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Vulnerability, Risk Perception, and Livelihood Strategies Among VULNERABILITY, RISK PERCEPTION, AND LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES AMONG RIVERSIDE COMMUNITIES OF RAMGATI UPAZILA IN BANGLADESH: THE ROLE OF EMBANKMENT By Mizanur Rahman May 2020 Director of Thesis: E. Jeffrey Popke, PhD Major Department: Geography, Planning, and Environment Due to its geographical location and socioeconomic conditions, the country of Bangladesh in vulnerable to the hazard of riverbank erosion, which poses a significant threat to homes, property and livelihoods. In recent years, the government of Bangladesh has intensified efforts to mitigate riverbank erosion by hardening shorelines, including the building of concrete revetments, but the local dynamics of these interventions is not well-documented. This thesis presents results from a study of risk perception and livelihood adaption following the construction of a 3.5 kilometer concrete revetment in the administrative district of Ramgati in the lower Meghna River basin of Bangladesh. Drawing on data from a community survey (n=381), as well as interviews (n=24) with key informants and local households, this research has three principle aims: first, to document the socio-economic conditions of local residents and their vulnerability to the impacts of riverbank erosion; second, to identify local adaptation responses against riverbank erosion in Ramgati, including the factors leading to the construction of the revetment; and third, to examine the changing livelihood patterns and risk perceptions of Ramgati residents in the context of the newly- built revetment. To do so, the study assessed the association between location and socioeconomic status and perceptions and livelihood responses, and compared the views of households now protected by the revetment and those who live in areas still subject to riverbank erosion. This study concludes that households in Ramgati are vulnerable to riverbank erosion due to their dependence on primary occupations. Riverbank erosion has led to the loss of houses and lands, and has had a negative impact on the socioeconomic development of the Ramgati area. Results from this study show that the recently built revetment has had a positive impact on local livelihoods and has altered the risk perception of residents. Households protected by the revetment report that they are doing well in their occupations and are less worried about riverbank erosion than households that remain unprotected. VULNERABILITY, RISK PERCEPTION, AND LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES AMONG RIVERSIDE COMMUNITIES OF RAMGATI UPAZILA IN BANGLADESH: THE ROLE OF EMBANKMENT A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Geography, Planning, and Environment East Carolina University A Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Masters of Science in Geography By Mizanur Rahman May 2020 © Mizanur Rahman, 2020 VULNERABILITY, RISK PERCEPTION, AND LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES AMONG RIVERSIDE COMMUNITIES OF RAMGATI UPAZILA IN BANGLADESH: THE ROLE OF EMBANKMENT By Mizanur Rahman APPROVED BY: DIRECTOR OF THESIS: E. Jeffrey Popke, PhD COMMEETTEE MEMBER: Scott Curtis, PhD COMMEETTEE MEMBER: Burrell Montz, PhD COMMEETTEE MEMBER: Thomas W. Crawford, PhD CHAIR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, PLANNING, AND ENVIRONMENT: Thad Wasklewicz, PhD DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL: Paul J Gemperline, Ph. D. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have been working on this thesis for one and half years. Since the beginning of this thesis a person has been guiding me. Without him this research would not have been successful. This person is none other than my honorable advisor Dr. Jeff Popke. I want to express my gratitude to my advisor for his hard works to make this thesis has been accomplished. I would like to thank my committee members Dr. Scott Curtis, Dr. Burrell Montz, Dr. and Dr. Thomas W. Crawford for their valuable guides. Special thanks to Dr. Thomas W. Crawford, Dr. Scott Curtis for, Dr. Munshi Khaledur Rahman, Shariful Islam and other team members of NSF project “Coastal Erosion Vulnerabilities, Monsoon Dynamics, and Human Adaptive Response” for providing the data and funding support for this research. I would also like to thank the Department of Geography, Planning and Environment for all the support throughout my journey in ECU. I express my sincere appreciation to others who helped me so much through this research: My Parents Nazmul Hoq and Anwara Begum, Brothers, Sisters, and Friends. Finally, I am thankful to the residents of Ramgati Upazila, without their participation, the goals of this research would not have been accomplished. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Title Page ......................................................................................................................................... i Copyright ....................................................................................................................................... ii Signature Page .............................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................1 1.1 The Problem of Riverbank Erosion in Bangladesh........................................................1 1.2 Measures to Control Riverbank Erosion ........................................................................2 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .....................................................................................6 2.1 Environmental Geography and Hazards Research .......................................................6 2.2 Risk and Vulnerability .................................................................................................8 2.3 Risk Perception ..........................................................................................................10 2.4 Adaptation ...................................................................................................................12 2.5 River Hazards and Initiatives .......................................................................................13 2.6 History of Embankments in Bangladesh .....................................................................15 2.7 Previous Studies Related to Riverbank Erosion in Bangladesh ..................................19 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ...............................................................................................23 3.1 Study Area ..................................................................................................................23 3.2 Survey Data Analysis ..................................................................................................26 3.3 Interviews and Analysis ..............................................................................................27 CHAPTER 4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND LIVELIHOOD PRACTICES .............31 4.1 Population Characteristics ...........................................................................................31 4.2 Education ....................................................................................................................32 4.3 Occupations and livelihoods .......................................................................................34 4.3.1 Spatial Variation of Livelihoods: .................................................................41 4.4 Socioeconomic Status ..................................................................................................42 4.4.1 Households Income ......................................................................................43 4.4.2 Household Size ............................................................................................46 4.4.3 Housing Structure ........................................................................................48 4.4.4 Source of Energy ..........................................................................................50 4.4.5 Source of Drinking Water ............................................................................52 4.4.6 Household Assets .........................................................................................53 4.5 Summary ......................................................................................................................54 CHAPTER 5 ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES, IMPACTS OF RIVERBANK EROSION, HOUSEHOLD ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, AND GOVERNMENT RESPONSES ................................................................................................................................56 5.1 Environmental challenges ...........................................................................................56 5.2 Extent of Riverbank Erosion .......................................................................................58 5.3 Impact of Riverbank Erosion ......................................................................................62 5.3.1 Migration Dynamics ....................................................................................63 5.3.2 Impacts on Household Income .....................................................................65 5.3.3 Impacts on Riverside
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