts of autorités en Malaisie Péninsulaire croient qu’il y a entre Peninsular Malaysia has failed to capture a single 50 et 70 rhinocéros, un exercice de piège à camera mené picture of a Sumatran rhino. As such, a robust dans plusieurs parties de la Malaisie Péninsulaire n’a pas and authentic estimation of Sumatran rhinos in pu capter une seule image d’un rhinocéros de Sumatra. Par Peninsular Malaysia is currently needed with conséquent, il faut actuellement une évaluation robuste et convincing evidence—including photographs. The authentique des rhinocéros de Sumatra en Malaisie Pénin- current population of the Sumatran rhino in Sabah, sulaire afin de fournir des preuves convaincantes y com- Borneo is estimated to be between 20 and 30 rhinos pris des photos. La population actuelle des rhinocéros de in two areas, with another location in south-western Sumatra au Sabah à Bornéo est estimée d’être entre 20 et Sabah possibly holding a few more animals. 30 rhinocéros dans deux zones, avec une autre localité au sud ouest de Sabah qui abrite peut-être quelques animaux. Indonesia The Indonesian population of Sumatran Rhino L’Indonésie is basically recorded from Way Kambas NP, La population indonésienne de Rhinocéros de Sumatra est Bukit Barisan Selatan NP, Gunung Leuser NP rapportée essentiellement au Parc National de Way Kam- and very few probably in Kerinci Seblat NP bas, au parc National de Bukit Barisan Selatan, au Parc Na- in Sumatra. Way Kambas NP has a Sumatran tional de Gunung Leuser et il y a probablement quelques rhino population of about 20–30, Bukit Barisan uns au Parc national de Kerinci Seblat au Sumatra. Le Parc Selatan NP has about 60–80 and Gunung Leuser National de Way Kambas a une population de rhinocéros has a population of about 60–80 while other de Sumatra d’approximativement 20 à 30, le Parc National parts of northern Sumatra, including Kerinci de Bukit Barisan Selatan en a entre 60 et 80 et Gunung Seblat NP, may still have about 2–5 rhinos. Leuser entre 60 et 80 alors que d’autres parties du Sumat- Again, a robust and authentic estimate of ra du nord, y compris le Parc National de Kerinci Seblat, Sumatran rhinos in its existing sites needs to pourraient encore abriter 2 à 5 rhinocéros. Encore une fois, be carried out in order to reassess the current une estimation robuste et authentique des rhinocéros de Su- possible population before we can prepare an matra dans les sites existants doit être faite pour réévaluer appropriate plan of action to recover the species la population actuelle possible et préparer un plan d’action if the population trend is found to be in decline. approprié pour rétablir l’espèce si on trouve la tendance de la population en déclin.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 15 StrienTalukdar

Javan rhino Le rhinocéros de Java One of the most critically endangered species, L’une des espèces les plus gravement menacées, le rhi- the Javan rhino, has been struggling with a nocéros de Java, se débat avec une petite population small population in two sites in the world. dans deux sites dans le monde. Selon le recensement Based on the census carried out by Park fait par les autorités du Parc en décembre 2008, le Parc authorities in December 2008, the Ujong Kulon National d’Ujong Kulon d’Indonésie dans le Java Oc- NP of Indonesia in West Java currently harbours cidental abrite actuellement entre 38 et 44 rhinocéros about 38–44 Javan rhinos. The Cat Tien NP de Java. Le Parc National de Cat Tien du Vietnam a of Vietnam has a small population of 3–5. In une petite population de 3 à 5. Lors de la dernière réun- the last meeting of the Asian Rhino Specialist ion du Groupe de Spécialistes du Rhinocéros d’Asie Group on Sumatran and Javan rhinos, held at tenue à Bogor, en Indonésie en mars 2009 au sujet du Bogor, Indonesia in March 2009, it was decided rhinocéros de Sumatra et de Java, il a été décidé que that for the long-term future of Javan rhinos, pour l’avenir à long terme du rhinocéros de Java, les currently found in both Indonesia and Vietnam, rhinocéros de Java qu’on trouve actuellement en In- they should be treated as single species donésie et au Vietnam doivent être traités comme une rather than considering them at a subspecies seule espèce plutôt que de les considérer au niveau de level. The proceedings of the meeting are la sous-espèce. Les débats de la réunion sont disponi- available at http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/ bles à http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/proceeding_ proceeding_asrsg_bogor_2009_meeting.pdf. asrsg_bogor_2009_meeting.pdf. L’abattage illégal Illegal killing Les braconniers visent principalement le grand rhi- Poachers are mainly targeting the greater one- nocéros unicorne qui se trouve en Inde et au Népal. horned rhino found in India and Nepal. The Le braconnage du Rhinocéros de Java n’a pas été poaching of Javan rhinos has not been reported rapporté depuis 2002. Le rhinocéros de Sumatra fait since 2002. The Sumatran rhino undoubtedly indubitablement face aux menaces de braconnage op- faces opportunistic poaching threats in Malaysia portuniste en Malaisie et en Indonésie, mais les don- and Indonesia, but data are not available on nées ne sont pas disponibles sur l’extraction illégale. illegal off-take. Au Népal, entre juin 1999 et juin 2007, les bracon- In Nepal between June 1999 and June 2007, niers ont tué plus de 149 rhinocéros dans les parcs nation- poachers killed more than 149 rhinos in Chitwan aux de Chitwan et Bardia, profitant des troubles sociopoli- and Bardia NPs, taking the advantage of socio- tiques auxquels le pays faisait face pendant ce temps. Cette political unrest the country had faced during phase de braconnage répandu du rhinocéros a sévèrement that time. This rampant phase of rhino poaching affecté la population des rhinocéros aux Parcs Nationaux severely affected the rhino population in both de Chitwan et Bardia, réduisant une population de plus de Chitwan and Bardia NPs, reducing its population 500 à approximativement 400 au Parc National de Chit- from more than 500 to about 400 in Chitwan wan alors que la population de Bardia a maintenant été NP while the Bardia population has now been réduite à moins de 20 par rapport à environ 80 à 90. reduced to fewer than 20 from about 80–90. Le Népal a perdu encore 12 rhinocéros entre juillet Nepal lost a further 12 rhinos between July 2008 et septembre 2009 au Parc National de Chitwan 2008 and September 2009 in Chitwan NP while alors que Bardia en a perdu 7 aux braconniers pendant Bardia lost 7 during the same period to poachers. la même période. A cause de la pression du braconnage Due to poaching pressure in Bardia NP, a few sur Bardia, quelques rhinocéros s’étaient égarés dans le rhinos had strayed into bordering Katerniaghat Katerniaghat d’Inde voisin pour prendre un refuge sûr. in India to take safe shelter. Depuis 2007 l’Assam est aussi ciblé par les bra- Assam has also been targeted by poachers conniers et approximativement 20 rhinocéros ont été since 2007 when about 20 rhinos were killed in tués au Parc National de Kaziranga et ses alentours and around Kaziranga NP while Rajiv Gandhi alors que le Parc National de Rajiv Gandhi Orang a Orang NP lost 3 rhinos. In 2008, poachers perdu 3 rhinocéros. En 2008, les braconniers ont tué

16 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Asian Rhino Specialist Group report killed about 10 rhinos in and around Kaziranga environ 10 rhinocéros au Parc National de Kaziranga et NP while Rajiv Gandhi Orang NP lost another ses alentours alors que le Parc National Rajiv Gandhi 6 during the same year. It is a worrying factor Orang en a perdu 6 autres pendant la même année. C’est that a only small population of rhinos survive un facteur inquiétant qu’une petite population de rhinoc- in Rajiv Gandhi Orang NP (64 as estimated in éros existe dans le Parc National de Rajiv Gandhi Orang 2009) as poachers killed about 10% of its total (64 tels qu’estimés en 2009) alors que les braconniers ont population in 2008. Similarly, in 2009, six rhinos tué approximativement 10% de sa population totale en were killed by poachers in Rajiv Gandhi Orang 2008. De même, six rhinocéros ont été tués par les bra- NP, which created concern among conservation conniers dans le Parc National de Rajiv Gandhi Orang agencies. Kaziranga lost about ten rhinos to en 2009 ce qui inquiète les agences de conservation. En poachers in 2009. However Pabitora WLS of 2009, Kaziranga a perdu environ dix rhinocéros aux bra- Assam, which holds the world’s largest density conniers. Cependant le Sanctuaire de la Faune de Pabi- of greater one-horned rhinos, did well with no tora d’Assam qui abrite le plus grand nombre des grands poaching reported in the past three years. rhinocéros unicornes au monde a eu plus de succès car Two poaching incidents have been reported aucun braconnage n’a été rapporté au cours des trois from Jaldapara WLS in West Bengal while no dernières années. poaching was reported from either Gorumara Deux incidents de braconnage ont été rapportés par NP in West Bengal or from Dudhwa NP in Uttar le Sanctuaire de Jaldapara au Bengale Occidental alors Pradesh. qu’aucun braconnage n’a été rapporté, ni au Parc Na- tional de Gorumara au Bengale Occidental, ni au Parc Report to CITES CoP15 national de Dudhwa dans l’Uttar Pradesh. AsRSG in association with AfRSG and TRAFFIC Rapport à la CoP15 de la CITES submitted a document on Asian and African Rhinos for the forthcoming CITES CoP15 meeting Le GSRAs en association avec le GSRAf et TRAFFIC in Doha. The report is available at http://www. ont soumis un document sur les rhinocéros d’Asie et cites.org/common/cop/15/doc/E15-45-01A.pdf. d’Afrique pour la prochaine réunion de la CoP15 de la CITES à Doha. Le rapport est disponible à http://www. cites.org/common/cop/15/doc/E15-45-01A.pdf

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 17 RESEARCH

Assessment of habitat change and threats to the greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, using multi-temporal satellite data

Pranjit Kumar Sarma1, Bibhab Kumar Talukdar1*, Kiranmay Sarma2, Mrigen Barua3

1Aaranyak, 50 Samanwoy Path, Survey, Guwahati—781028, Assam, India 2Dept of Environmental Management, G.G.S. Indraprastra University, Kashmiri Gate, Delhi 6, India 3Range Forest Officer, Central Checking Range, Office of the Conservator of Forests (Central Assam Circle), M.G. Road, Guwahati—781001, Assam, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS), located in north-eastern India, is a prime habitat for Rhinoceros unicornis, Indian or greater one-horned rhinos. With a population of 84 rhinos, Pabitora WLS has the proud legacy of sheltering the highest density of Indian rhinos in the world. Although the total notified area of the sanctuary is 38.80 km2, the state government of Assam is yet to handover an area of 11.07 km2 to the sanctuary authority. As such, the Department of Environment and Forests, Assam presently manages a total area of only 27.73 km2. Only 12.57 km2 has been found to be suitable as rhino habitat. Satellite imagery from 1977, 1999 and 2004 was analysed for assessment of rhino habitat change in Pabitora WLS. Results indicate that there is a substantial increase in woodland (34.51%) accompanied by decline in alluvial grassland (68%) from 1977 to 2004 within the sanctuary area of 38.80 km2. This change of habitat is mostly because of the natural suc- cession process, local livestock grazing and improper management of the grassland habitat. In this paper, we recommended a set of habitat management protocols for the restoration of key habitats in Pabitora WLS.

Key words: Indian rhino, Pabitora, habitat change, remote sensing, threats Résumé Le Sanctuaire de la Faune (SF) de Pabitora, situé au nord-est de l’Inde, est un habitat principal du Rhinocéros unicornis, le grand rhinocéros unicorne ou indien. Ayant une population de 81 rhinocéros en 2006, le SF Pabitora a le fier héritage d’abriter la densité la plus élevée de rhinocéros indiens dans le monde. Bien que la superficie totale notifiée du sanctuaire soit 38,80 km2, le gouvernement de l’état d’Assam doit encore remettre une superficie de 11,07 km2 à l’autorité du sanctuaire. Par conséquent, le Département de l’Environnement et des Forêts de l’Assam ne gère actuellement qu’une superficie totale de 27,73 km2. On trouve que 12,57 km2 seulement conviennent comme habitat au rhinocéros. Les images satellitaires de 1977, 1999 et 2004 ont été analysées pour évaluer le changement de l’habitat du rhinocéros dans le SF Pabitora. Les résultats indiquent qu’il y a une augmentation substantielle de la zone boisée (34,51%) accompagnée d’un déclin des herbages alluviaux (68%) entre 1977 et 2004 au sein du sanctuaire de 38,80 km2. Ce changement d’habitat est principalement dû au processus naturel de succession, au bétail local qui paît et à une mauvaise gestion de l’habitat des herbages. Dans ce document,

18 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Assessment of habitat change and threats to the greater one-horned rhino nous avons recommandé un ensemble de protocoles de as having the highest density of Indian rhinos in gestion de l’habitat afin de restaurer des habitats clés the world (Talukdar et al. 2007) and hence intense dans le Sanctuaire de la Faune de Pabitora. scientific monitoring is needed to ensure long-term conservation of the rhino. Introduction Study area The detection of rates and patterns of landscape change is considered an important theme in eco- The Pabitora WLS falls between the latitude of 26°12'N logical research for several reasons (Roy and Tomar and 26°15'N and between the longitude 91°57'E and 92°50'E. The biogeographic zone of Pabitora WLS is 2001; Nagendran et al. 2004). Time-series analysis of remotely sensed images enables us to identify tra- termed the North-East Brahmaputra Valley. The sanc- jectories of land cover change at the landscape level tuary area is flat with a gentle east to west inclination excluding the Bur-Mayong hillock. Being low-lying, the (Zheng et al. 1997; Srivastava et al. 2002; Ostrom and Nagendran 2006). The state of Assam in India has a region is subject to annual flooding with water present proud legacy of successfully conserving the Indian year-round in lakes and swamps. This makes Pabitora rhino (Talukdar 2000) and currently a total of 2006 WLS an ideal area for rhinos as well as migratory water- animals are found in Assam according to a census fowl. The average annual rainfall is between 2000–2300 carried out by the Assam Forest Department. There mm and the average winter temperature is 8°C and it rises have been marked changes in rhino habitat across up to 37°C in summer. Relative humidity ranges from Assam over the past few decades due to shifting river 60% in March to 95% in July (Fig. 1). courses as well as natural and man-made alterations (Talukdar and Sarma 2007). Pabitora WLS is regarded

Figure 1. Location of Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 19 Sarma et al.

Data set used Table 1. Satellite data used for the study For this study primary data used were multi-dated satellite Data type Path/row Date of acquisition images, Survey of India (SOI) topographical maps, ground Landsat MSS 136/42 08 February 1977 control points (GCPs) and other data that were collected Landsat TM 136/42 12 January 1987 from the extensive ground truth survey. The satellite im- ages used in this study are Landsat Multispectral Scanner Landsat TM 111/53 08 February 1999 (MSS) imagery of 1977, Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) IRS 1D LISS III 142/42 12 February 2004 imagery of 1987 and 1999 and Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) 1D LISS III imagery of 2004 (Table 1). The Survey of India topographical sheets no. 83 B/3 and 83 trex Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver. A total B/4 at 1:50,000 scale have also been used for geometric 134 GPS points was collected from different vegetation correction of the satellite images and to prepare the base types as visualized in the field. From each GPS loca- map and the vector layers—i.e. district and forest bounda- tion, the following information was recorded: a) latitude ries, drainage, location of places, etc. and longitude, b) elevation, c) type of vegetation and d) details of habitat characteristics within the vicinity. For Methodology change detection we used four satellite images: 1977 (Landsat MSS), 1987 (Landsat TM), 1999 (Landsat TM) The Pabitora WLS was extensively surveyed using and 2004 (IRS 1D LISS III) (see Table 1). transect data sampling techniques from January 2004 to The 1:50,000 Survey of India topographical April 2005. A total of 15 transects were either walked or sheets 78 N/15, 78 N/16, 83 B/3 and 83 B/4 were covered on elephant back in order to include the entire utilized in the preliminary processing of the satellite WLS. Ground verification was carried out using an e-

Figure 2 Land use and land cover changes in Pabitora WLS.

20 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Assessment of habitat change and threats to the greater one-horned rhino

data. The satellite images were rectified or geometri- intense cattle grazing that has increased from about cally corrected using GCPs obtained from topographi- 500 cattle in 1996 to more than 3000 in 2005. The cal sheets and the GPS points collected from the field. moist alluvial grassland ecology has a direct bearing Points such as intersection of the roads, river junctions on the annual floods. Flooding is the causative factor and permanent establishments were identified on the for creation, maintenance and eradication of moist al- topographical sheets as GCPs. Using polynomial luvial grasslands. In Pabitora WLS, due to successive equations the scene was geometrically corrected and flooding in 1998 and 2004, the grassland growth was geo-referenced into the latitude/longitude co-ordinate significantly reduced and it suffered from excessive system using a polyconic projection system. The cattle grazing from the fringe villages (Table 2 and Fig. pixels of the satellite images were re-sampled us- 3). As such, the suitable rhino feeding sites have been ing a maximum likelihood algorithm and the study declining. The deposition of silt has also reduced the area was extracted from the scene using a digitized size of wetlands and thus reduced the area earlier cov- sanctuary boundary from the Survey of India topo- ered with moist alluvial grassland, which is regarded as graphical sheets. Sub-pixel image to map accuracy a highly suitable feeding habitat for rhinos in the WLS. was achieved through repeated attempts. Histogram The accumulation of water hyacinth and other aquatic matching was done to correct the radiometric differ- plants has been found to reduce the area of moist al- ences, when present. Using GCPs, training sets were luvial grassland as observed in our field visits to the generated for different land-cover and land use types WLS since 1998. Over-grazing of the grassland areas and the image classifications based on a combination and direct heat from the sun thus further reduces the of visual and digital classification schemes. Finally moisture content of the soil that enables moist grasses the four satellite imageries falling in different dates to grow. There has been a transformation of moist to were superimposed to detect the changes in land use dry grasslands in the WLS and thereafter from dry over a period of time. The output resolutions of the grassland into woodland. classified images were at 23 m. All image processing It has also been observed that flooding has led was done using ERDAS 9.0 software. to new depressions in the earth, which has led to the formation of new water bodies in the north-eastern Results and discussion part of the sanctuary. This is visible in comparing the The present study, based on satellite images and in- satellite images of 1999 and 2004. Water bodies in the tense ground corroboration, reflects the rapid changes WLS increased from 2.17% of the total geographical in rhino habitat in Pabitora WLS between 1977 and area of the WLS in 1999 to about 2.39% in 2004. 2004 (Fig. 2). The changes can be seen in the satellite Further, it has been found that woodland and fallow images of 1977, 1987, 1999 and 2004 and calculated land has increased within the WLS over the years in the classified land use maps. During field surveys, it (Table 2 and Fig. 3) while moist and dry grasslands was observed that the moist alluvial grassland has been have declined; this could have triggered food scarcity declined in the WLS due to the impacts of subsequent for rhinos during drier winter months (November to floods and silt deposits in 1998 and 2004, followed by March), forcing a significant number of rhinos to

Table 2 Trend of land use change in Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary

Land use class Year Area in sq. km Net change (area in sq. km) 1977 1987 1999 2004 1977–1987 1987–1999 1999–2004

Woodland 11.1 12.87 14.72 16.95 1.77 1.85 2.23 Moist alluvial grassland 16.25 10.67 5.57 5.2 -5.85 -5.1 -0.37 Dry grassland 8.06 10.42 11.25 6.51 2.36 0.83 -4.74 Water body 1.53 1.65 2.17 2.39 0.12 0.52 0.22 Fallow land 1.86 3.19 5.09 7.75 1.33 1.9 2.66

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 21 Sarma et al.

Figure 3. Change in rhino habitat in Pabitora WLS. stray out of the WLS in search of food in nearby crop Therefore, the grazing pressure over the rhino habitat fields (Talukdar et al. 2007). As the rhino population in the sanctuary is intense, which is also recognized in Pabitora has been found to increase steadily over as an important factor forcing about 15–20% of the the decades—from an estimated 54 in 1987 to about rhinos to stray out of the WLS. The current population 81 in 2006 (Talukdar 2006)—adaptive management of rhinos in Pabitora is 84 (Table 3). of habitat becomes fundamental to provide required c) Insufficient suitable habitat for rhino space and food for the growing number of rhinos The rhinos in Pabitora WLS have been found eat- within the WLS. Thorough research is needed to find ing grasses such as Cynodon dactylon, Hemarthria out ways and means to control the spread of weeds compressa, Hymenachne pseudointerrupta, Imperata within the WLS and to restore the grassland habitat cylindrica, Leersia hexandra, Phragmites karka, Sac- favoured by rhinos. In 2009, 84 rhinos were estimated charum spontaneum, Sclerostachya fusca, Vetiveria in Pabitora WLS by the Assam Forest Department. zizanioides, etc. Further it has been found that fodder Main challenges faced by the Pabitora such as Alpinia nigra, Amaranthus spinosus, Aspara- WLS and its management gus racemosus, Hydrilla verticillata, Potamogeton crispus, Vallisneria spiralis are also palatable to rhinos. a) Pressure of increased human population One of the major problems that Pabitora WLS is facing is the tremendous increase of human popula- Table 3. Rhino census in Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary tion in the surrounding villages. The Pabitora WLS Year Adult Sub Adult Calf Total is surrounded by 28 villages in which the human population has increased from 9571 in 1971 to about 1987 36 13 5 54 23,724 in 2001 (Assam Government census data). 1993 32 5 11 56 b) Livestock grazing pressure 1995 42 17 9 68 The main livelihood of the communities surrounding Pabitora WLS is crop-based agriculture and diary 1999 43 12 19 74 farming, both of which depend upon cattle. We ob- 2004 47 11 21 79 served that on average more than 3000 cattle enter the 2006 48 12 21 81 WLS (as observed during the study period of Janu- ary 2004 to April 2005 (Talukdar and Sarma 2007). 2009 59 8 17 84 Source: Assam Forest Department

22 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Assessment of habitat change and threats to the greater one-horned rhino

During the study it was observed that the Pabi- Table 4. Poaching and natural deaths of rhino in tora WLS is also facing the problem of declining suit- Pabitora WLS (Source: Assam Forest Department) able habitat for rhino. It has been found that the area of moist alluvial grassland, which is highly suitable Year Death of rhinos in Pabitora WLS for rhinos, has declined from 16.25 km2 in 1971 to Poaching Natural death only 5.2 km2 in 2004 (Table 2). Similarly the fallow 1987 2 0 land has increased in the sanctuary from 1.86 km2 in 1988 3 5 1971 to 7.75 km2 in 2004. This indicates that the suit- 1989 4 1 able habitat for rhinos in Pabitora has been shrinking 1990 2 2 due to inadequate resource management as well as 1991 1 1 the natural succession process that ultimately leads 1992 3 2 to rhinos straying out of the sanctuary 1993 4 1 1994 4 2 Impact of habitat change on poaching of 1995 2 1 rhinos in Pabitora WLS 1996 5 2 1997 3 2 Poaching is the major threat to the rhinos in Pabitora 1998 4 2 WLS, with 50 animals poached between 1988 and 1999 6 3 2006—both within and outside the WLS (Table 4). As 2000 2 1 the area of Pabitora is small and the rhino population 2001 0 1 is steadily increasing, plus suitable habitat declining, 2002 1 2 2003 2 3 the straying of rhinos from the WLS into surrounding 2004 1 3 areas has also been increasing. Twenty-seven rhinos 2005 2 4 were poached outside the WLS (Table 4) while 23 2006 1 2 rhinos were poached within. Fortunately, not a single 2007 0 3 rhino was poached in 2007 or 2008 in Pabitora WLS 2008 0 8 due to efficient management of ex-poachers and a 2009 0 2 community programme initiated by forest officials in and around Pabitora WLS. The changes in grassland dy- namics within the sanctuary have forced more rhinos to stray out of the reserve, thus significantly increasing the risk of poaching. The mapping of rhinos’ movement patterns outside the reserve was undertaken to assist the Pabitora WLS authorities to set up more anti-poaching camps outside the WLS to halt further rhino poaching attempts. It has been found that al- though Pabitora WLS is only 38.80 km2, the rhino zone of influence is about 257.31 km2 (Fig. 4). We recommend that the Gov- ernment of Assam increase the manpower in Pabitora WLS to cover the total zone of influence and temporary camps established outside the WLS along stray rhino Figure 4. Rhino stray-out routes and zone of influence of Pabitora WLS.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 23 Sarma et al. routes. Furthermore, the rhino population in Pabitora will also maintain the optimal carrying capacity of WLS could be reduced by translocating rhinos from rhinos within Pabitora, which will ensure long-term Pabitora to other areas previously inhabited by rhinos conservation of rhinos in the WLS. like Manas National Park (NP) and Laokhowa WLS. Bearing in mind the need to translocate rhinos to Acknowledgements increase the amount of viable habitat for rhinos in We thank the Department of Environment and Forests, Assam, a joint initiative known as Indian Rhino Vi- Government of Assam for the logistic support pro- sion 2020 (IRV 2020) was established in 2005 with vided during the study period. We offer our gratitude the government of Assam, the International Rhino to the Rufford Small Grants Foundation of the United Foundation, WWF and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Kingdom for sponsoring the costs associated with Service, IRV 2020 aims to: (1) increase the rhino the study during 2003–2005 and the David Shepherd population to 3000 in Assam by the year 2020 and (2) Wildlife Foundation for sponsoring the cost of the increase the area of rhino occupancy within Assam study between 2000 and 2003. through translocation. On 11 April 2008, two male rhinos were captured References in Pabitora WLS under the auspices of IRV 2020 and translocated to Manas NP. There are plans to translo- Nagendra H, Munroe DK, Southworth J. 2004. From pat- cate 18 more rhinos into Manas from Pabitora WLS tern to process: landscape fragmentation and the and Kaziranga NP in 2009. With the increased rhino analysis of land use/land cover change. Agriculture, population in Pabitora, there are ample opportunities Ecosystems and Environment 101:111–115. to move some rhinos out of Pabitora WLS in order Ostrom E, Nagendran H. 2006. Insights on linking forests, to establish a healthy rhino population in suitable trees, and people from the air, on the ground and in protected areas within Assam. The success of the the laboratory. PNAS 103(51):19,224–19,231. first two rhinos translocated into Manas has opened Roy PS, Tomar S. 2001. Landscape cover dynamics in the gate for future well-planned translocations of Meghalaya. International Journal of Remote Sensing rhinos in Assam. 2001, Vol. 22, No. 18, pp. 3813–3825. Conclusion Srivastava S, Singh TP, Singh H, Kushwaha SPS, Roy PS. 2002. Assessment of large-scale deforesta- With changing habitat in Pabitora WLS, scientific tion in Sonitpur district of Assam. Current Science measures are needed to increase the quality of rhinos’ 82(12):1479–1484. feeding habitat within the sanctuary through careful Talukdar BK. 2000. The current state of rhinos in Assam manipulation of the habitat and preventing livestock and threats in the 21st century. Pachyderm 29:39–47. grazing inside the sanctuary. A water holding mecha- nism within the sanctuary during winter is crucial to Talukdar BK. 2006. Assam leads in conserving greater keep moist grassland available during the dry season, Indian rhinoceros in the new millennium. Pachy- which will reduce the number of rhinos straying out of derm 41:85–89. the sanctuary and thus exposing the species to poach- Talukdar BK, Sarma PK. 2007, Indian Rhino in Protected ing. It is recommended that the Assam Forest Depart- Areas of Assam, a geo-spatial documentation of ment implement adaptive habitat management of habitat change and threat. Aaranyak. pp. 9–14. rhino grassland habitat to prevent rhinos from leaving Talukdar BK, Barua M, Sarma PK. 2007. Tracing straying the sanctuary for food. The matter is being taken up routes of rhinoceros in Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, with the Assam Forest Department for urgent action Assam. Current Science 92(9):1303–1305. to ensure long-term conservation of rhinos and their Zheng D, Wallin DO, and Hao Z. 1997. Rates and patterns habitat in Pabitora WLS. Further, to reduce pressure of landscape change between 1972 and 1988 in the on limited grassland habitat—and keeping in view the Changbai Mountain area of China and North Korea, increasing rhino population—translocation of 15–20 Lanscape Ecology, Vol. 12 pp. 241–254. rhinos out of WLS to other protected areas of Assam would further enhance rhino conservation. This effort

24 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Rhino poaching in Assam: challenges and opportunities

Esmond Martin1*, Bibhab Kumar Talukdar2 and Lucy Vigne3

1 & 3PO Box 15510, Nairobi 00503, Kenya; email: [email protected] 2Aaranyak, 50, Samanwoy Path Survey, Guwahati—781028, Assam, India

*Corresponding author

Abstract Kaziranga National Park (NP) in Assam, India holds about 71% of the world’s wild population of the greater one-horned rhino. It was therefore a shock to conservationists when they learned that in 2007 about 20 animals were poached, a four-fold increase compared with the previous six years’ annual average. We analyse the reasons for this surge, which included the hasty choice in the change of top officials in Kaziranga, many vacancies in frontline staff who are needed to oversee the protection regime of Kaziranga day and night, and a shortage of funds for intelligence gathering. In Orang NP there was heavy poaching in 2008. New poachers entered the Park and the under-staffed frontline forest guards were not equipped to fight them. In contrast, there were no rhinos poached in Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) in either 2007 or 2008. This was because of a very close relationship between its staff and the local villagers. We recommend ways to improve the protection of Assam’s rhinos. These include how best to deter rhino poachers, especially with effective court cases, the urgent need to crack down on the rhino horn trade network that is based in Dimapur, Nagaland, and the importance of further strengthening the relationships between the Forest Department and the local people around rhino protected areas.

Key words: Greater one-horned rhinos, Assam, park management, rhino poaching, rhino horn trade, Nagaland Résumé Le Parc National Kaziranga (PN) dans l’Assam, en Inde abrite approximativement 71% de la population mondiale du grand rhinocéros unicorne à l’état sauvage. C’était par conséquent un choc pour les défenseurs de l’environnement d’apprendre qu’environ 20 animaux ont été braconnés en 2007, une augmentation de quatre fois par rapport à la moyenne annuelle des six dernières années. Nous analysons les raisons de cette montée qui comprenait un choix hâtif dans le changement des cadres supérieurs dans Kaziranga, beaucoup de postes vacants parmi le personnel de terrain qu’il fallait pour superviser le régime de protection de Kaziranga jour et nuit, et une pénurie de fonds pour la collecte des informations. Dans le PN Orang il y avait beaucoup de braconnage en 2008. De nouveaux braconniers sont entrés dans le Parc et les gardes forestiers de terrain en sous effectif n’étaient pas équipés pour les combattre. Par contraste, il n’y avait pas de rhinocéros braconné dans le Sanctuaire de la Faune de Pabitora en 2007, ni en 2008, grâce aux liens très étroits entre son personnel et les villageois locaux. Nous recommandons des voies à suivre pour améliorer la protection des rhinocéros d’Assam. Celles-ci comprennent la façon dont on peut dissuader au mieux les braconniers de rhinocéros, surtout par des procès efficaces, le besoin urgent de réglementer le réseau du commerce de la corne de rhinocéros basé à Dimapur, Nagaland, et l’importance de renforcer les rapports entre le Département des Forêts et la population locale vivant à proximité des aires protégées du rhinocéros.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 25 Martin et al.

Introduction and methodology interviewed Forest Department staff in Guwahati, Kaziranga, Pabitora and Orang (see Map 1), and col- The State of Assam in north-east India held approxi- lected data and information from NGOs, tour operators mately 2050 rhinos in 2008, the largest number for any and former rhino poachers, the authors discussed the country in Asia. More than 90% were in Kaziranga NP challenges that face Assam and how these can be ad- where they were well protected from 2000 to 2006, dressed. The purpose of this paper is first to describe with an average of only five rhinos poached each recent rhino poaching in Assam, look at anti-poaching year. In 2007, however, poachers killed 20 rhinos in efforts, stockpiles of rhino horn and budgets, and to Kaziranga. In 2008 the situation improved with only discuss the conservation strategies for Assam’s greater 10 killed. Orang NP (officially called Rajiv Gandhi one-horned rhinos. The State Forest Department looks Orang NP) suffered its worst poaching for nine years after the wildlife in Assam, and this paper appraises in 2008. In the small Pabitora WLS, however, there their policies for rhino protection, along with those was no rhino poaching in 2007 or in 2008, from which of NGOs, including help to the local communities. lessons can be learned. Recommendations to further improve the protection The fourth area in Assam with rhinos today is of rhinos are given. Manas NP. They had been nearly wiped out by 2002/3 Manas NP was excluded from this study as (R. Bhattacharjee, former Deputy Director of Manas the five newly re-introduced rhinos have not been NP, pers. comm. December 2008). In December 2008 threatened with poaching; some were still enclosed there were five that had been re-introduced by the For- in a small boma. est Department and NGOs between 2006 and 2008. Following fieldwork in Assam in December 2008/January 2009, when one of the authors (EM)

Map 1. Rhino bearing areas of Assam, India.

26 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Rhino poaching in Assam: challenges and opportunities

Results the Karbi Anglong area directly south of the Park, who are in charge of the gang and who do the shoot- Rhino poaching in Kaziranga in 2007 and ing. The Nagas bring rifles, commonly .303s from 2008 Dimapur, a trading town on the Assam-Nagaland State border. They give an advance payment of Kaziranga NP consists of 430 km2 of land and water 2000–30,000 Indian Rupees (INR) (USD 42–625) to bodies that were gazetted in 1974 plus six additions the field helpers and sometimes promise to pay more that total 429 km2 (although the largest has not yet money after the rhino is killed, although this does not been gazetted) making a total of 859 km2 under the usually materialize. The poachers shoot one rhino control of the Forest Department for rhinos and other per park visit and usually only remove the horn. wildlife. The Park, however, is slowly shrinking as the The Nagas then return to Dimapur with their guns Brahmaputra River on the northern boundary is shift- and the horn, preferring to walk all the way to avoid ing southwards. There were 1855 rhinos in the Park detection. A trader in Dimapur, who may or may not in 2006 according the latest rhino census (Talukdar have organized the gang, pays INR 200,000–500,000 2006). While 3–8 rhinos were poached each year from (USD 4167–10,417) per kg for the horn. 2000 to 2006, with 5 poached in 2006, according to In December 2008, one of the authors (EM) the Forest Department and NGOs; the figure rose interviewed two men who had been members of sharply to 20 in 2007, but came down to 10 in 2008. separate poaching gangs. One was an 18-year-old Officials say that in 2007 16 rhinos were named Rajen, a poor firewood collector from the poached, according to statistics from the Divisional Karbi tribe. In 2007 he met four Nagas who had come Forest Office (DFO) Kaziranga, December 2008. from Dimapur. They offered him the job of being a NGOs and the media, however, recorded 20 poached field helper for several trips into Kaziranga. They rhinos in 2007 in and around Kaziranga. Of these, 14 paid him INR 9,000 (USD 220) in advance, claim- carcasses were found in the original 430 km2 area: 6 ing they would pay more later. This is equivalent to in the Burapahar Range, 4 in the Agoratoli Range, about 3 months’ earnings for collecting firewood at 3 in the Bagori Range and 1 in the Kohora Range. the time. They also employed three poachers from They were all shot except for one killed in a rhino pit the Karbi Anglong region to shoot the rhinos with trap in the Agoratoli Range. Beyond this area, the six .303s brought from Dimapur. The gang entered the other rhinos were all shot dead: two in the East Assam Park in January, May and July 2007 and shot a rhino Wildlife Division, two in the Golaghat Wildlife Divi- on each visit. They brought with them water, dried sion, one in Gohpur and one in North Karbi Anglong food, knives and an axe and arrived between 1900 Wildlife Sanctuary (see Map 2). and 2100h, staying for up to 24 hours. The first two In 2008 the number of rhinos poached declined rhinos were killed with one bullet each and the last to 10. The Forest Department recorded seven poached took three bullets. They removed the horn in less than rhinos: four within and three outside of Kaziranga NP. five minutes using their knives and axe. On all three All were shot. The media and local NGOs, however, occasions they handed the horn over to a Naga trader reported three more that were shot dead outside Ka- outside the Park, who then took two or three days to ziranga. Normally, poachers remove only the horn, but in one instance in December 2008 poachers also took the tail, nails and ears. This female rhino had strayed out of the Park and was shot 25 km from the Park boundary. The carcass was put into a pit in the backyard of a homestead and a chemical was poured Bibhab K. Talukdar over it to speed its decomposition. Police and Forest staff found the remains a few days later. Poaching gangs usually consist of three to five people. According to several sources, generally one helper is local and familiar with the area; another, also usually local, carries the provisions; and one or Figure 1. Mother rhino and calf in Kaziranga two others are from Nagaland, but occasionally from National Park.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 27 Martin et al. walk to Dimapur with the horn. Rajan was told that the Naga gave the shooters INR 200,000–300,000 (USD 4876–7296) per kg for the horn. Rajan hid in the forest during these months to avoid detection. He returned for a fourth and last trip into the Park, but Park staff shot dead one of the shooters in the Esmond Martin gang and caught two others while Rajan escaped. In August 2008, Rajan’s parents brought their son to the Forest Department to surrender. The second poacher interviewed was Balak, an illiterate 28-year-old firewood collector, also from the poor Karbi tribe. Three Nagas recruited him in Balijuri village in the Karbi Anglong area in 2006; he had just left his own village after rowing with his family. He received INR 5000 (USD 111) in advance to be their field guide. The gang had to enter the Park five times before managing to kill a rhino due to the heavy pres- ence of Park staff. On the fifth time, they entered the Park at 0300h and shot a rhino with four bullets from a .303 rifle at 1400h. The Nagas took the horn and went on foot back to Dimapur. Balak then returned to Balijuri but did not receive more money. Later, the eco- development committee in his home village found out about the poaching and pressurized Balak to surrender. A member of each of three other poaching gangs Figure 2. Assam’s storerooms have the largest had surrendered recently and were now paddy field number of full greater one-horned rhino horns in the world. Most were from Kaziranga. workers. All were poor, uneducated young Karbis from near the Park and had been recruited as field Rhino horn stocks from Kaziranga helpers. One received INR 2000 (USD 46) in ad- vance in total and twice the gang escaped from the Rhino horns that are found in the field and confiscated Park—each time with a horn. The other two entered are marked and locked up in storerooms in the Park and Kaziranga once; their gangs failed to kill a rhino and later go to the State Treasuries. In 2008 the Treasuries they received no payments. held 1238 horns that had been collected since 1973 In 2007 officials killed 5 poachers, arrested 18 from Kaziranga. Individual weights are also recorded others, confiscated four .303 rifles, and seized 29 (information from the Kaziranga rhino horn registry rounds of ammunition. The Forest Department also book). In December 2008 there were 42 rhino horns confiscated one horn. In 2008 officials killed a rhino still held in Kaziranga; therefore the total stockpile poacher, arrested 35, recovered one .303 rifle with 28 from Kaziranga was 1280 horns. The heaviest weighed rounds of ammunition, and seized 1 complete horn, 2.04 kg. The total weight was not given, but an adult 2 horn pieces, 16 nails, 9 skins, and a rhino tooth rhino horn weighs on average about 750 g. (information from the DFO’s office, Kaziranga). Kaziranga’s budget Assam officials have very little hard informa- tion about the trade itself. It is not clear how the Kaziranga’s official budget consists of funds from the horns move on from Dimapur, or where they go. State of Assam (‘State non-plan’), mainly salaries, Several members of the Forest Department staff and from the Central government (‘Central Sponsored believe horns may go via West Bengal, Bhutan and Scheme’), especially development funds. Kaziranga’s Nepal through China to eastern Asia. Another pos- official annual average budget for 2006/7 and 2007/8 sible route is from Dimapur via Myamnar (formerly was INR 89,927,701 (USD 2,140,588). Salaries and Burma) into Thailand. wages for all official funds made up 58% and from State non-plan 93%.

28 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Rhino poaching in Assam: challenges and opportunities Esmond Martin

Figure 3. For many years forest guards have been trying to stop East Bengal/Bangladesh immigrants from entering Assam’s Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary for forest produce as the Forest Department wishes to reintroduce rhinos; all 40 had been poached in 1983/4.

NGOs (such as Aaranyak, David Shepherd Wild- Rhino poaching in Orang in 2007 and life Foundation, European Association of Zoos and 2008 Aquaria, International Rhino Foundation, The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, Wildlife Trust of Orang NP, an area of 78.80 km2, is about 80 km west India and WWF) also contribute funds, materials and of Kaziranga on the northern side of the Brahmaputra expertise, which amounted to a minimum of USD River. The latest census in 2006 counted 68 rhinos. 88,000 on average per annum for 2007 and 2008. From 2001 to 2005 one rhino was poached on average The density of rhinos in the Park (1855 divided by per year, three were poached in 2006, three in 2007 and 859 km2) is 2.16 rhinos per square km. If the official seven in 2008, according to the Forest Department and budget is divided by the number of square kilometres NGOs. In 2006, 2007 and 2008 all were shot dead; in the Park (USD 2,140,588 divided by 859 km2), the only one of these was killed outside the Park, in 2008. annual sum available is USD 2492 per km. If NGO There are usually four or five people in a poach- donations are added to this figure (about USD 100 ing gang. Those with the guns are Karbis from Assam per km2 extra per annum in 2007 and 2008) the total or poachers from Nagaland and Manipur States east is USD 2594 per square km. This is about 50% higher of Assam. The field helpers are thought to be mostly than the budget for Chitwan National Park in Nepal, immigrants originating from East Bengal/Bangladesh, a rhino protected area of similar size (Martin et al. who are the main inhabitants of the fringe villages 2009), and much higher than rhino protected areas surrounding the Park. The gang leaders pay the field in Indonesia and Vietnam—which have lost most of helpers INR 20–50,000 (USD 417–1042) each to join their rhinos in recent years to poachers. the gang. The gang enters the Park at about 0300h, bringing supplies of dried food, water bottles, mos- quito repellent, nets and one or more rifles; they stay

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 29 Martin et al. in the Park for up to several days until they have killed to graze in the villagers’ rice, mustard or wheat fields a rhino. Then they quickly leave under darkness with due to their high density (the highest in Asia). Around the horn, which usually ends up with middlemen in Pabitora there are 33 villages with at least 10,000 Dimapur who pay up to INR 500,000 (USD 10,417) people and thousands of cattle. Some villagers short per kg (Jayanta Deka, Range Officer, Orang NP, pers. of grazing lands drive their cattle into the WLS to comm. December 2008). feed in the daytime. Thus rhinos and villagers’ cattle In 2005 the Park authorities arrested 19 rhino compete with each other for food. poachers and seized INR 367,000 (USD 8156) in From 2000–2005 poachers shot dead five rhi- cash, which was said to be used to buy a rhino horn. nos and electrocuted three others. In February 2006 In 2006 they killed a rhino poacher and apprehended another rhino was shot dead outside the Sanctuary. 22 others. In 2007 they arrested 16 rhino poachers No rhinos are known to have been illegally killed in and confiscated two .303 rifles with ammunition and 2007 or in 2008, despite being easy to spot with such one hand-made gun. In 2008, up to September, the a high density and despite so many wandering out of Park staff caught eight rhino poachers and interrupted the protected Sanctuary. three gangs from removing three horns (statistics Rhino poachers live in the area, although they from Orang NP). were not successful in 2007 and 2008. Similar to Kaziranga and Orang, this gang consists of a couple Rhino horn stocks from Orang of shooters, usually from Nagaland, and at least one All recovered rhino horns go to the State Treasury. In field helper. These helpers are thought to be immi- total from 1974 to December 2008 there have been grants originating from Bangladesh who, as around 80 horns sent to the Treasury (statistic from Orang’s Orang, are the main settlers in the area. The poachers rhino horn registry book). are recruited from villages that are not on the fringes of the Sanctuary. The field helpers usually receive Orang’s budget an advance payment of INR 20,000–30,000 (USD 456–684) to join the gang. The shooters take the horns Orang’s official budget consists of funds, mainly for to Dimapur where they receive INR 200,000–300,000 salaries, from the State of Assam (‘State non-plan’); (USD 4,566–6,849) per kg—again similar to Kaziran- there is almost no money from the central government. ga and Orang (according to a poacher who in 2007 Orang’s official State budget for 2006/7 and also for gave information to Mukal Tamuli, Range Officer, 2007/8 was INR 7,625,000 (USD 178,780 and USD Pabitora (pers. comm. December 2008). 174,087) respectively. There was a small additional Between 2005 and 2008, Pabitora WLS staff sum from the central government in 2006/7 but noth- arrested eight members of poaching gangs (only one ing the following year. NGOs (International Rhino inside the Sanctuary) and confiscated five guns. They Foundation, WWF and Aaranyak) also contribute were all thought to be immigrants originating from resources and expertise. Bangladesh except for one poacher, a Naga with a The density of rhinos (68 divided by 79 km2) is .303 rifle caught in 2007. The most recent arrest 0.86 rhinos per square km. The official amount of was in 2008 when the Forest Department, through money available to spend per square km in Orang NP an informant, raided a house near the Sanctuary and was USD 2,204 in 2007/8 (USD 174,087 divided by arrested two field helpers with three guns. 79 km2), plus the small sum from NGOs. Rhino poaching in Pabitora from 2006 to Rhino horn stocks from Pabitora 2008 There are 16 rhino horns held by Pabitora staff, collected Pabitora WLS lies about halfway between Guwahati between 2003 and mid-December 2008, the heaviest was and Orang NP. The Sanctuary is only 39 km2, of 1.8 kg. Horns collected earlier were sent to the Nagaon which only about 16 km2 is suitable rhino habitat. In Treasury, but the Range Officer did not know how many February 2008 there were 92 rhinos counted, a healthy (Tamuli, pers. comm. December 2008). growing population, despite its small size (statistic from Range Office, Pabitora). About 20–40 rhinos, however, have to go outside the Sanctuary each night

30 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Rhino poaching in Assam: challenges and opportunities

Pabitora’s budget Pabitora’s government budget is made up of funds from the State of Assam (State non-plan, consisting of salaries, and State plan, which is for other recurrent expenses), plus funds from central government (‘Cen- Esmond Martin tral Sector Scheme’). Pabitora’s official annual aver- age budget for 2006/7 and 2007/8 was INR 8,575,500 (USD 195,788). Of this total, salaries and wages made up 67%, with 22% for other recurrent costs from State funds and 11% from central government (usually for development costs) (statistics from the District Forest Office, Guwahati Wildlife Division, December 2008). NGOs (including WWF, Aaranyak and the Wild- life Trust of India) give their expertise and assistance; recent donations include a vehicle, a motorbike and some funding for intelligence activities. The density of rhinos, if they were all in the Sanctuary (92 divided by 39 km2) is 2.36 rhinos per square km. If the official budget is divided by the number of square km in the Sanctuary (USD 195,788 divided by 39 km2) the average annual sum available for the last two years was USD 5020 per square km, plus a little extra from the NGOs. This is double the amount spent in Kaziranga and Orang, but the animals continually leave the sanctuary at night so in reality a larger area requires protection.

Discussion Figure 4. Indian rhino horns weigh, on average, 750 Why did rhino poaching rise substantially grams and are highly prized for East Asian medicines; in 2007 in Kaziranga and how was it customers believe these small horns are more potent curtailed in 2008? than the larger African horns. The year 2007 spiked with 20 rhinos poached com- Figures show that, from the financial year of 1 April pared with 5 in 2006 and 10 in 2008. One of the 2007 to 31 March 2008, although the Park was allo- main reasons could be that a new senior officer was cated 562 permanent staff, only 463 of these positions appointed to Kaziranga NP; it took him some time to were filled (statistics from the Divisional Forest Of- understand the poaching threats and to learn how to ficer, Kaziranga, December 2008). This was because combat them. Due to the sudden increase in poaching, many permanent staff members had been retiring and the morale at the front line sank. When the senior of- were not being replaced because the State government ficer received information on poachers, the response did not have the funds and political commitment to fill to counter the attack was not adequate to keep pace the vacancies. This problem had been accumulating with the poachers. The poaching was also due to for at least 10 years. Many staff were older, lacking apathy from the State government in providing timely the zeal and physical ability to patrol effectively as support to the Park. In addition, three frontline staff they had earlier. There were 138 anti-poaching camps members were arrested by police regarding a case within the Park in 2007, but they were not adequately where a poacher was shot dead. All these issues broke staffed. There should be five men per camp according the spirit of the frontline staff in Kaziranga. to Abhijit Rabha, Conservator of Forests, Wildlife, Another problem was a shortage of staff in 2007. Assam (pers. comm. December 2008). There are

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 31 Martin et al.

50–52 domesticated elephants used for tourism and increased from fewer than 80 to 120 (Gogoi, pers. patrols, but only half the mahouts were permanent due comm. December 2008). also to staff cutbacks (Suren Buragohain, Director of The Forest Department became much more active Kaziranga, pers. comm. December 2008). in eco-development schemes than they had been for a A third problem was that the staff did not have long time. They increased training for the local villagers enough intelligence funding in 2007 for their needs in the tourist sector to reduce unemployment, for exam- (D.D. Gogoi, DFO, Kaziranga NP, pers. comm. De- ple by allowing more villagers to be tour guides; some cember 2008). This, together with a lack of adaptive 88 guides were taking their own vehicles with tourists strategies on how to react to information, meant intel- into the Park. The Forest Department also established ligence activities were generally inadequate. a traditional Karbi restaurant with local employment Not much money was available for revamping that was opened in October. These schemes boosted the deteriorating anti-poaching camps, or for training relations between Kaziranga and the local villagers. workshops to upgrade patrol skills, nor were there These improvements in 2008 resulted in the decline in adequate funds to modernize firearms and commu- rhino poaching from 20 in 2007 to 10 in 2008. nications equipment. One senior officer explained that instead, too much priority was placed on funding Orang’s difficulties to combat rhino poach- entertainment and hospitality, and that too many staff ing in 2008 were being sidelined to deal with VIPs rather than concentrating on anti-poaching needs. The main reason for the illegal killing of seven rhinos in In 2008 there was a turning point that produced strong 2008, as opposed to three the year before, was that some action from the State and Central governments and from of the experienced Forest Guards had been transferred NGOs. On 19 January poachers shot at a rhino and her calf out of Orang NP. They had been isolated there for years that had walked 200 m out of the Park near Kohora. The and had wanted to move. Other people were recruited, calf died almost immediately, but the female temporarily but they were less experienced and did not have the fell down; the poachers removed the horn while she was know-how and tactics to prevent poaching effectively. still alive. The mother got to her feet and wandered around In 2006/7 there were 63 permanent staff, 34 casuals and for 36 hours, finally dying from excessive bleeding. Before 12 Home Guards, a total of 109, and 13 vacancies; in she died, one of the authors (BT) photographed the injured 2007/8 there were an additional 36 Home Guards and six rhino and shared the horrifying picture with important con- of the vacancies were filled by the Bodoland Territorial tacts around the world and asked for letters of protest. On Council (BTC) (Statistics from the Range Office, Orang 23 January he sent the protest letters to the Prime Minister, NP, December 2008). Extra staff did not help much with Manmohan Singh. Conservationists and the media put the experienced staff gone. Some poor local villagers additional pressure on the Assam police to catch the poach- (again, people thought to be immigrants originating ers and to confiscate arms and ammunition, which often from East Bengal/Bangladesh), aware that patrolling was come from civil areas into the national park. Action was weaker in 2008, became rhino poachers. In 2008 there almost immediate. The Prime Minister spoke to the Chief was almost no money spent on intelligence gathering Minister of Assam, who ordered the police to respond im- by the government, so the number of poachers grew. mediately. They arrested more than 10 rhino poachers and Orang NP is geographically isolated compared with traders around Kaziranga NP and rhino poaching declined. Kaziranga NP and Pabitora WLS. Kaziranga is on a na- Some of the main NGOs allocated emergency money for tional highway and Pabitora is the closest rhino protected intelligence gathering, extra fuel, a new vehicle and anti- area to Guwahati (and thus popular), but Orang is cut off poaching equipment; this assistance and upgrading of the on the north side of the Brahmaputra River where tourists Park started in March (Tariq Aziz, WWF India, pers. comm. rarely go. In 2007/8 for Kaziranga there were 59,746 December 2008 and January 2009). visitors (of which 6106 were foreigners) and the Park In May 2008, the Divisional Forest Officer was earned INR 9,164,424 (USD 209,233). For Pabitora replaced by a highly experienced man who imme- there were 9–10,000 visitors, mostly from Guwahati, diately reinstated leadership, discipline and morale, and the Sanctuary earned INR 650,000 (USD 14,840). especially among the Forest Guards. More Forest Orang, however, had 1596 visitors (215 foreigners) and Guards were moved into the Park from elsewhere and the Park earned just INR 278,500 (USD 6,358) (statistics the number of Home Guards used for anti-poaching from the three Forest Department offices, December

32 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Rhino poaching in Assam: challenges and opportunities

2008). Orang is a low profile park; the State and Central have been converted into informants, so active poachers governments have not been allocating sufficient funds nowadays fear to operate because the chances of getting to the Park for some years. Facilities are run down and caught are greater than before (Tamuli, and S.K. Silsarma, there is a shortage of accommodation. Senior Forest DFO, Pabitora, pers. comm. December 2008). Officers from Guwahati rarely go to Orang and do not Pabitora is so small that it is easier for Sanctu- see that it is in poor shape. ary staff to communicate with the fringe villagers, as These problems are the main stumbling blocks there are fewer of them, compared to Kaziranga and facing Orang and seem hard to overcome compared to Orang, which have extensive boundaries. There are Kaziranga, which receives a lot of attention, being a World few eco-development projects, but these have not Heritage Site. Pabitora is another important site, because it been as necessary because close relations have been is popular with Guwahati picnickers, but Orang is on the developed anyway through meetings and campaigns. fringe and lacks strong support, even though it is officially These factors have allowed more effective operations named after the former Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi. and improvements in anti-poaching over the years. How was rhino poaching prevented in Recommendations Pabitora in 2007 and 2008? Having assessed the threats posed to rhinos in Assam, There has been a serious improvement in stopping recommendations for follow-up action, in order of rhino poaching, with none poached in 2007 and 2008 effectiveness against rhino poaching, are given below. compared with 2.6 rhinos poached on average annu- ally in the previous 20 years. 1. High budgets must be maintained for Assam’s rhino Pabitora received almost twice as much funding areas. Any vacant positions amongst the field staff per km2 from the government compared with Kaziranga must be filled and kept filled by permanent staff. and Orang (USD 5020 versus USD 2592 and USD 2204 The Forest Guards need to receive a wage-increase per km2 respectively, on average annually in 2007 and from approximately INR 6,700 (USD 153) a month 2008). This permits a very high ratio of personnel per to INR 10,000 (USD 228) to motivate them in their km2: 2.6 men per km2 compared with 0.77 for Kaziranga high-risk profession. Much of their accommodation and 1.9 for Orang (statistics from Kaziranga NP, Orang requires repair and threadbare uniforms need to be NP and Pabitora WLS, December 2008). Pabitora has replaced. Other important items needed are torches always received substantially more manpower per km2, and a mobile communication system; these are so this alone has not been the reason for the lack of recent items NGOs could readily supply. poaching. 2. The most successful way for the senior staff to stop What has improved, in comparison with earlier poachers is through intelligence money for gather- years, is a much more positive relationship between ing information on potential poachers and traders. the Sanctuary staff and the local people, preventing More intelligence funds are required for all rhino potential poachers. There has been a cumulative im- protected areas. This money must be provided by provement, supported by official funds, to arrange NGOs because government departments cannot meetings at schools and villages to motivate people easily authorize such funds, as they cannot obtain about the wildlife conservation. receipts from informers. Money must be given to NGOs have been funding informers since 1999, those Range Officers and DFOs who have a strong but increased their financial support in 2008. Sanctuary proven track record in dealing with intelligence staff members have been developing their intelligence funds. network over the years and the injection of informant 3. Relations with the people surrounding rhino pro- funds lent to the prevention of rhino poaching entirely in tected areas need improvement. Campaigns, such 2007 and 2008. In 2008 the Range Officer had available as those that have worked around Pabitora, should INR 10,000 (USD 228) per month for intelligence, INR be copied in Kaziranga and Orang; successful pro- 5,000 of which came from Aaranyak. Staff members pay grammes to teach the villagers about protecting their for information from reliable sources on a regular basis. If rhinos should be modified according to the needs a poacher is caught with arms, the informer could receive of each site. More eco-development projects—es- INR 20–30,000 (USD 457–685). Many former poachers pecially related to tourism, which employs local

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 33 Martin et al.

people—will enhance positive relations. 10. The main impediment to bringing an end to poach- 4. NGOs need to monitor the anti-poaching activities ing is the poachers’ correct perception that they in Assam’s rhino protected areas more regularly to will not be jailed for any length of time if caught. be aware of any developing problems. They ought The arrest of poachers by the Forest Department to visit these areas accompanied by a senior For- is routinely undertaken, but the Forest Department est Officer from Guwahati who is influential on lawyers have problems in framing the cases and how funds should be allocated. Together they can completing the investigations. What is needed see to it that the correct action is implemented to is a small group of skilled lawyers in the Forest improve rhino protection as and where necessary. Department who can prepare a proper criminal case that can be won in court. Fines and jail sen- 5. The Forest Department staff in rhino protected tences need to be increased substantially—and areas should send regular reports to the central of- publicized—in order to deter poachers and traders. fice, especially on poaching incidents. The Forest Department should then give important information Conclusion to NGOs, so they can respond quickly if there is an increase in rhino poaching threats, and help by Competent staff and appropriate budgets for Assam’s providing more funding support. The Forest De- rhino protected areas have enabled this remote state partment does not usually have access to immediate in India to be one of the best rhino success stories. extra funds in times of crisis as NGOs do. Assam is home to 77% of the world’s wild popula- tion of greater one-horned rhinos; in 2007 and 2008 6. An NGO, in co-operation with the Forest Depart- fewer than 1% of these rhinos were poached annually. ment, should collect a set of rhino anti-poaching and It is imperative, however, to keep vigilant; if political conservation guidelines from Department staff. There disturbances occur, as happened recently in Manas have been some excellent and dedicated staff over the NP and in Nepal, the number of rhinos poached could years whose knowledge and techniques in motivating increase dramatically. NGOs and Forest Department their field staff etc, ought to be recorded. An NGO officials can further improve their collaboration to could produce a manual, frequently updated, for the tighten up their guard for this important rhino popula- benefit of new staff or for those being transferred to tion and be a model to conservationists worldwide. new areas. Then, information and expertise, otherwise lost when effective staff are replaced, retire or die, is Acknowledgements saved, and their methods can continue to inspire and guide their successors who then do not have to start Thanks are due to Care for the Wild International, the afresh and make errors that cost rhinos’ lives. Columbus Zoo and Aquarium and the John Aspinall 7. A prominent figurehead should take on the cause Foundation for funding the fieldwork in Assam. We for Orang NP and bring in assistance needed for wish to thank Imtiaz Ahmed, Tariq Aziz, Ramesh the Park, thereby overcoming the bureaucracy’s Bhatta, B.S. Bonal, D.D. Boro, Suren Buragohain, Jay- control that hampers the survival of Orang’s rhi- anta Deka, D.D. Gogoi, Ashok Kumar, M.C. Malakar, nos. Perhaps, as it is called Rajiv Gandhi Orang Ikramul Mazid, Vivek Menon, Abhijit Rabha, Anupam National Park, a member of that family could Sarmah, S.K. Silsarmah and Mukul Tamuli. We are become involved in helping to protect it. very grateful especially to all those referenced to in the text who provided the information for this study. Much 8. The police and customs officers need to be told by appreciation also goes to Dr Anwaruddin Choudhury high authority to put a priority on wildlife crimes. for his detailed comments on the report. In turn they need training by qualified staff or NGO members such as from TRAFFIC, to identify References wildlife products and how to catch wildlife traders. Martin E, Martin C, Vigne L. 2009. Recent political distur- 9. TRAFFIC and other NGOs urgently need to reveal bances in Nepal threaten rhinos: lessons to be learned. the trade routes for rhino horn leaving India and Pachyderm 45:98–107. identify the traders in Dimapur; almost nothing Talukdar B. 2006. Assam leads in conserving the greater is known about these middlemen. The Nagaland one-horned rhinoceros in the new millennium. authorities must apprehend these criminals. Pachyderm 41:85–89.

34 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Portugal’s long association with African ivory

Esmond and Chryssee Martin

PO Box 15510, Nairobi 00503, Kenya; email: [email protected]

Abstract Retail outlets in Lisbon, Portugal, have more ivory items than other much larger cities in southern Europe. There were 626 ivory objects counted in 2008, with 150 of these originating in Africa. The most numerous items counted were antique figurines from Europe and Asia, followed by busts and figurines carved in the 1970s from Angola, and antique crucifixes from India, Europe and Ceylon (renamed Sri Lanka in 1972). There were only 14 new ivory items counted in the survey for sale in three retail outlets: 12 from China and only 2 from Africa. Ivory is easily smuggled out of Africa into Portugal. The Portuguese authorities intercept several hundred pieces of ivory (both raw and worked) each year, almost all from Africa, especially Angola, Mozambique and Senegal. Much ivory, new and old, however, is successfully smuggled into Portugal, often hand-carried through the airports. But very little of this ivory is found in retail outlets; instead it is kept as personal possessions at home. Another source of ivory is the Internet, which also enables new ivory items to be smuggled into Portugal, but again nearly all of it is for personal use and not for sale. There is a large quantity of ivory in Portugal, with at least 20 tonnes of registered tusks alone, due to the long-standing colonial connections with Africa. Nearly all the ivory items seen for sale were made before the CITES ban. Some, however, were being sold illegally because Portuguese law requires that ivory pieces be registered. Since 2004, privately owned ivory is required to be registered as well, but most has not been recorded.

Key words: Portugal, Angola, Mozambique, ivory trade, Indo-Portuguese ivory. Résumé Les points de vente au détail à Lisbonne, au Portugal, ont plus d’articles en ivoire que d’autres villes beaucoup plus grandes en Europe du sud. Il y avait 626 objets en ivoire dénombrés en 2008, dont 150 provenaient d’Afrique. Les articles comptés les plus nombreux étaient des figurines antiques d’Europe et d’Asie, suivis par des bustes et des figurines sculptées dans les années 1970 en Angola, et les crucifix antiques d’Inde, d’Europe et du Ceylan (il a été renommé Sri Lanka en 1972). On a dénombré dans l’étude seulement 14 nouveaux articles en ivoire à vendre dans trois points de vente au détail: 12 venant de Chine et seulement 2 d’Afrique. L’ivoire passe facilement en contrebande de l’Afrique vers le Portugal. Chaque année, les autorités portugaises interceptent plusieurs centaines de pièces d’ivoire (brut et travaillé), presque toutes venant de l’Afrique, surtout de l’Angola, du Mozambique et du Sénégal. Cependant beaucoup d’ivoire, nouveau et vieux, passe avec succès en contrebande au Portugal, souvent dans les bagages à main à travers les aéroports. Mais très peu de cet ivoire se trouve dans les points de vente au détail; on le garde plutôt comme possessions personnelles à la maison. Une autre source d’ivoire est l’Internet qui permet aussi aux nouveaux articles en ivoire de passer en contrebande au Portugal mais encore presque tout cet ivoire est destiné à l’usage personnel et pas à la vente. Il y a une grande quantité d’ivoire au Portugal, avec au moins 20 tonnes de défenses enregistrées, à cause des rapports coloniaux de longue date avec l’Afrique. Presque tous les articles en ivoire vus en vente avaient été faits avant l’interdiction de la CITES. Cependant, certains articles se vendaient illégalement parce que la loi portugaise exige que les pièces en ivoire soient enregistrées. Depuis 2004, l’ivoire entre les mains des privés doit être aussi enregistré, mais la plus grande partie n’en a pas été enregistrée.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 35 Martin and Martin

Introduction produced in Portugal, the colonists preferred to have these copied in large numbers in Asia, where there was Up until this survey, studies had been conducted on much ivory and many good craftsmen requiring lower the ivory trade in most countries of western Europe, wages. There is no evidence of Asians crafting ivory but not in Portugal. Perhaps this was because most in Portugal (Manuel Murteira Martins, art historian scholars believed that Portuguese craftsmen did not and antique dealer, pers. comm. December 2008). produce ivory items, as there are almost no references Antique ivory items carved in Portugal, as referred to them in the published literature. Conservationists to in the Portuguese sources, include a miniature boat believed that Portugal, being a small country, was (Reis 1995), a rosary from the 15th or 16th century less important to study. We learned, however, that and a religious staff from the 16th century (Dias unlike most European countries, Portugal still has 2004). Dias also refers to a chest from the Azores with ivory craftsmen working today. There was also more wooden drawers inlaid with ivory made in the 18th or ivory for sale in Lisbon—both old and new—than in 19th century. In a 1998 exhibition catalogue for the the larger cities of Barcelona, Madrid, Milan or Rome Transport and Communications Museum in Oporto, (Martin and Stiles 2005). 123 of 130 ivory items on display were referred to as Methodology ‘Indo-Portuguese’ (carved in India with Portuguese influences). Only three pieces were probably made Most of our fieldwork was carried out in Lisbon, the in Portugal: statuettes of Jesus, dating from the 18th capital and largest city in Portugal, in September and century (Museu dos Transportes 1998). Auctions in October 2008. We collected data on the history, legal Portugal rarely mention ivory items for sale, least of status, ivory seizures, ivory craftsmen, retail outlets, all those of Portuguese origin. One of the larger sales and on ivory substitutes. We surveyed the retail outlets in Lisbon took place in 1993 with 61 ivory objects and collected information from vendors. We counted on auction, nearly all Indo-Portuguese, with five at ivory items for sale in Lisbon’s outlets. We tried to most carved in Portugal. All but one were religious determine the age of and place at which an item had been sculptures (Palacio do Correio-Velho 1993). manufactured by collecting information from vendors In Lisbon’s museums were hundreds of ivory and historians as well as examining the condition and items, mostly Indo-Portuguese, with again just a few style. Sometimes we returned to important outlets for items carved in Portugal. The Museum Nasional de more information. There were 14 new ivory items Arte Antique displayed three mortars with pestles, an counted in the survey, but 3 different ones appeared oratory, a ring and a miniature painting, most of them later, making 17 referred to in Table 4. We interviewed from the 17th and 18th centuries. A fan, cutlery case, government officers, and visited museums and libraries, sewing kit and backgammon table from the 18th century such as the Gulbenkian Library in central Lisbon to learn were in the Museu-Escola de Artes Decorativas. The about Portuguese ivory carving. Funcacao Medeiros e Almeida Museum had on view a table with ivory inlay and three religious statuettes Results from the 18th and 19th centuries. In Lisbon’s antique shops were many Indo- The history of Portuguese ivory Portuguese items and other pieces, but only 16 likely craftsmanship to have been carved in Portugal (according to the There is very little information, even in Portuguese, style): nine religious statuettes and a box from the on ivory carving in Portugal or on the sale of ivory 17th and 18th centuries, one 1785 mandolin inlaid items within the country. One of the few English with ivory, a writing desk with ivory marquetry, language sources states, ‘Representations of the Good three seals from the late 19th century and one needle Shepherd, Madonnas, and crucifixes were produced container from the early 20th century. in quantity in both Goa and Portugal’ (Woodhouse Portuguese-carved ivory sample items, mostly of 1976). There are, however, many publications on religious figurines, were first made in the late 15th and the carving in Asia of Portuguese-style religious early 16th centuries for their Asian colonies to copy items, especially those produced in India and Ceylon (St Aubyn 1987). Most samples were taken to Goa, (for example, Dias 2006 and Felgueiras 1991). The Gujarat and Ceylon (as it was then called), and some to main reason is that, although some ivory items were Macao, mainland China and the Philippines. The Asian

36 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Portugal’s long association with African ivory Esmond Martin

Figure 1. Most vendors in Lisbon selling ivory items are Portuguese; no African sellers were seen. This Angolan ivory bridge carved in the early 1970s was priced at USD 284 in the Feira da Ladra Saturday Market. artists added their own techniques and styles, blending made for them from the late 19th century. According to the Portuguese and Asian schools of craftsmanship antique dealers, Portuguese living in Mozambique also (Castilho 1999). The majority were made in the 17th supported the local ivory trade, although they did not and 18th centuries, frequently on consignment; they commission as many items as in Angola because there were then shipped to Portugal, the larger pieces to were fewer Portuguese there. decorate churches and the smaller ones for private homes. There was a catastrophic earthquake in 1755 in The legal status of ivory in Portugal Lisbon which marked the start of Portugal’s decline in In 1981 Portugal joined CITES. In 1989 the EU banned both its economy and its political importance. By the ivory imports and exports for EU countries, including 19th century far fewer ivory items were being made Portugal. This excluded ivory items made before 1 June in the Asian colonies for Portugal, and the quality of 1947, which are considered antiques and are exempt pieces declined. Religious statuettes, most of which had from this ban within EU countries (with proof). In 1990 been made in Asia but some in Portugal, went out of CITES prohibited all commercial imports and exports fashion in the 19th century. Ivory craftsmen in Portugal of new ivory items world-wide for CITES member then made items such as cabinets, armoires and writing states. Only pre-CITES ban ivory items are legal to tables with inlaid ivory, mostly in the 19th century. import and export for non-commercial purposes (along Afro-Portuguese ivory was another unique blend of with hunting trophies that are exempt). These ivory craftsmanship that Portuguese traders encouraged. In the items can be imported and exported if evidence proving 15th century, Portuguese explorers arrived on the West their age is presented to authorities and permits are African coast and the Sapi people of Sierra Leone made granted, both within the EU and with other countries. the first pieces of ivory for the Portuguese: salt cellars, The Portuguese CITES authorities started to register spoons, forks, oliphants (musical horns) and powder ivory tusks in the country in 1986. By the end of that year, flasks (Bassani and Fagg 1988). These Sapi objects the authorities had marked 1089 tusks weighing 14,392 are rarely seen nowadays in Portugal’s museums and kg from all over the country. In 1989 they marked another antique shops and they are very expensive. In Angola, 298 tusks with a total weight of 2124 kg. By 2008 the the Portuguese had a growing variety of ivory items government had marked 1614 tusks weighing 19,679 kg

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 37 Martin and Martin

with an average weight of 12.2 kg (see Table 1). The main Table 1. Legal, privately-owned ivory tusks officially reason for this large quantity was that there were many marked in Portugal from 1986 to 2008 Portuguese who lived in Angola and Mozambique prior Year Number of tusks Weight (kg) to 1975 who brought tusks back home (Portuguese CITES Management Authority, pers. comm. September 2008). 1986 1089 14,392 In 2004 all ivory items, including personal effects, 1988 9 186 whether commercial or not, had to be registered with 1989 298 2123.5 the government. From 2006 to 2008 the Portuguese 1990 42 788.5 CITES authorities issued about 1000 certificates each 1991 35 590.8 year, but some of these recorded more than one item 1992 10 2.31 (Jao Loureiro, Chief of Division, CITES Management 1993 2 47.2 Authority, Instituto de Conservacao da Natureza 1994 3 111.9 (ICN), pers. comm. September 2008). Many people have not yet registered. 1998 12 74.675 In 2004 the government started to check regularly 1999 5 28.15 many shops to see if they had proper CITES 2000 19 161.5 documents and found that most did not, especially 2001 7 144.7 for worked tusks and furniture with ivory inlay. The 2002 2 40.75 problem is that there are so many shops it is not 2003 8 88.78 possible to inspect them all, especially since there are 2004 15 101.55 only three inspectors remaining today who are based 2005 22 195.9 in Lisbon; two others who had been based in Oporto 2006 17 247.5 were made redundant for economic reasons. Before 2007 it was not a serious crime to trade in 2007 14 312.215 protected species and their products within the country. 2008* 5 41.3 Judges did not allow government officers to enter private Totals 1614 19,679.24 houses in order to check for illegal wildlife products. * 1 January to 31 August In 2007, this penal law changed, and became stricter, allowing wildlife inspectors to enter private residences. in Lisbon were carved in the 1960s and 1970s. These Some judges, however, are still reluctant to implement this items, according to EC Regulation 338/97, would need a new law (Loureiro and Ana Zuquete, CITES Management CITES re-export certificate to be shipped out of the EU Authority, ICN, pers. comm. September 2008). or an intra-community certificate if the buyer of the item Trophy tusks have always been allowed into Portugal, is an EU resident (Martin and Stiles 2005). as these are considered non-commercial. For 2006 and 2007, the most recent years recorded, sportsmen who Ivory seizures in Portugal hunted elephants in Mozambique brought home to Portugal 20 tusks, followed by Botswana with 8, Namibia According to the Portuguese CITES Authority’s official with 5, Zimbabwe with 4 and Tanzania with 2 tusks. seizure figures, which differ from those of the Elephant It is of course possible to export legally a genuine Trade Information System, from 2003 (the first year of pre-CITES ban ivory piece commercially or privately. data) to 2007, the government seized 925 ivory items The following steps are required for a non-EU country: the plus 6.5 kg of ivory in 108 separate seizures (see Table 2). Ministry of Culture needs to give permission in writing, Most seizures of ivory items, 40 of them, were in 2007, of an EU certificate must be obtained and the Portuguese which 22 seizures (76 items plus 0.8 kg of raw ivory) were CITES authority needs to issue a CITES export permit. from Angola (statistics from the Portuguese Management The CITES Authority must issue their permit within Authority, pers. comm. September 2008). Some of these 30 days if there is an EU certificate, but can do it in objects were crafted before 1975 when Angola was a as little as 48 hours. If there is no EU certificate, the colony. At that time, many Portuguese living in Angola CITES Authority can still issue their permit, but it takes lost their wealth when the new government nationalized up to two months (Loureiro, pers. comm. September their properties and businesses. Those who returned to 2008). For example, many of the ivory items for sale Portugal were not allowed to take with them most of

38 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Portugal’s long association with African ivory their possessions, including ivory carvings and tusks. In recent years, some have returned to work on short-term contracts and have collected some of their old possessions that they had left with friends, including ivory, while others have bought both old and new ivory items to take home.

Angola is not a member of CITES, thus most people find Esmond Martin it too complicated to get permits, although without proper documentation, the items are liable to seizure in Portugal. There are thousands of new ivory items for sale in the Luanda area, mostly from ivory originating in the Congo region (Milliken et al. 2006) and some are smuggled into Portugal and kept as personal souvenirs. Very few appear in the shops and street markets. In 2007 there were nine ivory seizures in Portugal consisting of 72 items from Mozambique. Unlike Angola, most were new items; this is because Mozambique has far fewer older items because after independence in 1975, when the Portuguese settlers had their possessions confiscated, many drove across the border to live in South Africa, making it easier to take their small possessions with them. Therefore, scarcely any old ivory is left in Mozambique compared with Angola. Mozambique has several thousand new ivory items Figure 2. A jewellery shop in Lisbon displays an available in the capital, Maputo, and visitors sometimes elephant skull with tusks. Also in the picture is a 20 buy these items and try to smuggle them back into kg Angolan-carved tusk (bridge) from the 1960s for USD 42,600, the most expensive piece of worked Portugal, not with CITES papers, as the ivory is new so ivory seen from Africa. papers would not be granted (Martin and Stiles 2000; Milliken 2002; Milliken et al. 2006). Ivory figurines, busts and jewellery that are sometimes hidden inside no recently recorded elephants, and it implements wooden statuettes are popular (Loureiro, pers. comm. CITES regulations very effectively on ivory, thus this September 2008). country is not involved in the Portuguese ivory trade Portugal had a third African colony, Portuguese (Loureiro, pers. comm. September 2008). Guinea, which gained independence in 1974 and The Portuguese and Africans usually bring back was re-named Guinea-Bissau. This country has just a few ivory items at a time (generally for personal use) from Africa to Portugal in order to reduce the chance of detection. Sometimes they get caught, mostly Table 2. Official seizures of raw and worked ivory in at Lisbon airport and sometimes at Oporto airport. Portugal, 2003–2007 When there are just one or two pieces, the authorities Country No. of pieces No. of merely confiscate them, but if there are more, police of origin and/or weights seizures may take action and a fine may be imposed. Since the Senegal 357 1 early 1990s the government has only seized one large consignment: 357 items from Senegal in 2003. Overall, Mozambique 250 perhaps 20% of seizures from all countries are new 30 Angola 185 ivory objects, the rest being pre-CITES ban (Loureiro, 1.53 kg 43 pers. comm. September 2008). A few individuals regularly bring ivory items into the country. For Other 133 example, a known Portuguese man goes to Thailand 5 kg 34 routinely and illegally brings back worked ivory; some Total 925 of his consignments have been seized while others will 6.53 kg 108 have slipped through. At the time of the survey, his Thai

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 39 Martin and Martin

items were not seen for sale in Lisbon. Ivory artisans working in Portugal in 2008 Some items seized at the airports are from Internet After the Revolution in Portugal in 1974–1975 that sources. These Internet pieces are almost all new and overthrew a dictatorship for a socialist government, and thus without permits. The major supplier is Thailand following the granting of Independence to Portugal’s followed by Cambodia and then China. When officials African colonies, a businessman from Angola, Joao detect such an item, they ask the importer to get A. Veiga, returned to Portugal and set up a jewellery an export permit from the seller, but this is never shop in Lisbon. He imported tusks from Angola and provided. Occasionally the exporter will reply that Mozambique and he employed an African ivory carver it is carved from mammoth ivory (Loureiro, pers. from Angola to work in his shop. The craftsman comm. September 2008). Usually the officials will worked until the late 1980s when he decided to return realize this is a cover up and not let the item through. to Angola, but the jewellery shop continues and is It is not known how many of these items are kept for managed by the Portuguese owner’s son. Ivory dealers personal use versus how many are sold. and CITES officials knew of no other African or Asian The Portuguese government never finds ivory ivory carvers working in Portugal in recent years. items that are being exported illegally. The government There are, however, at least four Portuguese artisans says that if ivory is being smuggled out of Portugal, crafting ivory part time. Three young women make they are unaware of it. jewellery, sometimes using ivory, in Lisbon. An antique In total, since 1989/90, the government has shop displayed some of their work made in 2007: a confiscated tonnes of ivory within the country: 6–cm rectangular ivory broach selling for USD 852, raw, worked, old and new. Some has been loaned a 5–cm circular ivory broach for USD 682 and a 5-cm- to museums and zoos for exhibition. In 1989 the high ring for USD 1136. The shop owner would not government sold some of its stock to China: 282 tusks reveal the identity of the women for business reasons. weighing 1747 kg; this was before the CITES ivory The fourth artisan is in the Oporto area; he makes trade ban on imports and exports amongst CITES bracelets, necklaces and rings. According to the CITES member states (Zuquete, pers. comm. November 2008). Esmond Martin

Figure 3. An ivory craftsman in Maputo makes an ivory beaded necklace, popular with Portuguese buyers.

40 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Portugal’s long association with African ivory

Management Authority, he obtains his raw ivory from Table 4. Minimum number of new (post 1989) ivory northern Portugal where there are many privately owned items seen for retail sale in Lisbon, 2008 pre-CITES ban tusks. For example, he recently bought Item No. of Size Where Price some tusks (with proper documents) from a Portuguese items in cm made in USD who had purchased them in Africa before 1974. Human bust, 1 10 Africa 99 Antique dealers said that Portuguese craftsmen female have, in the past, carved ivory into fake antique Indo- Hair ornament 1 9 Africa 43 Portuguese religious figurines and crucifixes, pretending they were from the 18th century. The dealers could not Monkey figurine 1 15 China 3692 give more information on this, but it is unlikely that this Virgin Mary 1 18 China 3124 practice continues today. The items are not as good as Madonna and child 1 18 China 2840 original antiques and usually sell for less. Animal figurine 3 15 China 2556 Cabbage 1 13 China 1278 Retail outlets in Lisbon selling ivory Human figurine 3 3 China 195 In an extensive survey of retail outlets in Lisbon, we Erotic human 1 6 China 185 counted 626 ivory items in 59 outlets (see Table 3). figurine pair Of these, 490 were in antique shops (78%), 82 were Magic ball 1 3 China 114 in jewellery shops (13%), and 42 in the city’s three Ring 1 5 Portugal 1136 flea markets (7%). There were 12 other items found in Broach 2 6 Portugal 767 a gift shop, a watch shop and a silver shop. No ivory items were found for sale in department stores or in NB: There were 14 new ivory items counted in the the 83 tourist and hotel shops visited. survey and 3 more were found later in the Chinese Of the 626 ivory items counted in the survey, only gift shop making a total of 17. an estimated 14 were crafted since the CITES ban on some more items that were displayed: another animal international ivory trade, or 2.2% of the total. This is a figurine and two religious figurines. To make space for minimum figure as some items are extremely difficult to these items, two animal figurines and a human figurine date. The 14 new ivory items counted in the survey were that had been counted earlier were removed. All these found in four outlets. There were seven Chinese-made items are listed in Table 4. items counted for sale in a Chinese gift shop; three were The new ivory items seen for sale were made in Portuguese-made jewellery items in an antique shop; Portugal, Africa and China. Portuguese and Africans three others (two African-made and a Chinese magic smuggle in new African ivory objects, mostly from ball) were in a second antique shop; and a Chinese erotic Angola and Mozambique, sometimes mixed in with figurine was in a third antique shop (see Table 4). The older items. A Chinese ivory dealer based in Lisbon vendor in the Chinese gift shop said she had all her ivory imports the new Chinese items that were seen for sale. on display; four days later she had obtained from China Antique dealers buy their ivory items mostly from private individuals in Portugal. They also buy at Table 3. Types of retail outlets and number of ivory auctions and house sales within the country. Dealers items in Lisbon, 2008 rarely bring in ivory antiques from other countries, Type No. of % of total No. of Total av. no although other people do perhaps bring in ivory items outlets outlets items of items/ from the Internet to sell. There are more antique shops outlets in Portugal today than there were in 1990, according to Antique shop 40 68 490 12 antique dealers. These are found, especially in Oporto, 3 Markets’ stalls 13 22 42 3 Estoril, Cascais and Evora. Most, by far, are in Lisbon, Jewellery shop 3 5 82 27 located along Rua D. Pedro V, Rua de S. Bento, Rua Gift shop 1 2 7 7 Augusto Rosa and Rua de Escola Politecnica. These are small outlets selling antique furniture, paintings, Watch shop 1 2 4 4 ornaments and wooden sculptures. Small antiques, Silver shop 1 2 1 1 including old ivory items that are usually displayed Totals 59 – 626 11 together on a shelf, are found in vitrine cases. At

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 41 Martin and Martin

least a quarter of the antique shops displayed ivory, seen: three African female busts, a Chinese Buddha and on average about a dozen items in each, usually high an African carved tusk with animals. quality antiques. All but one of the ivory antiques seen There was one gift shop selling Chinese items that for sale in Lisbon were in antique shops. There was were not old (such as boxes, jewellery, screens and new ivory seen in three antique shops, one selling the clothes). There were ivory items and mammoth items three pieces of Portuguese-made jewellery mentioned kept together in vitrine cases at the back of the shop. On above. The other was a small antique shop with the our first visit, the day of our survey-count, we observed newly made Chinese erotic couple (the only ivory item seven ivory objects: a monkey, two other animals, a in this shop). Another small shop had three new items: cabbage and three human sculptures. On a later visit two from Africa and the magic ball from China. These three of these items were replaced by a cat figurine and three items were with 14 older ivory items made in by two religious figurines. These were a Virgin Mary the mid-20th century, both European (utilitarian) and and a Madonna and Child that were made of blackwood, African (ornamental) objects. with hands and head of ivory, carved in Guangzhou. All There were three jewellery shops with ivory in 10 of the ivory items seen in total were new. central Lisbon. One had a couple of old cross pendants, The watch shop displayed three African pieces the second had two old portraits painted on slices of that, according to the vendor, were carved before the ivory made in Germany. The third jewellery shop, import ban: a bridge with animals carved on it, an the biggest, displayed 78 worked ivory items, mostly African head and a thin carved 25-cm elephant made Angolan, carved between the 1950s and the early from part of a tusk base. These three ivory items were 1970s. Some of these were in a vitrine case in the front displayed in the window. There was also an old ivory main section of the shop, while others were on shelves comb of European origin. The final shop that displayed in another room behind. The shop manager, the son of ivory items, a silver shop, sold one Indo-Portuguese the owner mentioned earlier, knew the prices of the antique figurine. There was a sign nearby on the wall ivory items in the front area, but had to check about the ones in the back room that was essentially closed to customers. There were a couple of carved tusks on the floor. This shop also had for sale an Angolan elephant skull, with tusks of 40 kg each.

We visited three markets. Two markets were held Esmond Martin in the Feira da Ladra, located at Campo de Santa Clara, one on a Saturday and one on a Tuesday. These markets consist of temporary stalls, sometimes with folding tables or items displayed on the ground, almost entirely outdoors. They sell a great assortment of objects, mostly second-hand, such as car parts, books, clothes, kitchenware, broken furniture and old computers. There were also wildlife products for sale in these two markets (an antelope skin, bone carvings, crocodile skin, fox skin, hippo tusk, leopard skin handbags three ostrich eggs, a starfish, two warthog tusks and zebra skins). There were 425 stalls counted at the Saturday market with 11 ivory items, mostly figurines and small polished tusks from Africa. The Tuesday market, with about half the number of customers, had 303 stalls with 26 different ivory items. These were inexpensive, mostly African-carved figurines, such as 12 small elephants. The third market is located off Rua da Preta and opens on Sundays. It is located under the arches running alongside an old building close to the waterfront. There were 38 temporary stalls counted on Figure 4. This unusual bust carved in Angola in the the day of the survey with five inexpensive ivory items late 1960s was priced at USD 8520.

42 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Portugal’s long association with African ivory for another shop that read, in Portuguese, ‘We buy gold, ivory items seen for sale in any city surveyed, excluding silver, jewellery, ivory etc’, but this shop remained those in Africa (Martin and Stiles 2002, 2003, 2005, 2008). closed during our visit. China followed (11%) with netsukes and human figurines. Overall, there was a great variety of ivory items Portuguese-made items were next (4%), especially religious for sale in the outlets. Most frequently for sale were statuettes and seals. There were Ceylon carvings (4%), but antique European and Asian figurines (29%), excluding they were all antiques and of exquisite quality; religious crucifixes, which were mostly religious. These statuettes and inlaid boxes were their speciality. Even fewer were of high quality from the 17th to 19th centuries (2%) were Japanese (human figurines and boxes), unlike designed for people’s homes. The most recently-made Europe and the USA where there were many more. There Portuguese religious figurine we saw was a 10-cm tall were also several South American items (1% of the total Jesus statue that had been carved around 1900 in the surveyed). Casa Leitao workshop, then famous for its goldsmiths The retail prices for ivory items in Lisbon depend and other master craftsmen. on the item’s age, condition, workmanship, rarity, The next most common items were African-carved size and type of outlet. The new ivory items were not figurines and busts (14%), mostly from Angola. The as expensive as the old items. A new African bust of oldest pieces for sale were small human figurines made mediocre quality was priced at USD 99, while a similar by the coastal Pinda people of Angola in the 19th century, one made in the 1960s or ‘70s (of which many were used for their own religious beliefs. In the late 19th available) was USD 241. New, unique ivory items were century they started to make busts and religious items expensive, however, such as the new ring at USD 1136, for tourists and Portuguese residents in Angola. Most as it is considered an art piece, having not been mass- Angolan ivory objects seen today for sale in Lisbon were produced. The new figurines imported from China are carved in the 1960s and early 1970s. These included 33 much more expensive than in mainland China due to Angolan table decorations of female busts. the much higher overheads in the Portuguese outlets The third most common items seen (7%) were and because they are rare in Lisbon. In Hong Kong crucifixes, of which over half were made in the 17th their prices are similar to Lisbon, again because of the and 18th century in India (especially Goa), Europe and high rents and overheads. Ceylon. Three were Portuguese-made. Nearly all were of For older items, the most expensive was a very very high quality, especially the Indo-Portuguese pieces. large, exquisite, 60-cm Virgin Mary from the 17th An item from the Philippines that portrayed the uncovered century for USD 312,400. It was highly priced as it buttocks of Jesus Christ was the rarest; it was triple the was a large, early Philippine piece in the Hispanic price of other crucifixes seen, being a collector’s item. style; these are rare in private collections compared Boxes, mostly with ivory inlay, comprised 6% of the with items from Goa or Ceylon. The second most items found in the shops. These came to Portugal over expensive piece was the elephant skull with tusks the centuries from Africa (pure ivory boxes), Europe and described earlier, 200,000 Euros (USD 284,000). Asia (usually wood inlaid with ivory). Made in the 16th The least expensive were the African ivory animal century were a rare box made in Ceylon, 22-cm long, and figurines, human busts and bangles from the mid- a round communion box, 7 cm in diameter from Goa. 20th century before the Portuguese Revolution. Small Other items were needle containers (4%), African- utilitarian objects, such as needle holders and paper carved animals (4%), netsukes (2%), African-carved knives made in northern Europe in the early 20th tusks, toothpicks, writing pens, broaches, European- century were also inexpensive. A paper knife in a flea made seals, page holders, plaques, bangles and pairs market cost USD 85, although in an antique shop it of candlesticks (1% each). was more than double the price at USD 213. Regarding the origin of ivory items for retail sale Before the 1990 CITES ivory ban the main in Lisbon, 29% were made in India. Most were Indo- customers for ivory were Americans. In 2008 most Portuguese from the Goan region: religious statuettes, boxes of the buyers were Portuguese. They were followed and inlaid chests. Items from European countries, excluding by other Europeans (mainly French, Italians and Portugal, followed (24%): mainly human figurines and Germans), and then Americans and Brazilians. needle containers. African items, mostly figurines and Table 5 shows the retail prices for ivory items seen carved tusks, were also 24%, usually from Angola. This is in Lisbon in September 2008. the second highest percentage (after Brussels) of African

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 43 Martin and Martin

Table 5. Retail prices for ivory items seen in Lisbon in September/October 2008 Item Size in cm Where made Price range in USD Av. price In USD JEWELLERY Bangle 1 Africa 89 89 2.5 Africa 178 178 Broach 5 Europe 682–1704 1147 FIGURINES Animal 2.5 Africa 21–114 38 Busts 4 Africa 28–227 99 7.5 Africa 36–852 138 10 Asia 99–923 349 18 Africa 426–568 497 Crucifixes 4 Asia, Europe 192–554 320 18 Asia, Europe 2485–2840 2722 35 Asia, Europe 1775–21,300 8077 Human 5–10 Asia, Europe 213–9230 1761 11–15 Asia, Europe 2485–25,560 8311 20 Asia, Europe 3550–127,800 16,823 Netsuke 6 China 369–398 379 TUSKS Carved 45–50 Africa 284–3550 2,110 Polished 40 (0.5kg) Africa 320 320 MISC. Box 2.5 Africa 109–1278 694 7.5 Asia, Europe 5538–22,720 11,265 30 Asia, Europe 17,040–49,700 28,163 Cigarette holder 13 China 112–178 156 Needle holder 10 Europe 21–71 45 Paper knife 27 Europe 170–256 213 Exchange rate: USD 1 = 1.42 Euros Fake ivory antiques and substitutes for The most common animal-based substitute for ivory ivory seen was mammoth ivory, which we saw in the Chinese gift shop. Amongst the few new ivory objects Portuguese craftsmen have in the recent past used were 21 items made from mammoth tusks. There were ivory to make fake antiques, mostly Indo-Portuguese 15 4-cm human figurines, typical of mammoth ivory religious items. This is because of the very high prices in that the brown streaks had been camouflaged with for antiques. It is not clear if this still may occasionally brown straining. There were also three carved tusks (the occur, but there were a few fake antique crucifixes biggest was 35 cm for USD 6532), a 35-cm landscape for sale in the antique shops during our survey. The of trees and people and a 20-cm Buddha carved from Chinese make certain fake antiques out of ivory for a thick mammoth tusk. Although Portuguese officials the international market, but they do not imitate the say they can tell the difference between mammoth Indo-Portuguese style, according to Lisbon’s antique and elephant ivory, small items, stained brown like dealers. Several antique dealers warned us of fake ivory mammoth ivory or kept white to look like elephant antiques for sale in Lisbon. We were shown a box of ivory are both very hard to identify. The shop manager antique crucifixes and the dealer was suspicious that told us that over a 10-day period in September she had one was fake—it was clearly more crudely carved than sold one mammoth ivory object to a French man. We the others and was a slightly different style. saw no other mammoth ivory items in Lisbon as it is a

44 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Portugal’s long association with African ivory new business. It was not until restrictions on elephant made consumer goods. ivory occurred in 1990 that the trade in mammoth ivory In the antique shop selling the two new pieces of items, which is legal in most countries, picked up. African worked ivory, there were signs on the windows There were some inexpensive ivory substitute reading, ‘stock to be liquidated’. The vendor was also items for sale in the flea markets, sometimes mixed in offering a 30% discount on her ivory and other items as with ivory pieces, but a fraction of the cost and of poor she could not sell her stock easily. The ivory was moving workmanship. There were at least 100 items made of especially slowly. As for the antique shop selling modern bone, including human figurines, and one 7-cm female ivory jewellery crafted in Portugal, the vendor said she will bust from Senegal carved from a pig tooth that was buy more of such items as they are unique and interesting, priced USD 71, more expensive than the bone items. and despite their high prices, the Portuguese buy them. No shopkeepers believe that they will ever go Vendors’ views on the ivory trade back to the old days when they could sell a lot of new ivory as they do not see the ban on new ivory According to the vendors, the turnover for newer ivory objects being lifted. But for old ivory items, the items has declined sharply in Portugal since the 1990 prices have been going up as demand remains strong, CITES ban on international ivory trade. The vendors especially for antique religious pieces. Antique shops consulted in this study were nearly all European, there have increased in number and vendors say there are were no indigenous Africans seen. Vendors selling many collectors in Portugal for antique ivory objects. ivory objects from the mid-20th century do not expect Vendors see a reasonable future for ivory antiques sales of these items to recover. The trader selling the but no future for other ivory items. most of such items still has stock he imported from The main complaint of the ivory sellers is the Africa in the 1970s so his turnover is very low. ‘Whites bureaucracy, especially since 2004 when the trade was from Mozambique and Angola still come to me to sell ‘regularized’, i.e. requiring compulsory registration, and raw ivory, but I do not buy; blacks do not bring tusks to in the tedious paperwork needed for exporting ivory me.’ He longs to sell his entire stock of ivory items, but antiques. One dealer kept his antiques at home to try his asking prices are too high compared with African to avoid the hassle of registering his ivory. He showed items in other shops. Lisbon has proportionately more us items for sale on a computer in his shop. Many African ivory items for sale compared with other cities Portuguese citizens do not bother with the paperwork (excluding African cities) due to the tight connections for privately-owned ivory items, but shopkeepers of between Africa and Portugal in the past. course have to be more careful, they say, as shops are All new ivory items carved since the CITES ban more likely to be inspected and they could even be put are illegal to import and export and demand for such out of business if their ivory is not registered. items is low in Lisbon. Items made between 1947 and the CITES ban are legal to import and export non- Conclusion commercially, but only with special permits. Those with proof that they were carved before 1 June 1947 We know that several hundred pieces of worked are legal to import and export without special permits ivory and some tusks are being seized annually by (Tom de Meulenaer, MIKE Co-ordinator, CITES the Portuguese authorities. There is a lot that gets Secretariat, pers. comm. October 2009). Most new through unnoticed as very few people are checked at items that we saw were carved in China and sold in the airports. Officials say at least 20% of the ivory the Chinese gift shop. The Chinese manager of that they confiscate is new. The latest threat is the growing shop said, however, that she planned to import a few number of new ivory items that arrive illegally—by more ivory figurines from China. She showed pictures post or courier service purchased on the Internet, from a sales catalogue of items she planned to bring in. almost all by private individuals, presumably—as this Buyers find the prices too high, however, and tourists ivory is not seen in the shops. (There is no information cannot export them easily, although she did not admit whether people in Portugal are selling on the Internet.) to this. She never mentioned that she had difficulties Other new ivory items, no doubt, are bought abroad bringing these illegal items into the country either. She by holiday-makers, contract workers and businessmen has never had any of her items confiscated, according to who like to take small souvenirs and trinkets home officials. The bulk of her business is in other Chinese- with them, especially from Angola and Mozambique.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 45 Martin and Martin

Such items are kept privately and are not put up for References sale. This survey showed that very few new ivory items are ending up for sale in outlets within Lisbon. Bassani E, Fagg W. 1988. Africa and the Renaissance: It is too risky for vendors to sell new worked ivory, art in ivory. The Center for African Art and Prestel- all of which is illegal, but visitors abroad will take Verlag, New York. the chance, as being caught for one or two items is Casatilho M. 1999. Na Rota do Oriente. Exhibition unusual and penalties insignificant. organized on the occasion of the Conference “O Many Portuguese are uninformed regarding the Legado de Macau” organized by the Association ivory trade today and what the restrictions presently “Amigos do Oriente”. are. Education is key. Airline magazines and landing Dias P. 2004. A arte do marfim o munde onde os Portugueses cards at international airports should update people on chegaram. Pedro Boubon de Agviar Branco, Porto. the situation, that buying new ivory and importing it Dias P. 2006. Portugal e Ceilao: baluartes, marfim e into Portugal is illegal and it encourages the poaching pedraria. Santander Totta, Lisbon. of elephants. The need to register privately owned Felgueiras J. 1991. A expansao Portuguesa e a arte do ivory pieces requires more attention. marfim. Artes & Leiloes, 2(10):15–23, Lisbon, The Lisbon antique ivory trade, which is much June–September. larger compared with cities in Spain and Italy, could Martin E, Stiles D. 2000. The ivory markets of Africa. Save be a loophole for new ivory if craftsmen make fake the Elephants, Nairobi and London. ivory antiques; but antique dealers themselves Martin E, Stiles D. 2002. The south and south east Asian monitor this so it is unlikely to grow. Otherwise, ivory markets. Save the Elephants, Nairobi and the only artisans in Portugal, numbering four, London. known to be crafting pieces of ivory are jewellers; Martin E, Stiles D. 2003. The ivory markets of east Asia. this business does not presently pose a threat to Save the Elephants, Nairobi and London. elephants as the amount of ivory used is extremely Martin E, Stiles D. 2005. Ivory markets of Europe. Care small, and there are old stocks of legal ivory in the for the Wild International, West Sussex, and Save the Elephants, Nairobi and London. country they can use. Apart from just a few other new items for sale in Lisbon from China that were Martin E, Stiles D. 2008. Ivory markets in the USA. Care surveyed and even fewer new items from Africa for the Wild International, West Sussex, and Save the Elephants, Nairobi and London. for sale, most ivory was antique, with a number of items crafted also in the mid-20th century from Milliken T. 2002. Maputo’s ivory markets, Mozambique. 19(2):56–57. Africa and Europe. TRAFFIC Bulletin, In conclusion, it is very encouraging that the trade Milliken T, Pole A, Huango A. 2006. No peace for elephants: in new ivory items within Portugal is so small. But it Unregulated domestic ivory markets in Angola and Mozambique. TRAFFIC Online Report Series No. 11, is regrettable to say that Portuguese demand for new TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa, April. ivory items still exists, mainly by private individuals Museu dos Transportes e Communicacoes. 1998. buying items abroad or on the Internet, and this is Arte do marfim (exhibition catalogue). Oporto, 12 June –19 fuelling the illicit trade. The Portuguese authorities October. are too concerned with larger wildlife trade issues to Palacio do Correio-Velho. 1993. Leilao de Antiguidadeds put a major focus on the ivory problem. (auction catalogue). Reis D. 1995. Navio de marfim com alguma prata e mustas Acknowledgements safiras. Oceanos 22:110–118, April–June. We would like to thank the John Aspinall Foundation St Aubyn F. (ed.). 1987. Ivory: An International History and . Harry N. Abrams, Inc. New York. for funding our ivory survey in Lisbon. We also wish to Illustrated Survey thank Jao Loureiro and Ana Zuquete for all their help Woodhouse. C. 1976. Ivories. A history and guide. David regarding Portugal’s present-day ivory trade. We are and Charles, Newton Abbot, UK. 54 p. also most grateful to Nigel Hunter for his comments on the manuscript and to Lucy Vigne for all her work on it.

46 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 FIELD NOTES

Using dung bolus diameter for age estimation in an unstudied elephant population in Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania

Katarzyna Nowak1,2*, Trevor Jones2,3, and Phyllis C. Lee4

1 Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU), Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Tubney House, Abingdon Road, Tubney, Abingdon OX13 5QL, UK; [email protected] 2 Udzungwa Ecological Monitoring Centre, Box 99, Mang’ula, Morogoro, Tanzania 3 Animal and Environmental Research Group, Department of Life Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, East Road, Cambridge CB1 1PT, UK 4 Behaviour and Evolution Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland FK9 4LA, UK

* Corresponding author

Abstract Savannah elephants make extensive use of montane forest in three Tanzanian massifs, including the highly biodiverse Udzungwa Mountains. We have begun the first study of the Udzungwa elephant population, which is perceived to be increasing and is compressed due to loss of connectivity with adjacent protected areas. Meanwhile, human-elephant conflict outside the forests is escalating. We tested a non-invasive technique for estimating elephant age from dung bolus diameter using a predictive equation derived from known-age elephants in Amboseli National Park, Kenya. Our results from 137 measurements of intact boli found an overall mean dung bolus diameter of 11.0 cm ± 2.1 and a mean age of 16.0 years ± 5.6, suggesting that the Udzungwa population is young but contains reproductive-age adults (>10 yrs old). This method’s precision and accuracy require further testing and we discuss the limitations; however, it has potential as a monitoring tool for elephant populations inhabiting forest elsewhere in Tanzania, and across Africa. We intend to re-run this analysis using a larger sample size from more sites, as well as incorporate elephant monitoring into the Udzungwa Mountains National Park’s long-term management plan.

Key words: dung bolus diameter, demography, forest-dwelling savannah elephants, Udzungwa.

Résumé Les éléphants de savane font un usage étendu de la forêt de montagne dans trois massifs tanzaniens, y compris les Monts Udzungwa à très haute biodiversité. Nous avons commencé la première étude de la population d’éléphants d’Udzungwa, qu’on perçoit être en croissance et concentrée à cause de la perte de connectivité avec les aires protégées adjacentes. Dans l’entre-temps, le conflit homme-éléphant à l’extérieur des forêts s’aggrave. Nous avons testé une technique non envahissante pour estimer l’âge des éléphants à partir du diamètre de la boule de crotte en utilisant une équation de prévision dérivée des éléphants ayant un âge connu dans le Parc National d’Amboseli au Kenya. Nos résultats de 137 mesures de boules intactes ont trouvé une

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 47 Nowak et al.

moyenne générale du diamètre de la boule de crotte can be applied to age another when calibration of de 11,0cm ± 2,1 et un âge moyen de 16 ans ± 5,6 ce the relationship with independent estimates of age qui suggère que la population d’Udzungwa est jeune may be too costly or not feasible. This method has mais renferme des adultes à l’âge de reproduction (> considerable potential as a conservation research 10 ans). La précision et l’exactitude de cette méthode tool for forest elephant populations across Africa, exigent davantage d’essais et nous discutons les but its precision and accuracy need further testing. limitations; cependant, elle a la possibilité d’être un outil de suivi pour les populations d’éléphants qui Methods habitent la forêt ailleurs en Tanzanie, et à travers l’Afrique. Nous projetons de refaire cette analyse en Study area utilisant un échantillon plus large provenant d’un plus Dung surveys were conducted at three sites in grand nombre de sites, ainsi que d’incorporer le suivi Mwanihana Forest (179 km2, centred at 7°46'S, de l’éléphant dans le plan de gestion à long terme du 36°51'E) within the Udzungwa Mountains Na- Parc National des Monts Udzungwa. tional Park (UMNP), which covers 1990 km2 in south-central Tanzania (Fig. 1). The Udzungwa Introduction Mountains (250–2600 masl) cover 10,000 km2 and comprise a mosaic of forest, woodland, bush Assessing demographic structure is important for and montane grassland, and are the largest and managing and conserving elephant populations. most diverse block of the Eastern Arc Mountains, Addressing this objective is particularly challenging in forest habitats, where ani- mals cannot be easily or safely observed. Of the various techniques developed for non-invasive age estimation, the use of dung bolus diameter is arguably the most promising (Jachmann and Bell 1984; Reil- ly 2002; Morgan and Lee 2003; Morrison et al. 2005). Using dung bolus diameter is simple, low-cost and has great potential for ranger-led studies of elephants in closed habitats, such as populations of the highly threatened forest elephant Loxodonta africana cyclotis (Blake et al. 2008). To date, however, this method has been used to assess demography in a small number of sites, and has only been attempted in a single forest site (Morgan and Lee 2003). Our aim is to test this technique on a pre- viously unstudied population of savannah elephants (L. a. africana) inhabiting forest in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania. We estimated age from dung bolus diameter using an equation relating known age to dung size for the savannah elephants of Amboseli National Park, Kenya (Morrison et al. 2005). Bolus size distributions may be population-specific (Morgan and Lee 2003) but if asymptotic and lower dung diameters are comparable, then growth Figure 1. Three sites of dung surveys in Mwanihana, UMNP, equations derived from one population Tanzania.

48 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Using dung bolus diameter for age estimation in Tanzania a recognized biodiversity hotspot and centre of dung decay in >100 marked piles (Jones and Nowak, high endemism (Myers et al. 2000; Burgess et al. unpublished data). Those boli believed to be older than 2007). Mwanihana Forest lies on the slope of the six months or decomposed were not measured. Intact east-facing escarpment ranging from 300 to 2100 boli were defined as those with no deformations owing m. Mean annual rainfall is up to 2500 mm and to impact with the ground or evident decay over time. falls mostly during two wet periods—the short rains (November–December) and the long rains Data analysis (March–May)—which are interposed by a hot and relatively dry period (January–February) and an Elephants can live for over 60 years, but the data from extended dry season (June–October). Amboseli (Morrison et al. 2005) suggest that age will Three sites in Mwanihana Forest were surveyed: only reliably predict bolus diameter up to 20 years (i) Three Rivers: primary, high-canopy sub-montane in females and 25 years in males. This is a typical forest with an open understorey (1000–1500 masl); problem with asymptotic growth curves, which lose (ii) Mizimu: a mosaic of primary sub-montane and precision and accuracy as the slope begins to decrease riverine forest, dry woodland and grassland with with age (Shrader et al. 2006). a dense herbaceous and woody shrub understorey We used our measures of dung bolus diameter to (600–1100 masl); (iii) GMP: open to semi-wooded predict age using Amboseli’s von Bertalanffy’s growth grassland at the forest edge with riverine, monospe- equation, which models the growth relationship of cific patches of Aframomum sp. (900–1200 m). dung diameter with known age (Morrison et al. 2005). The elephant population of the Udzungwa Males grow faster and for a longer time than do females Mountains has not yet been studied and the for- (Lee and Moss 1995; Shrader et al. 2006), and have ested areas are only mapped as ‘possible’ range on a larger bolus for age (Jachmann and Bell 1984). We the African Elephant Database web site (Blanc et were unable to assign sex to dung piles in this sample, al. 2007). This is the only site in the Eastern Arc while Morrison et al. (2005) used dung diameter from Mountains supporting resident elephants. Recent individuals of both known sex and age, and fit separate assessments of corridor areas outside Udzungwa curves for each sex. We therefore fit two models to the NP have documented connectivity of elephant same set of data: one for males and one for females up populations between the Udzungwa Mountains and to a bolus size of 14 cm, after which individuals were the Selous Game Reserve and Ruaha National Park classed as male. We used 14 cm as a cut-off as this was (Jones et al. 2009).

Survey methods

We used a recce-survey method which entailed walking 3-km triangular transects (each side of triangle equalling 1 km) in each direction from camp (north, east, south and west) over a period of 4–6 days, giving a total of 12 km of transects walked per site. All transects were followed using a compass and hip-chain thread to measure ground distance walked with a maximum strip-width of 15 m. Transects were conducted between December 2008 and Febru- ary 2009. We used callipers to measure the long and short axes of all intact boli detected along transects, following recent work in Amboseli National Park, Kenya (Morrison et al. 2005) (Fig. 2). Diameter was equal to the mean of the two axes. Dung pile age was estimated on Figure 2. Using calipers to measure the axes of a round the basis of local experience and monitoring of dung bolus.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 49 Nowak et al.

fore age range was found in GMP by comparison to Mizimu and Three Rivers (Fig. 4). The mean difference between boli from the same pile was 0.69 cm ± 0.7 SD (compared with 0.33 cm ± 0.13 SD in Amboseli, Morrison et al. 2005) but this difference was not significant (paired samples t-test, t = 0.38, df = 14, P = 0.71) and the two means were highly correlated (r = 0.89, P < 0.001). Our results based on dung (Fig. 5) suggest that the population using the area is relatively young, but does contain reproductive-age adults (>10 years). The largest bolus diameter was 17.2 cm compared with 18.0 cm in Amboseli and 18.5 cm in Kasungu National Park, Malawi. The >17.0 cm bolus suggests the presence of at least one prime old male. Our minimum bolus of 5.45 cm was between Amboseli (4.75 cm) and Kasungu (6 cm) and, as expected, was larger than that found for forest elephants in Petit Loango (4 cm) (Morrison et al. 2005; Jachmann Figure 3. Frequency distribution of dung bolus and Bell 1984; Morgan and Lee 2003, respectively). diameter. Discussion

the size at which males and females in the Amboseli The use of dung diameter to predict age and there- sample clearly separated. We fit the models using five fore model populations appears to yield promising randomizations to assign sex to each sample, and then results. The frequency distribution of dung diameter determined the 50% distribution of males and females is similar to that found for forest elephants in Petit so as to predict age from the sex-specific equations. Loango (Morgan and Lee 2003). Age structure in Results would, however, be more accurate if 95% the Udzungwa Mountains, as estimated here, ranged confidence intervals could be modelled with further from 5–40 years and included young and prime aged bootstrap estimators, but confidence limits were not individuals, although the population is far younger, with an average age of 16, than that of the Amboseli provided in the original model (Morrison et al. 2005) and further randomization by sex would require a larger population (Moss 2001). sample than the 137 here. Using both old and fresh dung increases the prob- ability of re-sampling individuals who range consist- Results ently through the transect areas. Intact dung does not usually persist long in this environment due to dung A total of 137 intact boli from 689 piles were measured predators, rainfall, trampling and breaking up by seed (41.6% of 214 piles in Three Rivers; 8.5% of 294 in Miz- eaters. We did find intact dung that was aged at six imu; 13.3% of 181 in GMP). This sample size of intact months, while most was aged at three to four months boli is comparable to that of Morgan and Lee (2003). (Barnes and Jensen 1987), which is unsurprising given Boli came from piles estimated to be 2–6 months old that most sampling was carried out in the dry season with a mean dung age of 3.3 ± 1.6 SD months. The mean of a particularly dry year. number of boli in a pile was 5.38 ± 2.2. An additional We have assumed that re-sampling was homogenous second intact bolus was measured in 15 of 137 piles. across ages and/or age classes. Defecation rates can differ The overall mean dung bolus diameter was 11.0 between individuals such that re-sampling may be biased ± 2.1 cm with a range of 5.45–17.2 cm (Fig. 3). No towards older individuals that have more fibre in the diet significant difference in mean bolus diameter was than suckling infants. Furthermore, tiny faecal samples found between survey sites (ANOVA, F 2, 136 = 2.65, are unlikely to persist and young calves under one year P = 0.074) although a broader distribution and there- old will be under-represented (Jachmann and Bell 1984).

50 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Using dung bolus diameter for age estimation in Tanzania

It is worth noting that the error in- volved in attempts to use such curve-fit processes in order to predict the inde- pendent, as opposed to the dependent, variable can be considerable. The initial iteration process assumes that bolus size is predicted by age, and thus the constants converge to maximize the fit with observed age. Using the equations to predict age from bolus size does not allow for convergence around an age of maximum likelihood or best fit for growth constants. Thus, for example, the smallest boli of 5–6 cm, which would represent a calf under two in Amboseli, is here predicted to be 5 years old. While age is predicted with precision, the variance in the initial curve fitting process will create prob- Figure 4. Mean dung bolus diameter by survey site where lems of accuracy, specifically at the n = 23, 89, 25 for GMP, 3 Rivers, and Mizimu respectively. start of a von Bertalanffy curve, where The outlier in Mizimu was a bolus of 5.45 cm diameter. minimum ages are negative. Attempts to fit an unknown age to a known bolus diameter requires the confidence intervals of the origi- demographic monitoring of this population into the long- nal models and further tests from other populations to term management strategy for the region. assess expected distributions. This technique offers a potentially affordable Our age distribution from dung diameter sug- and rapid way for rangers and managers to monitor gested a young population. An alternative explanation, demographic changes in elephant populations. We although further sampling would be required, is that recommend that this method be repeated at other these elephants are relatively smaller than those of sites to further test its applicability—especially Amboseli and Kasungu. Given the relatively small size for forest elephant populations—ideally when of elephants in the adjacent projected area of Mikumi independent data on age are available for calibra- NP (pers. comm. Lee 2006), this might be a possibility, tion. Understanding the responses of elephants to but as a bolus size range equal to that of Amboseli was anthropogenic pressures and other stressors, as observed, it seems unlikely. The young ages could be reflected by changes in their age structure, is vital a result of small sample sizes and unknown sexes, or to ensuring their future. of the error inherent in using a von Bertalanffy growth Acknowledgements equation with relatively few samples. We thank the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute Future directions and Commission for Science and Technology for per- Genotyping would greatly complement this study in mission to conduct this work, and Tanzania National assessing the extent of individual re-sampling. We will Parks in the Udzungwas, particularly UMNP Ecologist continue sampling in the wider Udzungwa area to increase Joram Ponjoli. Our work would not have been possible our sample size and also to ensure that axes measurements without the field assistance of Paulo and Athumani Mn- of intact boli do not change with decay. While the Udzung- deme, Martin Mlewa, Amani Maundu and Enock Peter. was may be a suitable refugium for a small population Arafat Mtui and Francesco Rovero at the Udzungwa of elephants, human-elephant conflict is escalating and Ecological Monitoring Centre provided logistical sup- historic migration routes are being lost due to rapid land port. Patrick Chiyo helped with the Amboseli model. use change (Jones et al. 2009). We plan to incorporate Francesco Rovero made valuable comments on an

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 51 Nowak et al.

Blanc JJ, Barnes RF, Craig GC, Dublin HT, Thouless CR, Douglas-Hamilton I, Hart JA. (2007) African Elephant Status Report 2007: an update from the African Elephant Database. Occasional Paper Series of IUCN Species Survival Commission. No. 33. IUCN/SSC African Elephant Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Burgess ND, Butynski TM, Cordeiro NJ, Doggart N, Fjeldså J, Howell KM, Kilahama F, Loader SP, Lovett JC, Mbil- inyi B, Menegon M, Moyer DC, Nashanda E, Perkin A, Rovero F, Stanley WT, Stuart SN. (2007) The biological importance of the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania and Kenya. Biological Conservation 134:209–231. Jachmann H, Bell RHV. (1984) The use of elephant droppings in assessing numbers, occupance and age structure: a refinement of the method. African Journal of Ecology 22:127–141. Jones T, Epps C, Coppolillo P, Mbano B, Mutayoba B, Figure 5. Preliminary population age structure in Rovero F. (2009) Maintaining ecological connectivity Udzungwa Mountains National Park based on ran- between the Protected Areas of south-central Tanzania: domization of assignment of sex to boli, using Mor- evidence and challenges. Proceedings of the XIth Tan- rison et al. (2005) Amboseli growth curves; males: zania Wildlife Research Institute Scientific Conference, asymptote Lasy = 16.433, growth constant K of 0.093, 541-554. Arusha, Tanzania. and a start age of -4.909 years; females asymptote Lee PC, Moss CJ. (1995) Statural growth in known-age L = 14.354, growth constant K of 0.158, and a start asy African elephants ( ). age of -2.722 years. Loxodonta africana Journal of Zoology 236:29–41. Moss CJ. (2001) The demography of an African elephant earlier draft. We also thank one anonymous reviewer (Loxodonta africana) population in Amboseli, for helpful edits. KN was granted equipment by Idea Kenya. Journal of Zoology, 255:145-156. Wild. TJ was supported by the Wildlife Conservation Morrison TA, Chiyo PI, Moss CJ, Alberts SC. (2005) Society and Anglia Ruskin University. Measures of dung bolus size for known-age African elephants (Loxodonta africana): implications for age References estimation. Journal of Zoology 266:89–94. Morgan BJ, Lee PC. (2003) Forest elephant (Loxodonta afri- Barnes RFW, Jensen KL. (1987) How to count elephants in cana cyclotis) stature in the Reserve de Faune du Petit forests. IUCN African Elephant and Rhino Specialist Loango, Gabon. Journal of Zoology 259:337–344. Group Technical Bulletin 1:1–6. Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca Blake S, Strindberg S, Boudjan, Makombo C, Bila-Isia I, GAB, Kent J. (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for con- Ilambu O, Grossman F, Bene-Bene L, de Semboli B, servation priorities. Nature 403:853–858. Mbenzo V, S’hwa D, Bayogo R, Williamson EA, Fay M, Hart J, Maisels F. (2007) Forest elephant crisis in Shrader AM, Ferreira S, McElveen ME, Lee PC, Moss CJ, van Aarde RJ. (2006) Structural growth and age de- the Congo Basin. PLoS Biology 5 (4):e111. termination of savanna elephants. Journal of Zoology 270:40–48.

Reilly J. (2002) Growth in the Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) and age estimation based on dung diameter. Journal of Zoology 258:205–213.

52 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 MIKE–ETIS UPDATES

ETIS update number two: Progress in the implementation of the Elephant Trade Information System Mise à jour d’ETIS numéro deux: Progrès dans la mise en œuvre du système d’informations sur le commerce d’éléphants Tom Milliken and Louisa Sangalakula

TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa

All major ETIS-related activities over the last eight Toutes les activités relatives à ETIS depuis les huit months have been geared towards the upcoming 15th derniers mois visent la prochaine 15ème réunion de meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES la Conférence des Parties à la CITES (CoP15) qui (CoP15) to be held in Doha, Qatar from 13-25 March doit se tenir à Doha, au Qatar du 13 au 25 mars 2010. 2010. As reported in the previous update, both the Comme on l’a rapporté dans la mise à jour antérieure, CITES Secretariat and TRAFFIC have been urging the les secrétariats de la CITES et de TRAFFIC ont exhorté CITES Parties to report elephant product seizure data les Parties à la CITES de rapporter leurs données de to ETIS so that it proactively becomes a part of the saisie des produits issus de l’éléphant à ETIS afin information base in the next comprehensive analysis qu’elles deviennent une partie pro-active de la base of ivory trade dynamics. This intensive data collection des informations dans la prochaine analyse complète push has particularly focused upon African and Asian de la dynamique du commerce de l’ivoire. Cette Elephant Range States, European Union members and poussée intensive de la collecte des données s’est sur- the ASEAN countries. Indeed, these efforts yielded tout concentrée sur les états de l’aire de répartition de positive results as some elephant Range States, such l’éléphant d’Afrique et d’Asie, les membres de l’Union as Indonesia, submitted their first-ever ivory seizure Européenne et les pays de l’Association des Etats report to ETIS—in fact, they submitted 15 cases! Re- d’Asie du Sud-est (ASEAN). En effet, ces efforts ont grettably, we have not yet received evidence of a single produit des résultats positifs car quelques états de l’aire seizure case from Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Senegal de répartition de l’éléphant, tels que l’Indonésie, ont or Togo in Africa, nor have we received any data from soumis leur tout premier rapport de saisie de l’ivoire Cambodia in Asia over the last 21 years. à ETIS - en fait, ils ont soumis 15 cas! Regrettable- Following a fairly frantic data collection pace, data ment, nous n’avons pas encore reçu les preuves d’un entry functions into ETIS were finally suspended on 24 seul cas de saisie en provenance d’Angola, de Guinée August 2009 to commence production of the analytical Équatoriale, du Sénégal ou du Togo en Afrique, et nous report for CITES. At that time, ETIS comprised 14,364 n’avons pas non plus reçu de données du Cambodge elephant product seizure records, representing law en Asie pendant les 21 dernières années. enforcement actions in 85 countries or territories since Suite à un rythme de collecte de données assez fréné- 1989. In comparison to the ETIS analysis prepared for tique, les fonctions de saisie des données ETIS ont été CoP14 in 2007, the fourth comprehensive assessment finalement suspendues le 24 août 2009 pour commencer will have nearly 2000 more seizure records. la production du rapport analytique pour la CITES. À ce As on all previous occasions, the ETIS analysis was moment-là, ETIS avait 14.364 données de saisie de pro- duits issus de l’éléphant, représentant l’application de la done in collaboration with Mr R. W. Burn, formerly loi dans 85 pays ou territoires depuis 1989. Par rapport à of the Statistical Services Centre of the University of l’analyse d’ETIS préparée pour la CoP14 en 2007, la quat-

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 53 Milliken and Sangalakula

Reading. The final report was also reviewed by the rième évaluation complète aura presque 2000 données de ETIS Technical Advisory Group prior to submission saisie de plus. to the CITES Secretariat on 16 October 2009. Once Comme par le passé, l’analyse ETIS était faite en col- again, the three countries most heavily implicated in laboration avec Mr. R. W. Burn, anciennement du Centre the illicit ivory trade are the Democratic Republic of des Services Statistiques de l’Université de Reading. Le the Congo, Nigeria and Thailand. It seems that none rapport définitif a aussi été revu par le Groupe Consultatif Technique d’ETIS avant sa soumission au Secrétariat de la of the efforts directed at these nations to date have CITES le 16 octobre 2009. Encore une fois, les trois pays yet produced any meaningful change. Worrisomely, très largement impliqués dans le commerce d’ivoire illicite the illicit ivory trade has continued to increase since sont la République Démocratique du Congo, le Nigeria et 2004, indicating that implementation of Decision 13.26 la Thaïlande. Il paraît qu’aucun des efforts en faveur de and the ‘action plan for the control of trade in African ces nations n’ait encore produit le moindre changement elephant ivory’, the principal vehicle under CITES significatif à ce jour. Ce qui est inquiétant c’est que le com- for closing unregulated domestic ivory markets, has merce illicite d’ivoire a continué à augmenter depuis 2004, failed to effect any significant change in the trend since ce qui indique que la mise en œuvre de la Décision 13.26 CoP13 five years ago. et le « plan d’action pour le contrôle du commerce d’ivoire In terms of what is driving illicit trade in ivory, de l’éléphant d’Afrique », l’outil principal de la CITES there continues to be a highly significant correlation pour fermer les marchés domestiques non réglementés de l’ivoire, n’est pas parvenu à effectuer un changement sig- between large-scale domestic ivory markets in Asia nificatif dans cette tendance depuis la CoP13 il y a cinq and Africa and poor law enforcement, signalling the ans. fact that governance plays a key role in the determina- Quant au moteur du commerce illicite d’ivoire, on con- tion of illicit ivory trade flows. There is also a strong tinue de voir une corrélation significative entre les marchés correlation between the occurrence of large-scale domestiques d’ivoire à grande échelle en Asie et en Afri- ivory seizures and illicit trade in ivory over the last que et l’application défaillante des lois, ce qui montre le decade. Large movements of ivory in a single trans- fait que la gouvernance joue un rôle clé en déterminant le action strongly suggest the involvement of organized flux du commerce illicite d’ivoire. Il y a aussi une forte cor- crime in the trade, especially networks operating from rélation entre les saisies d’ivoire à grande échelle et le com- bases within Africa. The ETIS data indicate that such merce illicite d’ivoire pendant la dernière décennie. Les syndicates are becoming increasingly stronger and mouvements importants d’ivoire dans une seule transac- tion suggèrent fortement la participation du crime organisé more active over the last decade. This finding presents dans le commerce, surtout des réseaux qui opèrent à partir another major challenge for effective law enforcement des bases en Afrique. Les données d’ETIS indiquent que both in Africa and in Asia. de tels syndicats sont devenus de plus en plus forts et actifs Concerning the impact of the CITES-approved pendant cette dernière décennie. Cette conclusion pose un one-off ivory sales, the results are far less clear than défi majeur à l’application efficace de la loi en Afrique et was previously the case. Following the first conditional en Asie. one-off ivory sale in June 1999, illicit trade in ivory En ce qui concerne l’impact des ventes d’ivoire ex- subsequently declined for five consecutive years be- ceptionnelles approuvées par la CITES, les résultats sont tween 1999 until 2004. There was no evidence that the beaucoup moins clairs que c‘était précédemment le cas. first one-off ivory sale under CITES resulted in any Suite à la première vente exceptionnelle en juin 1999, le increase in illicit trade in ivory globally. However, commerce illicite d’ivoire a décliné pendant cinq ans con- sécutifs entre 1999 et 2004. Il n’y avait aucune preuve since the second CITES-approved conditional one-off que la première vente d’ivoire exceptionnelle sous la ivory sale in late 2008, the results are not so clear. The CITES a donné lieu à une augmentation du commerce smoothed ‘macro representation’ of the illicit ivory illicite d’ivoire au niveau mondial. Cependant, depuis la trade trend indicates that illegal trade has been stead- seconde vente d’ivoire exceptionnelle approuvée par la ily increasing since 2004, which predates the recent CITES vers la fin de 2008, les résultats sont moins clairs. one-off ivory sale by approximately four years. On the La « représentation macro lissée » de la tendance du com- other hand, the ‘micro representation’ of the trend, with merce illicite d’ivoire indique que le commerce illégal a its peaks and troughs, shows a decline in illegal trade régulièrement augmenté depuis 2004 ce qui précède la activity in 2007 and 2008, followed by a significant vente d’ivoire exceptionnelle récente d’environ quatre ans. upsurge in illegal activity in 2009. The consequence En revanche, la « représentation macro » de la tendance, of the seemingly contradictory patterns is that it is not avec ses pics et ses creux, montre un déclin de l’activité du commerce illégal en 2007 et en 2008, suivi par une re-

54 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 ETIS update number two possible to interpret the trend in this analysis unam- crudescence très importante en 2009. La conséquence de biguously and without reservation. It remains to be cette tendance apparemment contradictoire est que ce n’est conclusively established whether the apparent increase pas possible de l’interpréter dans cette analyse sans am- in illicit ivory trading in 2009 is a direct result of the biguïté ou réservation. Il reste à établir de façon concluante one-off ivory sale under CITES, or some other cause si l’augmentation apparente du commerce illicite d’ivoire or group of causes. It is believed that in time and with en 2009 est le résultat direct de la vente d’ivoire exception- nelle sous la CITES, ou d’une autre cause ou groupe de the collection of more data, ETIS will produce a more causes. On pense qu’avec le temps et la collecte de plus lucid and compelling interpretation of this issue in the de données, ETIS produira une interprétation plus lucide future. No doubt, the current ETIS report will provoke et contraignante de cette question dans le futur. Le rapport a lot of discussion at CoP15! ETIS actuel provoquera sans aucun doute beaucoup de dis- Beyond CITES events, ETIS is embarking upon cussion à la CoP15! a period of change and the ETIS analysis to CoP15 Au-delà des événements de la CITES, ETIS entame will be the last report in which the current analytical une période de changement et son analyse à la CoP15 sera framework will be used. In collaboration with TRAF- le dernier rapport dans lequel le cadre analytique actuel FIC and Mr Burn, the Applied Statistics Section of sera utilisé. En collaboration avec TRAFFIC et Mr. Burn, the School of Biological Sciences at the University la Section des Statistiques Appliquées de l’École des Sci- of Reading has secured a three-year Darwin Initiative ences Biologiques à l’Université de Reading a obtenu dans le cadre de l’Initiative Darwin une subvention sur trois ans Grant from the Department for Environment, Food and du Département pour l’environnement, l’alimentation et le Rural Affairs in the United Kingdom, with the aim of milieu rural du Royaume-Uni, dans le but de développer developing an improved methodological framework une méthodologie et des outils améliorés pour collecter, and tools for collecting, recording and using seizure enregistrer et utiliser les données de saisie d’ETIS. C’est records in ETIS. It is important to recall that, from the important de rappeler qu’au début, il n’y avait pas d’outils outset, there have been no ‘off the shelf’ statistical tools statistiques tout prêts disponibles pour la modélisation des available for the modelling of the ETIS data. Beyond données d’ETIS. A part l’investissement considérable dans considerable investment in its initial design in the late sa conception initiale vers la fin des années 1990, il n’y 1990s, only limited resources have been available for a eu que des ressources limitées disponibles pour dével- the further evolution and development of the monitor- opper et améliorer le système de suivi. Promouvoir la du- ing system. The promotion of long-term sustainabil- rabilité à long terme, tout en respectant les « meilleures pratiques » qui évoluent rapidement en termes de collecte ity, whilst keeping abreast of rapidly evolving ‘best de données, de gestion, d’analyse et de rapport a été un practices’ in terms of data collection, management, vrai défi. Jusqu’aujourd’hui, l’analyse des données ETIS analysis and reporting has been a real challenge. To se fait presque exclusivement en réponse aux cycles de date, analysis of the ETIS data has proceeded almost rapport de la CITES de la COP et des réunions du Comité entirely in response to the CITES reporting cycles of permanent. Par conséquent, les ressources financières et CoP and Standing Committee meetings. As a result, humaines limitées disponibles ont été principalement ori- the limited financial and human resources at hand entées vers la production des rapports périodiques, au lieu have been mostly directed towards the production of de l’exploration et du développement d’un cadre analyt- periodic reports, rather than the stepwise exploration ique étape par étape. and development of an analytical framework. Tout cela changera grâce à la subvention de l’Initiative That will all change with the Darwin Initiative Darwin. Un programme pour améliorer la base opération- nelle d’ETIS commencera en septembre 2009 dirigé par Grant. Commencing in September 2009 and led by le Dr. Fiona Underwood et comprendra le développement Dr Fiona Underwood, a programme to improve the d’un programme de logiciels de base de données pour la operational basis for ETIS—including the develop- deuxième phase et un cadre méthodologique pour le sys- ment of a phase two database software programme tème. La modélisation statistique servira à raffiner des and methodological framework for the system—will méthodes d’ajustement de la déviation et à identifier des unfold. Statistical modelling will serve to refine indicateurs robustes spécifiques aux pays pour les futures bias-adjustment methods and help to identify robust analyses d’ETIS. Le projet cherche à mettre en place des country-specific indicators for future ETIS analyses. bases solides pour soutenir ETIS dans le futur – une per- The project seeks to build a firm foundation for sus- spective passionnante et prometteuse. taining ETIS well into the future—a very exciting and promising prospect.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 55 Wildlife Management data needs assessment workshop for Southern African Range States Atelier pour l’évaluation des besoins de données pour la gestion de la faune parmi les états de l’aire de répartition de l’Afrique australe

Russell Taylor and Tapera Chimuti

Introduction Introduction

At the beginning of July 2009, the MIKE Programme Au début du mois de juillet 2009, le Programme MIKE for the Southern Africa sub-region held a workshop pour la sous-région d’Afrique australe a tenu un atelier in Johannesburg, South Africa to assess wildlife à Johannesburg, en Afrique du Sud pour évaluer les management data needs amongst southern African besoins de données pour la gestion de la faune parmi elephant Range States. This meeting provided an initial les états de l’aire de répartition de l’éléphant d’Afrique interface between the end of MIKE’s Phase I and the australe. Cette réunion a constitué l’interface entre la commencement of Phase II. fin de la Phase I de MIKE et le commencement de la Fourteen participants attended the workshop, Phase II. including four MIKE-participating elephant Range Quatorze participants ont assisté à l’atelier, y com- States—namely Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and pris quatre états de l’aire de répartition participant à Zambia—two observer elephant Range States, Angola MIKE à savoir le Botswana, la Namibie, l’Afrique du and Malawi, four technical specialists and three IUCN Sud et la Zambie, deux états de l’aire de répartition representatives. The agenda included Range State de l’éléphant observateurs - l’Angola et le Malawi, presentations, technical presentations, problem iden- quatre spécialistes techniques et trois représentants tification sessions and the development of solutions in de l’UICN. L’ordre du jour comprenait les présenta- relation to problems and user needs. The MIKE partner tions des états de l’aire de répartition, les présentations countries that were unable to attend the workshop were techniques, les sessions d’identification des problèmes Mozambique and Zimbabwe. et de développement des solutions aux problèmes et Phase II of the MIKE Africa Programme is aux besoins des utilisateurs. Les pays partenaires de designed to: MIKE qui n’ont pas pu participer à l’atelier étaient le • build capacity of Range States of African el- Mozambique et le Zimbabwe. ephants to ensure that the flow of primary moni- La phase II du Programme MIKE pour l’Afrique toring data is sustainable in the long term est conçue pour: • Renforcer la capacité des états de l’aire de • adopt standard routines for the collection, handling répartition des éléphants d’Afrique afin que le flux de and quality control of data données primaires de suivi soit durable à long terme • undertake and report routine analysis and integra- • Adopter des routines standard pour la col- tion of primary and secondary data lecte, la manipulation et le contrôle de la qualité des • manage, co-ordinate and monitor the MIKE pro- données gramme efficiently and effectively. • Entreprendre et faire le rapport sur l’analyse In order to achieve most of the objectives outlined de routine et l’intégration des données primaires et above, the major support to Range States will be related secondaires to evolving and improving MIKE methodology and • Gérer, coordonner et faire le suivi du pro- subsequent training and capacity building. Currently, gramme MIKE de manière efficace et effective. MIKE data are not flowing smoothly from the site level Pour accomplir la plupart des objectifs définis

56 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Wildlife Management workshop for Southern African Range States up to the national, sub-regional and continental/global ci-dessus, le soutien majeur aux états de l’aire de databases. Obtaining data from a site often requires the répartition sera fourni dans le domaine de l’évolution et Sub-regional Support Officer (SSO) to travel to the site, l’amélioration de la méthodologie MIKE et par la suite collect the data, bring it to the national office for quality la formation et le renforcement de capacité. Actuelle- control and approval, and then take it back to the Sub- ment, les données MIKE n’arrivent pas facilement du regional Support Unit (SSU) for transfer to the Central niveau du site à la base de données au niveau national, Co-ordination Unit (CCU). It is not realistic to expect this sous-régional et continental/global. Afin d’obtenir des to happen more than once per year per site, and in fact données d’un site, il faut souvent que le responsable the actual frequency of data transfer has been very low. sous-régional d’appui aille au site, collecte les don- In view of the need to develop a central database from nées, les apporte au bureau national pour le contrôle scratch, and in the light of the existing problems with the de qualité et l’approbation, puis les retourne à l’Unité Microsoft Access database, it is proposed to create an sous-régionale d’appui pour le transfert à l’Unité cent- integrated system with site databases that automatically rale de coordination. Ce n’est pas réaliste de s’attendre synchronizes their data with a central database hosted on à ce que cela se passe plus d’une fois par an par site, the web server. It is against this background that, in 2004, et en fait la fréquence réelle du transfert des données the CITES Secretariat contracted Ecological Software a été très faible. Solutions (ESS) to incorporate MIKE data entry into the Etant donné qu’il faut développer une base de MIST system. ESS is the main developer of the MIST données centrale à partir de zéro, et compte tenu des product, which was originally funded by GTZ. problèmes existants avec la base de données Microsoft The workshop was the first practical step toward Access, il est proposé de créer un système intégré ay- achieving integration. Range States have also encoun- ant des bases de données aux sites qui synchronisent tered problems at the field data collection level. The automatiquement leurs données avec une base de original MIKE data collection forms are too compli- données centrale hébergée sur l’Internet. A cette fin, cated, resulting in some countries developing their own en 2004 le Secrétariat de la CITES a engagé Ecologi- data collection systems or adopting systems such as the cal Software Solutions (ESS) pour incorporer la saisie Namibian Management Oriented Monitoring System des données MIKE dans le système MIST. ESS est (MOMS). It is therefore important to ensure that MIKE le principal promoteur du produit MIST qui était au is integrated into these systems along the same lines départ financé par GTZ. as the proposal to integrate MIKE into MIST for those L’atelier était un premier pas pratique vers Range States that have adopted MIST. l’accomplissement de l’intégration. Les états de l’aire de répartition ont aussi rencontré des problèmes au Workshop purpose and objectives niveau de la collecte de données sur le terrain. Les Tapera Chimuti summarized the purpose and objectives formulaires originaux de collecte de données MIKE of the workshop. The first objective is to assist each of the sont très compliqués, et par conséquent certains pays six MIKE participating Range States in southern Africa développent leurs propres systèmes de collecte de to improve their current ranger-based data collection to données ou adoptent des systèmes tels que le Système meet the information needs of both the Wildlife Authority namibien de contrôle orienté vers la gestion (MOMS). and MIKE. Since the law enforcement monitoring data is Il est donc important d’intégrer MIKE dans ces sys- collected through ranger patrols, it is important that the tèmes comme dans la proposition d’intégrer MIKE newly developed system meets the minimum information dans MIST pour ces états de l’aire de répartition ayant standards of the Wildlife Authority and MIKE. Further, adopté MIST. the workshop aimed to assist each site in identifying the But et objectifs de l’atelier most appropriate strategy for managing its information as well as guiding the design of information gathering Tapera Chimuti a résumé le but et les objectifs de l’atelier. at the national and sub-regional levels. The purpose of Le premier objectif est d’aider chacun des états de l’aire MIKE—and indeed of any wildlife management pro- de répartition participant à MIKE en Afrique australe à gramme—can be achieved through the development of améliorer leur collecte actuelle de données à partir des a monitoring system which provides an effective way of patrouilles pour satisfaire les besoins d’informations du storing and processing data into information for planning, Service de la Faune et MIKE. Puisque les données sur

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 57 Taylor and Chimuti decision-making and evaluation. In essence, the objective le suivi de l’application de la loi sont collectées par of the meeting was to develop a road map for achieving des patrouilles, il est important que le nouveau système an agreed strategy for each country. satisfasse les normes minimales d’informations du Service de la Faune et MIKE. En outre, l’atelier visait à aider chaque site à identifier la stratégie la plus ap-

Table 1. Elephant Range States: summary of MIKE status and constraints.

Country MIKE Sites Size (km2) Field protection & Data management enforcement Botswana Chobe NP 10 566 - Intensified Law enforcement MIKE implemented in 1999 (60% patrols - has been running since then Lucas Rutina KAZA (Bw,Na, elephants - Permanent patrols - frequent technical problems occurs DWNP Zm, Zw) outside - Anti Poaching Unit ~ Botswana - National and Site Officer in place Botswana Park) Defence Force (BDF) 200 - Basic MIKE training conducted in April 2008 soldiers in the area - National office got a computer early this year Na - Site computer down since May 6 22,290 - Regional syndicates/organized - Data collection continues 2,273 wildlife crime - Technical problems with current MIKE - Poor working relations database between regional law - Absence of GIS integration enforcement agencies - Limited Resources e.g. GPS, batteries, - High staff turnover Recommendations - Increase Country Support—Funding (GPS, - Ensure full participation of Batteries) law enforcement agencies in - MIKE training on annual basis elephant related affairs - Provide for GIS training for MIKE personnel - Regional cooperation in fighting poaching - Consolidate parameters for each Malawi Ranger based field patrols NA protected area - Generate patrol analysis reports for each Chizamoka protected area on aspects such patrol Manda effectiveness, frequency of patrols DNPWM - Generate mortality data for animal species Malawi - Use narrative section for intelligence gathering - Quarterly reports to HO Namibia Etosha NP; Etosha Etosha Caprivi Parks & - Ranger based patrols - Centrally located; has facilities and Kirsti Conservancies Caprivi experienced Site Officer Nghidinwa - Conservancy elephant data - MIKE carcass forms ongoing MET hard to get Challenges Namibia - Database clashes - No authority to edit at Site Officer level Caprivi - New Site Officer – enthusiastic Challenges - Remote - No electricity, etc - Way forward: MOMS & Namibian - Use cyber trackers daily for Conservation Information database (ConInfo) foot/bicycle/vehicle patrols - Not just MIKE related - No particular constraints or problems South Africa Kruger NP - Used for general conservation - Data analysed centrally at Skukuza Sandra management reporting - Tedious task Snelling - MIKE form used for rhino as well SANParks S. Africa - Set of 6+2 Forms presently used for field patrols and reporting Zambia - Database developed at Chilanga then South Luangwa - Too many and too detailed = Jeremy deployed to field NP cumbersome Sikazwe - But HO at Chilanga now do not have data ZAWA - Data decentralized and analysed at lower field level Zambia - Does provide opportunity for decision making locally

58 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Wildlife Management workshop for Southern African Range States

Range State presentations propriée pour gérer ses informations et pour guider la conception de la collecte des informations aux niveaux Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zambia all made national et sous-régional. L’objectif de MIKE - et en presentations on the implementation of MIKE in their effet de tout programme de gestion de la faune – peut respective countries which are summarized in Table 1. Technical presentations être accompli par le biais d’un système de contrôle qui fournit un moyen efficace de conserver et traiter The technical presentation included the following: les données en informations pour la planification, la • MIKE Database developments: Regional progress, prise de décision et l’évaluation. Essentiellement, le but status and constraints. Julian Blanc, CITES-MIKE de la réunion était de développer une feuille de route Nairobi, Kenya pour réaliser une stratégie convenue pour chaque pays. • The Management Oriented Management System Présentations des Etats de l’aire de (MOMS). Debbie Gibson DG Ecological Consult- répartition Table 2. A comparison of MIKE Db, MIST and MOMS monitoring systems Feature MIKE Db MIST MOMS

Species monitored Elephant only ANY ANY Illegal activities monitored Poaching only ANY ANY Computer-based YES YES* NO Built-in GPS data download NO YES NO Built-in mapping/GIS functions NO YES YES Multi-user architecture NO YES YES Integration of multiple site databases NO YES NO Database synchronization NO YES NO Technical support and maintenance NO YES YES Custom reports NO YES YES Custom queries NO YES YES Spatial and trend analysis NO YES YES Existing user community MIKE sites only YES YES Number of forms needed for data collection 4 2 3** Research observations module NO YES YES*** Library module NO YES YES*** Park visitors module NO YES YES Staff management module NO YES YES Legal resource use module NO YES YES Customizable NO YES YES Training required YES YES YES Cost Access licence required**** Free**** Free**** Data analysis simple & direct NO NO YES Visual presentation of results simple & understandable NO NO YES Needs sophisticated equipment (computers) YES YES NO Useable in remote areas without electricity NO NO YES Needs high level of literacy & technical ability YES YES NO Feed back to field staff necessary YES YES NO

* Essential for MIST; data must be captured on a computer to get any kind of analysis and presentation ** For elephant data, only one form is required *** Modules can be designed for this and for other indicators **** Software and design of modules is free but costs include hardware (computers, printers etc) purchases and repair and replacement, production of data collection forms and training as required and this would apply to all 3 systems

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 59 Taylor and Chimuti

ing, Windhoek, Namibia Le Botswana, la Namibie, l’Afrique du Sud et la • MIST: a new wildlife monitoring approach. Kevin Zambie ont tous fait des présentations résumées dans Sallee Ecological Software Solutions, USA & le tableau 1 sur la mise en œuvre de MIKE dans leurs Hungary. pays respectifs.

Problem identification Présentations techniques Working Groups discussed and documented data col- La présentation technique comprenait ce qui suit: lection problems, data analysis constraints and other • Les développements de la Base de données MIKE: related issues. All three monitoring systems were le Progrès régional, l’état et les contraintes. Julian examined to provide a comparative overview that is Blanc, CITES MIKE Nairobi, Kenya summarized in Table 2. • Le Système de Contrôle Orienté vers la Gestion From the above analysis, it emerges that MIKE (MOMS). Debbie Gibson DG Ecological Consult- indeed needs to be replaced by one or the other—or ing, Windhoek, Namibie possibly both MIST and MOMS. • MIST: une nouvelle approche de contrôle de la Data collection and analysis faune. Kevin Sallee, Ecological Software Solu- tions, USA & Hongrie. constraints Identification des problèmes Methodology Les groupes de travail ont discuté et documenté des prob- Training, especially follow-up, and identification of a local lèmes de collecte des données, les contraintes d’analyse champion (or champions) for all three monitoring systems des données et d’autres questions y relatives. Les trois is an important need. Cultural considerations frequently systèmes de suivi ont été examinés pour fournir une vue cause resistance to change and the need for national and d’ensemble comparative résumée dans le Tableau 2. local ownership is paramount. Sustainability and donor De l’analyse précitée, il ressort en effet que MIKE dependence are particular concerns of the Range States doit être remplacé par un ou l’autre système –MIST et as was their need to consider the role of emerging Trans- MOMS - ou peut-être tous les deux. frontier Conservation Areas as MIKE sites. Data type Collecte de données et contraintes Whilst there were no prioritized issues, Range States have d’analyse additional data needs that MIKE does not cater for, but are considered with both MIST and MOMS. Range States Méthodologie were also concerned about database limitations, but data La formation, surtout le suivi, et l’identification needs versus data desires must be appreciated; the really d’un champion local (ou champions) pour tous les trois important monitoring requirements are to keep data col- systèmes de contrôle est un besoin important. Les con- lection simple and limited to the key variables necessary sidérations culturelles causent fréquemment la résistance to detect change. Compliance with MIKE’s needs was a au changement et il faut une appropriation nationale et secondary concern among Range State teams. locale. La pérennité et la dépendance des bailleurs sont Information management des préoccupations particulières des états de l’aire de répartition tout comme l’importance d’examiner le rôle Data exchange standards are a priority concern for des Aires Transfrontalières de Conservation émergentes all three monitoring systems. Range States need to comme sites de MIKE. prioritize work activities in relation to monitoring and the human resources and capacity to carry out their Types de données primary activities. Range States are also concerned about accountability and feedback. Alors qu’il n’y avait pas de questions prioritaires, les états de l’aire de répartition ont des besoins de don- Equipment and resources nées supplémentaires auxquels MIKE ne répond pas,

60 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Wildlife Management workshop for Southern African Range States

Concerns were shared equally between MIST and mais qui sont pris en compte par MIST et MOMS. Les MIKE, but less so in the case of MOMS. Range States états de l’aire de répartition se préoccupent aussi des identified cost, capacity and technical support as well limitations de la base de données, mais les besoins de as practical matters such as hardware robustness and données par opposition aux désirs d’avoir des données energy sources for running equipment. doivent être appréciés, et les conditions de suivi vrai- Overall, scoring the three systems demonstrated ment importantes sont de maintenir la collecte de don- that computer-based systems faced a number of nées simple et limitée aux variables clés nécessaires capacity, cost and practical challenges especially in pour détecter le changement. Répondre aux exigences remote areas where resources are limited, but also de MIKE était une préoccupation secondaire parmi where management and enforcement efforts face their les équipes des états de l’aire de répartition. greatest challenges (Table 3). The scoring system used is not ideal and must be Gestion des informations treated as indicative only. Although semi-quantitative Les normes d’échange de données sont un souci prioritaire and based largely on qualitative subjective judge- pour les trois systèmes de contrôle. Les états de l’aire ments only, the scores reflect the field-based experi- de répartition doivent donner la priorité aux activités ence of users and technical specialists. de travail ayant rapport avec le contrôle, les ressources humaines et la capacité de mener leurs activités fonda- Seeking solutions mentales. Les états de l’aire de répartition se préoccupent Solutions to the constraints identified are summarized aussi de la responsabilisation et du feedback. below. Equipement et ressources Methodology MIST et MIKE suscitaient des préoccupations en Co-funded long-term training programmes are es- égale mesure mais moins dans le cas de MOMS. Les sential, with local talent identified and empowered états de l’aire de répartition ont identifié le coût, la ca- to take leadership roles in training and motivation. pacité et l’assistance technique ainsi que les sujets pra- Ownership, feedback and effective communication tiques tels que la robustesse du matériel et les sources are key elements of such empowerment. d’énergie pour faire fonctionner l’équipement. Capacity and empowerment will reduce reliance En général, le score des trois systèmes a montré on external donor support and encourage greater self- que les systèmes informatisés étaient confrontés à reliance. It is better strategic use of donor resources to plusieurs défis pratiques de capacité, de coût, surtout develop long-term sustainability. dans les régions éloignées où les ressources sont lim- Data quality control must be ensured through itées, mais aussi là où la gestion et les efforts de mise procedural guidelines and embedded in performance en application font face à de grands défis (Tableau 3). management and appraisal systems. This, and stream- Le système de calculs utilisé n’est pas idéal et ces scores ne sont qu’indicatifs. Bien que ces scores soient semi-quantitatifs et basés pour une grande part sur les Table 3. Overall constraints assessment of the three monitoring systems

ISSUE MIST MOMS MIKE RANGE TOTAL STATES SCORE

Methodology 8 4 8 4 24 Data type 16 13 16 1 46 Information 5 4 11 10 30 management Equipment related 20 15 21 5 61 to resources Total score 49 36 56 20

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 61 Taylor and Chimuti lined data collection forms will help minimize data jugements subjectifs, ils reflètent l’expérience des entry errors. Coding systems and correct language utilisateurs et des spécialistes techniques sur le terrain. usage will also reduce error. Monitoring should be viewed as part of management and enforcement work Recherche des solutions and not as work done for a third party such as MIKE. Les solutions aux contraintes identifiées sont Data type résumées ci-dessous. The Range States’ data collection systems need to Méthodologie more directly involve data users in the problems Les programmes de formation à long terme cofi- and trouble-shooting solutions, as indicated above. nancés sont essentiels, y compris l’identification et Location and effort measurements can be tackled in l’habilitation du talent local pour prendre les rôles different ways, including GPS and data loggers with de leadership dans la formation et la motivation. long-life batteries, as well as less direct approaches. L’appropriation, le feedback et la communication ef- Data collection must be practical and restricted to ficace sont des éléments clés d’une telle habilitation. that which is essential to meeting management and La capacité et l’habilitation réduiront la enforcement needs. Statisticians must tailor their re- dépendance du soutien des bailleurs externes et en- quirements around what is attainable and realistic in courageront une plus grande indépendance. C’est une respect to data collection. Data sharing and confiden- meilleure utilisation stratégique des ressources des tiality must be based on mutual respect, recognizing bailleurs pour développer la durabilité à long terme. that third party demands may well be those of the Le contrôle de la qualité des données doit être management authority as well, e.g. TRAFFIC. assuré à travers des directives de procédure et faire Information management partie des systèmes de gestion de la performance et d’évaluation. Cela, et les formulaires de collecte des Many of the constraints identified here can be re- données simplifiés aideront à minimiser les erreurs solved through addressing the human dimensions of de saisie de données. Des systèmes de codage et un management. These include issues of poor data entry, langage correct réduiront aussi l’erreur. On devrait scaling up, lack of feedback, poor accountability and voir le contrôle comme une partie de la gestion et du performance. Improved systems integration, col- travail de mise en application et pas comme un travail laboration, co-ordination and communication with fait pour un tiers comme MIKE. other enforcement agencies—e.g. police, and other conservation stakeholders such as NGOs and com- Types de données munities—will help address and improve information management. Any new efforts should complement Les systèmes de collecte de données des états de l’aire existing systems and fit into standard data formats de répartition doivent impliquer plus directement les that build on what already exists. MIST and MOMS utilisateurs de données dans la solution aux prob- are eminently suited to this task. lèmes, comme indiqué ci-dessus. On peut mesurer l’emplacement et l’effort de façons différentes, y Equipment and resources compris par le GPS ou les enregistreurs automatiques de données ayant des piles durables ainsi que des ap- Database developers must support and ensure ad- proches moins directes. La collecte des données doit herence to software standards. Once databases are être pratique et limitée à l’essentiel pour satisfaire les developed, local suppliers must be identified. Income besoins de gestion et de mise en application. Les stat- from good conservation measures, e.g. elephant isticiens doivent adapter leurs exigences à ce qui est management and ivory sales, should be invested into accessible et réaliste quant à la collecte des données. conservation funds for capital and recurrent expen- Le partage des données et la confidentialité doivent ditures that ensure the robustness of hardware and se baser sur le respect mutuel, qui reconnaît que les undertaking aerial surveys. exigences d’un tiers pourraient aussi être celles de l’autorité de gestion, ex. TRAFFIC. Gestion des informations

62 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Wildlife Management workshop for Southern African Range States

User needs analysis La plupart des contraintes identifiées ici peuvent être surmontées en tenant compte des dimensions hu- Three generic levels of management were identi- maines de la gestion. Celles-ci incluent des questions fied— senior, middle and field levels. Senior man- de la saisie incorrecte des données, l’extrapolation, le agement must clearly understand the requirements of manque de feedback ou de responsabilisation et une management and enforcement monitoring and the ap- performance insatisfaisante. L’intégration améliorée plication of a Ranger Based Data Collection (RBDC) des systèmes, la collaboration, la coordination et la system in undertaking such monitoring. communication avec d’autres agences de mise en Middle level management needs to ensure application, par exemple la police, et d’autres inter- compliance in the application of RBDC systems venants dans la conservation tels que les ONG et les for monitoring through the provision of appropriate communautés aideront à résoudre et à améliorer la training and awareness, and selection of ‘champi- gestion des informations. De nouveaux efforts devrai- ons’, i.e. individuals in the organization who are ent compléter les systèmes existants et s’adapter aux sufficiently motivated to take monitoring systems formats standard de données qui existent déjà. MIST forward and ensure their effective and efficient et MOMS sont éminemment appropriés pour cette application at the field level. Equally, middle man- tâche. agement must introduce RBDC systems to field level personnel in the manner most appropriate to Equipement et ressources ensuring delivery. Les promoteurs des bases de données doivent Motivated local field staff members are the key to assurer le respect des normes du logiciel. Une fois success. These are the ‘data collectors’. Their motivation que les bases de données sont développées, les four- to use and support an RBDC system are crucial to the nisseurs locaux doivent être identifiés. Le revenu adoption of such an approach so that appropriate incen- provenant de bonnes mesures de conservation, par tives and inducements are essential. Ownership is argu- exemple la gestion de l’éléphant et les ventes d’ivoire, ably the most important incentive, but of course must be devrait être investi dans des fonds de conservation accompanied by a range of other incentives, including pour l’investissement et les frais généraux qui as- training and good human resource management. surent la robustesse du matériel et le financement des All three management levels must integrate with études aériennes. each other in a supportive manner, with strong two- way interactions and communication, including regu- Analyse des besoins des utilisateurs lar feedback, progress reviews and evaluations. Trois niveaux génériques de gestion ont été identifiés- Workshop recommendations le niveau supérieur, le niveau moyen et le niveau de terrain. La direction doit comprendre clairement les The workshop concluded with the following set of exigences du suivi de la gestion et de l’application recommendations. et l’utilisation du système de Collecte de Données 1. Use the Southern Africa Development Community Basées sur les Patrouilles (RBDC) pour faire un tel (SADC) elephant management strategy—SADC suivi. wildlife working groups and SADC wildlife pro- Le niveau de gestion moyen doit assurer la con- tocols—to elicit wide-ranging state commitment formité dans l’application des systèmes RBDC au to implementation of inter-operable (compatible) suivi à travers la formation et la sensibilisation ap- RBDC systems. propriées, et la sélection des « champions », c.-à-d. les 2. Institutionalize the culture of monitoring (mak- individus dans l’organisation qui sont suffisamment ing it a management objective) and all related motivés pour faire progresser les systèmes de con- aspects of it. trôle et assurer leur application efficace et effective au niveau du terrain. Également, les cadres moyens 3. Recognize that this is a key contribution to the doivent introduire des systèmes RBDC au personnel protection of wildlife species with special refer- de terrain de la manière la plus appropriée pour as- ence to the species of concern. surer la prestation. 4. Ensure all levels of stakeholders are involved in

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 63 Russell Taylor and Tapera Chimuti

module/theme selection. Adapt system/s to local Les membres du personnel local de terrain mo- requirements. Develop and provide tool kits. tivés sont la clé au succès. Ce sont les « collecteurs 5. Existing systems should be evaluated in the light » de données. Leur motivation à utiliser le système of MIST and MOMS, since these are proven, RBDC est cruciale à l’adoption d’une telle approche flexible and extensible systems with long develop- et les motivations et les encouragements appropriés ment time frames and full stakeholder contribu- sont donc essentiels. L’appropriation pourrait être tion and participation. la motivation la plus importante, mais elle doit être accompagnée d’une gamme d’autres motivations, 6. Choice of MIST, MOMS or both (or neither) is y compris la formation et la bonne gestion des res- open. Whatever is decided, however, there should sources humaines. be communication among managers, technicians Tous les trois niveaux de gestion doivent s’intégrer and specialists. l’un dans l’autre de manière positive, avec des interac- 7. Where there are other systems already in use, these tions solides et une bonne communication, y compris should be streamlined and integrated. le feedback régulier, des révisions des progrès et des 8. Decisions should not be made on donor/funding évaluations. support alone; sustainability must be considered. 9. Encourage a culture of self-reliance and user- Recommandations de l’atelier community participation to ensure local sustain- ability and the development of local champions. L’atelier a conclu en faisant des recommandations suivantes. Progress since the workshop 1. Utiliser la stratégie de gestion de l’éléphant de la Communauté de Développement de l’Afrique Aus- National consultative meetings to implement the recom- trale (SADC) – les groupes de travail sur la faune de mendations of the workshop have occurred in Botswana, la SADC et les protocoles sur la faune de la SADC Zambia and Zimbabwe thus far. Meetings were held at the – pour susciter un engagement de grande envergure three generic management levels indicated above, aimed des états pour la mise en œuvre des systèmes RBDC at choosing methodology, data type, information manage- compatibles. ment and equipment needs. Discussions were guided by 2. Institutionnaliser la culture de contrôle (le rendre the principles that emerged from the workshop. un objectif de gestion) et tous les aspects y relatifs. Each Range State has developed plans to deliver 3. Reconnaître que c’est une contribution clé à la the following outputs: protection des espèces de la faune avec référence • a list of species and illegal activities to be included spéciale aux espèces préoccupantes. in the RBDC system 4. S’assurer que les intervenants à tous les niveaux • data collection forms including variables to soient impliqués dans la sélection du module/thème. measure effort Adapter les systèmes aux exigences locales. Dévelop- • database type at site and national levels per et fournir des boîtes à outils. • data quality, control, archiving, security and 5. Les systèmes existants devraient être évalués à transfer protocols la lumière de MIST et MOMS, puisque que ceux-ci • development of chosen and agreed database sys- ont fait leurs preuves, sont des systèmes flexibles et tem (MIST and/or MOMS) extensibles ayant de larges cadres temporels de dével- • curricula and materials for training rangers in oppement et la participation active des intervenants. RBDC 6. Le choix de MIST, MOMS ou les deux (ou aucun) • training of wildlife managers in chosen system est ouvert. Cependant, quoiqu’on décide, il devrait y (MIST and/or MOMS) avoir de la communication parmi les gestionnaires, • training of rangers in RBDC. les techniciens et les spécialistes. In all Range States, discussions included relevant 7. Là où il y a déjà d’autres systèmes en cours stakeholders and their involvement was requested (as d’utilisation, ceux-ci devraient être simplifiés et required or appropriate) in undertaking activities that intégrés. support achieving the desired outputs. 8. Il ne faut pas que la prise de décisions dépende seulement du bailleur ou du soutien financier; la

64 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Wildlife Management workshop for Southern African Range States

Future plans pérennité doit être prise en compte. The remaining three Range States of Namibia, Mo- 9. Encourager une culture d’indépendance et de zambique and South Africa will be meeting in similar participation de la communauté utilisatrice pour as- fashion soon. The MIKE Programme will commence surer la pérennité et le développement de champions in Angola in 2010. Malawi will be incorporated into locaux. the Programme in 2010. It is also intended that Range States share their plans and experiences to date with Progrès depuis l’Atelier the selected RBDC system once these are operational. Jusqu’à ce jour, les réunions consultatives nationales pour mettre en œuvre les recommandations de l’atelier ont eu lieu au Botswana, en Zambie et au Zimbabwe. Les réunions qui ont été tenues aux trois niveaux génériques de gestion indiqués ci-dessus, visaient à choisir la méthodologie, le type de données, la gestion des informations et les besoins en équipement. Les discussions ont été guidées par les principes énoncés lors de l’atelier. Chaque état de l’aire de répartition a développé des plans pour produire les résultats suivants: • une liste d’espèces et d’activités illégales devant être incluses dans le système RBDC • les formulaires de collecte de données y compris des variables pour mesurer l’effort • le type de base de données au niveau du site et au niveau national • la qualité des données, le contrôle, l’archivage, la sécurité et les protocoles de transfert • le développement du système de base de données choisi et convenu (MIST et/ou MOMS) • des programmes scolaires et du matériel pour former les écogardes en matière de RBDC • la formation des gestionnaires de la faune au système choisi (MIST et/ou MOMS) • la formation des écogardes au RBDC. Dans tous les états de l’aire de répartition les intervenants appropriés participaient aux discussions et leur participation (comme requis ou approprié) a été sollicitée pour entreprendre des activités afin d’accomplir les résultats escomptés.

Plans futurs

Trois autres états de l’aire de répartition à savoir la Namibie, le Mozambique et l’Afrique du Sud se réuniront bientôt de façon similaire. Le Programme MIKE commencera en Angola en 2010. Le Malawi sera incorporé au Programme en 2010. On prévoit que les états de l’aire de répartition partageront leurs plans et leurs expériences à ce jour avec le système RBDC choisi une fois opérationnel.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 65 Status of elephant population in Bangassou MIKE site, Central African Republic Etat des lieux de la population d’éléphants du site MIKE de Bangassou en République Centrafricaine

Sébastien Luhunu and Martha Bechem

The Bangassou Forest, located in the south-eastern cor- La Forêt de Bangassou est située dans la zone sud-est de ner of the Central Africa Republic (CAR), is not classi- la République Centrafricaine (RCA). Elle n'est pas classée fied as a protected area, and has a number of community comme une zone protégée et contient un certain nombre de hunting zones. The Bangassou Forest is one of the three zones de chasse communautaires. La Forêt de Bangassou MIKE sites in CAR. This area used to have a reasonable est l'un des trois sites MIKE en RCA. Cette zone est con- population of resident elephants and, like most sites in the nue pour sa population raisonnable d'éléphants résidents et, comme la plupart des sites dans la sous-région d’Afrique Central Africa Sub-region, reliable data on the elephant Centrale, les données fiables sur la population d'éléphants population in the area is particularly lacking or—if there dans cette région font particulièrement défaut, ou le cas is any—very patchy. This population has been in decline échéant, ces données sont très morcelées. Cette population over the last few years as reported in the MIKE surveys d’éléphant est en déclin depuis quelques dernières années, of 2004 (Williamson et al. 2004). comme le rapportent les études MIKE de 2004 (William- This study is a preliminary survey in the Bangassou son et al. 2004). Forest area in preparation for a population survey for Cette étude est une enquête préliminaire dans la zone estimating elephant population density using the faecal de la Forêt de Bangassou. Elle prépare une étude de la DNA-based capture-recapture method, which, unlike densité estimés de population d’éléphant qui utilisera la other population survey methods, has a sampling protocol méthode de capture-recapture à base de l'ADN fécal, qui, that ensures a high capture probability for the samples of contrairement aux autres méthodes d’étude de population, dispose d'un protocole d'échantillonnage qui assure une interest within the population. This means that surveyors probabilité élevée de prélèvements d’échantillons d'intérêt search for samples, in this case fresh elephant dung piles, in au sein de la population. Cela signifie que les inspecteurs places where they are likely to be found. The preliminary rechercheront des échantillons, dans ce cas de nouvelles et survey was intended to ascertain the presence of elephants fraîches bouses d'éléphants, dans les endroits où les ani- in the area and also to identify the elephant hotspots. This maux sont susceptibles d'être trouvés. L'enquête prélimi- will help the mapping of the hotspots for the main survey naire était destinée à identifier la présence des éléphants estimating elephant population density, as more effort will dans la région et aussi d'identifier les points chauds de be placed in the elephant dung important areas. présence d'éléphants. Cela aidera à cartographier les points MIKE’s 2004 abundance estimate and distribution chauds de l'enquête principale, en estimant la densité de survey showed very low elephant dung encounter rates population d'éléphants, puisque davantage d'effectifs et de and no live elephants seen. The elephant population moyens seront mobilisés dans les zones de présences im- portantes d’excréments d'éléphants. was estimated to be between 500 and 1500 individuals. L’étude d’estimation de l’abondance et de la distribu- Elephant signs were observed to be restricted to ‘small tion MIKE de 2004 a montré qu’on avait des taux très bas isolated pockets’. The elephant population in the area de comptage d’excréments d'éléphants et qu’aucun élé- was already in decline (Fay et al. 1991) and the MIKE phant vivant n’ai été vu. La population d'éléphants était es- survey showed that Bangassou Forest had elephants in timée entre 500 et 1500 individus. Les signes de présence particular areas or hotspots (Williamson et al. 2004). d’éléphants ont été observés comme limitée à des « petites These hotspots are mainly in the Ndanda and the Fodé poches isolées ». La population d'éléphants dans la ré- areas and the passage along the Mbami River. Informa- gion était déjà en déclin (Fay et al.1991). L'étude MIKE a tion from nearby communities and other local partners montré que la Forêt de Bangassou contenait des éléphants shows that there are also some small isolated areas acting dans zones particulières ou points chauds (Williamson et as refuges for elephants in the Bangassou Forest area, al. 2004). Ces points chauds sont principalement localisés dans le Ndanda et les zones Fodé, et dans le passage le long especially in the Mourou Fadama hunting zone.

66 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Status of elephant population in Bangassou MIKE site, Central African Republic

du fleuve Mbami. Des informations provenant des communautés vois- ines et des autres partenaires locaux montrent qu'il y existe aussi certains petits secteurs isolés qui font office de refuges pour les éléphants dans la zone de la Forêt de Bangassou, tout en particulièrement dans la zone de chasse de Mourou Fadama. Pour rechercher des piles de bouses d'éléphants, où elles étai- ent susceptibles d'être trouvées, l'équipe avait besoin de mener une enquête préliminaire pour déter- miner la présence des éléphants à Bangassou et des points chauds. Matériels et Méthodes

Map 1. Bangassou Forest. MIKE site in Central Africa Republic. L'étude a comporté des entrevues formelles et informelles avec : les In order to search for elephant dung piles where chercheurs, les utilisateurs des res- sources locales, le personnel du ministère de l'Eau, de la they were likely to be found, the team needed to con- Forêt, de la Chasse et de la Pêche à Bangui et à Bangassou, duct a preliminary survey to ascertain the presence of les autres intervenants qui avaient travaillé auparavant ou elephants in Bangassou and the hotspots. travaillaient à ce moment-là dans la Forêt de Bangassou - surtout les personnes qui étaient impliquées dans la gestion Materials and methods des zones communautaires de chasse qui fonctionnaient à The survey involved formal and informal interviews with l'époque dans la Forêt de Bangassou. researchers, local resource users, staff from the Ministry of Pour mettre en évidence la vérité ou pour vérifier les Water, Forest, Hunting and Fisheries in Bangui and Bangas- points chauds de présence d'éléphants dans la zone d'étude, sou, other stakeholders who had previously or were working nous avons utilisé une méthode de reconnaissance (recces) pour recueillir les taux de rencontre avec les tas de bouses in the Bangassou Forest—especially those involved in the en tant que mesure de l'abondance relative des éléphants. management of the community hunting zones that were Ces recces ont été dirigées par les informations recueillies functional at the time in the Bangassou Forest. lors des entrevues sur les endroits où on a dit trouver des To ground truth or verify these elephant hotspots in éléphants et par les rapports d'études précédents sur les the study area we used a reconnaissance survey method or zones où les éléphants ont été trouvés. Le taux de rencon- ‘recces’ to collect dung pile encounter rates as a measure tre de piles de bouses a été qualifié comme le nombre de of relative elephant abundance. These recces were guided piles de bouse dans un kilomètre de la zone étudiée. Les by information gathered from the interviews on where unités GPS Garmin Etrex venture HC et Garmin 60 ont elephants were said to be found and earlier survey reports été utilisées pour fournir une localisation géographique on areas where elephants had been found. The dung pile pour chaque donnée et chaque enregistrement de traces, au encounter rate was qualified as the number of dung piles in cours de l'enquête de vérification. Les populations locales ont servie de guides dans ces domaines identifiés. a kilometre of the area surveyed. The Garmin Etrex venture La zone a été divisée en deux aires principales (Ou- HC and Garmin 60 GPS units were used to provide a geo- est et Est). Deux équipes de quatre personnes chacune ont reference for each datum and track log during the verifica- parcouru les aires définies. La zone Est a été divisé à nou- tion survey. Locals acted as guides to these identified areas. veau en deux petites zones - Fode et Balifondo –tandis que The area was divided into two principal zones (west and la zone Ouest a également été subdivisée en deux zones east) and two teams of four people each walked the zones. - Mourou Fadama et Ndanda. The east zone was subdivided into two smaller zones—Fode and Balifondo—while the west zone was also subdivided Résultats into two zones—Mourou Fadama and Ndanda. Un total d’environ 320 km ont été couvert par la marche

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 67 Luhunu and Bechem

Results au cours de cette étude. Dans les différentes sous-zones, l'itinéraire était une combinaison des zones de tous les A total about 320 km was walked during this study. In rapports et des informations récentes d'observation ou de the different sub zones the itinerary was a combination signes d’éléphants par la population locale. of the areas from all reports and information of recent Des signes d'éléphants étaient présents seulement dans elephant sighting or signs from locals. la zone Mourou Fadama autour des blocs de sel et des ma- Elephant signs were present only in the Mourou rais. Aucune des autres régions visitées ne présentait de Fadama area around salt-licks and marshes. No other signes de présence d’éléphants qui avaient moins de deux areas visited contained elephant signs that were fewer ans. Les signes d'éléphants, trouvés dans la région Mourou than two years old. The elephant signs found in the Fadama, étaient regroupés autour de dépôts de sel. Une distance totale de 79 km ont été couverts dans ce domaine Mourou Fadama area were clustered around salt-licks. où 73 piles d’excréments ont été trouvés autour des dépôts A total distance of 79 km was covered in this area where de sel, avec des âges allant de quelques heures à plus de 73 dung piles were found around salt-licks with ages six mois. ranging from a few hours to more than six months old. Aucune carcasse d'éléphant n’a été rencontrée au cours No elephant carcasses were encountered during this de cette enquête. L'activité humaine était intense dans survey. Human activity was intense in all areas visited toutes les zones visitées, mais en moindre mesure dans la but less evident in the Mourou Fadama area. zone de Mourou Fadama. Conclusion and recommendations Conclusion et recommandations The preliminary survey indicates that there might have L'étude préliminaire indique qu'il pourrait avoir eu un been a shift in the elephant population of the area. All changement dans la population d'éléphants de la région. the areas that had elephant signs in the 2004 survey that Toutes les zones qui présentaient des signes de présence were revisited during this survey had no elephant activ- d'éléphants dans l'enquête de 2004 et qui ont été revisitées au cours de cette enquête, n'ont plus présentait aucune ac- ity less than two years old. River-banks and marshes tivité d’éléphants de moins de deux ans. Les rives de la (although most were almost dry in the west zones) rivière et des marais (bien que la plupart étaient presque à had no elephant signs. The Mourou Fadama area was sec dans les zones Ouest) ne présentaient aucun signe de not surveyed in 2004 and there is no reference of its présence d'éléphants. La zone Fadama Mourou n'avait pas previous elephant population. été arpentée en 2004 et il n’existe aucune référence sur sa The present situation for elephants in Bangas- population d'éléphants précédente. sou is a great concern for conservationists although La situation actuelle pour les éléphants à Bangassou there is limited information available at the moment. est une grande préoccupation pour les conversationnistes, Could it be that the resident population has migrated bien qu'il y ait peu d'informations disponibles pour le mo- to areas with lesser disturbance like the neighbouring ment. Les populations résidentes auraient-elles pu migrer Democratic Republic of Congo or that the elephant vers les zones à moindre perturbation comme leurs vois- ins en République démocratique du Congo ? Les popula- populations have moved out of the area to neighbouring tions d'éléphants ont-elles quitté la région vers des zones areas due to the intense hunting in the zone? This seems voisines à cause de la chasse intense dans la zone ? Toutes reasonable if one considers that Mourou Fadama has ces hypothèses semblent raisonnables si l'on considère made little effort to deter hunting in the zone. que Mourou Fadama fait peu d'efforts pour décourager la Perhaps the population was not resident and no chasse dans la zone. longer visited these areas anymore because of the La population n'était pas peut-être pas résidente et les increased human activity. Was the study carried out éléphants n’allaient peut être plus dans ces zones plus en in the wrong season after the elephant population had raison de l'activité humaine croissante. L'étude a-t-elle moved out of the area? été réalisée à la mauvaise saison, après que la population After this preliminary result, it would be d'éléphants se soit déplacée de la région ? worthwhile to visit the Rafaï and the area north of Après ce résultat préliminaire, il serait intéressant de visiter le Rafaï et la zone au nord de Fode pour vérifier si Fode to verify whether or not there is a reasonable oui ou non il y a une population raisonnable d'éléphants elephant population in these areas before the main dans ces régions avant de conduire l'étude principale. survey is conducted.

68 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Sapo Forest survey: progress, challenges and lessons learnt Etude de la forêt de Sapo : progrès, défis et leçons apprises

Massalatchi M. Sani and Yaw Boafo

Sapo National Park is the only national park in Le Parc National de Sapo est le seul parc national au Liberia. The pristine Sapo Forest is rich in spe- Libéria. La forêt vierge de Sapo est riche en espèces cies that are extinct or near extinction elsewhere qui ont disparu ou qui sont en voie de disparition ail- in West Africa such as the red colobus monkey. leurs en Afrique de l'Ouest, comme le colobe rouge. As we trekked through the forest, we lost count Pendant que nous marchions à travers la forêt, nous of the numerous fruiting Sacoglottis gabonensis avons perdu le compte des nombreux arbres fruitiers trees that are food for elephants, chimpanzees Sacoglottis gabonensis qui sont source de nourriture and the numerous monkeys. pour les éléphants, les chimpanzés et de nombreux CITES-MIKE and the Wild Chimpanzee singes. Foundation (WCF) are collaborating to survey Le programme MIKE de la CITES et la fondation Sapo National Park to provide updated statistics « Wild Chimpanzee Foundation » (WCF) collaborent on the elephant and chimpanzee populations. à l'enquête du Parc National de Sapo afin de fournir Together with Liberia Forestry Development des statistiques à jour sur les populations d’éléphants Authority (FDA), a pilot survey of the park et de chimpanzés. Grâce à leur travail avec l’Autorité was completed in June 2009. Searches for fresh du Développement des Forêts du Liberia (Forestry elephant dung piles, chimpanzee nests and mark- Development Authority ou FDA), une enquête pilote ings for decay studies are almost completed sur le parc en Juin 2009 a été achevée. Les recherches to pave the way for a comprehensive survey de piles de bouses fraîches d'éléphants et de nids de of the park. MIKE and WCF have trained 18 chimpanzés ainsi que les marquages pour l’étude du FDA field officers in forest survey techniques déclin sont presque achevés dans le but d’ouvrir la voie and basic forest ecology and are helping in the à une enquête complète du parc. MIKE et WCF ont fieldwork. A comprehensive survey of the park formé 18 agents de la FDA pour les techniques d'étude started in November 2009 and there is currently de la forêt et pour l’écologie forestière de base. MIKE great enthusiasm among the rank and file of the et WCF contribuent aussi au travail sur le terrain. field staff and all the stakeholders to succeed in Une étude complète du parc a débuté en Novembre updating the information currently available on 2009. Il y a actuellement beaucoup d'enthousiasme Sapo elephants and chimpanzees. The enthusiasm parmi les rangs, ce qui pousse l’équipe sur place et to partake in the survey by Sapo field staff is be- tous les acteurs à réussir à mettre à jour les informa- yond measure and it is epitomized by the survey tions actuellement disponibles sur les éléphants et les team members using their own resources to print chimpanzés de Sapo. L'enthousiasme de l’équipe sur t-shirts for the survey. le terrain de Sapo à participer à l'étude est incroyable. The partnership of MIKE and WCF is worth- Il est illustré par le fait que les membres de l'équipe while since it is helping to cut down costs to d'étude utilisent leur fonds personnels pour imprimer each organization by placing a single order for des t-shirts pour l'étude. survey equipment and by the execution of joint Le partenariat entre MIKE et WCF est profitable fieldwork by the same team. The funding and car il contribue à réduire les coûts de chaque organi- cost-sharing of this project was established on sation en mutualisant les moyens et les équipements a 50/50 basis between MIKE and WCF. The de l’étude pour l'exécution du même travail de terrain U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has supported par la même équipe. Le financement et le partage des the elephant oriented portion of the survey with coûts de ce projet a été établi sur une base de 50/50 USD 40,512. A clearly written memorandum entre Mike et WCF. Les services de la pêche et de la of understanding spelling out the roles and re- faune sauvage des Etats-Unis (« U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 69 Sani and Boafo

sponsibilities of all the partners in the execution Service ») ont soutenu la partie de l'enquête orientée of the project prevents unnecessary arguments éléphant avec une subvention de 40512 dollars améric- and conflicts from arising. However, the inher- ains. Un mémorandum clairement rédigé définit les ently different approaches to funding fieldwork, rôles et responsabilités de tous les partenaires dans deploying experts to the field, payment mecha- l'exécution du projet et cela empêche ainsi les dis- nisms and accounting procedures sometimes putes inutiles et l’émergence des conflits. Toutefois, call for discussion and dialogue. It is always les approches intrinsèquement différentes de travail necessary that experts involved in fieldwork be pour financer l’étude sur place, pour le déploiement given clearly defined roles in order to present a d'experts sur le terrain, pour les mécanismes de paie- unified front to the field team. ment et pour les procédures comptables nécessitent The joint survey project is also enabling parfois la discussion et le dialogue. Il est toujours elephant and chimpanzee survey experts from nécessaire d’attribuer des rôles clairement définis aux CITES-MIKE and WCF to really understand experts intervenant sur le terrain, afin de présenter un the needs of each other in terms of field data front uni à l'équipe de terrain. collection. This partnership is fostering joint co- Le projet d'enquête conjointe permet également aux ordination and networking not only at the field experts de l’étude des éléphants et des chimpanzés, level, but also high up the organizational ladder respectivement de CITES-MIKE et de la WCF, de of the two organizations. comprendre vraiment les besoins des uns des autres The above notwithstanding, there are some en termes de collecte de données sur le terrain. Ce challenges in the fieldwork that we anticipated partenariat favorise la coordination conjointe et la mise beforehand and were therefore prepared for them. en réseau non seulement au niveau du terrain, mais For example, accessibility to the southern and aussi jusqu’en haut de l'échelle organisationnelle des eastern sides of Sapo is a big challenge. Road- deux organisations. working tools such as shovels and pickaxes, which Nonobstant ce qui précède, il y a des défis dans had been purchased beforehand, have proven to le travail de terrain que nous avons anticipé et donc be indispensable. Whilst moderate rains will not nous nous sommes préparés à y être confrontés. Par stop an elephant survey team, chimpanzee survey exemple, l'accessibilité aux rives sud et est de Sapo est experts generally request that the team pauses and un grand défi. Les outils pour préparer le terrain et con- wait for the drizzle to stop because one cannot look struire des routes comme les pelles, les pioches, etc., up for nests in that condition. When field teams are avaient été achetés à l'avance et ils se sont finalement deployed to follow fresh elephant tracks in search avérés indispensables. Alors que des pluies modérées of dung piles whilst also seeking fresh chimpanzee n'arrêtent pas le travail de l’équipe dédiée éléphant, nests, they need to be constantly reminded to keep les experts des chimpanzés demandent généralement looking up for chimpanzee nests and down for à faire une pause et d’attendre que l’averse passe car elephant dung. A team can get carried away when ils ne peuvent pas lever les yeux pour chercher les one of the species’ signs is frequently detected. nids dans ces conditions climatiques. Lorsque les Sapo rangers do not carry firearms during équipes de terrain sont déployées pour suivre les traces patrols but the poachers in the park hunt with fraîches d'éléphants et pour rechercher des bouses firearms. This makes the field survey team slightly d'éléphants, et qu’elles recherchent aussi des nids frais nervous but there is security in numbers. For exam- de chimpanzés, ces mêmes équipes ont besoin de con- ple, two staff members are always left at the team’s stamment se rappeler de scruter en haut pour trouver camping base to ensure some level of security to les nids de chimpanzés et en bas pour chercher les the team’s material resources. bouses d'éléphant. Une équipe peut se laisser déborder Illegal gold mining is ongoing in the park. lorsque des signes de l'une des deux espèces sont plus Miners have been removed from the park in the fréquemment détectés. past by the Liberian authorities but they returned Les gardes forestiers de Sapo ne portent pas d'armes to continue with their destructive activities. This à feu durant les patrouilles alors que les braconniers du is posing a great threat to the maintenance of the parc chassent avec des armes à feu. Cela rend l'équipe biological integrity of the park. The mining areas d'étude sur le terrain un peu nerveuse, mais la sécurité

70 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Sapo Forest survey: progress, challenges and lessons learnt are depleted of large mammals. Two elephants existe en termes de chiffres. Par exemple, deux were reportedly killed in 2009 and their tusks membres l’équipe restent toujours au campement sold by the poachers but the carcasses have not pour assurer un certain niveau de sécurité aux res- yet been found. The cases are pending in the law sources matérielles de l'équipe. courts. Nine field officers have been trained to be L'exploitation illégale de l'or est en cours dans able to fill the simplified MIST patrol and elephant le parc. Les mineurs ont été expulsés du parc dans carcass reporting forms. le passé par les autorités libériennes, mais ils sont During the rainy season survey in Sapo, a revenus pour continuer leurs activités destructrices. tarpaulin pitched over a tent with ground sheets C’est une grande menace pour le maintien de will prevent it from leaking and carrying silica gel l'intégrité biologique du parc. Les zones minières to keep moisture out of your cameras, binoculars sont vides de grands mammifères. La mort de deux and GPS is invaluable. éléphants a été rapportée en 2009. Leurs défenses It is noteworthy that the Liberian Forestry ont été vendues par les braconniers, mais les cada- Development Authority expressed concern that vres des animaux n'ont pas encore été retrouvés à ce cutting a network of transects to survey the two jour. Les cas sont en instance devant les tribunaux. species would open up the forest to novice and Neuf agents de terrain ont été formés pour pouvoir casual poachers. Against the backdrop of this remplir le formulaire simplifié de patrouille MIST justifiable concern, the synchronous activities of et le formulaire de rapport de découverte de car- MIKE and WCF in the fieldwork enables ‘two casse d'éléphant. birds to be killed with one stone’ by improving our Au cours de l'étude pendant la saison des plu- knowledge of two species and demonstrating that ies dans Sapo, la bâche tendue au dessus d’une field teams leave toe prints and not bold footprints. tente avec des tapis de sol empêche les fuites d’eau dans la tente. Les gels de silice sont d’une utilité inestima- ble pour préserver les appareils photos, les jumelles et les GPS hors de l'humidité. Il est à noter que l'Autorité du Dévelop- pement des Forêts du Libéria a exprimé des inquiétudes à propos du réseau de transects que nous avons fait dans la forêt pour mieux étudier les deux es- pèces. Ce réseau de sentiers pourrait ouvrir la forêt aux braconniers débutants et occasion- nels. Dans le contexte de cette préoccupation Figure 1. Sapo survey team poses at the park bound- légitime, les activités synchrones de MIKE et WCF ary before heading for camping. sur le terrain permet de « faire d’une pierre deux L’équipe d’étude de Sapo pose à la limite du parc coups » en améliorant notre connaissance sur les avant de retourner au campement. deux espèces et en démontrant que les équipes de terrain ne laissent que des empreintes d’orteils et pas des empreintes de pieds bien visibles.

Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 71 Guidelines FOR contributors

Aim and scope Should be not more than 5000 words and be structured as follows: 1) Title 2) Abstract of not more than 250 Pachyderm publishes papers and notes concerning words (informative type, outlining information from all aspects of the African elephant, the African rhino the Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and the Asian rhino with a focus on the conservation Discussion, but not detailed results) 3) additional and management of these species in the wild. At the key words (if any), not appearing in the title 4) In- same time, the journal is a platform for disseminating troduction 5) Materials and methods 6) Results 7) information concerning the activities of the African Discussion 8) Conclusions, if appropriate 9) Acknowl- Elephant, the African Rhino, and the Asian Rhino Spe- edgements (optional, brief) 10) References (no more cialist Groups of IUCN Species Survival Commission. than 25) 11) Tables 12) Figure and photo captions 13) Figures and photos. Submission of manuscripts Papers may be reports of original biology research or All manuscripts should be submitted online at they may focus more on the socio-economic aspects http://pachydermjournal.org. of conservation, including market surveys.

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Preparation of manuscripts Opinion and review papers Manuscripts are accepted in both English and French Are frequently published. Please query for suitability. languages. Where possible, the abstract should be provided in both languages. Book reviews Title and authors Pachyderm invites reviews of newly published books, which should be no more than 1500 words long. The title should contain as many of the key words as possible but should not be more than 25 words long. Follow with the name(s) of the author(s) with Letters to the editor institutional affiliation and full postal and email ad- dress of the corresponding author, to whom proofs Letters are welcome that comment on articles pub- and editorial comments will be sent. lished in Pachyderm or on any other issue relating to elephant and rhino conservation in the wild. Research papers

72 Pachyderm No. 46 July–December 2009 Guidelines for Contributors

Journal conventions Dobson AP, May RM. 1986. Disease and conserva- tion. In: Soulé ME, ed., Conservation biology: . Sinauer Nomenclature the science of scarcity and diversity Associates, Sunderland, MA. p. 123–142. Use common names of animals and plants, giving Struhsaker TT, Lwanga JS, Kasenene JM. 1996. scientific names in italics on first mention. Elephants, selective logging and forest regen- eration in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. Journal Generally refer to animals in the plural form (i.e. of Tropical Ecology 12:45–64. rhinos, elephants). Sukumar R. 1989. The Asian elephant: ecology and management. Cambridge Studies in Applied Spelling Ecology and Resource Management. Cam- Use British spelling, following the latest edition bridge University Press, Cambridge. of the Concise Oxford Dictionary or the Oxford Cite unpublished material as follows: English Dictionary, using ‘z’ instead of ‘s’ in words like ‘recognize’, ‘organization’, ‘immobilized’; but Tchamba MN. 1996. Elephants and their interactions ‘analyse’, ‘paralyse’. with people and vegetation in the Waza–Log- one region, Cameroon. PhD thesis, University Numbers of Utrecht, The Netherlands. 142 p. Woodford MH. 2008. [Title]. [Journal or publisher]. Use International System of Units for measurement Forthcoming. [if publication date is known] (m, km, g, ha, h) with a space between the numeral Woodford MH. [Title]. [Journal or publisher]. In and the unit of measurement. Give measurements in press. [if publication date is not known] figures, for example 12 mm, 1 km, 3 ha, except at the beginning of a sentence. Do not use references papers in preparation or sub- mitted but not yet accepted; cite as ‘pers. comm.’ Spell out numbers under 10 if not a unit of measure- accompanied by name of the person and the date in ment unless the number is part of a series containing the text, but not cited in the reference list. numbers 10 or over, for example: 14 adult males, 23 adult females and 3 juveniles. See The Council of Science Editors Manual for Au- thors, Editors and Publishers, 7th Edition, 2006 In the text, write four-digit numbers without a comma; or the web site, http://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/ use a comma as the separator for figures five digits csegd.php. or more: 1750, 11,750. The separator will be a full stop in French papers.

References

Use the author-year method of citing and listing references.

In the text, cite two authors: ‘(X and Y 1999)’ or ‘X and Y (1999)’; cite more than two authors ‘(X et al. 1996)’ or ‘X et al. (1996)’. Note that there is no comma between the author(s) and the year. In the reference list, cite publications as in the fol- lowing examples. List in alphabetical order. Write out journal titles in full.

Adams JX. 1995b. Seizures and prosecutions. TRAF- FIC Bulletin 15(3):118.

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