Britain in 2011 49 POLITICS | Feature Getty

POLITICS

Voters today are much less interested in party politics than ten years ago Getty 40❯ A passion for politics 41❯OPINION: ❯ ❯ ❯ ❯+ ❯ ❯ - ❯OPINION:

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50 Britain in 2011 Feature | POLITICS

If the Liberal Democrats lose the referendum, one of the key reasons for being in government will be gone

The coalition united for the camera

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Britain in 2011 51 POLITICS | Opinion Out of touch with British society? !!

IS SOCIAL MOBILITY dead? That was the question foreign journalists repeatedly asked Alamy when the coalition government was formed in May. Viewed from abroad, this was an obvious angle to take. David Cameron was the fi rst prime minister in 50 years to come from Eton College, the most famous, elite public school in the world. Deputy Prime Minister, Nick Clegg, was educated at Westminster School, probably the second most renowned private school in Britain. To many observers, it confi rmed their suspicion that beneath its modern veneer, Britain remains a class-ridden society. Was it any wonder that the country languishes at the bottom of the international league tables for social mobility? The Sutton Trust’s analysis of the school and university backgrounds of the 650 new Members of Parliament revealed that the class of 2010 was highly privileged. Over a third of MPs are from Will a large number of MPs still be private school-educated by 2040? fee-paying schools, which educate just seven per cent of the school population. This was a equality of opportunity (and subsequently joined-up thinking among several ‘big beasts’ slightly higher proportion than those serving mobility) and the political left’s re-emerging in the cabinet. in the previous 2005 Parliament – bucking a insistence that society’s in-built immobility will Drastic cuts to public sector funding to trend during recent decades that has seen the only be tackled through greater equality of reduce the national defi cit have made all this an proportion of privately-schooled MPs fall. outcomes. But it also distanced the government’s even tougher job. Yet tighter budgeting can be Among the new MPs 20 are Etonians. position from those on the extreme right. Despite a spur for more targeted policies that genuinely Those holding high offi ce are even more the overwhelming evidence to the contrary, their improve life chances. It is not true that you socially elite. Just under two thirds of the newly depressing claim is that actually there is nothing need lots of money to improve social mobility. formed Cabinet went to independent, fee-paying to worry about: unequal life prospects are simply Getting parents to read regularly to their children, schools. The Prime Minister restored another a refl ection of the higher IQs of those at the top of or ensuring children are advised properly, and academic tradition: every former PM since the the social ladder, after successive generations of fulfi l their future potential, are diffi cult, but not war (apart from his predecessor Gordon Brown) good breeding. expensive challenges. who went to university, attended one institution: Underpinning Clegg’s speech is the conviction Perhaps the most tricky task for ministers will Oxford. Labour’s new leader, Ed Miliband is that Britain’s Got Wasted Talent – literally millions be to address what academics term the extreme needless to say also an Oxonian. of people whose potential has been ‘stickiness’ at the top of society in Britain: there Our political masters are, it seems, This is the left unfulfi lled. Public school boys is very little downward mobility to make way more than ever from a tiny swathe new breed of they may be, but Cameron and for any talent to rise. And nowhere is this more of society – highly unrepresentative politician, who Clegg are united in the belief that apparent than in Parliament itself, which still of the wider population they serve. has only the Government can do something operates an effectively closed shop of work This is the new breed of professional about this. experience opportunities, an exclusive breeding politician, who has experienced life experienced Much has been spoken about ground for those from privileged backgrounds. almost entirely within the confi nes life within the the ‘Big Society’ agenda. But this If the coalition is credited with improving social of the Westminster village. As Andy confi nes of social mobility challenge might be mobility it will have pulled off one of the biggest Burnham, another Oxbridge contender termed ‘the Big Ask’. It is a battle political achievements the country has known. for the Labour leadership race, Westminster that will need to be fought on It will be all the more impressive if the MPs of observed: “Politics in our country is several fronts. Iain Duncan Smith 2040 are less privileged and more representative lacking leaders that people can relate to and has thoughtful proposals to remove the shackles of society than they are now. identify with. A sense has built over time of of worklessness, for example, while Michael Gove’s a political elite with no real connection to the bold Pupil Premium aims to provide extra cash to www.suttontrust.com reality of most people’s lives.” boost the results of poor school pupils. But as the Yet 100 days after the coalition came into last government found out to its chagrin, the much being, the Deputy Prime Minister announced that harder task is delivery: translating such policies the government’s social policy aim is to improve into action that works. The stark social class social mobility. While inevitably shy on detail, achievement gap that blights education from birth DR LEE ELLIOT MAJOR Clegg’s speech was important in setting out the to graduation has to now seemed impervious to all government’s stall on this important issue. government attempts to narrow it. For one, it established clear blue water Mr Clegg, with help from his new social between the coalition’s emphasis on improving mobility czar Alan Milburn, will also have to ensure

52 Britain in 2011 News | POLITICS

Neither the Qur’an Getty nor Muhammad’s actions offer clear answers to ethical questions

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Britain in 2011 53 POLITICS | News

Political parties in Getty post-war Europe %2) &%"!)!"&')!(#%1'%#!$) ') )%#%'3)%!$!)((1!%0'

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Alamy A question of freedom '%#%$%'#)!%$)2(#$))%!$'( )'0()!$"%"%1'$#$)0) (!)%$) %&&%(!) THE FREEDOM OF Information Act (FOI) has days, and from potholes to parking. FOI has also opened up town, city and county halls to much encouraged authorities to publish more information. greater scrutiny, allowing members of the public As a result of the Act, it was hoped that the to ask for information and receive a response public would trust local government more. But trust within 20 working days. does not appear to have increased. Councils have Local authorities are receiving 70,000 been damaged by the MPs’ expenses controversy. requests a year, and halfway into a two-year Stories in the local press about councillors’ travel ESRC-funded study by Dr Benjamin Worthy of the ‘junkets’ are unlikely to increase public trust, and UCL Constitution Unit, preliminary ﬁ ndings are that the secretive behaviour of some authorities will FOI has made a difference. The public now knows make councils appear worse rather than better. Local press stories about councillors’ more about what local authorities do across a Some authorities have felt overwhelmed by travel expenses have eroded trust range of areas from ofﬁ cials’ salaries to staff sick requests, claiming requests have increased by

54 Britain in 2011 News | POLITICS

;4 4 5 ;0 Should & voting be & compulsory? 2 2 & & ! & ) & PARTICIPATION IN ELECTIONSF " & *E0 10 1EE 0F02E20 ) FF 010E FF F E0F ; 0 E2F0EF% 0E 0F01 2 & 2 1EEF F2 E02 EF & F F0E0E 0F01 6 & 00 00 E2 F & %F0EF0 00E 3 F 0F2F00 0*E0 F2 103 E FF2 F* 2 0 2 42F0E Germany was one of the ﬁ rst European countries to recognise that parties can contribute to democracy 0 2 2 FE2 & $E4 & & %& & & & & 2 2 2 & $ 2 7 ! " ! # $% & & ; & % & & ' ( & ) 7 % * + ,- * & ) ■ .& & & 2& ,--/& & & www.socialsciences.leiden.edu/ 0$1+ politicalscience/organisation/faculty/ & biezen.html 2 & 2 &&% &■ 100 per cent since 2005. Numbers keep increasing as more people learn about FOI, 3 45 www.law.manchester.ac.uk and businesses and journalists are making increasing use of it. Spending cuts mean local authorities may

have less time and money to deal with requests. Alamy The coalition government has asked local authorities to publish details of spending over £500. While some have welcomed the move, others fear that it will mean extra administrative work and may encourage even further requests. The study involves interviewing local government ofﬁ cials and politicians as well as journalists and other members of the public. It is also looking at the national and local press for stories using FOI. ■ www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/people/ ben-worthy Voting is already compulsory in Belgium, Italy and Australia

Britain in 2011 55 POLITICS | News

Getty 0 B !C 33 7 $)- % 83 0 - 8 !! ( 9 - 3 3 ! 9 ! : -8 ) ! ! ) ; ( < 0 ! ! = $)- ! -)- < Nick Clegg is hoping for more Liberal Democrats in Parliament under the proposed system - > 2- '?9@- A@>> An alternative take on the 0 : <) ) !. # ( 2010 General Election ! $) ) $!! ! % # ! !- !"! ! !#! % ! ! ) ( THE COALITION GOVERNMENT.VW343/ 0 $% =! ! ! - !) 2 $ # 3 2 ! -) $ 0 ! " - ! BC !- # ! $%#& A 9- $ % !$% ' ! '- C B= @ @ C $()) ) ! 0 *+ 0 )4 '- + ,- .* $%!5 .- + - ( */ + !6 2 5 0 0 C 1 ! ! C 0 ) - -

to the ‘fi rst round’ votes for the other others are redistributed to A and B. Alternative voting explained candidates. Suppose, for example, A receives three more votes giving that there are 100 voters and that 40 A 40 + 3 = 43 votes. B receives an UNDER AV, VOTERS provide a rank voters, then that candidate is elected. of them rank A fi rst, 35 rank B fi rst and another 20 votes, yielding a total of 35 ordering of the candidates in a However, if no candidate receives 25 rank C fi rst. A would win a fi rst- + 20 = 55 votes. This produces more given constituency up to the point more than 50 per cent of the votes past-the-post election but s/he has than 50 per cent of the now 100-2 = where they are indifferent between in this ‘fi rst round’, the votes of not reached the 50 per cent necessary 98 ‘valid votes’, and B is elected. candidates. For example, if candidates the ‘losing’ candidate or candidates to win under AV. Accordingly, the If no candidate reaches the A, B, C and D are standing for election, are subsequently redistributed second preferences of those who fi rst- 50 per cent threshold, this process voter X might rank them D = 1, B = 2, according to the second preferences ranked C would now be redistributed continues iteratively until one A = 3 and C = 4, while voter Y might of those voters who supported the between A and B. candidate has overtaken it, at which rank B = 1 and A = 2, making no losing candidate(s). Suppose that among these point s/he becomes the AV winner. judgement between C and D because Where voters have indicated a 25 voters, three second-rank A, In certain circumstances, it is s/he is indifferent between them. second preference, their votes are 20 second-rank B, and two are necessary to take account of some If a given candidate is ranked allocated to their second preference indifferent. The two ‘indifferent’ voters’ third and fourth preferences for fi rst by more than 50 per cent of candidate – they are simply added preferences are ignored and the the threshold to be reached.

56 Britain in 2011 News | POLITICS

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Constituencies that would have changed hands as a result of AV ballot Labour to Conservative - 1 seat: Dudley North Labour to Liberal Democrat - 19 seats: Diane Abbott has campaigned on women’s issues in the Commons for over 20 years Aberdeen South Edinburgh North and Leith Edinburgh South Newport East What women want Swansea West Ashfi eld Birmingham Hall Green "! Bristol South Chesterfi eld WOMEN POLITICIANS make a difference. They policies are high on the political agenda. This Durham City are much more likely than men to ensure that focus has made a real difference to the situation Hull North policies are relevant to women and that gender is of low-paid women in local authorities in Wales. Islington South and Finsbury taken into account in policy development, shows Although policies are being developed Lewisham West and Penge ESRC-funded research by Nickie Charles, Professor which are making a difference to women’s Newcastle upon Tyne North and Director of the Centre for the Study of Women lives, policy issues vary in how they incorporate Oldham East and Saddleworth and Gender in the Sociology Department at the considerations of gender. The research explored Oxford East University of Warwick, and Stephanie Jones and three policy areas: child poverty, equal pay and Rochdale Charlotte Davies, both of Swansea University. domestic violence. It found that child poverty Sheffi eld Central In the National Assembly for Wales there is rarely seen as a gendered issue and is more Streatham are almost equal numbers of women likely to be defi ned in relation to Conservative to Labour - 10 seats: and men and research has found Women class inequalities; equal pay is Aberconwy that women prioritise issues such political by defi nition a gendered issue Cardiff North as domestic violence, equal pay representatives as it addresses pay inequalities Brentford and Isleworth and family-related questions. In the make a between women and men; Broxtowe Assembly’s strategy on domestic and there are confl icts over the Hendon violence women ministers initiated difference to extent to which domestic violence Hove policy development, facilitated the issues is defi ned in terms of gender. Lancaster and Fleetwood the inclusion of voluntary sector prioritised These variations in how gender Sherwood organisations in the development of is incorporated into policy have Stockton South the strategy, and maintained a high profi le for the practical implications for how effective policies Warrington South topic in both the Assembly and media. are in combating gender-based inequalities. Conservative to Liberal Democrat - 13 seats: The high priority given to such issues is Locally-based voluntary organisations report Montgomeryshire also due to the infl uence of voluntary sector a high level of contact with individual women Bristol North West organisations and equality and feminist activists. AMs and express the view that women AMs Camborne and Redruth In the case of equal pay, links between feminist are more likely than men AMs to understand Colne Valley activists outside the Assembly and strategic the issues with which they are engaged, such Harrogate and Knaresborough women within the Assembly were critical to take as domestic violence, family and child poverty, Newton Abbot the equal pay agenda forward. The ‘Close the and sexual abuse. There is clearly a view that Oxford West and Abingdon Pay Gap’ campaign was initiated by the director having women political representatives makes Reading East of what was then the Equal Opportunities a difference to the issues that are prioritised St Albans Commission Wales and was taken up by within government and to the relevance of policy Truro and Falmouth supportive women Assembly Members (AMs) development to women. Watford and the Wales Trades Union Congress. Successive Weston-super-Mare equalities ministers, male and female, have www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/ York Outer been committed to this campaign and equalities rsw/research_centres/gender/gppcd

Britain in 2011 57 POLITICS | News

The expenses scandal ampliﬁ ed an already strained relationship between the public and politicians

- A question $ $ of trust !!" ! THE GENERAL ELECTION !55(7%)%&65%%55%'6&772(()*2+&%) $# " " % . & - ! '() *' " / + *, #

58 Britain in 2011 News | POLITICS

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Britain in 2011 59 POLITICS | Opinion The coalition and the European Union ! # ! " !

BRITAIN’S RELATIONSHIP WITH the EU has

always been a troubled one. Party divisions Getty within government over membership go back to the Macmillan government. Terms such as ‘an awkward partner’ have been used to refer to the relationship, while a BBC television programme on successive governments’ European policy travails was called ‘the poisoned chalice’. What then of the prospects for the coalition? The Conservative party in Parliament became more Euro-sceptic than under John Major. It had been critical of the EU’s Lisbon Treaty for vesting new powers in the Union and sought to encourage Czech President Vaclav Klaus’s delay to the ratifi cation process. This tactic failed and the Treaty was put into effect in December 2009. However, the leaked letter to Klaus threatened relations with potential EU allies. The Conservatives also abandoned their commitment to a referendum on the Treaty since it was already in force, drawing criticism from the The coalition government has compromised on both sides in relation to Europe party’s Euro-sceptics. A further challenge derived from the decision to quit the alliance with the interests and a strained relationship between successful in shaping the EU’s agenda when they key Christian democratic centre-right parties in Chancellor Merkel and President Sarkozy. Moreover, are not hamstrung by domestic party constraints. the European Parliament. In June 2009 a new the 2010 Euro-zone crisis itself had given the EU a Mrs Thatcher’s government was a major force grouping was created, known as the European more introspective character. behind the EU’s adoption of the single market Conservatives and Reformists (ECR). Allies in the A major contribution came from the formation programme. Tony Blair’s government joined with ECR were largely on the political fringes and not of the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition at the French to launch the European Security and likely to assist an incoming government to build home. Bringing together the most Euro-sceptic Defence Policy, whose potential relevance is alliances with its counterparts. and the most Europhile of the British parties arguably heightened in an era of defence cuts. Ahead of the election, the Conservatives in Westminster, the coalition agreement made This isn’t to say that it will be easy for the had sought to either bury the European issue interesting reading. It scaled back commitments coalition. EU budget negotiations for 2014-19 are or to take symbolic Euro-sceptic steps which which were attuned to opposition politics rather taking place in a tough climate; the ‘British rebate’ chimed with public opinion and with Euro-sceptic than to holding offi ce. may come under scrutiny. The government is at members of the party. However, these tactics Moreover, it began by emphasising that the odds with French and German counterparts in were less likely in government. Governments government would be ‘a positive participant in the supporting Turkey’s EU membership. cannot avoid the European issue as European Union, playing a strong The charm offensive with EU partners so many policies, from asylum to Terms such as and positive role with our partners.’ launched by William Hague and Nick Clegg has world trade, engage with the EU. In ‘an awkward It committed to legislating to require retrieved relations with a key ally. The test for addition, the experience of the Major partner’ have a referendum on future transfers of 2011 is to carry along Britain’s Euro-sceptic public government’s last years had shown been used to power to the EU and to not joining opinion, while maximising the EU’s potential for that attentiveness to Euro-sceptic the Euro. However, it played down achieving the wider goals of coalition policy. opinion within the party could result in refer to the commitments to repatriating powers a serious deterioration in relations with relationship on social legislation and criminal www.shef.ac.uk/politics/research/centres/ EU partners. Could a balance be found justice, preferring a pragmatic cipol.html between satisfying Conservative Euro-sceptics approach. Repatriating powers would have risked a and maintaining good working relations with EU further round of treaty reform that was not desired partners? Or was it to be ‘back to the future’ for a by EU partners and may have led to the transfer PROFESSOR Conservative government? of new powers to the EU: precisely what the SIMON BULMER The fi rst months suggested that a Conservatives did not want. satisfactory balance was achievable. Within the The coalition’s platform carefully balanced party ! !! !" EU itself, the discussion of institutional reform interests with what could be achieved in Brussels. !# " # – from Constitutional Convention to the eventual The EU’s rationale is to offer an opportunity ##!#!$ Lisbon Treaty – had drained enthusiasm for structure for joint action where the nation state $% !" ! deeper integration. Even pro-integrationist lacks authority in a globalised world. Objectives " #&% " $ Germany was forthright in pushing its national such as tackling global competitiveness, energy !!" '" !# !" interests in stipulating the conditions for the bail- security, global warming and world poverty are out of Greek public fi nances within the Euro-zone. shared by all main parties and are unlikely to be !#" #&% The traditional Franco-German motor of achieved without EU partners’ support. (! # !# !" integration has lost traction due to diverging Furthermore, British governments can be

60 Britain in 2011