General Technical Report PNW-138 June 1982 EDITOR'S FILE COPY Influence of Forest and Rangeland Management on Anadromous Fish Habitat in Western North America REHABILITATING AND ENHANCING STREAM HABITAT: 1. REVIEW AND EVALUATION JAMES D. HALL and CALVIN O. BAKER

This file was created by scanning the printed publication. Mis-scans identified by the software have been corrected; however, some errors may remain. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station ABSTRACT

The literature and many unpublished documents on rehabilitating and enhancing stream habitat for salmonid fishes are reviewed. The historical development and conceptual basis for habitat management are considered, followed by a review of successful and un’successful techniques for manipulation of spawning, rearing, and riparian habitat. Insufficient attention to evaluation of past work has slowed the development of habitat management for anadromous salmonids in the West. Recent developments, including improved design of structures to accommodate variable streamflow, show promise of permitting increased application of these techniques. Past work in the West has emphasized management of spawning habitat. We recommend increased emphasis on rehabilitation and enhancement of rearing and riparian habitat. The importance of a strong program of habitat protection is emphasized.

KEYWORDS: Fish habitat, habitat improvement, riparian habitat, anadromous fish, salmonids. USDA FOREST SERVICE General Technical Report PNW- I 38

INFLUENCE OF FOREST AND RANGELAND MANAGEMENTON ANADROMOUS FISH HABITAT IN WESTERN NORTH AMERICA

William R. Meehan, Technical Editor

12. Rehabilitating and Enhancing Stream Habitat: 1. Review and Evaluation

JAMES D. HALL Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon 9733 1

CALVIN 0. BAKER U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Hebo Ranger District Hebo, Oregon 97122

1982

PACIFIC NORTHWEST FOREST AND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATION Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture , Portland, Oregon PREFACE

This is one of a series of publications on the influences of forest and rangeland management on anadromous fish habitat in western North America. This paper describes and evaluates methods that have been used for rehabilitating and enhancing habitat. Our intent is to provide managers and users of forests and rangelands with the most complete information available for estimating the consequences of various management alternatives .

In this series of papers, we will summarize published and unpublished reports and data as well as the observations of scientists and resource managers developed over years of experience in the West. These compilations will be valuable to resource managers in planning uses of forest and rangeland resources, and to scientists in planning future research.

Previous publications in this series include:

1. "Habitat requirements of anadromous salmonids," by D. W. Reiser and T. C. Bjornn.

2. "Impacts of natural events," by Douglas N. Swanston.

3. "Timber harvest," by T. W. Chamberlin.

4. "Planning forest roads to protect salmonid habitat," by Carlton S. Yee and Terry D. Roelofs.

6. "Silvicultural treatments," by Fred H. Everest and R. Dennis Harr.

7. "Effects of livestock grazing," by William S. Platts.

8. "Effects of mining," by Susan B. Martin and William S. Platts.

11. "Processing mills and camps," by Donald C. Schmiege.

13. "Rehabilitating and enhancing stream habitat: 2. Field applications," by Gordon H. Reeves and Terry D. Roelofs. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 SPAWNING HABITAT ...... 6 Gravel Restoration...... 6 Gravel Placement and Catchment ...... 8 Access Improvement ...... 9 Fishway Development ...... 12 REARlhGHABITAT ...... 13 Boulder Placement ...... 13 RearingPools ...... 14 WinterHabitat...... -15 FlowAugmentation ...... 16 Stream Fertilization ...... 16 RIPARIANHABITAT ...... 17

CONCLUSIONS ...... 18. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... -19

LITEHATUKE CITED .UNPUBLISHED ...... 27

DIRECTORY FOR PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS 29 COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF FISHES MENTIONED IN TEXT"

Common name Scientific name

Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorhuscha (Walbaum) Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum) Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum) Sockeye salmon (kokanee) Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum) Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum) Cutthroat trout -Salmo -clarki Richardson Rainbow (steelhead) trout Salmo gairdneri Richardson Atlantic salmon --Salmo salar Linnaeus Brown trout --Salmo trutta Linnaeus Brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill) Dolly Varden Salvelinus malma (Walbaum) Redside shiner Richardsonius balteatus (Richardson) Speckled dace Rhinichthys osculus (Girard)

LIFrom "A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada," American Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 12, Fourth Edition, 1980, 174 p. and evaluation of past efforts in habitat management, both successful and unsuccessful. We have included techniques used for both resident and anadromous salmonids in streams throughout North America. A companion paper (Reeves and Roelofs 1982) reviews current practices in the West, outlining successful techniques and including specific recommendations on implementation.

The principal purpose of these reviews is to make practical informa- tion available to field managers wishing to rehabilitate damaged habitat or to enhance habitat that is naturally low in productive capacity. Thus, we include only techniques that require relatively little labor and expend- INTRODUCTION iture. Such capital-intensive measures as spawning channels will not be included, even though they represent a Techniques for rehabilitating and enhancing habitat have been used for manipulation of habitat. over 50 years in fishery management, The task was made more difficult but to a relatively small degree in by the scarcity of written documenta- the management of anadromous salmonids tion of past work. Too many projects on the west coast of North America. have not been evaluated at all, or if Present threats to many of these any review has been undertaken, it has stocks call for intensified fishery not been made generally available. As management. Increased rates of a result, we were forced to rely harvest threaten the survival of many heavily on personal contact and may wild populations of salmon and trout. have missed some important develop- Increased use of other resources, ments. When reports on manipulation including dam building, logging, of stream habitat were completed, many grazing, and other agricultural of the studies did not provide an practices, has diminished the quality accurate assessment of the outcome. and quantity of habitat available to addition, a bias probably exists in these wild stocks. In principle, In the published record because of admin- rehabilitating and enhancing habitat istrative or editorial decisions are attractive techniques for working against publication of inconclusive or toward restoring the abundance of unfavorable results. We hope that one anadromous salmonids. outcome of our review will be increased awareness of the need to evaluate and A recently renewed interest in document all projects--even those that habitat management has been accompanied are unsuccessful. Of ten valuable by several review articles and lessons can be learned from apparent bibliographies (see Barton et al. failure. 1972, Parkinson and Slaney 1975, Maughan et al. 1978, Nelson et al. 1978, Wydoski and Duff 1978, Canada Department of Fisheries and Oceans 1980). Nonetheless, a review focused more directly on anadromous fish habitat in the forested regions of western North America is needed. We present a general review

1 In the historical development of the potential of stream "improvement" the science of wildlife management, (see Mullan 1962, Richards 19G4). manipulation of habitat was the last Nonetheless, since 1932 several in a sequence of techniques to be well-designed research studies have recognized as an important tool for shown that the quality of habitat is the manager (Leopold 1933). The same an important determinant of salmonid has generally been true in fisheries. biomass and production. Although The first large-scale habitat manage- nearly all this work has been done on ment in streams was initiated during nonmigratory populations, many the 1930's in the Midwest (Hubbs et conclusions can be related to al. 1932). Stimulated in part by the anadromous species. The research availability of labor from the effort has taken two related Civilian Conservation Corps, this approaches: assessment of salmonid pulse of activity led to a large populations before and after habitat number of projects (e.g., Davis 1934; modification, and quantitative Tarzwell 1935, 1937; Fearnow 19/11). evaluation of habitat in relation to The apparent success of these efforts the abundance of salmonids. in the Midwest and East was followed by a number of projects in the West One early, well-documented study (e.g., Burghduff 1934, Madsen 1938, evaluated the effects of deflectors in Tarzwell 1938). Many evaluations of a small brook trout stream in Michigan west coast efforts concluded that (Shetter et al. 1949). The deflectors f7ilure was more common than success caused an increase in the number, (Ehlers 1956, Richard 1963, Calhoun size, and depth of pools. As a 1966). Rehabilitation and enhancement result, survival and stock size of continued at a significant pace in the young brook trout were increased, Midwest (Shetter et al. 1949; Hale leading to a significant improvement 1969; Hunt 1969, 1976), and several in catch rate and total catch. manuals for habitat improvement were Angling effort increased 64 percent, produced by State and Federal agencies and anglers' catch increased 141 (Davis 1935, USDA Forest Service 1952, percent in total weight and 46 percent White and Brynildson 1967, USDI Bureau in weight caught per hour. of Land Management 1968). Over the years, modifications gradually made A study of cover manipulation in a techniques more compatible with severe Montana trout stream showed signifi- freshet conditions in western cant response of the trout populations streams. For example, Sweet (1975 (primarily rainbow and brook trout) to unpubl. )L/ lists over 150 projects the treatments (Boussu 1954). Inven- that have been completed in Alaska. tories before and after habitat manipu- We are optimistic about chances for lation showed that trout abundance success of habitat improvement for increased more than three times after anadromous fish in this region. addition of brush cover to about 5 percent of the stream area. Removal Some of the early enthusiasm for of brush cover totaling about 10 stream improvement was probably percent of the stream surface area misguided, in that project planners resulted in about a 40-percent failed to take account of the factors reduction in trout biomass. Removal that limited trout production in a of undercut bank cover that provided particular stream. Many structures shelter over less than 2 percent of failed because they were not designed the stream area resulted in a one-third to withstand freshet conditions. For reduction in trout abundance. these reasons and others, some fishery biologists took a pessimistic view of

L'Unpublished references are listed after the Literature Cited.

2 The best-documented study of habi- The Cooperative Instream Flow Service tat manipulation was undertaken on a Group of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Wisconsin brook trout stream (Hunt Service has been undertaking a large- 1971). A 1.7-km section of Lawrence scale effort designed in part to Creek was alte-red in 1964 by addition predict consequences to trout popula- of structures for bank cover and tions of incremental losses of current deflection. As a result, streamflow (Bovee and Cochnauer 1977, stream surface area was reduced by 50 Bovee 1978) . Preliminary results have percent, average depth was increased been encouraging but more work on by 60 percent, the number of pools was validation of these models is needed. increased by 52 percent, and the length of streambank with permanent overhang- A fundamental concept of habitat ing cover was increased 416 percent. management deserves emphasis here. These changes in the physical habitat Care must be taken to identify aspects greatly increased overwinter survival of habitat that limit production, and and biomass of the trout population. attention must be focused on improving A large increase in angler effort those elements. Considering the timing resulted in an even greater increase of life-history events is also in total catch. Average harvest important. Increasing the quantity or during 1965-67 was nearly three times quality of some aspect of habitat the preimprovement average (Hunt 1971). limiting the abundance of fry will The response of the trout population generally be of little use if a to habitat development continued critical shortage of cover or some through the period 1968-70, when the other resource occurs at a later stage total trout biomass increased to 2.8 in the life cycle. A crude, but times the preimprovement value (Hunt useful analogy to a bottleneck is 1976). shown in figure 1, adapted from Hall and Field-Dodgson (1981). Note that Several other evaluations have the neck is not necessarily at the end been made before and after habitat of the bottle; a critical limitation improvement, most of which have shown can occur well before migration to the a positive response by the trout ocean (fig. lb), or in the ocean population. The results of many of after downstream migration. these up through 1975 are summarized in table 1, taken from White (1975a). An example illustrating the futility of enhancing numbers of fish Evaluating specific characteristics before operation of the final limiting of trout habitat and relating such factor is provided by an experiment in characteristics to trout abundance a British Columbia stream supporting (usually through correlation coho salmon (Mason 1976). In that techniques) has provided additional system, most young coho go to sea as evidence of the importance of habitat smolts after 1 year of stream rearing. quality to salmonid abundance. Artificial feeding of juveniles during Studies by Lewis (1969) Stewart one summer increased their abundance (1970), and Wesche (1976) found cover six to seven fold over previously in some form to be the habitat char- measured summer biomass. The number acteristic most closely associated of smolts estimated to have left the with abundance of brook, brown, and system in the following spring, rainbow trout. More complex combin- however, was within the range of ations of habitat variables have been previous values (fig. IC). In this included in multiple regression stream, the ultimate limitation to analyses that provided statistically smolt production appeared to be some significant predictors of abundance aspect of winter habitat. for juvenile cutthroat and steelhead trout in Oregon (Nickelson and Hafele 1978) and for four species of trout in Wyoming (Binns and Eiserman 1979).

3 Table 1--Management evaluations of in-stream habitat by measurements of trout abundance over several years (adapted from White 1Y 7 5 a )1/

Schedule of Stream, wild trout population species, reference Primary management inventories Effects on trout populations and angling yield

Lawrence Creek, Wisconsin Bank-cover deflectors 3 yr before, 141 percent rise in age-11+ biomass from better Brook trout in 1.7 km (compared 3 yr after overwinter survival. 156 percent more fish over Hunt (1971) with 1.4-km control ) management 20 cm (8 in) in April. 200 percent greater anglers ' catch.

Big Roche-a-Cri Creek, Bank-cover deflectors 3 yr before, 200 percent rise in numbers of age-II+, comparing Wisconsin in 6 km (compared with 2 yr during, 3 pre- with 3 postmanagement years of similar tjrook, few brown trout 5 km of interspersed 5 yr after flow regime in 3-km section of most intensive White (1Y72, 1975b) control areas), cattle management alteration. Greatest effect was improvement of fenced out, beaver dams drought (low-water) abundances of fish. removed 36 percent increase in catch per angler hour. w. Branch Split Rock Deflectors, bank covers, 3 yr before, 9-fold increase in numbers of age-0. Doubling of River, Minnesota low dams in 1.6 km 3 yr after number of age-I+. Angler success rose from 0.58 Brook trout (compared with 1.6-km management to 0.89 fish per angler hour in managed area, while Hale (1Y6Y) control area) declining in control area.

Hayes Brook, Prince Low dams, deflectors, 5 yr before, Number of age-I+ in year after construction was Edward Island, Canada covers of poles and 1 yr after highest on record, nearly double the previous Brook trout brush in 0.4 km management 5-yr average. Saunders and Smith (1962) (no control area)

Hunt Creek, Michigan Deflectors in 0.5 km 1 yr before, 35 percent increase in catch per angler hour. Brook trout (no control area) 3 yr after Little change in standing crop. Shetter et al. (1949) (creel census 3 yr before, 5 yr after) management

Pigeon River, Michigan Deflectors in 2 km 5 yr before, Managed-section trout abundance (in terms of fall Brook, brown trout (compared with 2-km 5 yr after population plus anglers' catch in previous Latta (1972) control ) management, summer) was originally lower than in control but then 5 yr rose to equality after management, then after dis- deteriorated when devices were intentionally mantling destroyed.

Kinnikinnic River, Rock deflectors, rock 5 yr before, 400-500 percent rise in numbers of brook trout Wisconsin revetments, fences 3 yr after over 14 cm (5.6 in) and 150-200 percent rise in Brown, brook trout along 2.2 km (compared management numbers of brown trout over 14 cm (5.6 in), while FranKenberger (1968) with an unmanaged populations in control area remained essentially control ) static.

Bohemian Val ley Creek, Floodwater detention 6 yr before, Originally negligible brown trout abundance (some- ki sconsin dams, rock deflectors, 4 yr after times fewer than 5 per km) rose to about 250 per km. Brown trout rock revetments, low management Frankenberger and dams, fencing in 4.3 km Fassbender (1967) (compared with 1.2-km control )

McKenzie Creek, Wisconsin Deflectors, bank covers, 2 yr before, 10-15 percent rise in total biomass (25 percent Brown trout brush covers, low dams 6 yr after rise for age-I+, 100 percent rise for age-II+). Lowry (1971) in 5 km (compared with management Inconclusive changes in numbers of fish larger 0.6-km control) than 15 cm (6 in).

Black Earth Creek, Fencing, dam removal, 3 yr during, 3-fold increases in age-0, total biomass, and Wisconsin few deflectors, bank 5 yr after anglers' catch per hour of wild trout. 5-fold Brown trout revetments in 8 km management increase in spring (pre-angling) numbers of fish White (1975a) (control: Mt. Vernon larger than 15 cm (6 in). Creek)

Mt. Vernon Creek, Unmanaged control for Concurrent with Relatively minor increases in age-0, total biomass, wisconsi n Black Earth Creek Black Earth and anglers' catch per hour of wild trout. 2-fold Brown trout (adjoining drainage Creek increase in spring numbers of fish larger than Wni te (1975a) basin), dam removed 15 cm (6 in) attributable to hydrologic events.

11Taole was prepared for publication and referenced in White (1975a). but omitted from publication by editorial error (white, personal communication).

4 The single limiting-factor "bottleneck" concept is an oversimpli- fication of a complex ecological process. In the context of a total system, the search for a single factor can be misleading. Not only may the ultimate limitation vary from year to year, it may be composed of interacting elements; when one is improved, others may take over. Such an interaction may account for the failure of some of the well-intentioned attempts at SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER habitat improvement. Notwithstanding A this caution, however, the general concept of limiting factors requires more attention in future habitat- improvement work.

In the following text, we have treated rehabilitation and enhance- ment methods under three headings: spawning habitat, rearing habitat, and riparian habitat. These categories represent a continuum in the salmonid environment and must be considered together in evaluating a particular situation. SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER B

Figure 1.--A. Example of a limiting- factor "bottleneck" occurring during the winter just before migration of smolts to the ocean. B. Here the bottleneck occurs early in the life of the young salmon. Numbers are restricted by habitat conditions during summer, and this limitation carries through to smolt migration. C. Attempts to increase abundance early in the life history, before operation of a limiting factor, will usually not succeed. Artificial feeding resulted in a 6- to 7-fold increase in juvenile coho salmon during summer, but winter habitat im-i limitations reduced smolt numbers '.I m I.. 1 1 m m I1 I.. ** to previously observed levels SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER (Mason 1976). C

5 The concept of a hydraulic gravel c, cleaner has recently been revived on a somewhat smaller scale (Mih 1978, 1979, 1981). Field tests in the State of Washington during 1979 and 1980 indicated that the new machine could effectively remove fine sediments from spawning gravel, but significant mechanical problems remained to be solved (Allen et al. 1981). Further testing in 1981 has achieved promising results (Cowan, personal communica- tionll). Work on another hydraulic gravel cleaner and other mechanical methods of cleaning gravel is also underway in British Columbia (Andrew 1981).

A bulldozer has been used to remove high concentrations of fine sediment SPAWNING HABITAT in several important spawning areas used by pink and chum salmon in Puget Several approaches are available Sound. In 1969, a pilot study was for improving spawning habitat. The initiated in which 1840 m2 of three that have been most successful heavily silted spawning gravel in the are : lower Dungeness River were cleaned e Improving the quality of (Heiser 1972a unpubl. ). Concentration spawning gravel by removing fine of sediment less than 0.8 mm diameter sediments; was reduced dramatically, and survival e Increasing the amount of of pink salmon fry was 90 percent spawning gravel; and greater in the cleaned area than in o Providing access for spawning the immediately adjacent uncleaned adults above barriers. area (Heiser 1972a unpubl. ). Fine sediment concentrations continued to decline each year after the initial GRAVEL RESTORATION cleaning with a bulldozer (1971, 12.8 percent; 1972, 12.3 percent; and 1973, An early development in restor- 10.4 percent). Gerke (1973) believed ation of spawning habitat was the that this decrease resulted from design and testing of a self- natural hydraulic action, fine sand propelled amphibious vehicle for and silt being removed at a faster cleaning fine sediment from spawning rate than they accrued from bedload gravel. Known as the "Riffle Sifter," transport. Similar observations have the machine was designed to remove been made in other Pacific Northwest sediment by action of high-pressure rivers and streams where sources of underwater jets (Outdoor California sediment input have been controlled 1968). A suction pump forced sediment- (McNeil and Ahnell 1964, Shapley and laden water through a nozzle onto Bishop 1965, Burns 1972, Platts and nearby streambanks. The "Riffle Megahan 1975). Sifter" was greeted with great enthusiasm (Sheridan et al. 1968 unpubl.), and early field tests in Alaska and northern California appeared 2'A directory for personal communi- promising (Meehan 1971). In the end, cations is provided at the end of the however, the machine had many mechan- paper. ical problems and was abandoned as an expensive failure.

6 Cleaning with a bulldozer has also An example of the success of such shown favorable results in some other a protection program in rehabilitating Washington streams (Heiser 1971, damaged spawning areas comes from the 1972b, unpubl.; Gerke 1973). On the South Fork Salmon River in Idaho Cedar River, 29 000 m2 of gravel (Platts and Megahan 1975). The river were cleaned at a cost of $0.05/m2. channel had become choked with sediment In the subsequent spawning season, that resulted from accelerated surface 3,000 sockeye and 50 chinook salmon erosion and landslides. The problem used the area, which in previous years was made worse when a period of supported almost no fish. Heiser intense rainfall from 1962 to 1965 (1972b unpubl.) estimated a followed logging activity and road benefit/cost ratio of 14.3:l for the construction on steep, unstable slopes. year and felt that it would be The resulting 3.5-fold increase in economically justifiable to clean each river bedload practically destroyed year if necessary. the spawning potential of the main river. As a result, the USDA Forest Not all attempts at gravel rehab- Service declared a moratorium on ilitation with bulldozers have met logging and road construction on with the success of those mentioned National Forest lands in the watershed above. The percentage of fine of the South Fork in 1965. Watershed sediment in spawnfng areas on the rehabilitation was begun that year, Stillaguamish River, Washington, was including the planting of vegetation reduced from 19 to 8.7 percent, but and stabilization of roads. Throughout there was no significant use by the program, sediment levels in the spawning fish after cleaning (Heiser river channel were monitored. 1972a unpubl. ). From 1966 to 1974, the percentage Less complicated means of gravel of fine sediments (less than 4.7 mm) cleaning can also be effective. in the spawning areas decreased Mundie and Mounce (1978) report on the progressively (Platts and Megahan successful use of a portable pump and 1975). Concentrations in four moni- firehose to clean gravel in a small tored areas decreased from an average channel. Youth Conservation Corps of about 55 percent in 1966 (range 45 crews used shovels to turn over gravel to greater than 80 percent) to about to remove silt and debris that 21 percent in 1974 (range 12 to 26 accumulated after beavers constructed percent). After the moratorium was a dam on Bear Creek, a small, spring- declared, sediment sources for the fed tributary of Upper Russian Lake, river were drastically reduced because Alaska (Nelson, personal communica- of dramatic reductions in surface and tion). The dam was then broken, produc- landslide erosion. When sediment input ing a freshet that removed the released was curtailed, the energy of the river material. A fourfold increase in sur- gradually moved the accumulated fine vival of sockeye salmon from egg to fry sediments downstream. The particle- was recorded in the spawning season size distribution in the South Fork after this project was completed. was near optimum for spawning of chinook salmon in 1974 (Platts and Under most circumstances, gravel Megahan 1975). Further improvement in cleaning will provide only a temporary the condition of fish habitat led to a benefit unless the source of sedimen- cautious lifting of the moratorium on tation is identified and measures logging and road construction in 1978, taken to reduce this input. Often the with future activity to be closely most effective rehabilitation measure monitored (Megahan et al. 1980). for excessive instream sediment is increased watershed protection.

7 GRA VEL PLACEMENT spawning surveys and habitat evaluation. Although the channel AND morphology and gravel accumulations have changed considerably during the Where spawning area is limited, years, some gravel deposits continue attempts have been made to provide to provide spawning sites for salmon additional spawning gravel by con- (Claire, personal communication). structing catchment devices. These structures stabilize introduced gravel In streams with adequate gravel or allow the capture of bedload. Most bedload, but deficient in retention of of these early attempts on west coast this gravel, various structures have streams were unsuccessful. Calhoun been used with some success to provide (1966) documented several of these spawning areas Gabions (rectangular efforts and suggested that high cost wire-mesh baskets that can be filled and short life would generally limit with rock) have been most commonly the use of instream structures on the used, but have only recently been Pacific slope of North America. In successful. Several attempts have spite of considerable failure, the been made on the Oregon Coast, where activity has continued, and some bedrock forms a significant portion of success has been reported. the substrate of many streams. The Oregon State Game Commission con- Before 1972, adequate spawning structed low-head gabions and intro- gravel was lacking in Perkins Creek, duced gravel behind the structures in Washington (Gerke 1973). Wooden weirs an attempt to create spawning habitat were installed at various points to for fall chinook salmon on the main provide an optimum gradient for spawn- stem of the Alsea River (Fessler 1970; ing chum salmon, and graded gravel was Garrison 1971a, b). These structures, introduced into the channel. After placed perpendicular to the flow in a holes were drilled in the weirs to large river, failed both to slow the allow passage of intragravel water, rate at which introduced materials were the spawner density was twice as high carried downstream and to accumulate in areas where gravel had been intro- adequate replacement gravel. Ulti- duced than it was in unimproved areas, mately, the project was abandoned, and fry output from the stream was also increased (Gerke 1974). Use of gabions also had little success in the Siuslaw River drainage. Gravel placement has also shown The Bureau of Land Management cons truc- promise in rehabilitating streams ted 44 gabion dams of various design dredged during gold mining. In 1961, between 1968 and 1975 at a cost of the Oregon State Game Commission about $40,000 (Hammer 1976 unpubl.). replaced over 10 000 m3 of gravel Washed gravel was introduced behind and rock that had been dredged from most of the structures, Despite the 5.4 km of Clear Creek in northeast fact that many structures have washed Oregon (West et al. 1965b). Rock out or rolled over and no longer hold sills were used to help stabilize the gravel, the project has achieved some introduced success (Hammer, personal communica- gravel. Few fish were present to use tion). Limited spawning by chinook the introduced gravel in the first and coho salmon and steelhead trout year, but in the three following years, has been recorded behind some of the an average of 137 chinook redds was gabion dams, and relatively more observed in the introduced gravel, com- juveniles have been found near the pared to 34 in the small amount of structures than in surrounding bedrock original gravel that remained after areas (Hammer 1977 unpubl ) Although dredging. In the 3 years before the anadromous fish populations have not project, an average of 24 redds was appeared to increase in the area, counted in this gravel. Since then, summer water temperatures are extremely the modified sections of Clear Creek high and may be at least in part the have been the subject of annual cause of low salmonid populations in the drainage (Johnson 1977 unpubl, )

8 Another gabion project that failed The use of log sills to capture was located on Pass Creek, in the North spawning gravel has been successful. Umpqua drainage in Oregon. This stream In Oregon five sills were constructed was the site of extensive rehabilita- on Anvil Creek in the summer of 1973, tion efforts after logging including and 350 spawning chinook salmon were the introduction of 1025 m 3 of gravel observed in the improved area in in conjunction with placement of 11 January 1974 (Bender 1978 unpubl.) . gabion dams (Magill 1971) . Initial An average of 200 fish per year was evaluation of these structures was recorded through 1978, in contrast to quite promising, with adult steelhead the previous long-term average of 50 observed using the added spawning spawners in that section. gravel. At least two of the gabion Steelhead trout have also made use of dams have since washed out, however, the spawning area (Bender and and the majority of the remaining Mullarkey, personal communication). structures no longer hold suitable spawning gravel (Oliver, personal The Canada Department of Fisheries communication). and Oceans has recently begun a program to develop new spawning areas Despite many failures, some gabion for chum salmon in southern British installations have provided useful Columbia. Ground-water flow is habitat enhancement. For example, 10 enhanced in former flood channels now gabion dams were constructed on Johns isolated from the main river. Prelim- Creek, a tributary of the Hamma Hamma inary assessment of fry production River in Washington, a stream with a from these areas suggests that the 3.05- change in elevation in 222 m technique has promise (Lister et al. (Wilson 1976). These structures wer.e 1980). successful in retaining gravel and providing suitable gradient for spawning .

Egg-to-fry survival of pink and chum salmon improved on Jorsted Creek, Washington, after installation of gabions designed to reduce gravel scour and shifting. The most dramatic differences between stabilized and unstabilized sections occurred in years of high flow; in years of low flow, survival was about the same in all sections (Wilson 1976). More than 4,000 adult chum salmon were counted in Jorsted Creek in December 1978 (Wilson, personal communication). This increase in abundance of spawning fish was thought to be because of improved spawning and rearing condi- tions resulting from gabion placement.

Recent developments in gabion design, which appear to have greatly ACCESS IMPROVEMENT improved chances for success, are discussed by Reeves and Roelofs (1982). Historically, improvement of access One stimulus for these improvements to spawning areas by removal of bar- riers to migration has been the most was an excellent evaluation of problems experienced in gabion installations by common form of habitat rehabilita- tion and enhancement for anadromous Engels (1975 unpubl.). This report salmonids on the west coast. Unfor- includes discussion of success and tunately, however, it is also the failure, and suggests modifications to least documented or evaluated of all improve gabion performance . techniques .

9 BARRIER REMOVAL Log debris jams have also received attention elsewhere on the Pacific Debris and log jams pose a major Coast, Roppel (1978 unpubl.) listed threat to migration of anadromous 88 major stream-clearance projects salmonids. Jams were estimated to conducted in the State of Alaska by have prevented access to over 500 the USDA Forest Service and Alaska miles of usable stream habitat in Department of Fish and Game between Alaska in 1971 (Elliott 1978). More 1952 and 1978. than 200 jams, ranging from partial to complete barriers to anadromous fish, were estimated to be present on a If published reports alone were single Ranger District of the Siuslaw considered, the scope of past log-jam National Forest in western Oregon in removal operations would be greatly 1978 (Heller, personal communication). underestimated. One example from the Heller, however, noted the difficulty Northwest can be found in the record of providing an accurate inventory, of past removal projects in the because of substantial changes in Siuslaw River basin in western Oregon. debris location from one large storm Although Saltzman (1964 unpubl.) to the next. reports on major efforts to clear debris during 1962-64, 1948-50 was One of the earliest documented also a time of extensive undocumented efforts to remove debris jams was stream cleanup, and numerous clearance reported by Merrell (1951). About 170 projects have been undertaken since the winter of 1975-76. In addition, major and minor jams were removed from 43 km of the Clatskanie River system many small projects were conducted in Oregon. Stream clearance and during 1936-38, 1944-46, 1957-58, and access development were also an 1965-66, for which few records are integral part of projects to improve available (Oregon State Game Commis- coastal streams conducted in Oregon sion, Fishery Division Annual Reports, during the early 1960's (Summers and numerous years). Added to this list Neubauer 1965 unpubl.). More than a are the many removal projects dozen fishways were installed or undertaken by private companies, of repaired and more than 50 log jams which no records at all were kept. If were removed. all the debris removal projects completed in this drainage over the Extensive stream clearance has past 45 years could be listed, the also been undertaken in California. total would be large, possibly more During the late 1950's and into the than l,OOOe The same conclusion would 1960' s, a program to remove old log probably apply to other river drain- jams was carried out by the California ages in Oregon, and to many other Department of Fish and Game on nearly Pacific Northwest watersheds as well. every major coastal river system that supported anadromous fish, from the Although log jams have undoubtedly Oregon border south to Santa Cruz declined in both number and size, they (Evans, personal communication). This are still a common feature of Pacific was a very extensive effort, involving Northwest streams. In the past, jams large expenditures by the Wildlife were most often caused by poor logging Conservation Board, but very few of practices and fires, but now large the reports submitted were published. debris jams are most commonly caused An exception was the work on the Moyo by debris torrents during major storms. River, where nearly 60 km of stream The large storms of 1964-65, 1972, were cleared of log jams, partial 1975, and 1977 led to formation of barriers, and debris that threatened many jams. to form future jams (Holman and Evans 1964).

10 For many years, road construction Baker (1979) pointed out several was considered the major cause of mass constraints to a thorough analysis of soil failure leading to debris aval- operations to remove debris jams. In anches and torrents in the Pacific a study of seven removal sites in Northwest (Swanston and Swanson 1976) . western Oregon, he found that the Recent evidence from steep lands in principal short-term impacts were the Oregon Coast Ranges, however, release of sediment and debris trapped suggests that clearcutting alone can behind the jam and destruction of also trigger a significant number of existing habitat within the jam. such events (Gresswell et al. 1979). Sometimes these negative results can Thus, as a result of past and future be offset by greatly increased use by forest harvesting, log debris jams anadromous fish above the jam, but the will continue to pose a significant trade-offs are often hard to evaluate. threat to anadromous fish habitat in Baker's work suggested increased the steep lands of the Pacific emphasis on partial removal of debris Northwest, and jam removal will jams. continue to be an important management activity. A study of the role of large , debris in streams examined the effects Despite the extensive effort in of removal of about 70 percent of the debris jam removal, surprisingly natural debris from one of two adja- little effort has been made to cent small tributaries in the evaluate the impact of these stream Clearwater River drainage, Washington clearance projects, either on the (Lestelle 1978). Nonmigratory anadromous fish populations they are cutthroat trout were the only designed to enhance, or on habitat salmonids present, and their numbers quality downstream from the removal were little affected in the first few area. Large amounts of fine sediment months after removal of debris in are usually stored behind debris jams, August. The major effect was and complete removal of the jam destabilization of the streambed results in transport of that material during the following winter, including to downstream areas. Removal of one widespread deposition and scouring. particularly large jam in the Oregon Changes in the physical habitat may Coast Ranges resulted in the release have been responsible for the of over 5000 m3 of sediment to the significant reduction in numbers of stream channel below the removal site trout observed during the winter. ' (Beschta 1979) . Within a year of removal, however, most of the debris volume had re- Moderate amounts of debris in a accumulated, and the trout population stream can provide favorable salmonid had returned to its previous level. habitat, and excessive removal of debris may result in further habitat degradation (Hall and Baker 1975 Some debris jams may actually unpubl.). An example of such an increase the amount of habitat effect comes from a study in coastal available for rearing juvenile Alaska. The numbers of juvenile salmonids, providing they are not sea-run Dolly Varden decreased extensive enough to completely block immediately after complete removal of passage upstream. A study currently accumulated logging debris in Spring underway in the Oregon Coast Ranges Pond Creek (Elliott 1978). Two years has identified at least one jam that later, the population had decreased by formed a small impoundment and 80 percent. Changes in species increased density of juvenile coho abundance and composition of the salmon in the impoundment about 10-fold benthic macroinvertebrate population over that in the natural channel, based led to a shift in the diet of the fish. on lineal stream distance (Everest, This study recommended that many personal communication). More thorough debris removal projects be reevaluated. evaluation of the role of debris in streams and policies for its removal is needed.

11 Log driving, often involving the One of the many fish-passage use of splash dams on smaller streams techniques, the Denil fishway, has and rivers, was a common practice in particular significance to field the early days of the logging industry managers. A modification of this in the Pacific Northwest. The scour- design that is adaptable to portable ing of stream bottoms and blockage of use has become known as the Alaskan salmonid runs by the dams were two steeppass (Ziemer 1962). This fish prominent impacts on fish populations. pass has been used to establish new The International Pacific Salmon runs of salmon to previously Fisheries Commission (1966) documented inaccessible Frazer Lake on Kodiak many of the consequences of log driving Island in Alaska (Blackett 1979). on the Stellako River in British Eggs and fry of sockeye salmon from Columbia, including the formation of nearby stocks were planted in the numerous log jams. Wendler and tributaries beginning in 1951. In Deschamps (1955) provided an excellent 1962, a four-step steeppass, 64 m account of the use of logging dams in long, was built to provide returning Washington, including a map of their fish access over the 10-m falls that historical distribution. These had previously barred anadromous barriers to migration have been fish. By 1978, the run had grown to gradually removed, by natural means 142,000 and plans are underway and by various logging companies or to provide additional passage facili- the Washington State Department of ties to accommodate a run expected to Fisheries. reach 300-400,000 in the 1980' s (Blackett 1979). A small run of chinook salmon has also been developed in the system.

Because of the potentially large size of salmon runs in the region, barrier bypass projects have a favorable benefit/cost ratio in Alaska and British Columbia, and as a result are fairly common. Sweet (1975 unpubl.) lists over 20 steeppass pr,ojects in the Alaska region, and Narver (1976) records 28 fishways in British Columbia. Farther south, a large number of access projects have also involved laddering of barriers. Narver (1976) observed that Oregon alone had fish passage facilities at 56 natural and 79 artificial obstruc- tions, excluding the dams on the main Columbia River. Few reports, however, have evaluated the success or failure of these facilities. This is particu- FISHWAY DEVELOPMENT larly true of projects for improving fish passage on small isolated stream reaches such as those blocked by Removing log jams is relatively improperly installed culverts. easy compared to some barriers; provid- ing a passageway over and around Culverts that are poorly designed natural and artificial obstructions or installed have been a major cause has frequently been necessary. Among of impaired fish passage. An annota- the devices employed have been fish ted bibliography of reports dealing ladders, locks, tramways and trolleys, with fish passage at road crossings and a variety of other methods of has recently been prepared (Anderson passing fish upstream and downstream and Bryant 1980). (Clay 1961).

12 few additional efforts have been made to use this technique in habitat enhancement. B jornn (1971) found that the introduction of large rock into small headwaters near spawning areas increased the carrying capacity and retarded the downstream movement of pre-smolt chinook salmon and steelhead trout over the winter. Boulders were added to an Atlantic salmon stream in New Brunswick (Redmond 1975). In sections of the Tracadie River where large angular rock (up to 1.2 m in diameter) had been placed, the numbers of juvenile salmon increased dramatically--in some instances, from no fish present to between 25 and 1 50/100 m2 (Narver 1976). Large rock has been used effectively to enhance salmonid habitat in several locations REARING HABITAT in the John Day River basin in eastern Oregon (Claire 1978c, 1980, unpubl. ). Most of the early work on develop- ment of rearing habitat was done in A careful evaluation of boulder the Midwest, where increases in bank placement is presently underway on the cover and pool area were shown to Keogh River in British Columbia (Ward increase the abundance and harvest of and Slaney 1979). Tests are being legal-sized brook trout significantly made on several different configura- (Shetter et al. 1949, Hunt 1976). tions of boulders, alone and in Tarzwell (1938), however, observed combination with log cover. Prelimi- that most midwestern and eastern nary results from 1 year of evaluation techniques were not directly suggest that groupings of boulders are transferable to west coast streams. most effective, both as to durability Highly variable flow regimes, includ- and provision of habitat . Significant ing frequent floods and droughts, make increases in abundance of both many structures unsuitable or unstable. steelhead trout parr and coho salmon The use of instream boulders, however, fry occurred in improved sections of did seem to have the potential for stream. Steelhead trout abundance was providing stable cover and small pools significantly correlated with the in these circumstances (Madsen 1938, number of boulders placed in a reach. Tarzwell 1938). Placement of boulders by helicopter proved to be comparable in cost to BOULDER PLACEMENT placement with heavy equipment, and allows habitat development in inaccess- ible stream reaches. Although benefit/ One of the early west coast cost analysis is very uncertain at efforts involving boulder placement this stage in the project, early occurred in California trout streams results are promising (Ward and Slaney (Calhoun 1964, 1966). Followup 1979). photographs clearly showed the potential for large boulders to survive major storms and continue to provide desirable habitat . Since then, several studies have emphasized the association between rock cover and abundance of anadromous fish (Hartman 1965, Chapman and B-jornn 1969, Everest and Chapman 1972, Narver 1976), and a stepdams was very short, the majority lasting only about 1 year (Lund 1976).

The importance of pools as rearing habitat for juvenile coho salmon has stimulated several efforts to create new pools in the Oregon Coast Ranges. Pools are scarce during low summer flow in many streams with bedrock substrate along the coast. The Coos Bay District of the Bureau of Land Management used dynamite to blast a test pool in a sandstone bedrock section of Vincent Creek, Oregon (Anderson 1973). Initial results appeared favorable, and 12 additional pools were created in 1974. An excellent followup report was produced by Anderson and Miyajima (1975) that could provide a model for evaluation REARING PQQLS of many management-oriented projects. Diagrams of techniques and recommenda- Some of the earliest efforts in tions for improvement accompany an habitat development in the West used evaluation of fish populations before various structures to create pools in and after the project. Although streams of the Sierra Nevada in resources were available for only one California during the early 1930' s. sample in the year before construction An evaluation of 41 of these and two in the year after, some of the structures built on the East Fork of changes observed were large enough to the Kaweah River in the Sequoia be statistically significant. National Forest was conducted some 18 years later by Ehlers (1956). Although Juvenile coho salmon populations most of the other structures had failed, in the new pools of Vincent Creek 9 of 15 log dams had survived and 6 increased 10-fold over those were operating properly and providing inhabiting comparable areas before added trout habitat. Flows as high as blasting (Anderson and Miyajima 1975). 70 m3/s (2500 ft3/s) were estimated Coho salmon in the newly formed pools to have occurred since construction. were significantly larger than those found in the control areas before Small log and rock dams were construction, but fish in the control constructed to provide additional trout riffle were also larger than before. habitat in the headwaters of Sagehen No change was found in cutthroat trout Creek, California, in 1957. No trout abundance, but those in the new pools were present in this area, so brook averaged 8 cm larger than controls. trout were introduced to the newly These bigger fish have provided formed pools from the stream below. recreation for sport fishermen, but The trout survived and grew well, they may also have become predators on establishing a self-sustaining popula- juvenile coho salmon (Anderson, tion (Gard 1961). After 12 years, the personal communication). The data area was resurveyed; 6 of the 14 were too limited to assess changes in original dams were in good to other fish species--age O+ steelhead excellent condition and the trout trout, the speckled dace, and the population had persisted (Gard 1972). redside shiner. In some pool-blasting projects, the redside shiner and the The technique was believed cost-effective in enhancing headwater speckled dace have increased in populations. In one Montana trout abundance. stream, however, the useful life of

14 Water temperatures at the bottom WINTER HABITAT of one pool were up to 2.2"C cooler than peak temperatures in an adjacent Evidence increasingly points to riffle. Also, temperatures were above the importance of winter habitat in 22°C for a much shorter period each day in the pool than in the riffle controlling production of salmonid (Anderson and Miyajima 1975). Other smolts in some stream systems. The previously mentioned work of Mason unanticipated benefits accrued 'from (1974, 1976) with coho salmon in the newly formed pools. High numbers of crayfish were found in the pools British Columbia provides some of the (Anderson, personal communication). best such documentation. Crayfish are becoming increasingly Intermittent sidepools, back sought after for sport and food in channels, and other areas of some areas of the coast. Another relatively still water that become benefit has been the occasional inundated during high flows have deposition of gravel at the tail of a recently been shown to provide pool, which has been used by steelhead valuable winter habitat for juvenile trout for spawning. salmonids, particularly in coastal areas (Bustard and Narver 1975a, b; The Oregon Department of Fish and Kralik and Sowerwine 1977). Overwinter Wildlife created 15 pools with dynamite survival of juvenile coho salmon that on six tributaries of the Siuslaw River moved into one side-channel tributary (Hutchison 1973 unpubl.). Results of Carnation Creek, British Columbia, there have not been favorable. No in the fall averaged 74 percent for significant changes in populations four winters. Comparable survival for have been observed, apart from small those fish remaining in the main numbers of cutthroat trout in pools channel was 23 percent (Narver, where none occurred before. One personal communication). explanation for the failure of coho salmon to respond in this system may In the early 1960's, suggestions be the very low numbers of adult fish were made to use bulldozers to that have spawned there-in the last excavate such channels in conjunction few years (Hutchison 1978 unpubl.). with logging operations (Narver, personal communication), but little or In a nearby area, however, results no enhancement work of this type has of pool blasting appeared more been carried out. Recent studies on favorable. The USDA Forest Service winter growth and survival of juvenile blasted seven pools in Cedar Creek, coho salmon in natural spring ponds on tributary to the Siuslaw River, in the Olympic Peninsula of Washington 1978 and enlarged five natural pools (Peterson 1980) suggest that increas- in a tributary of the Smith River, ing the area of lowland ponds adjacent Oregon, in 1979. The pools have been to salmonid streams has great potential self-cleaning, as planned. Those on for enhancing salmonid abundance. Cedar Creek in particular have Juvenile salmon that had reared in resulted in substantial increases in streams during spring and summer moved the number of juvenile coho salmon into these spring ponds in large rearing in an area that was predom- numbers during fall and winter. inantly bedrock. Evaluation of the Fish in the ponds survived and grew project suggests the need for varying better than those overwintering in size and configuration of the pools, tributary streams (Peterson 1980). with possibly greater potential for small pools created with just a few sticks of dynamite (Heller, personal communication).

15 At least one attempt has been made to augment flow in a steelhead stream Augmentation of low summer flow in eastern Oregon (West et al. 1965a). has been an effective and inexpensive Subterranean weirs, constructed with approach to habitat enhancement for plastic sheeting placed in trenches, resident trout. Most of this work has brought ground water to the surface occurred in the Sierra Nevada moun- and maintained surface flow for short tains of California, where low (1-2 m) distances above and below some of the flow-maintenance dams have been built structures, where the channel had at the outlets of natural lakes, The previously been dry. The scheme was storage provided by these dams judged to be expensive and impractical, maintains permanent streamflow in hoiJever, because of the large number downstream channels that formerly were of structures required and the damage dry during part of the summer. The sustained during spring runoff (Claire first dam was built in 1925 by a 1978b unpubl. ). private citizen, and five more structures were built in the early Building dams may not be the only 1930's at a cost of $5,200 (Burghduff means of augmenting streamflow. An 1934). By 1954, 40 dams had been unexpected increase in low flow built, enhancing habitat in 540 km of occurred when a heavily grazed section stream (Cronemiller and Fraser 1954, of stream in eastern Oregon was fenced Cronemiller 1955). By this time, many to exclude livestock (Winegar 1977). of the most desirable sites had been A 4-km section was fenced in 1966, and used, and costs had increased 5.6 km of stream channel were added to substantially. These small projects the exclosure in 1974. In spite of have resulted in significant increases the significant increase in riparian in summer populations of resident vegetation, summer low flow has trout, and flow augmentation could be increased. In addition, the stream no applicable to enhancement of anadromous longer consistently freezes solid populations. during winter (Winegar 1978 unpubl.). Although the cause of the increased Although some evidence has been flow is not certain, removal of the found to the contrary (Hall and Knight cattle reduced streamside soil 1981), most data point to a strong compaction, apparently resulting in positive association of streamflow increased infiltration and greater with natural production of coho salmon ground-water recharge (Winegar, (Smoker 1955, Matthews and Olson 1980, personal communication). Scarnecchia 1981). Although the relation of salmonid abundance to streamflow seems complex, increased production of anadromous salmonids by Some evidence suggests that supplementing low summer streamflow chemical properties of stream water with upstream storage might be influence abundance and growth rate of possible. One such project is salmonids (Hall and Knight 1981). A reported on a 28-ha lake on Vancouver few attempts have been made to increase Island (Canada Department of Fisheries biological production in streams by and Oceans 1980). An additional addition of nutrients. Stockner and 0.04-0.06 m3/s of flow is available Shortreed (1978) and Gregory (1980) downstream from the lake during the showed significant response of dry summer. Before any large-scale attached algae to nutrient addition in development of this kind goes forward, streams in British Columbia and Oregon. insuring that limits on carrying An earlier fertilization experiment by capacity in winter will not negate Huntsman (1948) in an eastern Canadian benefits gained during the summer and stream showed a limited response in fall would be important. A more abundance of Atlantic salmon and promising approach might be to augment associated fish species, as well as flow in intermittent streams some increase in invertebrate numbers. supporting anadromous fish.

16 No conclusive evidence is available on along the stream (Newbold et al, 1980, the effectiveness of fertilization in Murphy and Hall 1981). One project in enhancing salmonid populations in Wisconsin deliberately removed riparian streams, but further experimental work vegetation as an enhancement measure like that now underway by the British for brook trout (Hunt 1979). Columbia Fish and Wildlife Branch (Slaney, personal communication) Conditions of the watershed away should be encouraged. This nonstruc- from the stream can also influence tural approach to habitat enhancement fish habitat, as noted in the earlier has the advantage that it can be discussion of log debris jams in easily terminated if it proves streams, In fact, one of the more ineffective or undesirable, No commit- impressive case studies of stream ment must be made to a long-term rehabilitation involved no direct program, such as accompanies most action within or near the stream structural enhancement. channel at all, simply protection of the watershed. This was the logging moratorium on the South Fork Salmon River, discussed earlier in relation to cleaning of spawning gravel (Platts and Megahan 1975). Other evidence that watershed protection is an effective rehabilitation measure comes from studies of the impact of livestock grazing on stream habitat and salmonid populations (Platts 1981).

Several studies have provided quantitative evidence of the serious impact of heavy grazing pressure on trout populations (table 2). The population size in control sections suggests that the average salmonid abundance might be tripled by control- ling heavy grazing pressure. The evidence is not conclusive because few studies of fish populations have been carried out in the same section of stream before and after grazing. RIPARIAN HABITAT Differences in abundance between grazed and control areas in the Hynes (1975) has effectively made studies summarized in table 2 are so the case that a stream and its valley large as to leave little doubt of a are an inseparable ecological unit. real impact, however. Many examples are available that Table 2--Comparisons of trout populations in sections of stream where demonstrate this interdependence as it grazing pressure was absent or light (control) versus those heavily relates specifically to the habitat of grazea (modified from Claire 1980. unpubl.) anadromous fish. Among the elements Percent of habitat influenced by the riparian greater in zone are temperature, cover, and food. Species Location Units control Reference Studies of effects of logging have Brown trout Rock Creek, kg/ha 236 Marcuson shown the response of fish habitat to Montana i/ (1977 unpubl .) forest harvesting near streams (Hall Cutthroat and Big Creek, Duff and Lantz 1969, Burns 1972, Gibbons rainDow trout Utah kg/ha 263 (1977 unpubl .) Brown trout Little Deschutes Lorz and Sal0 1973). Most changes in River, Oregon kg/ha 269 (1974) habitat adversely affected salmonid Steelhead trout Camp Creek, no/km 2/94 Claire populations, but in a few instances Oregon (1980 unpubl .) fish and invertebrate abundance 1/An earlier stuay on the same stream by Gunderson (1968) Is not increased after opening of the canopy comparable because of different base area. !/Bases on 5 years of sampling. All other studies based on a single estimate.

17 An example of this impact is provided by studies in Camp Creek, an important producer of summer steelhead The history of habitat rehabilita- in the John Day drainage in eastern tion and enhancement for stream- Oregon that had been heavily grazed dwelling salmonids has been a mixture for 70 years. In 1964, 0.8 km of of failure and success. Where adequate stream was fenced to exclude livestock. By 1974, 75-80 percent of the stream documentation has been available, learning from failure has been was shaded by riparian vegetation, possible and techniques and approaches which had been virtually absent before fencing. An additional 9.6 km of improved. We believe that sufficient background is now available to recom- stream were fenced in 1976. During 1 mend substantially increased emphasis year, maximum stream temperature in on this phase of fishery management. the fenced section was 19"C, compared Past work in the West has been weighted to 25.5"C in the heavily grazed in favor of spawning habitat; future section (Claire 1978a unpubl. ). work should put more emphasis on Numbers of spawning and rearing steelhead trout have increased rehabilitation and enhancement of significantly. Spawning surveys have rearing habitat been conducted in the drainage since 1956. In an 11-year period after From an ecological perspective, fencing, 10.5 redds per km were these techniques of habitat management counted in the heavily grazed area and are soundly based. They are ideally 18.6 redds per km in the fenced suited to the goal of maintaining such section. In 5 years of sampling, from natural wild stocks as still exist and 1974 to 1979, the average number of preserving genetic variability where juvenile steelhead was twice as high possible. In the face of increasing inside the enclosure as out, and dace concern about impacts of large-scale populations were 6-7 times greater hatchery production on both genetic outside the fenced area (Claire 1980 constitution of stocks and carrying capacity of the environment, this unpubl. ) e Everest (1978 unpubl. ) estimated the benefit/cost ratio of rationale may be one of the strongest this fencing project to be between arguments for emphasis on improving 2.3:l and 3.3:l (depending on interest quality and quantity of stream habitat. rates and maintenance costs). A favorable benefit/cost ratio was also Finally, we join with Reeves and estimated by Olson and Amour (1979) Roelofs (1982) and Narver (1973) in for fencing riparian zones on all emphasizing that habitat rehabilitation lands administered by the Bureau of must never be viewed as a substitute Land Management. for habitat protection. Communication between fishery managers and foresters In spite of apparently conclusive is an essential element of habitat evidence on adverse impacts of graz- protection (see Toews and Brownlee ing, progress in rehabilitating dam- 1981, for example) e Habitat manage- aged streams has been slow. Fencing ment can now be cost effective, and as streambanks is expensive and, even we learn more, it should become more where evidence shows that benefits so. In almost every instance, however, exceed costs, resistance from land managers and owners is considerable. Nonstructural measures such as rota- tional grazing patterns may sometimes be a solution, but considerable contro- versy exists now and will probably continue for some time (Cope 1979).

18 0 preventing initial habitat degradation would be more economical of total resources than repairing it, and some damage simply is not reversible. Past mistakes require efforts to rehabili- tate many streams, but our efforts in habitat management must continue to \ put an equally strong priority on protection of watershed and stream resources.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This paper owes much to construc- tive comments of others. In particular, we acknowledge the contributions of Gordon Reeves and Terry Roelofs. Their paper in this series (No. 13) was originally planned to be independent from ours. When the two manuscripts were complete, we reorganized them to LITERATURE CITED separate evaluation of past work from description of successful techniques. Allen, R. L.; Seeb, J. E,; King, D. D. For a complete assessment of the field, A preliminary assessment of field the two papers must be used together. operations with a salmon-spawning gravel cleaning machine. In: Salmon- We thank those biologists who spawning gravel: a renewable provided unpublished data for this resource in the Pacific Northwest? review; in addition, we appreciate Rep. 39, Pullman, WA: Washington comments on one or more versions of State Water Research Center; 1981: the manuscript by J. W. Anderson, A. R. 1-14 . Cargill, C, J. Cederholm, E. W. Claire, W. A. Evans, J. M. Hutchison, W. R. Anderson, J. W, Evaluation of exca- Meehan, J. F. Orsborn, and P. A. vated fish rearing pool in Vincent Slaney. James D. Hall is grateful for Creek. Tech. Note. Coos Bay, OR: use of space and library facilities of U.S. Department of the Interior, the Fisheries Research Division, New Bureau of Land Management; 1973. 5 p. Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, made available through the Anderson, J. W.; Miyajima, L. Analysis courtesy of Dr. R. M. McDowall. This of the Vincent Creek fish rearing is Technical Paper 6127, Oregon pool project. Tech. Note 274. Coos Agricultural Experiment Station. Bay, OR: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management; 1975. 26 p.

Anderson, L.; Bryant, M. Fish passage at road crossings: an annotated bibliography. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-117. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station; 1980. 10 p.

19 Andrew, F. J. Gravel cleaning to BOUSSU, M. F, Relationship between increase salmon production in rivers trout populations and cover on a and spawning channels. In: Salmon- small stream, J. Wildl. Manage. spawning gravel : a renewable 18( 2) : 229-239; 1954. resource in the Pacific Northwest? Rep. 39. Pullman, WA: Washington Bovee, K. D. Probability-of-use State Water Research Center; 1981: criteria for the family Salmonidae. 15-31. Instream Flow Inf Pap. 4, FWS/OBS- 78/07. Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Baker, C. 0. The impacts of logjam Wildlife Service, Office of Biolog- removal on fish populations and ical Services; 1978. 80 p. stream habitat in western Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State Bovee, K, D.; Cochnauer, T. Develop- University; 1979. 86 p. b1.S. thesis. ment and evaluation of weighted criteria, probability-of-use curves Barton, J. R.; Peters, E, J.; White, for instream flow assessments: D. A.; Winger, P. V. Bibliography on fisheries. Instream Flow Inf Pap. the physical alteration of the 3, FWS/OBS-77/63, Washington, DC: aquatic habitat (channelization) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,

stream improvement e Provo, UT: Office of Biological Services; 1977. Brigham Young University 39 p. Publications; 1972. 30 p. Burghduf f , A, Eo Stream improvement Beschta, R, L. Debris removal and its Calif. Fish and Game. 20(2): 113-118; effects on sedimentation in an 1934. Oregon Coast Range stream. Northwest Sci, 53(1): 71-77; 1979. Burns, J. W. Some effects of logging and associated road construction on Binns, N. A,; Eiserman, F, M. Quantifi- northern California streams. Trans. cation of fluvial trout habitat in Am. Fish. SOC. lOl(1): 1-17; 1972. Wyoming. Trans, Am. Fish. SOC. 108(3): 215-228; 1979. Bustard, De R.; Narver, D, W. Aspects of the winter ecology of juvenile Bjornn, T. C. Trout and salmon move- coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) ments in two Idaho streams as and steelhead trout (Salmo related to temperature, food, gairdneri). J. Fish. Res. Board Can, streamflow, cover, and population 32( 5) : 667-680; 1975a. density. Trans, Am. Fish, SOC. 100( 3) : 423-438; 1971. Bustard, D. R.; Narver, De W, Preferences of juvenile coho salmon Blackett, R. F. Establishment of (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and cut throat sockeye (Oncorhynchus nerka) and trout (Salmo- -clarki) relative to chinook (0. tshawytscha) salmon runs simulated alteration of winter at Frazer-Lake Kodiak Island habitat. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. Alaska. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32(5): 681-687; 1975b. 36(10): 1265-1277; 1979. Calhoun, A. Homo vs. Salmo. Proc. West. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm, 43: 243-245; 1964.

Calhoun, A. Habitat protection and improvement. In: Calhoun, A., ed. Inland fisheries management. Sacramento, CA: State of California, Department of Fish and Game; 1966: 40-48.

20 Canada Department of Fisheries and Elliott, S. Ecology of rearing fish. Oceans; British Columbia Ministry of Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of the Environment. Stream enhancement Fish and Game, Federal Aid in Fish guide. Vancouver, BC: Canada Restoration; 1978; Annual report Department of Fisheries and Oceans; 1977-1978, Pro j. F-9-10, 19(D -I) : Brftish Columbia Ministry of the 39-52. Environment. Salmonid Enhancement Program; 1980. 82 p. Everest, F. H.; Chapman, D. W. Habitat selection and spatial interaction by Chapman, D. W.; Bjornn, T. C. Distri- juvenile chinook salmon and steelhead bution of salmonids in streams with trout in two Idaho streams. J. Fish. special reference to food and Res. Board Can. 29(1): 91-100; 1972. feeding. In: Northcote, T. G., ed. Proceedings, symposium on salmon and Fearnow, T. C. An appraisal of stream trout in streams: H. R. MacMillan improvement programs of the National Lectures in Fisheries; 1968 February Forests of the northeastern states. 22-24; Vancouver, BC. Vancouver, BC: Trans. North Am. Wildl. Conf. 6: 161- University of British Columbia; 168; 1941. 1969. 388 p. (p. 153-176). Fessler, J. L. Spawning area develop- Clay, C. H. Design of fishways and ment for fall chinook salmon. In: other fish facilities. Ottawa, ON: Rayner, H. J.; Campbell, H. J.; Canada Department of Fisheries; Lightfoot, W. C., eds. Progress in 1961. 301 p. game and sportfish research 1963-1970. Res. Div. Rep. Portland, Cope, 0, B., ed. Grazing and riparian/ OR: Oregon State Game Commission; stream ecosystems: Proceedings of 1970: 16-17, the forum; 1978 November 3-4; Denver, CO. Washington, DC: Trout, Frankenberger, L. Effects of habitat Unlimited; 1979. 94 p. management on trout in a portion of the Kinnikinnic River, St. Croix Cronemiller, F. P. Making new trout County, Wisconsin. Rep. 22. Madison, streams in the Sierra Nevada. In: WI: Wisconsin Department of Natural U.S.D.A. Yearbook of Agriculture. Resources, Bureau of Fish Management; Washington, DC: Superintendent of 1968. 8 p. Documents (Government Printing Office); 1955: 583-586. Frankenberger, L.; Fassbender, R. Eval- uation of the effects of the habitat Cronemiller, F. P.; Fraser, J. Stretch- management program and the watershed ing our Sierra trout streams. planning program on the brown trout Outdoor Calif. 15(4): 3-7; 1954. fishery in Bohemian Valley Creek, La Crosse County, Wisconsin. Rep. 16. Davis, H. S. The purpose and value of Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of stream improvement . Trans. Am. Fish. Natural Resources, Bureau of Fish SOC. 64: 63-67; 1934. Management; 1967. 9 p.

Davis, H, S. Methods for the improve-, Gard, R. Creation of trout habitat by ment of streams. Memorandum 1-133. constructing small dams. J. Wildl. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Manage. 25( 4) : 384-390; 1961. Fisheries; 1935. 27 p. Gard, R. Persistence of headwater check Ehlers, R. An evaluation of stream dams in a trout stream. J. Wildl. improvement devices constructed Manage. 36(4): 1363-1367; 1972. eighteen years ago. Calif. Fish and Game 42(3): 203-217; 1956.

21 Garrison, R. L. Spawning area develop- Hale, J. G. An evaluation of trout ment for fall chinook and subsequent stream habitat improvement in a north survival from egg deposition to shore tributary of Lake Superior. seaward migration. Portland, OR: Minn. Fish. Invest. 5: 37-50; 1969. Oregon State Game Commission; 1971a; Job final report, Proj. AFS-27-1. Hall, J. D.; Field-Dodgson, M. S. 10 p. Improvement of spawning and rearing habitat for salmon. In: Hopkins, C. Garrison, R, Le Fall chinook rehabili- L., comp. Proceedings of the salmon tation on the Alsea River. Portland, symposium; 1980 August 30-31; OR: Oregon State Game Commission; Christchurch, N. Z. Occas. Publ. No. 1971b; Annual progress report, Proj. 30. [City of publisher unknown]: N. AFS-57-1: 33-38.. Z. New Zealand Ministry of Agricul- ture and Fisheries, Fisheries Gerke, R. J. Spawning ground improve- Research Division; 1981. 98 p. ment study. Olympia, WA: Washington (p. 21-28). State Department of Fisheries; 1973; Progress report, Proj. AFC-59-2. Hall, J. D.; Knight, N. J. Natural 18 p. variation in abundance of salmonid populations in streams and its Gerke, R, J. Salmon spawning habitat implications for design of impact improvement study. Olympia, WA: s t ud ies . EPA- 6 00 / S 3- 8 1- 0 21. Washington State Department of Corvallis, OR: U.S. Environmental Fisheries; 1974; Project completion Protection Agency; 1981. 85 p. report, Proj. 1-93-D. 15 p. Hall, J. D.; Lantz, R. L, Effects of logging on the habitat of coho salmon Gibbons, D. R.; Salo, E. 0. An anno- tated bibliography of the effects of and cutthroat trout in coastal logging on fish of the western streams. In: Northcote, T. G., ed. United States and Canada. Gen. Tech. Proceedings, symposium on salmon and Rep. PNW-10. Portland, OR: U.S. trout in streams: H. R. MacMillan Department of Agriculture, Forest Lectures in Fisheries; 1968 February Service, Pacific Northwest Forest 22-24; Vancouver, BC e Vancouver, i3C : and Range Experiment Station; 1973. University of British Columbia; 145 p- 1969. 388 p. (p. 355-376).

Gregory, S. V. Effects of light, Hartman, G. F. The role of behavior in nutrients, and grazing on periphyton the ecology and interaction of under- yearling coho salmon (Oncorhynchus communjties in streams. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University; 1980. kisutch) and steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 151 p. Ph. D. thesis. 22(2) : 1035-1081; 1965. Gresswell, S.; Heller, D.; Swanston, D. N. Mass movement response to Holman, G.; Evans, W. A. Stream forest management in the central clearance pro ject--completion report Oregon Coast Ranges. Resour. Bull. Noyo River, Mendocino County. Inland PNW-84. Portland, OR: U,S. Depart- Fish. Adm. Rep. 64-10. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Fish ment of Agriculture , Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range and Game; 1964. 13 p. Experiment Station; 1979. 26 p. Hubbs, C. L.; Greeley, J. R.; Tarzwell, C. M. Methods for the Gunderson, D. R. Floodplain use related improvement of Michigan trout to stream morphology and fish popula- streams. Bull. 1. Ann Arbor, MI: tions. J. Wildl. Manage. 32(3): 507- Michigan Department of Conservation, 514; 1968. Institute for Fisheries Research; 1932. 54 p.

22 Hunt, R. L. Effects of habitat alter- Leopold, A. Game management. New York: ation on production, standing crops Charles Scribner's Sons; 1933. 481 p. and yield of brook trout in Lawrence Creek, Wisconsin. In: Northcote, Lestelle, L. C. The effects of forest T. G., ed. Proceedings, symposium on debris removal on a population of salmon and trout in streams: H. R. resident cutthroat trout in a small MacMillan Lectures in Fisheries; headwater stream. Seattle, WA: 1968 February 22-24; Vancouver, BC. University of Washington; 1978. 86 p. Vancouver, BC: University of British M.S. thesis. Columbia; 1969. 388 p. (p. 281-312). Lewis, S. L. Physical factors influenc- Hunt, R. L. Responses of a brook trout ing fish populations in pools of a population to habitat development in trout stream. Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. Lawrence Creek. Tech. Bull. 48. 98(1) :14-19; 1969. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; 1971. 35 p. Lister, D. B.; Marshall, D. E.; Hickey, D. G. Chum salmon survival and Hunt, R. L. A long-term evaluation of production at seven improved ground- trout habitat development and its water-fed spawning areas. Can. relation to improving management- Manuscr. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. related research. Trans. Am. Fish. 1595; 1980. 58 p. SOC. 105(3): 361-365; 1976. Lorz, H. W. Ecology and management of Hunt, R. L. Removal of woody streambank brown trout in Little Deschutes vegetation to improve trout habitat. River. Fish Res. Rep. 8. Portland, Tech. Bull. 115. Madison, WI: OR: Oregon Wildlife Commission; Wisconsin Department of Natural 1974. 49 p. Resources; 1979. 36 p. Lowry, G. R. Effect of habitat altera- Huntsman, A. G. Fertility and fertili- tion on brown trout in McKenzie zation of streams. J. Fish. Res. Creek, Wisconsin. Res. Rep. 70. Board Can. 7(5): 248-253; 1948. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; 1971. 27 p. Hynes, H. B. N. The stream and its valley. Verh. Int. Ver. Limnol. 19: Lund, J. A. Evaluation of stream 1-15; 1975. channelization and mitigation on the fishery resources of the St. Regis International Pacific Salmon Fisheries River, Montana. FWS/OBS-76/06. Commission. Effects of log driving on Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and the salmon and trout populations in Wildlife Service, Office of the Stellako River. Vancouver, (BC: Biological Services; 1976. 49 p. International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission; 1966; Prog. McNeil, W. J.; Ahnell, W. H. Success Rep. 14. 88 p. of pink salmon spawning relative to size of spawning materials. Spec. Kralik, N. J.; Sowerwine, J. E. The Sci. Rep. 469. Washington, DC: U.S. role of two northern California Fish and Wildlife Service; 1964. streams in the life history of 15 p. anadromous salmonids. Arcata, CA: Humboldt State University; 1977. Madsen, M. J. A preliminary investiga- 68 p. Joint M.S. thesis. tion into the results of stream improvement in the intermountain Latta, W. C. The effects of stream forest region. Trans. North Am. improvement upon the angler's catch Wildl. Conf. 3: 497-503; 1938. and standing crop of trout in the Pigeon River, Otsego County, Michigan. Res. and Dev. Rep. 265. Lansing, MI: Michigan Department of Natural Resources; 1972. 57 p.

23 Magill, A. Re Rehabilitation problems. Mih, W. C. Hydraulic restoration of In: Krygier, J. To; Hall, J. D., eds. stream gravels for spawning and Forest land uses and stream environ- rearing of salmon species. Rep. 33. ment: Proceedings of a symposium; Pullman, WA: Washington State 1970 Oct, 19-21; Corvallis, OR. Water Research Center; 1979. 34 p. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University; 1971: 230-231. Mih, W. C. Research and development of a salmon spawning gravel cleaner Mason, J. C. A further appraisal of the (Gravel Gertie). In: Salmon-spawning response to supplemental feeding of gravel: a renewable resource in the juvenile coho (0.kisutch) in an Pacific Northwest? Rep. 39. Pullman, experimental stream. Tech. Rep. 470. WA: Washington State Water Research Nanaimo, BC: Canada Fisheries and Center; 1981: 140-153. Marine Service; 1974. 26 p. Mullan, J. W. Is stream improvement Mason, J. C. Response of underyearling the answer? W. Va. Conserv. 26(6): coho salmon to supplemental feeding 25-30; 1962. in a natural stream. J. Wildl. Manage. 40(4): 775-788; 1976. Mundie, J. H.; Mounce, D. E. Applica- tion of stream ecology to raising Matthews, S. B.; Olson, F. W. Factors salmon smolts in high density. Verh. affecting Puget Sound coho salmon Int. Ver. Limnol. 20: 2013-2018; (Oncorhynchus kisutch) runs. Can. J. 1978. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37( 9) : 1373-1378; 1980. Murphy, M. L.; Hall, J. D. Varied effects of clear-cut logging on Maughan, 0, E.; Nelson, K. L.; Ney, J. J. predators and their habitat in small Evaluation of stream improvement streams of the Cascade Mountains, practices in southeastern trout Oregon. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. streams. Bull. 115. Blacksburg, VA: 38(2): 137-145; 1981. Virginia Water Resources Research Center; 1978. 67 p. Narver, D. W. Are hatcheries arid spawning channels alternatives to Meehan, W. R. Effects of gravel stream protection? Circ. 93. cleaning on bottom organisms in Nanaimo, BC: Fisheries Research three southeast Alaska streams. Board of Canada; 1973. 11 p. Prog. Fish-Cult. 33(2): 107-111; 1971 Narver, D. W. Stream management for west coast anadromous salmonids. Megahan, W. F.; Platts, W. S.; Trout. 17(1): 7-13 (Suppl.); 1976. Kulesza, B. Riverbed improves over time: South Fork Salmon. In: Proceed- Nelson, R. W.; Horak, G. C.; Olson, J. E. ings, symposium on watershed Western reservoir and stream habitat management; 1980 July 21-23; Boise, improvements handbook. FWS/OBS-78/56. ID, New York: American Society of Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Civil Engineering; 1980: 380-395. Wildlife Service, Office of Biolog- ical Services; 1978. 250 p. Merrell, T. R. Stream improvement as conducted on the Clatskanie River Newbold, J. D,; Erman, D. C.; Roby, K. B. and tributaries. Fish. Comm. Oreg Effects of logging on macroinverte- Res. Briefs 3(2): 41-47; 1951. brates in streams with and without buffer strips. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37( 7) : 1076-1085; 1980. Mih, W. C. A review of restoration of stream gravel for spawning and rearing of salmon species. Fisheries. 3(1): 16-18; 1978.

24 Nickelson, T. E.; Hafele, R. E. Stream- Redmond, M. A. Natural production. In: flow requirements of salmonids. Bohne, J. R.; Sochasky, L., eds. Pro- Portland, OR: Oregon Department of ceedings, New England Atlantic Salmon Fish and Wildlife; 1978; Annual Restoration Conference; 1975 January progress report, Proj. AX-62. 26 p. 14-16; Boston, MA. Spec. Publ. Ser. 6. St. Andrews, NB: International Olson, R. W.; Armour, C. L. Economic Atlantic Salmon Foundation; 1975: considerations for improved livestock 134-135 . management approaches for fish and wildlife in riparian/stream areas. Reeves, G. H., Roelofs, T. D. Influence In: Cope, 0. B., ed. Grazing and of forest and rangeland management riparian/stream ecosystems: Proceed- on anadromous fish habitat in ings of the forum; 1978 November 3-4; western North America: 13. Rehabil- Denver, CO. Washington, DC: Trcut, itating and enhancing stream Unlimited; 1979: 67-71. habitat: 2. Field applications. Meehan, W. R., tech. ed. Gen. Tech. Outdoor California. It' s new'. The Rep. PNW-140. Portland, OR: U.S. "riffle sifter." Outdoor Calif. Department of Agriculture, Forest 29(6): 12-13; 1968. Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station; 1982. Parkinson, E. A.; Slaney, P. A. A 38 p. review of enhancement techniques applicable to anadromous gamefishes. Richard, J. B. Log stream improvement Fish. Manage. Rep. 66. Victoria, BC: devices and their effects upon the British Columbia Fish and Wildlife fish population, South Fork Branch; 1975. 100 p. Mokelumne River, Calaveras County, California. Inland Fish. Adm. Rep. Peterson, N. P. The role of spring 63-7. Sacramento, CA: California ponds in the winter ecology and Department of Fish and Game; 1963. natural production of coho salmon 12 p. (Oncorhynchus kisutch) on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, Richards [Richard], J. You can't build Seattle, WA: University of a trout stream. Outdoor Calif. 25(7): Washington; 1980. 96 p. M.S. thesis. 3-4; 1964.

Platts, W. S. Influence of forest and Saunders, J. W.; Smith, M. W. Physical rangeland management on anadromous alteration of stream habitat to fish habitat in western North improve brook trout production. America: 7. Effects of livestock Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. 91(2): 185-188; grazing. Meehan, W. R., tech. ed. 1962. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-124. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Scarnecchia, D. L. Effects of stream- Forest Service, Pacific Northwest flow and upwelling on yield of wild Forest and Range Experiment Station; coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) 1981. 25 p. in Oregon. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 38( 6) : 471-475; 1981. Platts, W. S.; Megahan, W. F. Time trends in channel sediment size com- Shapley, S. P.; Bishop, D. M. Sedimen- position in salmon and steelhead tation in a salmon stream. J. Fish. spawning areas: South Fork Salmon Res. Board Can. 22(4): 919-927; 1965. River, Idaho. Trans. North Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf, 40: Shetter, D. S., Clark, 0. H.; 229-239; 1975. Hazzard, A. S. The effects of deflectors in a section of a Michigan trout stream. Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. (1946) 76: 248-278; 1949.

25 Smoker, W. A. Effects of streamflow on U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest silver salmon production in western Service. Fish stream improvement Washington. Seattle, WA: University handbook. Washington, DC: U.S. of Washington; 1955. 198 p. Ph. D. Department of Agriculture, Forest thesis. Service; 1952. 21 p.

Stewart, P. A. Physical factors influ- U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau encing trout density in a small of Land Management. Stream preserva- stream. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado tion and improvement. In: U.S. Bureau State University; 1970. 78 p. Ph. D. of Land Management Manual. Washing- thesis. ton, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management; Stockner, J. G.; Shortreed, K. R. S. 1968: Section 6760. [49 p.] Enhancement of auto trophic produc- tion by nutrient addition in a Ward, 8. R.; Slaney, P. A. Evaluation coastal rainforest stream on of in-stream enhancement structures Vancouver Island. J. Fish. Res. for the production of juvenile Board Can. 35(1): 28-34; 1978. steelhead trout and coho salmon in the Keogh River: progress 1977 and Swanston, D. N.; Swanson, F. J. Timber 1978. Fish. Tech. Circ. 45. harvesting, mass erosion and Vancouver, BC: British Columbia steepland geomorphology in the Ministry of the Environment; 1979. Pacific Northwest. In: Coates, D. R. 47 p. ed. Geomorphology and engineering. Stroudsburg , PA: Dowden, Hutchinson Wendler, H. 0.; Deschamps, G. Logging and Ross, Inc.; 1976: 199-221. dams on coastal Washington streams. Wash. State Dep. Fish. Res. Pap. Tarzwell, C. M. Progress in lake and l(3): 27-38; 1955. stream improvement. Trans. Am. Game Conf. 21: 119-134; 1935. Wesche, T. A. Development and applica- tion of a trout cover rating system Tarzwell, C. M. Experimental evidence for IFN determination. In: Orsborn, on the value of trout stream manage- J. F.; Allman, C. H., eds. Instream ment in Michigan. Trans. Am. Fish. flow needs: Proceedings of a SOC. (1936) 66: 177-187; 1937. symposium; 1976 May 3-6; Boise, ID. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Tarzwell, C. M. An evaluation of the Society; 1976: 224-234. Vol. 2. methods and results of stream improvement in the Southwest. Trans. West, D. C.; Reeher, J. A.; Hewkin, North Am. Wildl. Conf. 3: 339-364; J. A. Habitat improvement to enhance 1938. anadromous fish production. Portland, OR: Oregon State Game Commission; Toews, D. A. A.; Brownlee, M. J. 1965a; Closing report, Clear Creek A handbook for fish habitat protec- Pro j. 11, Columbia River Fisheries tion on forest lands in British Development Program. 10 p. Columbia. Vancouver, BC: Canada Department of Fisheries and Oceans; 1981. 173 p.

26 West, D. C.; Reeher, J. A.; Hewkin, J. A. Habitat improvement to enhance LITERATURE CITED - anadromous fish production. Portland, UNPUBLISHED OR: Oregon State Game Commission; 1965b; Closing report, Tex Creek Bender, R. Log sills. Report from fish Proj. 10, Columbia River Fisheries habitat improvement workshop; 1978 Development Program. 20 p. September 26-27; 0choco.Kanger Station, Prineville, OR. Portland, White, R. J. Responses of trout popula- OR: Oregon Department of Fish and tions to habitat change in Big Wildlife; 1978. 17 p. (p. 7). Roche-a-Cr i Creek, Wisconsin. Madison, WI: University of Claire, E. Fencing: Camp Creek. Report Wisconsin; 1972. 296 p. Ph. D. from fish habitat improvement thesis. workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger Station, Prineville, White, R. J. In-stream management for OR. Portland, OR: Oregon Department wild trout. In: King, W., ed. Wild of Fish and Wildlife; 1978a. 17 p. trout management. Denver, CO: Trout, (p. 9-10). Unlimited; 1975a: 48-58. Claire, E. Flow recovery. Report from White, R. J. Trout population responses fish habitat improvement workshop; to streamflow fluctuation and 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger habitat management in Big Roche-a-Cri Station, Prineville, OR. Portland, Creek, Wisconsin. Verh. Int. Ver. OR: Oregon Department of Fish and Limnol. 19: 2469-2477; 1975b. Wildlife; 1978b. 17 p. (p. 8).

White, R. J.; Brynildson, 0. M. Claire, E. Rock work. Report from fish Guidelines for management of trout habitat improvement workshop; 1978 stream habitat in Wisconsin. Tech. September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger Bull. 39. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Station, Prineville, OR. Portland, Department of Natural Resources; OR: Oregon Department of Fish and 1967. 65 p. Wildlife; 1978c. 17 p. (p. 2-3).

Wilson, D. A. Salmonid spawning habitat Claire, E. W. Stream habitat and improvement study. Olympia, WA: - riparian restoration techniques: Washington State Department of guidelines to consider in their use. Fisheries; 1976; Project completion 1980. Manuscript prepared for report, Proj. 1-93-D. 20 p. Workshop for Design of Fish Habitat and Watershed Restoration Projects. Winegar, H. H. Camp Creek channel fencing--plant, wildlife, soil and Duff, D. A. Livestock grazing impacts water response. Rangeman' s J. 4( 1): on aquatic habitat in Big Creek, 10-12; 1977. Utah. Manuscript prepared for Livestock and Wildlife/Fisheries Wydoski, R. S.; Duff, D. A. Indexed Workshop; 1977 May 3-5; Reno, NV; bibliography on stream habitat 1977. 33 p. improvement. ,Tech. Note 322. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Engels, J. D. Use of gabions in stream Bureau of Land Management; 1978. habitat improvement. Eugene, OR: 35 p. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management; 1975. Ziemer, G. L. Steeppass fishway devel- 18 p. opment. Inf. Leafl. 12. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and Game; Everest, F. H. Economics of fencing 1962. 9 p. streams to protect fish. Corvallis, OR: U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forestry Sciences Laboratory; 1978. 9 p.

27 Hall, J. D.; Baker, C. 0. Biological Johnson, D. E. Analysis of post-project impacts of organic debris in Pacific temperatures and of fish species and Northwest streams. In: Logging populations of the Siuslaw River debris in streams: Proceedings of a drainage. Eugene, OR: U.S. Department workshop; 1975 September 9-10. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Corvallis, OR: Oregon State Management; 1977. 5 p. University; 1975. 13 p. Marcuson, P. E. The effect of cattle Hammer, R. Aquatic habitat improvement grazing on brown trout in Rock Creek, (district summary). Eugene, OR: U.S. Montana. Helena, MT: Montana Depart- Department of the Interior, Bureau ment of Fish and Game; 1977; Spec. of Land Management; 1976. 2 p. Rep. Proj. No. F-20-R-21, 2a. 26 p.

Hammer, R. Fishery evaluation for Roppel, P. Existing and currently Eugene District stream improvement proposed fisheries rehabilitation structures. Eugene, OR: U.S. and enhancement projects in Southeast Department of the Interior, Bureau Alaska. Juneau, AK: Alaska of Land Management; 1977. 3 p. Department of Fish and Game, Fisheries Rehabi li t at ion, Enhance- Heiser, D. W. Rear River rehabili- ment, and Development Division; tation: pink and chum salmon 1978. 22 p. investigations. Olympia, WA: Washington State Department of Saltznan, W. 0. A report of the stream Fisheries; 1971, 9 p. Progress clearance activities conducted by report. the Oregon State Game Commission on the Siuslaw River system. Portland, Heiser, D. W. Cedar River gravel OR: Oregon State Gane Commission; improvement: pink and chum salmon 1964. 21 p. investigations. Olympia, WA: Was hing ton State Department of Sheridan, W. L.; Wilke, R. W.; Fisheries; 1972a. 9 p. Progress Olson, S. T. The gravel cleaner report. ("riffle sifter"). Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Heiser, D. We Spawning ground Service, Alaska Region; 1968. 8 p. improvement--gravel loosening, 1971- ,Progress report 1967. 1972. Olympia, WA: Washington State Department of Fisheries; 1972b. 6 p. Sumers, V. C.; Neubauer, E, K. Closing Progress report. report for the coastal stream improvement and rehabilitation Hutchison, J. Use of dynamite to create program. Portland, OR: Fish Commis- fish rearing pools in Siuslaw River sion of Oregon; 1965. 46 p. tributaries. Portland, OR: Oregon State Game Commission; 1973. 10 p. Sweet, M. Fish habitat improvement information for the Alaska Region. Hutchison, J. Blasting bedrock pools. Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of In: Report from fish habitat Agriculture, Forest Service, Alaska improvement workshop; 1978 September Region; 1975. 13 p. 26-27; Ochoco Ranger Station, Prineville, OR. Portland, OR: Oregon Winegar, H. Fencing. Report from fish Department of Fish and Wildlife; habitat improvement workshop; 1978 1978. 17 p. (p. 6-7). September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger Station, Prineville, OR. Portland, OR: Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife; 1978. 17 p. (p. 9).

28 DIRECTORY FOR PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

Anderson, J. W. (1978) Narver, Do W. (1978) USDI Bureau of Land Management British Columbia Ministry of 333 South Fourth the Environment Coos Bay, OR 97420 Fish and Wildlife Branch 400-1019 Wharf Street Bender, R.; Mullarkey, W. (1978) Victoria, BC V8W 221 Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife Nelson, D. C. (1978) 300 Fifth Street, Bay Park Alaska Department of Fish and Game Coos say, OR 97420 P.O. Box 3150 Soldotna, AK 99669 Claire, E, (1978) Oregon Department of Fish and Oliver, F, (1978) Wildlife USDI Bureau of Land Management P.O. Box 19 Roseburg, OR 97470 John Day, OR 97845 Slaney, P. A, (1981) Cowan, L. (1981) British Columbia Ministry of the Washington State Department of Environment. Fisheries Fish and Wildlife Branch 115 General Administration Building Vancouver, BC V6T 1W5 Olympia, WA 98504 White, R. J, (1981) Evans, W. A. (1978) Department of Biology USDA Forest Service Montana State University 630 Sansome Street Bozeman, MT 59715 San Francisco, CA 94111 Wilson, D. A, (1978) Everest, F, H. (1981) Washington State Department of USDA Forest Service Fisheries Fore stry Sciences Laboratory 115 General Administration Building 3200 Jefferson Way Olympia, SJA 98507 Corvallis, OR 97331 Winegar, H. (1978) Hammer, R. (1978) Oregon Department of Fish and USDI Bureau of Land Management Wildlife Eugene District Office Paulina Star Route, Box 5 1225 Pearl Street Prineville, OR 97754 Eugene, OR 97401

Heller, D. (1978, 1981) USDA Forest Service Mt. Hood National Forest 19559 Divksion Portland, OR 97030

29 The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National Grasslands, it strives - as directed by Congress - to provide increasingly greater service to a growing Nation. The U.S. Department of Agriculture is an Equal Opportunity Employer. Applicants for all Department programs will be given equal consideration without regard to age, race, color, sex, religion, or national origin.

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station 809 NE Sixth Avenue

Portland, Oregon 97232 GPO 996-049