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OIL in OUR OCEANS a Review of the Impacts of Oil Spills on Marine Invertebrates

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OIL in OUR OCEANS a Review of the Impacts of Oil Spills on Marine Invertebrates OIL IN OUR OCEANS A Review of the Impacts of Oil Spills on Marine Invertebrates Michele Blackburn, Celeste A. S. Mazzacano, Candace Fallon, and Scott Hoffman Black The Xerces Society FOR INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION Oil in Our Oceans A Review of the Impacts of Oil Spills on Marine Invertebrates Michele Blackburn Celeste A. S. Mazzacano Candace Fallon Scott Hoffman Black The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation Oregon • California • Minnesota • Nebraska North Carolina • New Jersey • Texas www.xerces.org Protecting the Life that Sustains Us The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation is a nonprofit organization that protects wildlife through the conservation of invertebrates and their habitat. Established in 1971, the Society is at the forefront of invertebrate protection, harnessing the knowledge of scientists and the enthusiasm of citizens to implement conservation programs worldwide. The Society uses advocacy, education, and applied research to promote invertebrate conservation. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation 628 NE Broadway, Suite 200, Portland, OR 97232 Tel (855) 232-6639 Fax (503) 233-6794 www.xerces.org Regional offices in California, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Texas. The Xerces Society is an equal opportunity employer and provider. © 2014 by The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation Acknowledgements Our thanks go to Beth Polidoro, Ph.D. (Marine Biodiversity Unit, IUCN Species Programme), Andrew Rogerson, Ph.D. (Sonoma State University), and Sarina Jepsen, director of Xerces' endangered species program, for valuable comments on earlier drafts of this report. The reviewers each improved the re- port, but the authors take sole responsibility for any errors that remain. Funding for this report was provided by Cinco and Xerces Society members. Thank you. Editing and layout: Matthew Shepherd. Printing: Print Results, Portland, OR. Recommended Citation Blackburn, M, C. A. S. Mazzacano, C. Fallon, and S. H. Black. 2014. Oil in Our Oceans. A Review of the Impacts of Oil Spills on Marine Invertebrates. 152 pp. Portland, OR: The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. Front Cover Photograph The Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary contains some of the best remaining coral reefs in the Gulf of Mexico. Photograph: NOAA Photo Library, NURC/UNCW and NOAA/FGBNMS. Contents Executive Summary Page 1 Importance of Marine Invertebrates, page 1; Impacts of Oil on Marine Inverte- brates, page 3; The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, page 4; Marine Invertebrates at Risk in the Gulf of Mexico, page 4; Conclusions, page 6. Introduction Page 7 PART 1 The Importance of Marine Invertebrates Page 8 Ecosystem Services, page 8. Marine Food Webs, page 8; Habitat Creation, page 11; Commercial Fisheries, page 11; Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Products, page 12; Water Filtration, page 13; Shoreline Stabilization and Coastline Protection, page 13; Tourism and Recreation, page 14. PART 2 Oil Impacts on Marine Invertebrates Page 16 The Fate of Spilled Oil, page 16. Physical and Chemical Weathering, page 16; Persistence and Bioavailability of Spilled Oil, page 19. Impacts of Oil on Marine Invertebrates, page 21. Acute impacts, page 21; Chronic Impacts, page 22. Impact of Oil on Marine Invertebrate Taxa Groups, page 23. Zooplankton, page 23; Benthic Invertebrate Taxa, page 25. Recovery and Recolonization, page 43. Case Studies: A History of Significant Marine Oil Spills Prior to the Deepwater Horizon, with Special Emphasis on Impacts to Invertebrates, page 46. 1969: Sinking of the barge Florida, page 46; 1970: Grounding of the tanker Ar- row, page 46; 1977: Grounding of the tanker Tsesis, page 48; 1978: Grounding of the tanker Amoco Cadiz, page 48; 1989: Blowout of the platform Ixtoc I, page 49; 1989: Grounding of the supertanker Exxon Valdez, page 51; 1991: Delib- erate oil Releases during the Gulf War, page 52; 1996: Grounding of the barge North Cape, page 53. PART 3 The Deepwater Horizon Disaster Page 54 The Gulf of Mexico Ecosystem, page 54. Impacts of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill on Marine Invertebrates, page 56. Routes of Exposure, page 56; Invertebrate Taxa Impacted by the Deepwater Hori- zon Oil Spill, page 59. Data Gaps and Continuing Research Needs, page 68. (Continued on next page) PART 4 Marine Invertebrates at Risk in the Gulf of Mexico Page 70 Corals, page 73. Elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata, page 75; Staghorn coral, Acropora cervicornis, page 78; Lamarck’s sheet coral, Agaricia lamarcki, page 81; Boulder star coral, Montastraea annularis, page 83; Mountainous star coral, Montastraea faveolata, page 85; Star coral, Montastraea franksi, page 87; Pillar coral, Dendrogyra cylin- drus, page 89; Elliptical star coral, Dichocoenia stokesii, page 91; Rough cactus coral, Mycetophyllia ferox, page 93. Sensitive Species Groups, page 95. Crustaceans, page 95; Echinoderms, page 96; Mollusks, page 97; Sponges, page 99. Sensitive Marine Communities, page 101. Deep-Sea Coral Communities, page 101; Deep-Sea Cold Seeps, page 105. Conclusion Page 106 Appendices Page 108 A: Gulf of Mexico Marine Invertebrates at Risk, page 108. B: Florida’s Marine Invertebrates of Greatest Conservation Concern (Gulf of Mex- ico), page 110. Abbreviations and Acronyms; Units and Conversions; Glossary Page 114 Literature Cited Page 119 Executive Summary The overwhelming majority of marine biodiversity is represented by invertebrates, including sea stars, mussels, oysters, crabs, corals, and many thousands of other multicellular and unicellular animals. De- spite this numerical dominance, marine invertebrates are extremely understudied. Marine invertebrates create and sustain invertebrate and vertebrate fisheries with huge commercial and recreational econom- ic importance, they form extensive structures such as coral reefs and oyster beds that minimize wave action and protect shorelines from erosion and storm damage, and they are at the center of marine food webs. More than 1.3 million metric tons of petroleum enters the sea annually. Human-induced sources of oil in marine habitats include spills, discharges of treated and untreated ballast water from oil tankers, effluents from oil refineries, oil/water separators on production platforms, and terrestrial sources such as effluent from sewage treatment plants and runoff from roads and parking lots. Oil spill damages are frequently presented only in terms of impacts on the so-called “charismatic megafauna” such as seals and seabirds and not in terms of impacts on invertebrate communities, which are often unknown or poorly assessed. Because marine invertebrates are fundamentally important in sustaining ocean biodiversity and are key components of multiple marine ecosystems from estuaries to the deep sea, it is important to understand the impacts of oil spills on both marine invertebrates and the animals that depend on them. This report reviews the current science on the impacts of oil spills on marine invertebrates, with additional emphasis on the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, which was the larg- est, deepest, and most prolonged offshore oil spill in U.S. history. In reviewing the current research, we summarize the effects of previous oil spills on a variety of habitats and invertebrate taxa worldwide, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Persian Gulf; identify knowledge gaps regarding marine invertebrate respons- es to oil spills and their subsequent recovery; and discuss marine invertebrate species and species groups of conservation concern in the Gulf of Mexico. Importance of Marine Invertebrates Marine invertebrates play important roles in water purification, habitat creation, and shoreline erosion control. They are critical food sources for a variety of marine wildlife, provide and sustain large com- mercial fisheries for humans, support lucrative tourist activities in coral reef snorkeling and fishing, and are important in the development of new pharmaceutical compounds. They are an integral part of marine food webs, comprising part or all of the diets of many fish, birds, and mammals. Zooplankton (tiny crustaceans and the embryos and larvae of other invertebrates) which are abundant in the water column form an important link in the marine food web, transferring energy captured by microscopic single-celled plants (phytoplankton) to higher-order consumers including fish, whales, and birds. Inver- tebrates inhabiting the substrate are an important food source for other invertebrates (lobsters, crabs, snails, octopuses), as well as birds, fish, and marine mammals. Marine invertebrates are also key prey items for sensitive species such as the federally endangered loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta), blue and right whales (Balaenoptera musculus and Eubalaena spp.), and the proposed threatened rufa red knot (Calidris canutus rufa). Lobster, crab, sea scallops, shrimp, squid, oysters, and sea cucumbers are also directly harvested The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation 1 for commercial sale. Global wild shrimp production totals 3.4 million metric tons a year, and the global shrimp trade, valued at $10 billion, is the largest commercial fishery in the world. U.S. oyster harvests yielded 28.5 million pounds valued at $131.7 million in 2011, and in 2010 the commercial catch of blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) accounted for over 222 million pounds. The largest wild sea scallop fishery in the world is in U.S. waters. In 2010, 57 million pounds of sea scallop meat worth over $449 million were harvested. The commercial importance of
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