TERESA ESPOSITO

Black Ethiopians and the origin of‘materia prima’in Rubens’ images of Creation

In 1628, in his treatise on Mexican animals, Johann Faber (1574-1629) made reference to Peter Paul and Philip Rubens, calling both of them disciples of Justus Lipsius (1547-1606) and worthy successors to his chair at the University of Louvain. With this Faber was acknowledging the philosophical ambitions of his beloved friend Peter Paul (1577-1640).1 Educated in the humanistic tradition, the Antwerp master would have accessed the intel- lectual world of the Neo-stoics through his older brother Philip (1574-1611), Lipsius’ favourite pupil and active member in the scholarly circle in Louvain, the ‘contubernium’.2 This involved frequent contacts between the mentor – Lipsius – and his most promising students, with the goal to intellectually and morally improve their skills. The members shared a commitment towards the study of classical antiquity and the revival of Senecan Stoicism. Rubens’ famous group portrait known as The four philosophers (ca. 1611), now in the Pitti Palace in Florence, shows himself in company of his brother Philip, Jan van de Wouwer and Justus Lipsius: it expresses the adherence to Neo-stoic principles propounded by Lipsius.3 Rubens’ fame as ‘pictor doctus’, his learned interpretation of mythological subjects as well as his allegorical reading of classical myths, was widely acknowledged among his contemporaries. Both Henry Peacham (1578-ca.1644) and Roger de Piles (1635-1709) give us contemporary testimonies of Rubens’ practice of listening to the writings of ancient authors – read aloud – while working in his studio.4 Besides being a sophisticated form of amusement, Rubens’ fascination with the spoken word attests to his desire to achieve a deeper understanding of the text. In the last decades, scholarship on the artist has put much efffort in demonstrating the continuous dialogue between images and texts when discussing the artist’s oeuvre.5 It has equally shown the impact of Neo-stoicism on the artist’s creativity and mindset.6 For instance, Rubens’ imitation of the classical marble bust, of which was widely believed at the beginning of the seventeenth century to repre- sent Seneca, and its transformation into a living presence in the group portrait, has been interpreted as a way of promoting Lipsius’ teachings.7 While much emphasis has been bestowed upon the ethical and anthropological goals – among which the Stoic achievement of virtuous restraint (‘constantia’) – and their relevance in shaping Rubens’ persona and pictorial narrative, Lipsius’ recovery of the physics of the Stoics has been completely overlooked in discussions of Rubens’ work. However, natural philosophy occupied a crucial place in Lipsius’ philosophical system.8 In fact, according to the Flemish scholar, wisdom was acquired by studying the hidden structure of nature.9 For Lipsius physics had an ethical utility, which means that a deeper knowledge of the physical workings of nature was indispensable for the human attainment of reason and moral virtues. In line with Lipsius’ teachings, Rubens was not only concerned with the exercise of Christian probity and ethical moderation, but he was equally preoccupied with the search for the mysterious laws of nature in art. In fact, Rubens’ engagement in natural philosophy is attested by his so-called Theoretical notebook in which the artist il- lustrated his ideas on optics, proportion, symmetry, anatomy and the human passions.10

10 Oud Holland 2020 - 1 volume 133 Sadly, Rubens’ notebook was largely lost in a fijire that destroyed Charles Boulle’s workshop in Paris in 1720, but fortunately, various copies had been made before. They enable us to partially reconstruct Rubens’ original manuscript and get a grip on his thoughts. Several surprising sheets, some of them by Rubens’ own hand, contain original inventions and a number of motifs drawn from the antique or after sixteenth-century artists. These drawings are in many cases accompanied by notes in Latin and Dutch taken from ancient poetry, but also biblical passages and esoteric sources. Besides showing Rubens’ engagement with art theory, his notes reveal a strong interest in cabala, Pythagorean tradition and Paracelsian alchemy. Seemingly unusual, the study of nature imbued by current scientifijic discourse constituted an essential and intrinsic factor within his art theory. In fusing up-to-date knowledge of natural philosophy with contemporary art theory, Rubens was following the footsteps of illustrious predecessors, such as Leonardo da Vinci.11

Allegory and natural philosophy Such ideas were grounded on a difffused belief in art theory, according to which the study of the sensible world was necessary to achieve its goal of pure imitation of nature (‘mimesis’).12 Art is only able to imitate and surpass nature if the artist knows and understands the natural world and its laws. For the Stoics the laws of physics govern both natural events (or phenomena) and moral behaviour.13 Consequently, the passions of the soul obeyed to the same physical laws that govern the course of the stars or the movement of the tides. Passions possessed a cosmic dimension. In that respect, Lipsius understood the relevance that allegorical exegesis of ancient myths had in assessing the nature of human emotions.14 His books and letters as well as Philip’s poems are enriched by quotations from classical authors, especially those who celebrated the virtuous deeds and temperaments of the Neo-stoic heroes (e.g. Ulysses and Achilles).15 The Stoic connection between philosophy and ancient poetry constituted one of the hallmarks of Lipsius’ approach and would, subsequently, explain Rubens’ mythologies and landscapes. Through the intermediary role of his brother Philip, Peter Paul would have known that Lipsius required his pupils to read the famous classical poems – by Homer, Virgil and others – “as a way of showing that the myths pertaining the gods were not literally true, but bespoke a more rational view of the cosmos in which the gods and myths allegorized natural forces or moral truths.”16 Early Stoics in particular deployed allegory to ancient poetry, because they believed that poetic expression was the most suitable way to reveal divine things or the mysteries of nature.17 Indeed, there was a long Stoic tradition of analyzing the allegorical meanings of pagan myths and sacred rituals where the gods became symbols for cosmic powers and each account concealed a physical phenomenon.18 Revitalized by Lipsius, this tradition brought to light many questions concerning the origin and the structure of the universe, but also gave insight into other topics, such as ethics and religion. By means of integrating a renewed paganism into modern conscience, Lipsius and his followers were rediscovering the spiritual dimension hidden under the veil of the frivolous tales of the ancients. The gods and their stories were believed to incarnate human passions, but also Christian values or even natural phenomena. We should, therefore, bear in mind Lipsius’ approach to natural philosophy when dealing with Rubens’ allegorical interpretation of myths.19 It was not only Lipsius who engaged in natural philosophy, but also Rubens’ other mentor, the humanist and painter Otto van Veen (1556-1629).20 Van Veen, born in Leiden, became acquainted with the teachings of the controversial physician and philosopher Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493/1494-1541), known as Paracelsus, during his youth at the service of the Prince-bishop Ernest of Bavaria (1554-1612) in Liège.21 Ernest, a cousin of Rudolf II of Prague, cultivated a keen interest in Paracelsian alchemy and was a well-known patron of this discipline.22 Under his patronage Van Veen was able to develop philosophical views that were alternative, if not in contrast, to Catholic theology. In later life he published anonymously a booklet in the spirit of Paracelsianism –

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