Journal of Phonetics 40 (2012) 162–176
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Journal of Phonetics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/phonetics
Coarticulation between tone and glottal consonants in Itunyoso Trique
Christian T. DiCanio n
Laboratoire Dynamique du Langage, Universite´ de Lyon-2, France article info abstract
Article history: This paper investigates the realization of contrastive tone in three non-modal phonation contexts Received 13 May 2010 (creaky phonation, glottal closure, and breathy phonation) in Itunyoso Trique, an Oto-Manguean Received in revised form language spoken in Oaxaca, Mexico. The study examines how coarticulatory glottalization (creaky 21 September 2011 phonation, glottal closure) coincides with coarticulatory pitch perturbations and spectral tilt changes Accepted 5 October 2011 on neighboring vowels. The onset of laryngeally induced F perturbation effects and the timing of Available online 10 November 2011 0 changes in spectral tilt were examined using acoustic data from six speakers of the language. The results show that in contexts where substantial non-modal phonation spreads onto the adjacent vowel, greater pitch effects are observed. In contexts where abrupt glottal closure occurs, less coarticulatory changes in spectral tilt and pitch are observed on adjacent vowels. In addition, strong tonal effects are observed for certain spectral measures. These findings are discussed in relation to the literature on tonogenesis and coarticulatory pitch effects. & 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction tone1 or phonation-type contrasts has received relatively less attention. These studies have concentrated mainly on tone–tone One of the principal topics of study in phonetics is how sounds coarticulation (Brunelle, 2003; Peng, 1997; Xu, 1994, 1997, 1999, are coarticulated with one another in the process of speech 2004, 2005; Xu & Liu, 2006; Xu & Sun, 2002) and, to a lesser production. Coarticulation varies considerably cross-linguistically extent, tone–syllable alignment (Maddieson, 2004; Myers, 2000; (Beddor, Harnsberger, & Lindemann, 2002; Farnetani & Recasens, Xu, 2004, 1998; Xu & Liu, 2006; Zsiga & Nitisaroj, 2007). Yet, few 1999; Gibbon, Hardcastle, & Nicolaidis, 1993; Han, 2007; studies address how tones are coarticulated with particular sound Maddieson & Emmorey, 1985; Manuel, 1990, 1999; O¨ hman, types (see Silverman, 1997a, 1997b; Xu & Xu, 2003; Zee, 1980). 1967; Przezdziecki, 2005; Scarborough, 2004; Whalen, 1990). The present work focuses on how tone is coarticulated with A substantial amount of research has argued that such variation glottal consonants in Itunyoso Trique, an Oto-Manguean language is not merely language-specific, but the result of more general with nine contrastive tones (DiCanio, 2008). The language is ideal mechanistic (Browman & Goldstein, 1986, 1990; Byrd, 1996a, for the investigation of tone–glottal coarticulation, because tones 1996b; Gick, 1999; Gick, Campbell, Oh, & Tamburri-Watt, 2006; are distributed quite freely in contexts with glottal consonants, Krakow, 1989, 1993, 1999) or perceptual constraints on speech e.g. on vowels in /Vsegment tions reduce coarticulation to more general linguistic principles, a coarticulation and to test how changes in the relative timing of number of recent cross-linguistic studies argue that coarticulation glottal consonants affect F0 on adjacent vowels. is not sensitive to perceptual or mechanical factors, but is largely The study also tests the hypothesis that gradual phasing language-specific. Language-specific factors which influence coar- between vowels and glottal consonants will result in greater ticulatory timing include lexical contrast (Scarborough, 2004), coarticulatory effects on F0 (Silverman, 1997b). Abrupt phasing phonological inventory size (Manuel, 1999), and the phonological occurs where the glottal consonants surface with long-duration distribution of contrasts (Bird, Caldecott, Campbell, Gick, & Shaw, closure (for a glottal stop), or long-duration voiceless aspiration 2008; Howe & Pulleyblank, 2001; Manuel, 1999; Miller, 2007). (for a glottal fricative). Gradual phasing of glottal consonants A majority of the research on coarticulation has focused occurs when they are accompanied with creaky and breathy on consonant and vowel timing. Work on the coarticulation of phonation. Assuming that abrupt transitions are associated with
n Tel.: þ33 4 69 60 07 01. 1 In this paper, all references to tone refer to lexical pitch contrasts, not E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] intonational units.
0095-4470/$ - see front matter & 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2011.10.006 C.T. DiCanio / Journal of Phonetics 40 (2012) 162–176 163 smaller coarticulatory effects (and less coarticulatory blending) 2003). These findings suggest that one cannot easily predict how
(Farnetani & Recasens, 1999; Munhall & Lofqvist,¨ 1992), one ejectives and aspirated obstruents will influence F0. predicts less F0 perturbation in contexts where glottal consonants For glottal closure gestures unassociated with oral consonant are abruptly phased and greater F0 perturbation effects in con- gestures, similar mixed findings are observed. Historically, coda texts where they are gradually phased. Coda glottalization is glottal closure induced pitch-raising in Vietnamese tonogenesis abruptly phased in Itunyoso Trique, while coda breathiness and (Diffloth, 1989; Haudricourt, 1954; Thurgood, 2002), Chinese intervocalic glottalization are gradually phased.2 tonogenesis (Matisoff, 1973), Molinos and San Miguel el Grande The article is organized as follows: in Section 1.1, I provide a Mixtec tonogenesis (Durr,¨ 1987), and Kaska and Tanacross Atha- background on the interaction between glottal consonants, non- baskan tonogenesis (Kingston, 2005). In Burmese, only low tones modal phonation type, and F0.InSection 1.2, I provide a short surface before a coda [<], reflecting a historical pattern of pitch- discussion of the predictions in the current study. In Section 1.3, lowering before coda glottal closure (Lee, 2008). However, glottal I provide the background of the Itunyoso Trique language. In closure also induced pitch-lowering in Sarcee and Navajo tono- Section 2, I discuss the methods used for the elicitation and genesis (Kingston, 2005) and in Silacoyoapan and Alacatlazala analysis of the spectral tilt and F0 data. In Sections 3.2–3.4,I Mixtec tonogenesis (Durr,¨ 1987). In Mixtepec Mixtec, historical present the results for each of the three comparisons. In Section 4, n/Lhasa Tibetan (Hu & Xiong, 2010) but terns of F0 perturbation. F0-raising on the preceding vowel in Arabic (Hombert, Ohala, & Ewan, 1979). In some cases, glottal closure may simply fail to
induce any consistent F0 perturbations on adjacent vowels, as in 1.1. The relationship between non-modal phonation type and F0 Navajo (DeJong & McDonough, 1993). The patterns observed for glottal fricatives are different. When Prior to the investigation of tone–glottal coarticulation, I it is unassociated with an oral consonant gesture, the typical provide some background on the interaction between glottal pattern is for F0-lowering to occur (Hombert et al., 1979). For states and F0. Non-modal phonation type and glottal consonants instance, it is well-established that Vietnamese falling tones are known for influencing F0, both synchronically (DiCanio, 2009; derived from historical coda /h/ (Thurgood, 2002). In Kickapoo Garellek & Keating, 2011; Lee, 2008; Mazaudon & Michaud, 2008; (Algonquian), vowels preceding a preaspirated stop or /h/ are
Silverman, 1997b; Watkins, 2002), and diachronically via pro- produced with a low F0 (Gathercole, 1983). In Arabic, the vowel ¨ cesses of tonogenesis and tonal mutation (Durr, 1987; preceding a coda /h/ also undergoes F0 lowering (Hombert, 1976). Haudricourt, 1954; Hombert, 1979; Kingston, 2005; Mazaudon The variability in glottally induced F0 perturbation effects can & Michaud, 2008; Svantesson & House, 2006; Thurgood, 2002). be partially explained if one considers how glottal gestures can Glottal closure and glottal frication have been associated with F0- overlap within the speech signal. In contexts where glottal lowering and F0-raising on adjacent vowels. Non-modal phona- frication does not occur with devoicing, a breathy or lax phona- tion types, such as breathy, creaky, and tense phonation, also vary tion type may occur. In contexts adjacent to glottal closure or in the magnitude to which they perturb F0. Yet, there is a greater when complete glottal closure is not achieved, creaky or tense convergence in the literature concerning the relationship between phonation may occur. Both breathy and creaky phonation type phonation type and F0 than there is for glottal consonants and F0. induce F0-lowering (Gordon & Ladefoged, 2001). Examples where Coarticulatory F0 effects associated with glottal closure or breathy or lax phonation induce F0-lowering are found in a frication vary depending on whether the glottal gesture is bound variety of languages, such as Chong (DiCanio, 2009; Thongkum, with an oral consonant gesture. For instance, ejective consonants 1991), Wa (Watkins, 2002), Hani (Ladefoged & Maddieson, 1985), which surface with complete glottal closure (so called stiff Yi (Ladefoged & Maddieson, 1985), Jalapa Mazatec (Garellek & ejectives) often induce F0-raising on the following vowel, whereas Keating, 2011), and Santa Ana del Valle Zapotec (Esposito, 2004). slack ejectives induce F0-lowering and creaky phonation on the Absent are cases where breathy phonation causes F0-raising to following vowel (Kingston, 1985). This distinction between ejec- occur. Creaky phonation is also associated with significant tive types is theoretically appealing, as it categorizes abruptly F0-lowering in a variety of languages, such as San Lucas Quiavinı´ timed glottal gestures with certain predictable phonetic effects Zapotec (Cha´vez Peo´ n, 2010), Santa Ana del Valle Zapotec and more gradually timed glottal gestures with different effects. (Esposito, 2004), Yucatec Maya (Frazier, 2009), Coatzospan Mixtec However, this distinction is also problematic. For instance, in (Gerfen & Baker, 2005), Mandarin Chinese (Silverman, 1997b), Witsuwit’en, ejectives induce F0-lowering for some speakers and within English (Hillenbrand & Houde, 1996; Huffman, 2005).
(mostly women) and F0-raising for others (mostly men) (Wright, Tense phonation, on the other hand, co-occurs with higher F0 Hargus, & Davis, 2002). The authors observed F0-lowering and values (DiCanio, 2009; Ladefoged & Maddieson, 1985). F0-raising effects for both longer, prototypically stiff ejectives and for shorter slack ejectives. F0 lowering and raising patterns 1.2. Predictions concerning coarticulatory F0 effects are also observed for aspirated obstruents. Higher F0 is observed after aspirated stops in Korean (Cho, Jun, & Ladefoged, 2002; Dart, The greater consistency of F0 effects associated with phonation 1987; Hardcastle, 1973; Jun, 1993, 1995), Cantonese (Francis, type allows us to make certain predictions. If glottal consonants Ciocca, Ka Man Wong, & Ka Lam Chan, 2006), and English are produced in a gradual manner, with substantial accompany- (Hombert, 1975; Kingston, Diehl, Kirk, & Castleman, 2008). How- ing changes in non-modal phonation type, one predicts to find ever, aspirated stops condition F0-lowering in Mandarin (Xu & Xu, significant F0 effects on an adjacent vowel. However, the predic- tions for abruptly timed glottal consonants are unclear. One possibility, comprehensively discussed in Silverman (1997b),is 2 Throughout this paper, glottalization is used as a general term for either sustained glottal closure (a glottal stop) or vocal fry. Creaky phonation is used that glottal consonants are abruptly phased relative to vowels solely to refer to vocal fry (Gerratt & Kreiman, 2001). so that they may be perceptually recovered by the listener. 164 C.T. DiCanio / Journal of Phonetics 40 (2012) 162–176
Table 1 Tones on monosyllables in laryngeal contexts.
Pitch Glottal Tone CV Gloss CV< Gloss CVh Gloss Target Gesture /4/ b7e4 hair nn beh4 beat.3sg (intr.) /3/ n7e3 plow n7e<3 straw rope n7eh3 dream Non-overlap permits tone /2/ n7e2 to lie (tr.) n7i<2 smelly b7eh2 cave to be more clearly cued. /1/ n7e1 naked Overlap interferes with tonal cues. contrasts nine tonal patterns, tone is asymmetrically distributed, where a much smaller subset of the contrastive tones in the Fig. 1. Coarticulatory overlap governed by perceptual constraints. language may occur on a non-final syllable than on a final syllable. Certain tones have a restricted distribution with respect In languages with contrastive use of phonation type and tone, or to the coda glottal consonants /h/ and / F0. This idea is schematized in Fig. 1. by contrast, is normally realized with complete glottal closure in This explanation for the timing of F0 relative to phonation-type all contexts. Coda laryngeal consonants are both lexically and or glottal contrasts is compelling, as it accounts for the phonolo- morphologically contrastive. gical distribution of such contrasts in a large number of languages Due to the fact that more contrasts occur in final syllables in of the world. While speakers may be generally sensitive to how the language, the present study focuses on the coarticulation of they may be perceived by listeners, there is less clear phonetic tone only in final syllables in the different glottalization contexts evidence that such knowledge plays a role in determining in Table 1. Additionally, a variety of tones occur in the context of coarticulatory overlap. In terms of coarticulation, Silverman’s an intervocalic glottal stop, shown in Table 2. Intervocalic glottal theory predicts that abrupt glottal phasing prevents coarticula- stops are typically realized as creaky phonation without full tory F0 effects. If glottal consonants are produced in an abrupt glottal closure. As a comparison to the context of final glottaliza- manner, without substantial coarticulatory changes in non-modal tion, the realization of tone was examined in this intervocalic phonation type, one predicts less F0 perturbation. The current context. Spectrograms and waveforms demonstrating the realiza- study directly examines the hypothesis that the magnitude of tion of intervocalic and final glottalization are given in Fig. 2. Both coarticulatory overlap between glottal consonants and vowels is of these examples were extracted from similar carrier sentences. correlated with the amount of corresponding F0 perturbation. Apart from testing this relationship, this paper addresses a separate empirical question: how are tones and laryngeals pro- 2. Methods duced in Itunyoso Trique. Three comparisons were made which tested the magnitude of 1.3. Itunyoso Trique background and phonology tone–laryngeal coarticulation in Trique words: /V:/ vs. /Vh/, /V:/ vs. /V Table 2 Tones in context of intervocalic / s2 /4/ /3/ /2/ /1/ /43/ /32/ /45/ s1 /4/ ja~4