Snow Cover and Glaciers Snow Hazard Assessment on Sakhalin Island

EARTH’S CRYOSPHERE SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

Kriosfera Zemli, 2017, vol. XXI, No. 6, pp. 95–102 http://www.izdatgeo.ru

SNOW COVER AND GLACIERS

DOI: 10.21782/EC1560-7496-2017-6(95-102) SNOW HAZARD ASSESSMENT ON SAKHALIN ISLAND E.N. Kazakova, V.A. Lobkina Far East Geological Institute, FEB RAS, Sakhalin Department, 25, Gorkogo str., Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, 693023, Russia; [email protected] The information about the snow hazard processes and phenomena occurring in the urban areas of Sakha- lin Island is presented. The snow hazard embraces all kinds of damage that snow and ice may inﬂ ict as such or in combination with the weather conditions. The major harm for the population and economy of Sakhalin Island is caused by snowfalls, snowstorms, snow patches, snow loads, and avalanches. The paper presents a method for snow hazard assessment based on qualitative evaluation of the eff ects of these hazards with speciﬁ c characteristics employed: for avalanches – the areal percentage of exposure of a territory to avalanches, for snow loads – the peak loads, for snowstorms – the average duration of a snowstorm per winter, for snowfalls – the maximum amount of precipitation within 12 hours, for anthropogenic snow patches – the volume of snow at the end of winter. The paper presents a schematic map of the snow hazard for the urban areas of Sakhalin Island. The following settlements: Okha, Shakhtersk, Uglegorsk, Makarov, Kholmsk, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, and Korsakov – are exposed to the maximum degrees of the snow hazard on Sakhalin Island. The majority of these settlements are situated on the sea coasts of southern Sakhalin, where the high degree of snow hazard is caused by the combination of hydrometeorological and geomorphological conditions. Snow hazard, snowfall, snowstorm, snow load, avalanche, anthropogenic snow patch

INTRODUCTION The snow cover and the processes related to it The unfavorable eff ects related to snowfalls may exert significant influence on the economy of the be totaled in the notion of the snow hazard of a terri- Sakhalin region. Formation of a stable snow cover re- tory. quires that safety measures should be taken to protect The snow hazard indicates a multitude of unfa- the infrastructure facilities, residential buildings and vorable or disastrous phenomena resulting from the houses, production facilities, and the population of fall of solid atmospheric precipitation, from forma- the region. The annual harm inﬂ icted by snow is dif- tion, re-crystallization and destruction of the snow ficult to assess. The extent of the impact of heavy cover under natural or anthropogenic conditions snowfalls, snowstorms, snowdrifts on roads, etc., cor- [Alekseev, 2005]. In foreign literature, the same term relates with the degree of urbanization of the territo- is used [Rooney, 1967]. ry hit by these phenomena. Snowfalls result in the In this study, the processes and phenomena hav- need for clearing the territories from snow and pre- ing the most unfavorable eff ects for the economy of paring special sites for keeping snow loads, thus ne- Sakhalin Island are considered (Fig. 1). cessitating signiﬁ cant expenses. For example, accord- Under the term ‘hazard’, the authors understand ing to the Sakh.com information agency, in the winter the index of activity of the dangerous processes occur- season of 2015/16, 86.5 million rubles were allocated ring in the given territory independently of the degree for the winter maintenance of motor roads in the of their anthropogenic development [Kazakov, 2015]. Sakhalin region. Only one of the local companies of The objective of this study was to examine the Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk involved in snow removal report- eff ects of the fall of solid atmospheric precipitation on ed to have removed about 630 thousand m3 snow urbanized territories and to assess the degree of their from the area of 70 hectares and placed it on anthro- impact on the town management by the example of pogenic snow patches, for the execution of which it Sakhalin Island. charged 64.2 million rubles. Comprehensive assessment of the impact of the SNOWCAUSED HAZARDOUS PROCESSES processes and phenomena related to snow will allow substantiation of the economic costs of snow removal Heavy snowfalls and utilization and making the urban territory safer Heavy snowfalls are characteristic of many dis- for the population. tricts of Sakhalin Island. For example, in the towns of

95 E.N. KAZAKOVA, V.A. LOBKINA

Fig. 1. Hazardous processes and phenomena related to snow on Sakhalin Island. a – the streets of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk after the snowstorm of 02.03.2013; b – the anthropogenic snow patch in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, 27.05.2009; c – breakdown of the roof of a school building in the village of Pyatirechye, 2009 (the photo was borrowed from the website http://sakhvesti.ru/); d – clearing a motorroad from avalanche obstruction, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk–Nevelsk highway, 05.02.2014.

Poronaisk, Uglegorsk, Makarov, Dolinsk, Yuzhno- Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, clearing of the city territory after Sakhalinsk, and others, the intensity of snowfalls may snowstorms requires the operation of about 300 spe- reach 30 mm and more within 12 hours. cialized motor vehicles. In accordance with the terminology used by Snowstorms Rosgidromet (Russian Committee for Hydrology and Meteorology), heavy snow means heavy solid pre- In accordance with the terminology used by cipitation (snow or shower snow) with the amount of Rosgidromet, a snowstorm is transport of snow from precipitation not less than 20 mm within a period of the underlying surface (often accompanied by snow- 12 hours or less [Working Document 52.88.699-2008]. fall from clouds) by a strong (not less than 15 m/s) Such snowfalls cause large increment in the snow wind and with meteorological visibility not more cover depth: the depth of the snow cover in the than 500 m, lasting at least 12 hours [Working Do- streets of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk after snowstorms is cument 52.88.699-2008]. In the territory of the Sa- 30–40 cm on average. However, snowstorms occur khalin region, criteria of hazardous hydrometeoro- practically every year, after which the depth of the logical phenomena are used, developed considering snow cover reaches 50–100 cm and more, and in the local natural and climatic conditions on the basis snowdrifts in some streets, the snow depth reaches of the standard list of hazardous natural hydrometeo- 1–3 m. They mainly cause indirect economic damage, rological phenomena, agreed upon with Rosgidromet like lack of transportation and the necessity of cle- and the government of the Sakhalin region. In accor- aring the city streets. For example, according to the dance with these criteria, for the territory of Sakhalin data provided by the city management department of Island, a severe snowstorm is a total or ground snow-

96 SNOW HAZARD ASSESSMENT ON SAKHALIN ISLAND storm lasting 12 hours and longer at the maximum Snow loads wind velocity 20 m/s and more and visibility of less Accumulation of large masses of snow on build- than 500 m [http://sakhmeteo.ru/ourforecasts/oya. ing roofs after snowfalls results in formation of exces- php]. In our opinion, snowstorms with the wind ve- sive snow loads. Breakdowns and damage of roofs in locity of even 15 m/s present a signifi cant hazard for the territory of Sakhalin Island have been recorded the population and for the local economy; therefore, over the recent decade in 2009, 2012, 2013, and 2015. in evaluating the snow hazard of the territory of The estimated amounts of the snow load per 1 m2 Sakhalin Island, the authors used data on snowstorms of the horizontal surface of the land for the adminis- accompanied by the wind velocity of more than trative centers of the island vary from 3.2 kPa (Smir- 15 m/s. nykh) to 6.0 kPa (Dolinsk, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk) [Gen- Severe snowstorms last most on the coasts of siorovsky et al., 2011], while the maximum amount of Sakhalin Island. For example, in Kholmsk the dura- the snow load increment per one snowfall varies from tion of snowstorms exceeds 600 hours during a winter 1.0 kPa (Smirnykh, Korsakov, Aniva) to 2.5 kPa (To- season [Pilnikova, 1990]. The damage from snow- mari, Dolinsk, and Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk). storms on Sakhalin Island consists, apart from snow deposited in the city territories and on the wires, in Avalanches partial or complete destruction of roofs and building Despite the primarily low-mountain and middle- windows, and motor vehicles, and in the massive mountain relief, the territory of Sakhalin Island is damage of trees. Every year, snowstorms are the cause characterized by high avalanche activity. Avalanches of transport stoppage blocking transportation among move down every year, and not only in the mountain- the island towns and cities, airplane and ferryboat ous part of the island but also from the cliff s of the sea transportation between the island and the continent. and river terraces taller than 10 m and from hills of the anthropogenic origin. About 400 km motorways Anthropogenic snow patches and railways are exposed to the avalanche hazard in Anthropogenic snow patches are areas for storing the avalanche hazard zones of Sakhalin Island, as well snow masses removed from the territories cleared as 54 settlements (8 towns and 46 villages). The areal from snow. On Sakhalin Island, the snow patches are exposure to avalanche processes varies from 1 to 45 % located in eight settlements and along linear energy (for example, that of Kholmsk is 29 % and that of and transportation objects. The largest snow patch is Nevelsk is 45 %). 3 located in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk: more than 1 million m Avalanches regularly damage buildings, struc- snow is delivered there during a winter season. The tures and transport vehicles and form accumulations total area of the lands occupied by the anthropogenic of snow in settlements and around infrastructure fa- snow patches exceeds 19 hectares only in Yuzhno- cilities. Apart from the economic damage, avalanches Sakhalinsk. Storing snow within city limits leads to cause casualties: in the period from 1905 to 2016, occurrence of hazardous exogenous geological pro- more than 1100 people got caught in avalanches, with cesses, such as fl ooding, water logging, frost heaving, more than 700 of them killed [Kazakova and Lobkina, and a rise in the level of ground water. Snow patches 2013; Podolskiy et al., 2014]. exert a negative impact on the condition of the envi- ronment [Lobkina and Gensiorovsky, 2012], as the The methodology snow removed from the city streets contains contami- of assessing the snow hazard nants which penetrate the ground during snow melt- Four categories of the snow hazard have been ing and migrate with the melted water. City rubbish classifi ed for each process considered (Table 1). The gets to the snow patches as part of the removed snow, parameters for categorizing the snow hazard are turning the snow patches into unauthorized dumps. based on the qualitative assessment of the eff ects of

Table 1. Parameters of snow hazard categories Snow hazard category and the score Processes and Measure- Very Parameter Low, Medium, High, phenomena ment unit high, 1 score 2 scores 3 scores 4 scores Heavy snowfall Maximum amount of solid precipitation within 12 hours mm <10 10–20 20–30 >30 Snowstorm Maximum duration in winter h <200 200–400 400–600 >600 Anthropogenic For towns – the volume of stored snow at the time of the thousand m3 <200 200–400 400–600 >600 snow patch patch closure Snow load Maximum weight of snow cover per 1 m2 of surface kPa <1 1–3 3–5 >5 Avalanche For towns – areal exposure of the territory % <10 10–20 20–40 >40 For the island territory – medium amount of avalanche event <1 1–5 5–10 >10 catchments per 1 km of linear length of a valley or shore

97 E.N. KAZAKOVA, V.A. LOBKINA these processes and phenomena on the city territory. probability of occurrence of hazardous exogenous For each process considered, a specifi c parameter was geological processes in the surrounding territory and selected, most fully refl ecting its characteristic. the extent of its contamination. Snowfalls. As a criterion for assessment of the Avalanches. To evaluate the avalanche hazard of degree of impact of heavy snowfalls, such a parameter a certain territory, it is reasonable to use such a pa- was used as the maximum amount of solid precipita- rameter as areal exposure to avalanche processes (the tion lasting at least 12 hours. Due to the lack of the ratio of the area exposed to the impact of avalanches, mean annual values, the data relating to the period of irrespective of avalanche characteristics, to the total 2005–2016 were used. area of a certain territory, for example, of that of a Snowfalls with the amount of precipitation equal settlement). It is diffi cult to use the data regarding to 18–19 mm lasting at least 12 hours were also con- the volume and recurrence of avalanches to evaluate sidered by the authors together with heavy snowfalls, the avalanche hazard for a large territory. For exam- as, in our opinion, the 1–2 mm diff erence is negligibly ple, it is diffi cult to compare the avalanche hazard of small. Such snowfalls are referred to the ‘medium’ de- two areas, in one of which avalanches amounting to gree of the snow hazard. The authors referred snow- 1,000 m3 move down 2–3 times during a winter sea- falls, classifi ed, in the terminology of Rosgidromet, to son, while in the other area an avalanche amounting very heavy snowfalls (see above), i.e. with the amount to 100,000 m3 moves down once every 20–25 years. of precipitation 20 mm and more lasting 12 hours and Therefore, the authors used areal exposure of the ter- longer to a higher degree of the snow hazard. With ritories of cities and towns to avalanche processes as the average density of fresh snow equal to 100– a criterion of the avalanche hazard. However, to cal- 120 kg/m3 (the value of snow density was obtained culate this characteristic for the entire territory of by the authors based on nature observation data in Sakhalin Island is a hard and long work, as it is neces- Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk) being 20 mm of precipitation sary to carry out mapping of hundreds of thousands corresponds to a layer of snow equal to 15–20 cm. of avalanche catchments in the scale of at least When such snowfalls occur, transport traffi c is sus- 1:25 000 to correctly assess this value. Therefore, in pended outside settlements. The authors referred evaluating the avalanche hazard of the island terri- snowfalls with precipitation over 30 mm lasting 12 h tory (except cities), the authors used such a parame- and longer to a very high category. For example, such ter as the average number of avalanche catchments amount of precipitation is equal to 25–30 cm of fresh- per linear length of a river valley or of the seashore ly fallen snow (with the average snow density 100– equal to 1 km. This value is the highest on seashores 3 120 kg/m ), which for the territory of Yuzhno-Sakha- and in the mountainous parts of the island (Eastern linsk constitutes nearly 50 million m3 of snow (the 2 Sakhalin and Western Sakhalin mountains). city area is 164 km ). Due to the absence of hydrometeorological sta- Snowstorms. Maximum duration of snowstorms tions (HMS) in the mountainous areas, assessment of in a winter season was selected as a criterion of the the hazard of heavy snowfalls and snowstorms and de gree of impact of severe snowstorms. In the authors, comprehensive evaluation of the snow hazard for opinion, such parameters as the intensity or volume Sakhalin Island were performed only for plain territo- of the snowstorm transport are less representative ries. To evaluate the degree of the hazard of heavy due to the extremely scarce factual data on these pa- snowfalls for plain territories, the HMS data were in- rameters for the territory of Sakhalin Island and the terpolated considering the climatic zoning and the imperfections of the methodology of calculating the island relief. intensity or volume of the snowstorm transport [Lob- Each category of the snow hazard was assigned a kina et al., 2012]. Due to the absence of observations score ranging from 1 to 4 (Table 1). Based on the re- over snowstorms now, we used data from [Lazareva, sults of the snow hazard assessment, scores relating to 1985]. each parameter were summed up, which allowed us to Snow loads. The maximum amount of snow load indicate the towns or regions of the island characteris the determining parameter for qualifying a snow- ized by the highest total snow load due to the impact fall. The authors identifi ed only high and very high of the processes in question. snow hazard categories, which is related to high va- Comprehensive assessment of the snow hazard of lues of the snowfall (more than 3.2 kPa), characte- Sakhalin Island has been carried out by the authors ristic of the territory of Sakhalin Island (to compa- separately for the cities and towns and for the island re, in accordance with [Construction Regulations 20.13330.2011], snow loads are taken to be equal to territory. 0.8–3.2 kPa for the larger part of Russia). Anthropogenic snow patches. Anthropogenic RESULTS AND DISCUSSION snow patches were evaluated by the volume of snow Based on the comprehensive evaluation of the stored there at the moment of closure at the end of snow hazard, schematic maps of the snow hazard have the winter season, as this characteristic will aff ect the been composed for each process considered (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. The snow hazard on Sakhalin Island caused by heavy snowfalls (a), snowstorms (b), snow loads (c) and snow avalanches (d).

The complex evaluation of the snow hazard re- the east coast of the Terpeniya Peninsula (Poronaisk sulted in making a schematic map showing the total district), on the west coast north of Cape Lamanon scores for the types of the snow hazard (Fig. 3). As it (Uglegorsk district) and between Cape Slepikovsky was not scientiﬁ cally correct to evaluate the compre- and Cape Lopatin (Kholmsk and Nevelsk districts). hensive snow hazard for the mountainous part of the This is mainly attributed to the combination of a island based only on two processes out of the number large number of avalanche catchments per 1 km in the examined (avalanches and snow loads), those regions coastal avalanche complexes and the long duration of were excluded from the comparison. snowstorms on the island coasts. As seen from Fig. 3, the highest total degree of The schematic map (Fig. 3) also shows the pro- the snow hazard for four processes in question (heavy cesses which presents the highest danger for the pop- snowfalls, snowstorms, snow loads, and avalanches) is ulation and the economies of the cities and towns. characteristic of the coastal districts of the island: on Analysis of the schematic map demonstrates that the

99 E.N. KAZAKOVA, V.A. LOBKINA

Fig. 3. The schematic map of the snow hazard on Sakhalin Island.

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Table 2. Impact of snow-related hazardous processes and phenomena on the population and the economy and the respective protective measures

Process or Protective measures Impact on population and economy phenomenon organizing engineering Heavy snowfall Casualties, stoppage of transport traffi c; Stoppage of transport Planning of town development considering Need for cleaning of town territories traffi c; cancellation of prevailing winds and motor roads; school attendance Snowstorm Damage and breakdown of building roofs and windows, of motor vehicles; Massive damage of trees Anthropogenic Development of dangerous exogenous – Well-grounded selection of sites for snow snow patch geological processes (fl ooding, waterlog- patches; ging, etc.); Use of alternative solutions (snow melting environmental pollution plants) Snow load Damage and breakdown of roofs of Timely cleaning of the Design and construction of buildings and buildings and structures roofs of buildings and structures considering the possible amount structures of snow load; Use of roofs with heat-generating coating Avalanche Casualties, damage of buildings, struc- Stoppage of transport Construction of snow-retaining structures tures, and motor vehicles; traffi c; and/or snow-redistributing structures in the Obstruction of territories of settlements Prohibited access to avalanche generation zones; and infrastructure facilities avalanche-hazardous Construction of avalanche-retaining, zones for population; avalanche-declining, and avalanche-retard- activation of avalanche ing structures (dams, avalanche breakers, movement anti-avalanche galleries, etc.) degree of the snow hazard varies in diff erent regions linsk, Korsakov, and Dolinsk are exposed to the high- of the island. The highest degree of exposure to ava- est degree of the snow hazard. They are situated, with lanches is characteristic of the cities and towns situa- the exception of Okha, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, and Do- tion on the island coasts (Shakhtersk, Uglegorsk, linsk, on the seashores of the central and southern Kholmsk, Nevelsk, etc.), which is due to the location parts of the island, where the high snow hazard is of the housing territories of these towns directly at caused by the negative combination of the hydrome- the feet of sea terrace slopes, where the length of the teorological and geomorphological conditions. avalanche hazardous zone may constitute 80 % of the About 50 % population of the Sakhalin region territorial length. live in three cities (Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Kholmsk, The maximum values of the snow loads in the and Nevelsk), where the snow hazard is estimated at territories of the towns vary insignifi cantly and refer scores 13–16 (maximum values). to the high and very high categories of the snow ha- Considering the hazardous processes and phe- zard, which is related to the large amount of solid pre- nomena related to snow, the following should be cipitation falling and a lengthy snow cover period. pointed out in terms of the damage infl icted by them Snowstorms last longest in the towns of Okha, to the population and the economy of Sakhalin Is- Uglegorsk, Kholmsk, and Nevelsk. This is related to land: 1) Avalanches cause the greatest number of ca- high wind velocities and to the high occurrence of sualties; 2) Avalanches and snow loads inflict the winds in the coastal areas. largest damage and destructions of buildings and The heaviest snowfalls are characteristic of the structures. Heavy snowfalls and snowstorms, as well southern districts of the island (it is to be reminded as snowdrifts, infl ict mainly indirect economic da- that we do not consider the mountainous part of the mage, as it is necessary to clean the territories of the island in this study, where snowfall intensity may settlements, motor roads and railroads from snow. reach much higher values), where the amount of solid Anthropogenic snow patches cause deterioration of precipitation fall per 12 hours may exceed 30 mm, the environmental situation in the adjacent districts which is due to the trajectories of cyclone passage and trigger hazardous exogenous geological process- over the island in the winter season. es. To reduce the impact of the hazardous processes The amount of snow stored on the anthropogen- relating to snow on the population and the economy ic snow patches depends not only on the amount of of the island, a variety of measures have to be taken to precipitation falling but also on the area of the city/ protect the population and the facilities (Table 2). town to be cleaned, and hence, is not expressly depen- dent on the meteorological conditions. CONCLUSION Thus, the cities/towns of Okha, Shakhtersk, Ug- In the territory of Sakhalin Island, the highest legorsk, Makarov, Kholmsk, Nevelsk, Yuzhno-Sakha- degree of the snow hazard is characteristic of the fol-

101 E.N. KAZAKOVA, V.A. LOBKINA lowing regions of the island: the east coast of the Ter- ments on snow loads (the example of the Sakhalin region). peniya Peninsula (Poronaisk district), the west coast Georisk, No. 3, 14–20. north of Cape Lamanon (Uglegorsk district) and be- Kazakov, N.A., 2015. The methodology of evaluating the risks tween Cape Slepikovsky and Cape Lopatin (Kholmsk of the impact of avalanche and mudfl ow processes on terri- and Nevelsk districts), and the towns of Okha, tories, objects and structures. Georisk, No. 1, 10–14. Shakhtersk, Uglegorsk, Makarov, Kholmsk, Nevelsk, Kazakova, E.N., Lobkina, V.A., 2013. Accommodation of population and establishment of facilities in the avalanche-haz- Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Korsakov, and Dolinsk. ardous zones of the Sakhalin region. Geografi a i Prirodnye Generally for Sakhalin Island, the highest degree Resursy, No. 4, 52–56. of the snow hazard is characteristic of coastal territo- Lazareva, D.F. (Ed.), 1985. Reference Book on Climate of USSR. ries, which is due to the negative combination of the Highly Hazardous Meteorological Phenomena. Transport, hydrometeorological and geomorphological condi- Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, 288 pp. (in Russian) tions, including the long duration of snowstorms, the Lobkina, V.A., Gensiorovsky, Yu.V., 2012. The issues of estab- high intensity of the snowfalls, and the large number lishing snow patches in urban territories (the example of of avalanche catchments per 1 km linear length of the Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk). Bulletin of the Far Eastern branch of shore. RAS, No. 3, 97–102. In the regions with a lengthy snow cover period, Lobkina, V.A., Kazakova, E.N., Gensiorovsky, Yu.V., 2012. The the problem of the snow hazard of the urbanized ter- calculation technique for transport of snow in poorly-studied areas (Sakhalin Island). Led i Sneg, 52 (3), 58–61. ritories is quite acute. Currently it is practically im- Pilnikova, Z.N. (Ed.), 1990. Scientifi c and Applied Reference possible to resolve this problem; it is only possible to Book on Climate of USSR (Sakhalin region). Gidrometeo- alleviate the effects of the heavy-snow winters by izdat, Leningrad, 350 pp. (in Russian) smarter planning of the town territories, engineering Podolskiy, E.A., Izumi, K., Suchkov, V.E., et al., 2014. Physical protection and better management. and societal statistics for a century of snow-avalanche hazards on Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands (1910–2010). J. References Glaciology 60 (221), 409–430. Rooney, J.F., 1967. The urban snow hazard in the United States: Alekseev, V.R. (Ed.), 2005. The Snow Hazard of the South of An appraisal of disruption. Geographical Rev. 57 (4), 538– Eastern Siberia and the Russian Far East, a map. SB RAS Press, Irkutsk, 1 p. (in Russian) 559. Construction Regulations 20.13330.2011. Loads & Impacts. Working Document 52.88.699-2008, 2008. A Provision on the Updated version of Construction Norms & Regulations Actions of Organizations under Threat of Hazardous Natural 2.01.07-85*, 2011. Center for Project Products, Moscow, Disasters. Rosgidromet, Moscow, 30 pp. 94 pp. URL: http://sakhmeteo.ru/ourforecasts/oya.php (submittal Gensiorovsky, Yu.V., Kazakov, N.A., Zhiruyev, S.P., et al., 2011. date: 17.02.2016). Determining snow loads of structures in conducting engi- URL: http://sakhmeteo.ru/ourforecasts/oya.php (submittal neering survey: development of regional regulatory docu- date: 17.02.2016). Received February 17, 2016

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