Highlighting the Best in Science Teaching and Research Sis 8 2-20 RZ:Layout 1 02.04.2008 15:48 Uhr Seite 2

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Spring 2008 Issue 8

In this Issue: Research into the Sun’s atmosphere Lucie Green investigates what happens when the Sun erupts

Also:

Dean Madden introduces younger students to fermentation – and ginger beer!

Published by EIROforum: Supported by the European Union: Part of the NUCLEUS project:

ISSN: 1818-0353 Subscribe free online: www.scienceinschool.org Highlighting the best in science teaching and research sis_8_2-20_RZ:Layout 1 02.04.2008 15:48 Uhr Seite 2

Publisher EIROforum www.eiroforum.org

Editor Dr Eleanor Hayes, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Germany

Editorial Board Dr Giovanna Cicognani, Institut Laue-Langevin, France Dr Dominique Cornuéjols, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, France Dr Richard Harwood, Aiglon College, Switzerland Russ Hodge, Max Delbrück Zentrum, Germany Dr Rolf Landua, European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), Switzerland Dr Dean Madden, National Centre for Biotechnology Education, University of Reading, UK Helen Page, European Space Agency, the Netherlands Dr Douglas Pierce-Price, European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere (ESO), Germany Dr Silke Schumacher, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Germany Dr Fernand Wagner, European Association for Astronomy Education, Luxembourg Barbara Warmbein, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Germany Chris Warrick, European Fusion Development Agreement, UK

Assistant Editor Dr Marlene Rau, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Germany

Copy Editor Dr Caroline Hadley

Composition Nicola Graf, Germany Email: [email protected]

Printers ColorDruckLeimen, Germany www.colordruck.com

Layout Designer Vienna Leigh, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Germany

Web Architect Francesco Sottile, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Germany

ISSN Print version: 1818-0353 Online version: 1818-0361

Cover Image A widely spreading coronal mass ejection Image courtesy of SOHO (ESA and NASA) sis_8_2-20_RZ:Layout 1 02.04.2008 15:48 Uhr Seite 1 Contents

Events

Welcome to Valencia! The EU Contest for Young Scientists ...... 2-7

Feature article

Laboratory in space: interview with Bernardo Patti ...... 8-12

Cutting-edge science

The Automated Transfer Vehicle – supporting Europe in space ...... 14-20

Life on Mars: terraforming the Red Planet ...... 21-24

Locking the cradle ...... 25-28

Teaching activities

Ginger beer: a traditional fermented low-alcohol drink ...... 29-33

Chewing flavours ...... 34-37

Projects in science education

Bring the fascination of the science centre into the classroom ...... 38-41

StandardBase: a Leonardo da Vinci pilot project for practical

education and training in chemistry ...... 44-47

Science topics

What do we know about climate? Investigating the effects of

anthropogenic global warming ...... 48-51

Research into the Sun’s atmosphere ...... 52-55

Scientist profile

On the trail of a cure for cancer ...... 56-59

Salt of the Earth ...... 60-62

Teacher profile

Paul goes back to the classroom ...... 63-65

Reviews

Choosing Children: Genes, Disability, and Design ...... 66

Nontraditional Careers for Chemists: New Formulas in Chemistry ...... 67

Dance of the Tiger ...... 68

Science in School Issue 7 : Winter 2007 1 sis_8_2-20_RZ:Layout 1 02.04.2008 15:48 Uhr Seite 2 Image courtesy of the European Commission Welcome to Valencia! The EU Contest for Young Scientists Anne MJG Piret from the European Commission assisted the jury during the recent EU Contest for Young Scientists.

he golden voice of Empar, one Shouts of “Portugal, over here dent leader to their reserved spots. Tof the leaders of the student please!” and “Belarus, this way!” echo The contest begins! It is up to the helpers, resonates through the enor- through the hall. The contestants at contestants to prepare their booths mous exhibition hall of the Prince the European Union (EU) Contest for and present their projects. Felipe Science Museum in Valencia, Young Scientists, hailing from across Josef and Tomáš, from the Czech Spain. The venue is impressive. Europe and beyond, follow their stu- Republic, put their posters up and

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Events

First-prize winners: Abdusalam Abubakar, Florian Ostermaier, Márton Spohn and Henrike Wilms

What is the EU Contest for Young Scientists?

The EU Contest for Young Scientists is a high-profile event, open to young people aged between 14 and 21, who are the winners of national competitions. The contest gives these students the opportunity to compete with the best of their contemporaries at a European level. Although the demand for scientists and researchers is rising, the number of young people taking up scientific studies and careers is dipping. The organisation of events that mobilise young people from all over Europe and beyond is thus more important than ever. The contest also gives Europe’s best young scientific brains a forum to display their wares and connect with other like-minded students from other countries. It aims at rewarding scientific achievement and demonstrating to a wider audience that science is fun. Besides being an occasion for nurturing talent and enhancing young people’s scientific and technological skills, it is also an opportunity for these young scientists to meet other youngsters with similar abilities and interests, but from a different country and perhaps speaking another language, and to be guided by some of the most prominent scientists in Europe.

How are projects chosen for the EU Contest for Young Scientists? Only projects that have won a top prize at a national young scientist competition can participate in the EU Contest for Young Scientists. create a booth featuring a special type Project entries from all fields of scientific endeavour are accepted. of clutch for the motorcycle manufacturer Ducati. Angel from Spain turns National competition organisers are responsible for selecting the proj- his booth into a real Pantheon, includ- ects and submitting the applications, and for all communication with ing a model of the original building the European Commission. Each participating country has an assigned and a lamp as a substitute for the national organiser who manages all applicants from their country. A Sun. list of the national organisers is available on the EU Contest for Young w4 Martina from Austria carefully Scientists website . decorates her booth with maize straw. Her environmental science project, What constitutes a project? ‘Energy from maize straw’, will later Each project must consist of a technical written report, display materi- be awarded second prize, but at this als and models. A group of up to six contestants may submit a project stage her main concern is to make and each country may enter up to three projects. During the contest, sure she presents her material effec- the participants must set up their project on a display stand and are tively when the judges start their required to answer questions from members of the scientific jury. The interviewing rounds. science exhibition is open to the public. At two o’clock, the jury rounds start. The 15 members of the jury have already read the project descriptions and discussed them

in a meeting in Brussels. Now they BACKGROUND have the opportunity to interview the

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Science inSchool BACKGROUND by biologistsandchemists, butacontradiction predators ofthepests. This phenomenonwas studied special manner:theyemitscentsthatattract natural mint family, candefendthemselves againstpestsina Some plants,especiallymembersofthe Against Pests the Plants’Self-Defence Project title:Examinationof Field: Chemistry Contestant: MártonSpohn(18) Country: Hungary analysed. phenomenon that,asfarweknow, hasnever been ters. With ourresearch wefoundacompletelynew shower, atawater taporwhen raindrops fallfromgut- where adropdetaches fromanything, such asinthe also foundoutthatthiscanbeobserved inany case droplet change becausethedropletitselfoscillates. We know now thatthelightreflectionswithinafalling describing thephenomenonmathematicallyandwe flashes occur. Inadditiontothatwesucceededin we canknow exactlyunderwhich conditionsthese During ourwork wefoundouttherelevant factorsand doing someresearch onthestrange flashintheair. the fallingdrop.Fascinated by thismystery, westarted very specialposition,shiningtowards theobserver and effect onlyoccurredwhen weputalightsource ina the water tap.Quiteaccidentally, wefoundoutthatthe Our firstideawas tousethedropsfallingdown from so wetriedtoreproducethephenomenonathome. certain height. We didn’t know theexplanationforthis, down fromthetopitseemedasifwould flashata observation: Every timeadropfell summer, oneofusmadeastrange Visiting astalactitecave last Flashing WaterDrops Project title: Field: Physics Henrike Wilms (20) Florian Ostermaier(19), Contestants: Country: Germany from Germany, Hungary andIreland. The firstprizewas awarded jointlytothreeprojects, Some ofthewinningprojects Issue 8:Spring2008 attacked. Usingasmalldecryptionexponent, exponent isused,theRSAsystemcanbesuccessfully 2004, MJHinekproved thatifavery largedecryption irrational numbers by simplecontinuedfractions. In theorem ofLegendreconcerningtheapproximation tinued fractions, in particularonavery wellknown attacked. Hebasedhisattack onthepropertiesofcon- a smalldecryptionexponent,itcanbesuccessfully (an algorithmforpublic-keycryptography) isusedwith In 1990,Michael J. Wiener showed thatifRSA Wiener’s Attack onRSAEncryption Project title: An Extensionof Field: Mathematics (16) Abdusalam Abubakar Contestant: Country: Ireland oped. mentally friendlypesticidesmay bedevel- ing moredetailsoffloral self-defence,moreenviron- furanoterpenoid isproducedvery slowly. Bydiscover- the for efficient Wiener- andHinek-typeattacks beyond Legendre’s theoremthatformthemathematicalbasis number oftheoremsrelatedtohisextension work. Igeneralise Dujella’s inequalityandIprove a at findingthereactionpathways takingplaceinthe for thiseffectcannotevaporate. Myprojectwas aimed remained unnoticed:chemicals directlyresponsible the advantage ofallowing rapid decipherment.It n reaction oftheplanttoanattack despitethefactthat plant duringanattack toconvert thefurano might bethoughtthatthisadvantage couldbe 1/4 model offuranoterpenoids canexplaintherapid terpenoids (chemicals responsibleforself-defence) n rier’. InthisprojectIinvestigate attacks beyond the ways. The experiment-basedeffectmechanism retained by increasing into volatile compounds.Experimentsweremade matographic methodstodiscover possiblepath- with plantextracts which mainlyinvolved chro- teed. Ishallrefertothisconditionasthe 1/4 nerable to Wiener’s attack. Inattacks ofthe obeyed forthesuccessofattack tobeguaran- Wiener andHinektypestheconditionmustbe barrier. My project buildson Andrej Dujella’s barrier. d just beyond therange vul- www.scienceinschool.org ‘ n d 1/4 , has bar-

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Events

Josef and Tomáš, from the Czech Republic Image courtesy of the European Commission Image courtesy of the European Commission youngsters and ask them how they Meeting real scientists conducted their research, why they It has become a tradition in the EU conducted it in the way they did, as Contest for Young Scientists to invite well as how they chose their topic. renowned scientists to meet and talk The young scientists are nervous, to the contestants. This year the but at the same time eager to present European Commission also chose to their projects. They have been work- invite scientists who are at the begin- ing on them for a long time, and have ning of their careers, so they could already won the national contest in provide an insight into their career their home country. What the contest- paths and experiences of working as ants don’t know, is that the jury mem- a young scientist. bers are almost as nervous as they EIROforumw1 (the publishers of are, and eager to meet these talented Science in School) sent Freya Blekman, young people whose projects they who works at CERNw2. As a school have so far assessed only on paper. ambassador for the EU-funded SET-Routesw3 project and an official Having fun! CERN guide, Freya is clearly used to At five o’clock, the jury members talking to non-specialists and stu- return from their first day’s round of dents about science. Her lecture on interviews, exhausted but very excit- the importance of particle physics and Martina from Austria ed. The enthusiasm of the young sci- the role that a young scientist can entists is contagious and the new jury play within the frame of an important members have difficulties disconnect- scientific organisation such as CERN Young Scientists 2007 as everyone ing and preparing for an evening of not only received very positive makes their way to hear the winners entertainment. The contestants are reactions, but also triggered a lot of announced. The dolphins in the better able to switch off, and together enthusiasm amongst the young (and oceanographic museum seem almost with the Spanish student helpers will not so young) people in the audience! as enthusiastic as the young people show them how to set aside their watching them. For a moment, the stress – over a paella evening organ- The rewards contestants forget the awards ceremo- ised by their hosts. Another bright, sunny day greets ny and their stress and enjoy their the last day of the EU Contest for surroundings.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 8 : Spring 2008 5 sis_8_2-20_RZ:Layout 1 02.04.2008 15:48 Uhr Seite 6 Image courtesy of the European Commission The final decisions were made the evening before, when the jury had the exceptionally difficult task of deciding on the winners of the cash prizes, the honorary awards and the special donated prizes. But ultimately, as in every competition, winners must be appointed, and the most outstanding projects were chosen from amongst 81 entries in a wide range of disciplines such as biology, chemistry, environmental science, social sciences, physics, molecular biology and engineering. The master of ceremonies seems as nervous as the contestants. The press is pushing at all sides to find the best position for taking photographs of the winners and we are all very excited! Angel from Spain

EIROforum prizes

The seven European intergovernmental research organi- ESA: The European Space Agency sations that make up EIROforum also awarded prizes: a Country: Germany one-week visit to the respective research organisation. Contestant: Raphael Errani (17) Field: Physics (Astronomy) CERN: The European Organization for Nuclear Project title: Impact Probability of Asteroids on Earth Research Country: United Kingdom ESO: The European Organisation for Astronomical Contestant: Galen Brown (17) Research in the Southern Hemisphere Field: Engineering Country: Slovakia Project title: FSC11 – The flexible TV standby controller Contestant: L’ubomír Urbančok (17) Field: Physics (Astronomy) EFDA: The European Fusion Development Agreement Project title: The study of symbiotic star BF Cygni Country: Turkey Contestant: Mustafa Taghiyev (16) ILL: The Institut Laue-Langevin and ESRF: The Field: Mathematics European Synchrotron Radiation Facility Project title: The Integer Values Of Algebraic Country: Lithuania Expressions And Some New Properties Of Binomial Contestants: Milda Jurénaité (19) and Rasa Briedyté (19) Coefficients Field: Chemistry Project title: Zinc and zinc alloy galvanic coatings: EMBL: The European Molecular Biology Laboratory structure homogeneity determines resistance to Country: Austria corrosion Contestant: Philipp Zagar (18) Field: Chemistry Project title: Synthesis of a linker molecule for

BACKGROUND self-assembled monolayers (SAM)

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Events

The background to the contest

For the past two decades, the EU, via its framework to increase the global expenditure on research to 3% programmes, has supported science and technology of gross national product – or one and a half times the and encouraged co-operation between European current level – by 2010. This substantial increase will researchers. The EU also recognises the need to start enable Europe to bridge the gap with the United States the process of integration at the grass-roots level. The and Japan and help create a uniform concept of European Commission actively supports young peo- European research similar to the single European mar- ple’s interest in science and promotes European co- ket. operation in the fields of education and training. The EU Contest for Young Scientists plays an essential To meet the objective of the European Research Area – role in the development of a pan-European scientific to co-ordinate national research policies in the direc- community. Over the years it has generated excitement tion of shared objectives, expertise and resources – the and has gone some way to popularising science among heads of state and government have confirmed a need the young. BACKGROUND

Finally, the winners are announced Web references Resources (see box ‘Some of the winning proj- w1 – EIROforum, which publishes For details of the 20th contest in ects’). Some of the young scientists Science in School, is a partnership of September 2008, see are visibly astonished. Some are sur- Europe’s seven largest intergovern- www.eurocontest.dk prisingly at ease in front of the cam- mental research organisations. See eras, others burst into tears of joy and www.eiroforum.org fall into each others’ arms, but all of w2 – CERN is the world’s largest them are clearly overjoyed with their particle physics laboratory. See prizes. www.cern.ch th The 19 EU Contest for Young w3 – The SET-Routes project aims to Scientists is over, but for many of the encourage more girls and women to young scientists participating in this study science, engineering and tech- event, it will remain much more than nology and to help them further a competition. Many of them learned their careers. As part of the ambas- to work in a team, became interested sador programme, young female in other fields of science and made scientists visit schools and new friends. For all of the contestants, universities. For more details, the EU Contest is undoubtedly an see www.set-routes.org unforgettable and rewarding experi- w4 – For more information on the EU ence. Contest for Young Scientists in general and the 2007 contest in Valencia, see http://ec.europa.eu/ research/youngscientists

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Image courtesy of ESA Laboratory in space: interview with Bernardo Patti Images courtesy of ESA

Bernardo Patti is the Columbus mission manager at the European Space Agency. He is an engineer and worked at nuclear power plants before going into space technology. Shortly before Columbus was launched, he talked to Anna-Lynn Wegener.

What is Columbus? make the most efficient use of the Biolab, for example, is a facility for Columbus is the name of a research 75 m3 volume. It can now fit three biological experiments on micro- laboratory that we will send into crew members and contains all organisms, cells, tissues, small plants space to dock with the International the essential research equipment. and invertebrates. We want to find Space Station [ISS]w1. It is an add-on The individual research facilities out what effect gravity – and the lack module to the station, that contains accommodate very high-tech racks of it – has on all levels of living organ- all the facilities to carry out experi- with drawers of equipment and isms. One of the first experiments we ments in space. It will be on board workspace that can be pulled will do within Biolab is to observe the Space Shuttle Atlantis, which out. how the roots of a small plant – you will be launched in early 2008 from can imagine it a bit like rocket the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. What kind of research will be done [rucola] – will grow. Will they grow with Columbus? up, down or in a completely different What does such a space laboratory Columbus is a multidisciplinary direction when not guided by look like? laboratory. It contains four different gravity? Columbus has a cylindrical shape. facilities to carry out experiments in In the European Physiology Module It is around 7 metres long and 4.5 material science, fluid science and life contained in Columbus, the effect of metres in diameter. Equipment inside science. In all of these fields we want long-duration spaceflights on the is packed very efficiently. to study the effect of weightlessness human body and health will be We had to work very hard to come on different samples that we are send- tested. We also hope to gain some up with the best design that would ing from Earth. insights into terrestrial problems such

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Feature article Image courtesy of ESA

Image courtesy of ESA among others, phenomena like flows investigating could never be and instabilities induced by surface addressed in laboratories on Earth, tension gradients and thermal radia- because gravity is such a pervasive tion forces, instabilities related to cou- force on our planet. I know it sounds pling between heat and mass transfer, paradoxical that it is easier to under- thermo-physical properties of fluids, stand some terrestrial phenomena in mechanisms of boiling and critical space, far away from their natural point phenomena. context, but gravity makes some In the Material Science Laboratory, experiments simply impossible and experiments will be run to explore overrides many small effects that can different materials to improve the be studied in orbit. study of their properties. We will melt as the processes of ageing, balance and solidify metals and expose them What are the challenges of a mission disorders, bone osteoporosis and to different atmospheres and condi- like Columbus? muscle dystrophy. tions. The foremost challenge was con- The Fluid Science Laboratory will structing a laboratory that on Earth hopefully reveal dynamics of fluids Isn’t it a lot of effort to send terrestrial would weigh at least 50 tonnes with a that cannot be studied on Earth, samples into space to study them? diameter of just over four metres because they are masked by gravity It definitely is a lot of effort, but it is while keeping it light enough to be and its effects. We will be looking at, worth it. All of the questions we are sent into space. Columbus weighs

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around 12 tonnes and that is about ing challenges involved. But space day. It is rewarding for us to see so the maximum weight the Atlantis and weightlessness also carry an many nations putting so much effort shuttle can carry. inherent fascination: engineering and into the realisation of such an ambi- On Columbus we have been able to travelling into space share the fact that tious project and to see healthy com- provide an environment where the they overcome traditional barriers of petition developing between nations. crew can work in comfortable sur- technology and mankind. It is incredi- Curiosity and science go beyond roundings. Apart from this it is able bly exciting and a huge step for space national borders and historic differ- to accommodate all the scientific facil- exploration. ences. They are strong, uniting forces ities in the pressurised space. It can On a more day-to-day basis, what I that bridge geographical and cultural operate for 10 years in orbit. Unlike a really love about the project is its gaps. ship that needs to be dry docked and internationality. The International then repaired, Columbus will have Space Station is a collaborative project Is there any way that teachers and the capability to automatically detect of five different space agencies. Apart school kids can benefit from any failures and to start self-repairing from the European Space Agency, Columbus? while still being operational. The (ESA), which by itself has 17 European At the moment we are focusing on entire European structure can be member states, the US National getting Columbus safely up to the ISS operational with just a single launch. Aeronautics and Space Administration and the first periods will be dedicated (NASA) and the Canadian, Russian to setting it up and running experi- What excites you personally about the and Japanese space agencies are also ments. But it might well be that in project? involved. Every day I talk to people future we will broadcast lessons from As an engineer, I was particularly from many different countries, some- or involving the Columbus module, attracted by the design and engineer- times speaking several languages a just as has been done from the ISS

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Feature article Image courtesy of ESA

[see the Resources section]. Columbus opens up countless new possibilities, As we go to press: some of which I am sure we cannot even conceive yet. the Columbus module has Web references joined the ISS w1 – An article about the International Space Station will Atlantis safely returned to Earth with its crew of seven on 20 February, be available in a future issue of after spending almost 13 days in space, including nine days docked to Science in School. Keep visiting the ISS, to deliver Europe’s first permanent human outpost in orbit. www.scienceinschool.org Two ESA astronauts, Hans Schlegel of Germany and Léopold Eyharts w2 - For more information about the of France, travelled to the ISS; Schlegel returned to Earth with Atlantis Automated Transfer Vehicles, see but Eyharts became part of the resident ISS crew and will return to the following article in this issue Earth in late March after performing a series of experiments, both in of Science in School: the laboratory and in the other science facilities already operating in Williams A (2008) The Automated the Station. Transfer Vehicle – supporting ESA will continue to contribute to ISS operations by launching Europe in space. Science in School 8: unmanned Automated Transfer Vehicles (ATVs), designed to deliver 14-20. www.scienceinschool.org/ scientific experiments, crew support equipment (such as food and 2008/issue8/atv clothing), fluids and propellant. The first ATV, Jules Verne, will be .w2 launched by an Ariane 5 rocket on 8 March Resources As Columbus comes to life, so too does the network of nine User ESA have produced many educa- Support and Operations Centres (USOCs) throughout Europe, which tional materials relating to the facilitate the interface between researchers and the science payloads International Space Station (ISS): on board, and allow investigators to control their experiments and · A printed ISS education kit for both receive real-time data on their results. As more science payloads are primary- and secondary-school delivered to Columbus by upcoming logistics missions, the USOC net- teachers is available in all 12 ESA work will become more active. languages. The kits are based on all Columbus was designed to support some 500 experiments per year for the fascinating activities involved in ten years, in cell and plant biology, astrobiology, human physiology, building, working and living on fluid and material sciences, fundamental physics, astronomy, remote board the ISS, and provide back- sensing and technology. For the European science community and ground information and exercises for classroom teaching. They are

BACKGROUND industrial R&D, a new era of research has just begun. available to all school teachers in ESA member states and can be

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ordered free online: www.esa.int/ spaceflight/education

· An interactive version of the ISS This article could start wonderful discussions about gravity, micro- education kit is available here: gravity or free-fall conditions, how gravity on Earth affects chemical www.esa.int/spaceflight/education and physical behaviour of substances and bodies in Earth-based · A series of ISS DVD lessons cover experiments, and how we can reproduce an almost gravity-free envi- topics relating to European school ronment orbiting the Earth. The so-called Einstein equivalence prin- curricula. One about the Automated ciple immediately comes to mind, prompting one to wonder how Transfer Vehicle is due to be free-fall can be equivalent to the absence of gravitational pull. released in summer 2008. Human body behaviour in space and after re-entering a terrestrial The DVDs can be ordered free by environment can involve life science and chemistry in an amazing teachers: interdisciplinary space party. www.esa.int/spaceflight/education Marco Nicolini, Italy · ESA is also developing a series of REVIEW online lessons for primary- and secondary-school students and their and the teachers. See: www.esa.int/ SPECIALS/Lessons_online European Space Agency Human Spaceflight Education website: Further details and education materi- www.esa.int/esaHS/education.html als can be found on the: European Space Agency Education website: www.esa.int/esaED/

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The Automated Transfer Vehicle – supporting

Image courtesy of Andrew Howe / iStockphoto Andrew Howe Image courtesy of Europe in space

Where do astronauts get their food? What happens to their waste? Adam Williams from the European Space Agency in Darmstadt, Germany, describes the development of an unmanned shuttle to supply the International Space Station.

Image courtesy of Transport for London

magine a double-decker bus driv- it reaches Hanger Lane, around 3.5 inching its way to a reserved parking Iing from the outskirts of London to km from its destination, it pauses for slot. Once it is safely parked, we look Wembley Stadium. We pick up its a few minutes, before continuing inside the bus – and realise there is no journey just outside Windsor (where along the North Circular Road and up driver. the Queen lives), 30 km from Harrow Road, until it is within sight Now move this journey 350 km into Wembley, and watch as it drives of the stadium, about 0.25 km away. space, and substitute, for the station- slowly into the centre of London. As Finally it spends almost half an hour ary Wembley Stadium, the

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Cutting-edge science mg oreyo S D.Ducros Image courtesy of ESA – International Space Station (ISS), ATV approaching which covers approximately the same the ISS area as the football pitch but moves at over 27 000 km/hour. The bus-sized vehicle approaching the ISS is the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), designed by the European Space Agency (ESA) to fly to, and automatically dock with, the ISS. During its final approach it glides in with a relative speed of less than 0.25 km/hour, and with a positional accuracy of better than 10 cm. The ISS is a multi-national project aimed at building and sustaining a Image courtesy of ESA laboratory in which experiments can be performed in microgravity. Gravity on the ISS is not completely zero, because of very small forces caused Automated by such things as the mass of the ISS Transfer Vehicle Image courtesy of ESA itself and reaction to friction from the atmosphere. The experiments have controlled by ISS crew members. been concerned mainly with the long- ATV will be the first vehicle to dock term effects of microgravity on the completely automatically. Although human body. Scientists also plan to the ATV will be monitored closely use the ISS to examine the effect of during its approach and docking by microgravity on the physics of fluids, ground controllers and ISS crew, it is on combustion and on the behaviour designed to handle autonomously of aerosols, ozone, water vapour and any emergency situation without oxides in Earth’s atmosphere, as well damaging itself or the ISS, or endan- as cosmic rays, cosmic dust, anti-mat- gering the ISS crew. ter and dark matter in the Universe. can also be transferred using the ATV is designed to carry over nine The long-term goals of this research unmanned Russian Progress vehicle. tonnes of experiments, equipment, are to develop the technology neces- The ATV – the most complicated fuel, water, food and other supplies sary for human-based space and plan- spacecraft ever built, launched and from Earth to the ISS orbiting around etary exploration and colonisation operated by the European Space 350 km above Earth. The first flight (including life support systems, safety Agency – will supplement these vehi- cargo will include spare parts for the precautions and environmental moni- cles, and help to pay ESA’s share of European Columbus laboratoryw3 and toring in space, for example), new the ISS operating costs. the ATV itself, personal items for the ways to treat diseases, more efficient Several ATVs are planned. The first, crew, and a luxury 19th century edition methods of producing materials, more named Jules Verne after the famous of the book De la Terre à la Lune (From accurate measurements that would be French science fiction writer, will be the Earth to the Moon) written by Jules impossible to achieve on Earth, and a launched on an Ariane 5 launcher Verne. more complete understanding of the from French Guyanaw1. As this article Once attached to the ISS, ATV will Universe. was prepared, the launch was become a 22 m3 extension to the ISS, The ISS will have a permanent crew planned for 9 March 2008 and the providing extra living space for the of six astronauts (until April 2009 ATV was scheduled to dock with the ISS crew. While attached, the cargo of there will be only three crew mem- ISS on 3 April 2008w2. experiments will be transferred to the bers permanently on board). Crew Vehicles that dock with the ISS nor- ISS, along with more than 810 kg of and supplies are transported to and mally have some manual control of water, 100 kg of nitrogen, oxygen and from the ISS using either the NASA the final docking manoeuvres. The air and nearly 860 kg of ISS propel- Space Shuttle or the Russian Space Space Shuttle and Soyuz are con- lant. ATV will also use its thrusters to Agency Soyuz vehicle. Supplies trolled by a pilot on board; Progress is correct and adjust the orbit of the 400

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Training for launch

08:41: The training instructors in each control centre privately confer over the impact of the delayed start. Houston can only participate for eight hours,

Image courtesy of ESA after which their facilities are required for Shuttle training. The instructors decide to advance one of the planned contingencies to ensure that the necessary training is achieved. 11.28: ATV starts a series of homing boosts. A problem is reported with data from the communications centre in Ober pfaffenhofen, Germany. Un - known to the trainees, a failure in the communications link between ATV Control Centre Oberpfaffenhofen and Toulouse has been introduced. There is a flurry of Before ATV can be launched, the ground control teams calls over the intercom, and ground controllers rapidly at the ATV Control Centre in Toulouse, France, togeth- deal with the problem. er with ISS control teams in Houston, USA, and 14.18: ATV approaches the ISS, gathering calibration Moscow, Russia, plus representatives of the ISS crew, data for the optical sensors used to control the final need to undergo a series of training simulations. The docking. Suddenly an urgent voice can be heard on following gives a flavour of what they go through dur- the intercom: “This is an emergency”. Toulouse has lost ing a typical simulation day. all communication with the spacecraft. 05.00 CET: An operator in Toulouse starts the simula- 14.25: The failure is traced to a problem with TDRS – tor, which simulates the ATV spacecraft, the ISS, the US deliberately injected by the instructor. He judges how satellite communications network TDRS, the ESA com- long to leave the teams in this critical situation, and munications satellite Artemis and parts of the ESA and then fixes the problem. Now Toulouse must command Russian Ground Station network. It comprises three ATV to pull away from the ISS and repeat the closing parts, running in three control centres. In Moscow and manoeuvre, to gather again the vital calibration data Houston other operators also prepare their computers, lost during the communications outage. ready for a multi-national training session. 15.29: The planned ‘Escape’ manoeuvre is command- 06.30: The teams arrive for the briefing. The intercom ed. ATV manoeuvres harmlessly away from the ISS and system connecting the sites is checked. the simulation is over. The flight directors and training 06.52: There are difficulties with the simulator in instructors have a four-way discussion over the inter- Toulouse, delaying the start of the simulation. The com system, identifying the key successes and failures, operator spends anxious minutes tracking down the and anything that needs to be improved or changed. problem. If the simulator cannot start properly, it will Despite a delayed start, and a long, hard day, the team be necessary to reconvene scores of engineers who are clearly pleased with their achievements. They mill have gathered around the globe to participate. around the main control room, congratulating them- 08.05: The GO button is pressed, and the simulators selves on having dealt successfully with the problems begin sending data. Docking will occur in about seven thrown at them. They have demonstrated their expert- hours; before then, the simulation covers an approach ise in controlling the most complex spacecraft ESA has to the ISS, culminating in an ‘Escape’ manoeuvre ever built, and as their confidence grows, they move

BACKGROUND which proves that docking can be stopped if necessary. one step closer to the ATV mission.

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Cutting-edge science Image courtesy of ESA

International Space Station: At certain times during its orbit, the ISS is visible with the naked eye

tonne ISS. This is necessary because redundant, meaning that each subsys- in Toulouse, France, the ISS crew or even though there is only a very small tem, unit, switch and valve is dupli- ATV itself can instruct the thruster amount of atmosphere at an altitude cated so that the spacecraft can with- system to steer the vehicle safely of 350 km, the ISS is so big that is stand any single failure. When people away from the ISS. The controllers causes some drag. Every so often, the are involved, systems must be triply then assess the situation. If fully ISS needs to be boosted up to a higher redundant; ATV is thus designed to understood and correctable, they altitude, from where it drifts lower cope with two simultaneous failures. would instruct ATV to circle above and lower. Without this, the ISS This obviously increases the cost and and behind the ISS and come back for would eventually fall out of the sky. weight of the spacecraft, although it is a second attempt. If not fully under- ATV will also be used for emergency difficult to quantify by how much. stood, ATV would be parked 2000 km manoeuvres, such as those required if For example, ATV has a thruster ahead of the ISS for further investiga- a piece of space debris is predicted to system with main and redundant tion. hit the ISS. thrusters to guide it as it docks with Much of the complexity of the Jules After about six months, ATV will be the ISS. In case both the main and Verne mission comes from proving loaded with solid and liquid waste redundant thrusters fail, it has a sepa- that these safety systems work cor- from the station (use your imagina- rate alternative thruster system, con- rectly. Only when all of the vital safe- tion! Those empty tanks may as well trolled by completely different hard- ty operations have been demonstrated store something). It will then be ware and software. to perform flawlessly, will ATV be undocked from the ISS, and directed This system will be used particular- allowed to dock with the ISS (see box back towards Earth where it will burn ly if it appears that ATV is not going ‘Training for launch’). up harmlessly in the atmosphere over to dock properly with the ISS. This The mission will start with the an uninhabited area of the Pacific could be due to a system failure with- launch and early operations phase Ocean. in ATV or because its velocity is not (LEOP), when the spacecraft will be Since ATV will approach and be as expected, or may be necessary if put into a low Earth orbit by an attached to the ISS, the safety of the there is an independent problem on Ariane 5 launcher. This is probably crew on board the ISS is paramount. the ISS (such as a fire alarm). Ground the riskiest part of the mission, espe- Most spacecraft functions are doubly controllers at the ATV Control Centre cially until ATV has deployed its four

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Approaching the ISS

ATV’s journey to the ISS will be characterised by a When all checks at S2 have been completed, an series of station keeping points – places in space where ‘Escape’ manoeuvre will be initiated to demonstrate ATV pauses and ground controllers check that every- the correct operation of the safety manoeuvre, after

thing is OK before continuing. This could be compared which ATV will circle around the ISS and return to S-1/2. with a postman delivering mail. The postman doesn’t Two days later, a second demonstration phase will be

know if a fierce dog is locked up or is going to attack initiated. This time, ATV will approach S3, 280 m him: he gets to the end of the road (pauses and checks behind the ISS. everything is OK); he gets to the gate (pauses and Further checks will be performed at S3, and ATV will checks again); he gets to the front door step (pauses switch to using a visual system to control its final again); he opens the letter box and posts the letter. If at approach. Before docking can be attempted, a series of any point the dog appears (or it starts raining, he drops hold and retreat commands will be demonstrated, to the postbag or he finds the address is wrong), he runs ensure that the crew or ground controllers can stop an away! unsuccessful docking attempt if necessary. The station keeping points are numbered from S , -5 Having successfully retreated to S3, ATV will continue which is the start of proximity operations with the ISS to S4, which is 25 m from the ISS, and then to S41, a (ATV is then around 100 km from the ISS), to S , which 41 mere 12 m away. Again, a retreat to S4 will be com- is only 12 m from docking. manded, and finally an ‘Escape’ manoeuvre, the ulti-

When ATV reaches S-1/2 (around 40 km behind and 5 mate abort test, which will leave ATV again circling the km below the ISS), global positioning system receivers station and returning to S-1/2. on ATV and the ISS will be used to calculate their rela- At last, the final approach will be commanded, and tive positions. ATV will then pass through S0 (30 km ATV will dock with the ISS. from the ISS) and stop at station keeping point S2, located 3.5 km behind and 100 m above the ISS. Images courtesy of ESA

ATV initial approach ATV final approach BACKGROUND

solar array panels used to generate After LEOP, the spacecraft will per- after launch, the final approach and the power necessary to control the form a series of manoeuvres to bring rendezvous will begin and ATV will spacecraft. Although ATV has batter- its orbit in phase with the ISS, automatically dock with the ISS (see ies to provide power until the solar approaching it from behind and box ‘Russian docking system’) follow- arrays are available, they will eventu- slightly below. ing checks at each station keeping ally run out of power; if the arrays The approach to the ISS will be point. ATV is designed to cope with a don’t work, the spacecraft would fail characterised by a series of waypoints vast range of simultaneous problems and the whole mission would be and station keeping points (see box without causing damage to itself or lost. ‘Approaching the ISS’). About 15 days the ISS. Everything is autonomous –

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Cutting-edge science

Image courtesy of ESA the control team and crew are there just to keep an eye on things in case something goes wrong. Once attached, the spacecraft will be monitored using data sent via the ISS to the control centre in Toulouse; the software on board ATV and in Toulouse can detect unexpected situations – anything from the air circula- tion fans failing to a fire. Finally, all good things must come to an end. ATV will undock from the ISS and plunge to its fiery demise in the upper atmosphere. But this is no one-off mission. The design and operations concept proved during the Jules Verne mission will be used to build and fly at least four more ATV spacecraft. Subsequent ATVs will be launched approximately once a year, Engineers work on Jules Verne ATV's docking mechanism resupplying the ISS and providing Image courtesy of ESA

Russian docking system

ATV ISS

The ATV docking system is a Russian system, also used the probe reaches the end of the docking port cone, the on Russian vehicles, and designed for use with the vehicle brakes and latches on the probe engage with docking port on the Russian ISS module. the docking port. As ATV approaches the ISS, a probe at the front of the The probe is then retracted, which brings ATV and ISS vehicle is extended. The tip of the probe has sensors together, after which hooks on ATV automatically which detect contact with the docking port on the ISS. engage with the ISS. Finally, hooks on the ISS engage When contact is detected, the ATV initiates a thrust with the ATV, and the two bodies become a single rigid

BACKGROUND which pushes the vehicle into the docking port. When structure.

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Image courtesy of ESA Wegener A-L (2008) Laboratory in space: interview with Bernardo Patti. Science in School 8: 8-12. www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ issue8/bernardopatti

Resources To construct your own model of the ATV, see: http://esamultimedia.esa.int/ docs/atv_model/ATV_2002.htm To find out when the ISS can be seen from where you are, see www.esa.int/seeiss

Adam Williams is a training and simulation manager at the European Space Agency. Previously a software Solid rocket booster arrives for integration with the main cryogenic stage for Jules Verne's Ariane 5 ES launch vehicle engineer, and for a while a secondary- school mathematics teacher, he is based at ESA’s space operations centre in Darmstadt, Germany. Adam vital support to the ISS programme w2 - For more information about the currently spends half his time in into the next decade. ATV, see: www.esa.int/SPECIALS/ Toulouse, France, home of the ATV ATV/index.html Control Centre, supporting the launch Web references w3 – For more information about the preparations w1 – To watch a video of an Ariane 5 Columbus laboratory module, see for ATV. launch, see: www.scienceinschool. the interview with Bernardo Patti in org/2008/issue8/atv this issue of Science in School:

The article is mainly about the automated transfer ‘The effect of microgravity on the physics of fluids, on (space) vehicle (ATV), designed to dock automatically combustion, on the behaviour of aerosols’ – this could with the International Space Station (ISS). Though there lead to a group discussion on what the effect might be are aspects of ATV’s trajectory between launch and (for instance, in the cases of convection, a burning docking that relate to pre-university physics (mechan- candle, and diffusion in a gas, respectively). ics), the topic of most interest – to technology teachers ‘Cosmic rays, cosmic dust, anti-matter, and dark mat- – may be the sensing and control systems. ter in the Universe’ – students could do library or web The purpose of the ISS, on the other hand, includes a research on the nature (and importance) of these, lead- number of aspects of interest to teachers of pre-univer- ing perhaps to class presentations. sity physics – and a further article devoted to the ISS is The sensing and control aspect would be suitable for planned for a future issue. technology rather than science curricula – and there is Even so, many science (and technology) teachers will enough here for a whole lesson of varied activities and enjoy this article and some learners will find it of much approaches. interest too. Below are some ideas about how it could Eric Deeson, UK be used. REVIEW

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Cutting-edge science

Life on Mars: terraforming the Red Planet Science fact or science fiction? Margarita Marinova from Caltech, USA, investigates the possibility of establishing life on Mars.

Image courtesy of NASA Ames Research Center (NASA-ARC)

The surface of Mars – devoid of liquid water and life

arly astronomers gazed at Mars that Mars’ surface temperature varies Mars be made habitable again? Eand thought they saw a planet between -143 °C at the poles and +27 This is the premise of terraforming criss-crossed by irrigation canals and °C at the equator. Mars has a very – changing a planet to make it habit- vegetation. One hundred years later, thin atmosphere (about 1% of Earth’s able to Earth-like life (terra = Earth). in 1964, the Mariner 4 spacecraft pressure), no liquid water, and the The idea of terraforming was first reached Mars. The disappointment incident UV radiation combined with suggested in the 1930s – purely in the for scientists must have been bitter, as the highly oxidising regolith make science fiction domain. However, in they saw a barren world with no Mars’ surface a deadly place for life. the 1960s, scientists started thinking signs of vegetation, water or life. To However, from images showing large about the idea more seriously. Is this those scientists, the idea of a wet river channels and networks, and the really feasible? Can it be done with Mars covered by plants suddenly Mars Exploration Rovers showing current technology? seemed like science fiction. layered sediments and alteration of To answer the question of whether In the 40 years since Mariner 4, we the layers by water, we have learned terraforming Mars is possible, we have learned a lot about Mars from that in the first half billion years of its must first look at what is required for the many spacecraft that have been history, Mars was a warm, wet place life and if Mars has these basics. Mars sent to the Red Planet. We now know with a thick atmosphere. So could currently cannot support liquid water

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Ma rs’ No rth P ol ar C a p : m a d e o f f r o z e n

c a r b

i o

t er

Image courtesy of NASA Glenn Research Center (NASA-GRC)

Image courtesy of NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA-JPL) e

a l

d on its surface due to its low tempera- two key ingredients e R tures and thin atmosphere (the atmos- needed to sustain life. e th , pheric pressure is below the triple Not only that, but once rs a point of water, the pressure below Mars were initially M which a material can only exist as a warmed by some method, solid or vapour, regardless of the tem- there would be a positive feed- perature). In addition to liquid water, back in the release of carbon dioxide the most basic life on Earth needs from the polar caps and regolith, the working on making the first two of only an atmosphere with which to thickening of the atmosphere, the fur- these ideas technologically feasible. exchange gases. More complex organ- ther warming of the planet, the But we have already implemented the isms have more stringent and numer- release of water, and the consequent greenhouse gas idea on Earth – mak- ous requirements – plants need small conditions that allow liquid water to ing it, at least for now, the most prom- amounts of oxygen, animals need a persist on the surface. ising terraforming method. higher atmospheric pressure – but How could we warm Mars or force Super-greenhouse gases are mole- micro-organisms are low-mainte- the frozen carbon dioxide to be cules which are very effective at nance. released into the atmosphere? Many absorbing energy released by the sur- Mars has frozen carbon dioxide ideas have been proposed, such as: face of the planet, and then re-radiat-

(CO2 ice) in the polar caps and putting mirrors in orbit around Mars ing this energy both upwards into absorbed into the ground, which to reflect extra light onto the Martian space – to be lost forever – but also would be released if the planet were surface, thus warming it up; sprin- downwards towards the surface of warmed. This would thicken the kling dark dust on the poles to the planet, thus further heating it. atmosphere, and also further warm decrease their albedo (i.e. brightness) They work in a similar way to a blan- up the planet. The warming would so that more of the Sun’s energy is ket. But we don’t want just any blan- also cause the frozen water that has absorbed; and releasing super-green- ket! For example, carbon dioxide been detected at the polar caps to house gases into the atmosphere to would be like a thin sheet whereas a melt. So Mars does seem to have the warm up the planet. There are groups super-greenhouse gas, like perfluoro-

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Cutting-edge science

A key feature of good science-fiction writing is that no · How would human timescales change if we lived matter how fanciful the idea, it must be theoretically on Mars? How would day and night lengths com- feasible, such that at some future date the onward pare? Would we still have seasons? How long march of technology turns futuristic fiction to everyday would a year be? How does gravity’s strength com- fact. Margarita Marinova of Caltech details the feasi- pare between Earth and Mars, and would this have bility of the sci-fi-sounding prospect of terraforming any effect on Martian sport, for example? Mars – making conditions on the Red Planet more You could also wander into the realm of moral rights similar to our blue one, in the hope of sustaining and wrongs of carrying out this planetary makeover. (human) life. The big question of ‘should we?’ should generate a lot Most students have an inherent interest in astronomi- of discussion, and students could be asked to consid- cal matters as well as in environmental issues, and the er if their response to the question could depend on article neatly straddles both domains, incorporating circumstances. For example, would it still be morally aspects of the three traditional strands of science, wrong to terraform Mars if life on our home planet was together with geology. There is also scope for the in terminal decline, and there was nowhere else for ethics of terraforming to be covered in personal, social the human species to go? As mentioned above, this and health education (PSHE) lessons. Alternatively, could form part of an ethics debate in PSHE lessons, artists could create illustrations of what a recently and a larger scale example than the standard ‘right to greened Red Planet could look like, and perhaps see life’ debate that tends to be used when science and how these compare with illustrations produced in the ethics domains meet. middle of the last century. As well as a good introduction to the topic, this article The article lends itself to use as a comprehension exer- is a useful starting point for further research, should cise or as a stimulus for class debate, where a variety the idea stimulate students’ interest. They may want to of questions can be devised which cut right across the watch clips of An Inconvenient Truth, in which Al traditional science subdivisions. Comprehension Gore discusses greenhouse gases, and suggest how questions could include: there could be a silver lining after all, in the global cli- · Find where ‘positive feedback’ is mentioned in the mate change cloud. Or they could investigate Mars article. Explain what this means in the context of further: how do we know what we know about Mars, the article. Find another example of positive feed- given that no human has ever visited it? What plans back (not in the article). Is the outcome of positive currently exist to send people to Mars? What are the feedback always good? challenges of such a mission, and how do they com- · Which three methods of heating the Red Planet are pare with the challenge faced in the 1960s and 1970s mentioned? What are the possible pros and cons of to send men to the Moon? Finally, students could be each? asked to find examples of historical science fictions that have already become science fact. REVIEW Ian Francis, UK

propane (C3F8), would be like a thick Detailed atmospheric models show raforming Mars would likely com- wool blanket. So we would want to that one of the best super-greenhouse mence when we start colonising Mars use super-greenhouse gases – with gases to use is perfluoropropane, and and there is both the incentive and high warming potentials, and also the total amount needed is about the industrial power to create the long atmospheric lifetimes (1000s to 26 000 times the amount of similar factories necessary for producing the 10 000s of years) – to reduce the gases (CFCs, perfluorocarbons and super-greenhouse gases. required replenishment rate. A final hydrofluorocarbons) released on Greenhouse gases are currently key aspect is to choose super-green- Earth by industry every year. This drastically – and undesirably – chang- house gases that do not destroy Mars’ means that we cannot produce the ing the Earth, so using them on Mars natural current – and future – ozone gases on Earth and then ship them to may seem irresponsible or just wrong. layer (unlike chlorofluorocarbons, or Mars. Instead, the gases will have to However, changing the climate on CFCs). be made on Mars. Consequently, ter- Earth is undesirable because there is

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A n a rtis t’s co nc ep t io n o f a te r r a f o r m

e d

a r s

Image courtesy of Michael Carroll / stock-space-images.com

already a highly evolved ecosystem when life would have started – thus most important thing we could do! that is intimately tied to the climate. giving any dormant or struggling sur- It is the presence of life that makes But on Mars there is no such ecosys- vivors a chance to come out of hiber- Earth unique, and it is this presence tem: chemical and photographic nation and recreate a biosphere. of life that allows our own existence. investigations have shown that life is A discussion of terraforming would The terraforming of Mars would also not proliferated and does not control be incomplete without asking the allow us to more easily colonise and its environment. There may still be question ‘Should we?’. Just because explore the planet, requiring us only dormant organisms, or organisms liv- terraforming is technologically feasi- to wear oxygen masks but no space ing underground. As good explorers ble and would not directly destroy an suits in the higher pressure atmos- and scientists, and in compliance with ecosystem does not necessarily mean phere. the planetary protection treaty, we that we should do it. Mars is beautiful One hundred years ago, should thoroughly explore Mars for and interesting the way it is, and per- astronomers thought they saw water extant life before contaminating our haps we should leave it this way to and vegetation on Mars. They were science investigations with Earth allow its study by future generations wrong at the time, but maybe they organisms or causing a competition as well as to preserve its current beau- were just seeing the future. between Earth and Mars life. ty. I would argue that life is the most Fortuitously, the first stages of ter- valuable and beautiful thing we raforming are expected to revert Mars know, and spreading it throughout to the way it was in its early history – our Solar System and beyond is the

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Cutting-edge science

Locking the cradle

Winfried Weissenhorn’s group at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Grenoble, France, has uncovered a possible way to tackle a range of dangerous viruses – by trapping them inside their cocoons. Claire Ainsworth investigates.

t is perhaps one of the most feared Idiseases in the world. Once they appear, the classic symptoms – stum- bling, drooling, fear of water, paraly- sis – almost always portend death. Only five people have ever survived the onset of rabies, and all but one suffered permanent neurological damage. Although vaccination and post-exposure preventive treatments have dramatically reduced the impact of the disease in Europe and North America, there is still no cure. Rabies remains a serious threat in many developing nations, killing up to 70 000 people every year. Worryingly, rabies and similar viruses may now be re-emerging in developed countries, spread to people by contact with bats. So the discovery by Winfried Weissenhorn, Rob Ruigrok and their colleagues of an avenue to attack the virus is very timely. The teams, based at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Grenoble, France, and the neighbouring Unit for Virus Host Cell Interactions (UVHCI), have uncovered the structure of the protein that cocoons the virus’s genetic material and hides it from the body’s immune system until it has a chance to copy itself. It may be possible to use drugs to lock the genome inside this protective cradle, thus preventing viral replication. Image courtesy of EMBL Photolab

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Winfried has moved on to the UVHCI hosted in the Carl-Ivar Brändén Building Image courtesy of EMBL Photolab

But the work has implications defence systems that attack and intensity X-ray beams available at the beyond the realm of the single disease destroy foreign RNA. So the virus European Synchrotron Radiation rabies. It turns out that many other hides its vulnerable genome by pack- Facility, also in Grenoble. Crystals are viruses, including the Ebola, Borna ing it tightly inside a nucleocapsid, a symmetrical structures, and when disease and measles viruses, have shell made of a protein called nucleo- exposed to X-ray beams they produce similar cocoons for their genomes, protein, to protect it until it can get a highly ordered diffraction pattern meaning that this finding could also inside the cell where it hijacks the from which scientists can deduce the shed light on where such viruses host’s cellular machinery to replicate precise shape of a molecule. By deter- came from and how they evolved. and produce viral proteins. As well as mining the structure of the nucleopro- The rabies virus, like several other shielding the genome, nucleoprotein tein, the researchers would be able to viruses, forms its genome out of a sin- helps to control the balance between start designing the drugs that could gle strand of RNA, a molecule similar the production of proteins needed for lock the viral genome within its pro- to the DNA that carries our genes. But viral replication and the process of tective shell. unlike DNA, the information encoded replication itself, because both cannot The project began in Rob’s lab, by the virus’ RNA cannot be directly happen simultaneously. In this way where his team had been working on used to build the proteins needed to the nucleocapsid plays a key role in the nucleoproteins of a number of make the virus. Instead, it is a com- the virus’s life history. negative-strand RNA viruses since the plementary copy, a kind of chemical Until now, however, the only clues mid-1990s. The rabies virus just hap- photographic negative, of the scientists had about how nucleopro- pened to be the one that turned out to sequence needed. So before the virus teins worked, came from fuzzy elec- be the easiest to work with. Aurélie can make the proteins that constitute tron microscope images that showed Albertini, a PhD student in the lab, the shell protecting its genome, it first how the nucleoprotein molecules had succeeded in getting insect cells has to convert this ‘negative strand’ of polymerise on the genome to form in tissue culture to produce rabies RNA into ‘positive’ ones that can be nucleocapsids, but revealed little nucleoprotein. The protein wrapped translated into proteins. It also needs about the structure of the protein itself around the host cells’ RNA mol- to make more copies of its genome to itself. To find out more, Rob Ruigrok ecules, forming rings containing 9 - 13 turn into more viruses. of the UVHCI and Winfried protein molecules. Rob Ruigrok’s For the virus, these processes are Weissenhorn collaborated to make group had realised earlier that these fraught with danger. Mammalian crystals of nucleoprotein and deter- behaved as miniature nucleocapsids, cells, including human cells, contain mine its structure using the high- and electron microscopy studies pro-

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Cutting-edge science

vided coarse insights into their struc- sequence of amino acids, the individ- ious stages of the investigation into ture, which revealed that they closely ual building blocks of the protein. the protein structure. resemble the rabies nucleoplasmid One problem was that the cells she The results revealed that the nucleo- and hence could be used to study the was working with only produced tiny protein clamps itself completely structure of nucleoprotein arranged amounts of the nucleoprotein. around the RNA, locking it away like around RNA. Fortunately, Josan Márquez’s high- family jewels in a bank vault. “It’s not Aurélie started to work on produc- throughput crystallisation facility was accessible for any other enzyme to ing nucleoprotein-RNA crystals, a at hand to help solve the problem, attack it,” says Winfried. The protein project that was later joined by Amy using only small protein samples. is formed from two main working Wernimont, a postdoc in Winfried’s “The crystallisation robotics was parts, or domains. One, called the lab. But the molecules were not play- absolutely wonderful,” recalls CTD, cradles one side of the RNA and ing ball, and both Aurélie and Amy Winfried. “If we had needed large also sticks to the CTDs of other nucle- struggled for a long time to get crys- samples, we would not have been oprotein molecules, helping to form a tals that would allow Amy to deter- able to screen for the right crystallisa- helical cocoon. The other domain, the mine the structure at a resolution of 4 tion conditions.” The team eventually NTD, sits on the other side of the Ångströms, which is sharp enough to found the right conditions, the precise RNA and does not make extensive distinguish how the protein folds, but concentration of the protein and a contact with the other nucleoproteins. not quite enough to show the complex mixture of chemical reagents The overall structure is like a clamp needed for crystallisation, and man- squeezing around the RNA and keep- aged to tweak them to gain 3.5 ing everything else out. “The nucleo- Ångström resolution – enough to con- protein will prevent the RNA from struct a detailed model of the pro- being recognised by the innate tein’s structure. Help also came from immune system,” says Winfried. “But Raimond Ravelli, who assisted with how does it become accessible for NTD data collection, fine-tuning the X-ray replication and translation?” exposure time to get the best results The answer lies in two stray-thread- and offering continuous advice at var- like structures that protrude from

RNA Six nucleoproteins (in different colours) bind side-by-side to one RNA molecule (black). The protein is formed from two main working parts: the CTD, which cradles one side of the RNA and also sticks to the CTDs of other nucleoprotein molecules, and the NTD, which sits on the other side of the RNA and does not make extensive contact with the other nucleoproteins CTD

NTD Image courtesy of Winfried Weissenhorn Winfried Image courtesy of RNA This model of the nucleoprotein reveals that the RNA is completely clamped at CTD the interface of the NTD (top) and the CTD (bottom) and thus is not accessible to degrading host enzymes or the polymerase

Image courtesy of Winfried Weissenhorn

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either domain. These could act as targeted by drugs that jam their hinges, swinging the NTD region up cocoons shut. It also suggests they and bending the nucleoprotein clamp share a common ancestor, says This article illustrates the open, allowing viral enzymes access Winfried. “From the sequence analy- nature of scientific research to small sections of the genome at a sis, you wouldn’t think they were as an ongoing, dynamic time. One particular protein, called related,” he adds. “I think there was entity. As each molecular phosphoprotein P, may be involved. It probably some ancestral nucleocap- secret of the life cycle of links RNA polymerase, the enzyme sid, but then they diverged as the even the simplest organ- needed to copy the genome, to nucle- viruses evolved to infect different isms is uncovered by use of oprotein, and may bind to one of the kinds of cells.” sophisticated technologies, hinges to swing the NTD out of the there are repercussions for way. Resources advances in medical treat- This hinge mechanism suggests a The work described in this article was ments and disease control. way to tackle viruses like the rabies published as: Marie Walsh, virus with drugs that interfere with it. Albertini AA, Wernimont AK, Republic of Ireland “If our concept that it opens up is cor- Muziol T, Ravelli RB, Clapier CR, REVIEW rect, we could jam it shut,” says Schoehn G, Weissenhorn W, Winfried. “This would block viral Ruigrok RW (2006) Crystal structure replication.” Locked inside its protein of the rabies virus nucleoprotein- cradle, the viral genome would be RNA complex. Science 313: 360-363. rendered powerless and eventually disposed of by the cell. The next step Web Resources towards such drugs would be a sys- To learn more about the work of tematic search for small chemicals Winfied Weissenhorn and Rob with the ability to bind to the hinge Ruigrok, see

region, thereby blocking the opening www2.ujf-grenoble.fr/pharmacie/ Weissenhorn Winfried Image courtesy of of the nucleocapsid. laboratoires/gdrviro/ The findings could also give some insight into how negative-strand RNA viruses evolved, says Winfried. Related virus species can have very different genome sequences, making it hard to draw any conclusions about their evolutionary history from sequence comparison alone. Structures, on the other hand, are a different story. The same physical structure can be built from a variety of gene and amino acid sequences. So even if genes evolve and change dramatically, the structures they encode can reveal deep evolutionary links between viruses. 11 nucleoproteins (in different colours) bind to Electron microscopy pictures of one RNA molecule (black) RNA molecules of other negative- to form a complex strand RNA viruses, such as the measles virus, the Marburg virus and a crystal structure of a Borna virus, suggest that their nucleoproteins have a similar hinged clamp structure. This suggests these viruses use a tactic similar to the rabies virus’s for shielding their RNA, and so might also be

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Teaching activities

Ginger beer: a traditional fermented low-alcohol drink

Because of its low alcohol content, ginger ‘beer’ is a popular drink with British children. Dean Madden from the National Centre for Biotechnology Education, University of Reading, UK, gives his recipe for introducing younger students to the principles of fermentation, food hygiene and the biochemistry of respiration. Image courtesy of iStockphoto

he predecessors of modern car- every town in the United Kingdom. Tbonated soft drinks were often The ‘beer’ was often sold by street brewed at home. In late 19th century hawkers, and it was sometimes dis- Britain, ‘small beers’ were fermented pensed from a ‘beer engine’ – an elab- drinks with a very low alcohol con- orate device like an upright piano tent. These were usually safer to drink with beer pump handles that was

, 1877 , than water, which was often contami- pulled through the streets by a pony. nated. In 1935 there were more than 3000 Ginger beer originated in England producers of ginger beer in the in the mid-1700s and was exported United Kingdom: today, however,

Street life in London in life Street worldwide. This was made possi- only one British firm makes a ble by the use of strong earthen- traditional brewed product – modern ware bottles that were sealed by ‘ginger beer’ is usually made with a liquid- and gas-tight glaze flavourings and carbonated with (called ‘Bristol glaze’). The pressurised carbon dioxide. British Excise Regulations of There are many recipes for ginger

1855 required that the drink con- beer; the basic ingredients are ginger, Image courtesy of John Thomson, Thomson, John of courtesy Image tained no more than 2% alcohol, and lemon, sugar and yeast. Real ginger usually it was far less potent: hence beer is made from fresh root ginger Ginger beer seller, ginger beer became popular with chil- (Zingiber officinale), often with other London 1877 dren. By the start of the 20th century it flavourings such as juniper (Juniperus was produced commercially in almost communis), liquorice (Glycyrrhiza

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Compound Source Relative strength Images courtesy of Pietro Benedetti

Piperine Black pepper 1

Gingerol Fresh ginger 0.8

Shogaol Dried ginger 1.5 Capsaicin Zingerone Cooked ginger 0.5

Capsaicin Chilli 150–300

Ginger contains the pungent compound gingerol, which is similar in structure to chilli’s capsaicin and pepper’s piperine. Heating converts gingerol to the less pungent zingerone; drying converts it to shogaol, which is about twice as strong-tasting. It is thought that these compounds evolved as a defence against herbivores as high Gingerol concentrations are repellent to most mammals.

Equipment and materials · Sieve and funnel for straining Equipment liquid into bottles Plastic (PET) bottle and cap. · Sharp knife and chopping board · Do not use glass bottles! · Lemon zester or grater · Lemon squeezer · Rolling pin Materials · 1 l water · Large spoon · 150 g root ginger (~130g when Kettle for boiling water · peeled) Thermometer · · Medium-sized lemon (preferably · Large bowl or jug unwaxed) · Clean tea towel to cover bowl

1 glabra) or chilli (Capsicum annuum) – which gives the product extra ‘bite’. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) is sometimes used to inhibit bacterial growth (as it was in normal beer before the introduction of hops). Jamaican ginger beer is sometimes made with lime instead of lemon juice. The following recipe is for one litre and can be scaled up and changed as required – some suggest that the ginger should be grated rather than sliced and crushed. Others recommend boiling the mixture before adding the yeast, to extract more flavour from the ingredients.

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Teaching activities

· 140 g sugar (brown or white) solution. Ensure that the bottles are Safety and other concerns · 4 g cream of tartar (tartaric acid) thoroughly rinsed with clean water Glass bottles must NEVER be used, · 4 g dried ale or bread yeast, or 8 g after sterilising.* as the gas produced will cause them fresh 6. Add the yeast to the warm liquid to explode. This drink should always · Sterilising solution suitable for in the bowl and stir until it has be made in plastic bottles, and it food use dispersed. should always be refrigerated and · Strong plastic bag in which to 7. Cover the bowl with a clean cloth consumed within six days. The short bruise ginger and leave it in a warm place for 24 h. fermentation period and refrigeration · Optional: Other spices such as 8. Skim off the yeast, leaving the sedi- ensure that the alcohol content of the chilli, nutmeg, liquorice, vanilla, ment in the bowl. Strain into the drink remains low. cardamom, cloves, juniper, fennel, sterilised plastic bottles, leaving a Please remember that some reli- coriander, star anise 3–5 cm air gap at the top. gious groups object even to the con- 9. IMPORTANT! Allow the beer to sumption of products that contain lit- Method ferment at room temperature tle or no alcohol but have been pro- 1. Peel the ginger and cut it into slices (~21 °C) for no more than 48 h, duced by brewing. The students may, 3–5 mm thick. Bruise the slices well then place the bottles in a fridge. however, be happy to take part in the by placing them in a strong, clean Drink within six days. practical without drinking the result- plastic bag and crushing them with ing ginger beer. Teachers should be a rolling pin. sensitive to such concerns. * There is no need to use boiled 2. Place the ginger in a large bowl or water to rinse the bottles after ster- jug. Scrape the lemon zest over it, ilisation. The sterilising step is to Preparation and timing then add the juice from the lemon. get rid of major contaminants left It takes approximately 90 minutes 3. Place the remaining ingredients in reused bottles. The tap water to prepare the drink, including a cool- except for the yeast in the bowl, used for rinsing should not intro- ing period of 60 minutes. The initial then carefully pour on boiling duce contaminants, and should it fermentation takes 24 hours, followed water. Stir. do so, they will be quickly out- by up to 48 hours fermentation in bot- 4. Cover the bowl with a clean cloth competed by the relatively large tles. The bottles can be sterilised in and leave the liquid to cool to inoculum of yeast. The low pH of advance if desired. 25–30°C (this can take 60–90 min). the liquid (from the lemons) will 5. While the liquid is cooling, sterilise also prevent bacteria (although not the PET bottles using the sterilising yeast) from growing.

Images courtesy of Dean Madden 23 4

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Additional investigations 5. Homemade ginger beer contains Suppliers This practical activity can be used live yeast. Consequently, it has a All of the materials required to as the starting point for other practi- short shelf life and there is a dan- make ginger beer can be bought from cal investigations, some of a techno- ger that the bottles might explode. a supermarket, market or a supplier logical nature. These include: Investigate ways of overcoming of wine-making equipment. 1. Most fermented soft drinks are this problem. These might include Note, however, that ginger beer acidified to inhibit bacterial one or more of the following: was traditionally made not with pure growth. Does this also inhibit the · Selling the product as a fresh yeast, but with a mixed culture of yeast? Investigate the effect of pH drink that has to be stored under lactobacilli and yeasts that is some- on the rate of fermentation (12 g of refrigeration times called a ‘Ginger beer plant’ or a citric acid is roughly equivalent to ‘Beeswine’ culture. This is similar to a Filtering the yeast from the adding the juice of one lemon). · kefir culture and can be maintained drink before bottling it 2. Some flavourings, such as cinna- and passed on to others who wish to mon, cloves and yarrow, are · Precipitating the yeast with a make ginger beer. thought to inhibit the growth of fining agent before bottling The ‘ginger beer plant’ was microbes. Devise an experiment to · Pasteurising the drink before described in: test this. What are the implications bottling, to kill the yeast Ward HM (1892) The ginger beer of your findings for the recipes and · Adding a chemical preservative plant and the organisms composing methods of soft-drink production? to the drink to kill the yeast it. Philosophical Transactions of the 3. In the USA, sachets of dried herbs · Using a type of yeast that pre- Royal Society of London. B 183: and spices were sold so that people cipitates (flocculates) naturally 125–197 could make ‘root beers’ at home. According to the UK National Increasing the sugar content of Could similar kits be devised for · Collection of Yeast Cultures the finished drink so that the ginger beer? How could you pre- (www.ncyc.co.uk/beeswine.php), yeast cannot grow (due to pare and package the ingredients the only safe commercial source of osmosis) so that they were convenient for this culture in Europe is now the home users? · Designing a special bottle that German culture collection, DSMZ. 4. How could you measure and allows excess gas to escape They have a special education price control the alcohol content of a while maintaining the fizz and for this culture, DSMZ No. 2484 fermented drink, to ensure that it preventing contamination of the (www.dsmz.de/microorganisms/ was not excessive? drink. html/strains/strain.dsm002484.html).

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Teaching activities

Resources For an excellent recipe book for non- alcoholic fermented drinks, see: When I was at school there always seemed to be some lad with a Cresswell SE (1998) Homemade root ginger beer plant in his desk – woe betide him if it exploded! This beer, soda, and pop. Pownal, VT, USA: interesting and excellent article describes how ginger beer can be Storey Books made simply without a ginger beer plant, using everyday items. It includes hints on bottling, cleanli- The practical can be used to complement different levels of scientif- ness and the production of concen- ic understanding from basic sterility to fermentation, respiration, trates from raw ingredients. microbial growth and the effect of pH on microbial growth. The A large, world-renowned and authori- additional investigations suggested in the article would make excel- tative text on all aspects of food lent individual projects for students aged 16-18 or group projects for culture and chemistry is: younger students. Students could be encouraged to make a small McGee H (2004) On food and cooking, poster on the antimicrobial activity of a spice as well as investigat- 2nd ed. London, UK: Hodder and ing it practically. More advanced students could investigate chilli Stoughton strength and the chemical components of capsaicin. The wide range For Wikipedia’s webpage on ginger of activities this practical offers means that it could be used several beer, see: times with both the same and different groups of students. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Shelley Goodman, UK Ginger_beer REVIEW For the Yahoo! group webpage on ginger beer plants, see: http://health.groups.yahoo.com/ group/GingerBeerPlant/

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Chewing flavours

Ken Gadd and Luca Szalay introduce a procedure used in industry – and adapted for school students – to measure the citric acid level in chewing gum.

Image courtesy of Dan Chippendale/iStockphoto

How acidic is chewing gum? citric acid is in the chewing gum. It’s How many people do you know the role of an analytical chemist in the who chew gum? Why do they? You quality control laboratory to check it The could try a straw poll, but the most out. The method below is based on likely answer will be for the flavour. the standard procedure used by a StandardBase Chewing gum consists of a water- company that manufactures various project insoluble gum base and water-soluble flavours of chewing gum and bubble ingredients such as flavourings and gum (a type of chewing gum). It has sweeteners. When you chew it, the been adapted for use in schools and The StandardBase project flavourings and sweeteners are colleges so that your students can has produced 72 standard released, dissolved and swallowed mimic authentic workplace practice. analytical procedures, used (hopefully the gum stays in the Here are some questions that could in industry and adapted for mouth). Once the flavour has been be used to get students thinking: use by students in schools extracted, the gum is discarded. · How many people do you know and colleges, accessible via Unfortunately it sticks strongly to who chew gum? the Internet. For more infor- hard surfaces such as concrete and is · How old are they? mation about the project, very hard to remove. There’s plenty · What makes bubble gum differ- see ‘StandardBase: a of evidence for this if you look at the ent from other types of chewing Leonardo da Vinci pilot pavements you walk on. But back to gum? project for practical educa- flavouring.... · How do you remove chewing tion and training in chem- A common ingredient in chewing gum from clothing? istry’ in this issue of Science gum and other confectionary is citric · Why do sugar-free gums still in School. acid. It gives that sharp, refreshing taste sweet? BACKGROUND citrus taste that ‘attacks’ the tongue. · How could you work out how The packaging will tell you how much much acid is in chewing gum?

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Teaching activities

The procedure: Determination of citric acid in Hubba Bubba® chewing gum using acid-base titration

Duration 1 hour Analytical instruments used Volumetric glassware Sample specification Orange flavoured Hubba Bubba® bubble gum Supplied by Most confectionary shops and supermarkets Component to be determined citric acid Method(s) titrimetry acid-base Field(s) food and beverages

Before they start the practical, · Magnetic stirrer and follower Procedure teachers may want their students to (also known as a flea) 1. Take one orange flavoured Hubba understand the chemistry of the Bubba® bubble gum piece, unwrap 10 cm3 burette (reading to near- analysis. To check they have an · it and place onto a wood block. est 0.02 cm3) appropriate knowledge, students 2. With the rolling pin, roll the bubble might try the interactive test on the · Top pan analytical balance gum into a very thin strip approxi- StandardBase websitew1. To help their · Wood block mately 160 x 30 x 0.5 mm. work, students can also download a · Knife/scissors 3. Cut the thin strip into small pieces file about titrationw2. about the size of long grain of rice. Materials and their CAS numbersw4 4. Weigh out 1.00 g of orange flavour Scope · Orange flavoured Hubba Bubba® Hubba Bubba® bubble gum bits. 3 The aim of this analytical procedure · Sodium hydroxide (CAS num- 5. Add to 100 cm of pure water 3 is to determine the citric acid content ber: 1310-73-2) contained in a 250 cm conical in Hubba Bubba® bubble gum. This flask. Add a magnetic follower Phenolphthalein (CAS number: bubble gum is available in the UK · and stopper. 77-09-8) and most parts of Europe. It is manu- 6. Stir vigorously for 30 min, making factured by Wrigleyw3 in Plymouth, Reagent solutions sure bubble gum bits do not lump UK. The method described here is Standard 0.10 mol dm-3 sodium together. · 3 based on an analytical procedure hydroxide. If this is not avail- 7. Add 0.50 cm of phenolphthalein used by Wrigley in their Plymouth able, dissolve 1.00 g of sodium indicator and titrate with -3 laboratories. hydroxide in about 100 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm sodium hydroxide 3 pure water. Wash carefully to a contained in a 10 cm burette. Principle 250 cm3 graduated flask and The end point is pink. The determination is based on an make up to the graduation 8. Repeat twice more and average acid/base reaction between the citric mark. Homogenise the solution. the three results. Average titration 3 acid in the bubble gum and standard Standardise by titration with = V cm . sodium hydroxide. The citric acid 0.10 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, content of the bubble gum can be cal- itself standardised against solid Calculations culated from titration results. potassium hydrogencarbonate. Use the following to calculate the percentage by mass of citric acid Equipment · Phenolphthalein indicator. monohydrate in the Hubba Bubba® · Kitchen pastry roller (rolling Weigh out 0.20 g of phenolph- bubble gum: pin) thalein and dissolve in about Each cubic centimetre of 3 · 50 cm of methanol. Transfer -3 3 0.10 mol dm sodium hydrox- · 250 cm conical flask 3 solution to a 100 cm graduated ide is equivalent to 7.00 mg of 250 cm3 graduated flask · flask, make up to the graduation citric acid monohydrate. · 100 cm3 graduated flask mark with methanol and · % by mass citric acid monohy- homogenise the solution. drate = 0.70V

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Note: a correction factor is neces- If your students want to add their sary if the sodium hydroxide solution own results to the graph, email Luca -3 is not exactly 0.10 mol dm . Szalay ([email protected]). You will get a username and password to be able to Expression of results use this function of the StandardBase Give the mass of citric acid mono- database. Then you can register your hydrate in Hubba Bubba® bubble gum students, which will allow them to in percentage by mass (mass of citric upload their numbers on the graph. acid monohydrate in 100 g of bubble gum). The manufacturer’s allowed Web references range is 1.9–2.1 percentage by w1 – Teachers may like to get their mass. students to try the interactive test on the StandardBase website: Precision www.vapro-ovp.com/applications/ The precision of the analysis is toetsing/vraag.asp?toetsID=29 determined by the burette readings. w2 – A file about titration can be An inexperienced student might read downloaded from the StandardBase a burette to a precision of ± 0.05 cm3. website: www.wrigley.co.uk/index. More experienced students might cfm?articleid=138 3 read to ± 0.02 cm . w3 – For more information about Hubba Bubba® products see The graph www.wrigley.co.uk/HubbaBubba/ The graph below shows the results Index.cfm obtained by students in other w4 – The CAS Registry is the largest European countries (accurate at time and most current database of chem- of going to press). If your students are ical substance information in the interested in finding out the latest world. See www.cas.org/expertise/ status, they can view the most up-to- cascontent/registry/regsys.html date results onlinew5.

3.0 upper limit: 3.0 Citric acid content of sample (g per 100 g) 1.0 lower limit: 1.0

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Measurement number

Image courtesy of Dan Chippendale/iStockphoto

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Teaching activities Images courtesy of iStockphoto w5 – A graph of previous results of this analysis can be viewed and Ken Gadd works for 4science, UK, downloaded here: and Luca Szalay is based in the http://standardbase.live.ism.nl/ Institute of Chemistry at Eötvös sbase/maindetails.asp?expid=3362# Loránd University, Hungary.

Resources This and other protocols can be downloaded from the StandardBase database: http://standardbase.live.ism.nl. Click on ‘View or conduct a StandardBase procedure’ then ‘View all experiments’. Then select the protocol you would like to view.

This article offers an interesting and original approach posed activity but also the other procedures of to acid-base reactions and acid-base titrimetry, two StandardBase project that are available on the web- topics usually regarded as heavy and boring (remem- site. The possibility to join the project is another inter- ber when you were a student?). esting feature of the article. Starting from a familiar object (chewing gum), with its Teachers may like to pose the following comprehen- characteristics and practical problems, the authors sion questions: present the analytical procedure (determination of citric acid in Hubba Bubba® chewing gum), widening The substance that gives orange Hubba Bubba® its the subject to theoretical aspects with the help of web flavour is: references. Chemistry teachers could use the article a) malic acid to discuss the importance of standard analytical pro- b) citric acid cedures, in addition to the topics of acid-base reac- c) ascorbic acid tions and acid-base titrimetry. The proposed analysis d) hydrochloric acid gives the opportunity for the mathematical treatment and sharing of the obtained data, thus linking chemistry, statistics and the English language. The concentration of the titrating solution used in the procedure is:

The link to a real job in a quality control laboratory, -3 the richness of didactic materials in the StandardBase a) 0.10 g dm website (preliminary tests, theory, graphs and proto- b) 1.00 % by mass -3 cols) make ‘Chewing flavours’ a useful resource for c) 0.10 mol dm chemistry teachers and students. It could be used to d) 1.00 mol dm-3 discuss the role of the analytical chemist in the con- Following the authors’ suggestion, I would find a text of industry and research and / or to prepare a visit sequel on the chemical aspects of removing chewing to a factory or to a laboratory. gum from surfaces and clothes interesting. The article could be useful in upper secondary or Giulia Realdon, Italy vocational schools in Italy not only to test the pro- REVIEW

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Bring the fascination of the science centre into the classroom

Amito Haarhuis from the Science Center NEMO in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, describes a project that challenges pupils aged 11-12 to design and create their own exhibits. Image courtesy of NEMO

Children acquire technical skills by building the exhibit ‘The Magic Soap Curtain’

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Projects in science education

uring the Science Center at Successful pilot DSchool project, pupils build The pilot project was carried out in their own exhibits, similar to those in ten primary schools, and pupils rated a science centre – with the help of an the project with an average score of employee at a real science centre. Help is at 8.5 (on a scale of 0-10.0). The most Using their exhibits, the pupils set up hand highly valued part was the building a science centre in their own school. of the exhibits (9.4). The reasons given They present the results of their If you are interested in this by the children for the high score research into the science behind their project and would like were: “because you don’t often get to exhibits and invite fellow pupils and more information, Science do things such as sawing; I like that parents to try them out. Center NEMO would be kind of thing” and “once it’s finished happy to help. Contact – you can see if it works”. Showing The project in a nutshell Amito Haarhuis (haarhuis@ the exhibits to other children and par- Science Center at School consists of e-NEMO.nl). ents was also rated highly (8.7): eight mornings or afternoons, spread BACKGROUND “because you’re happy with what over at least five weeks. Only the first you’ve made and you can show it to half-day takes place at a science cen- other people” and “because some tre. Here, a science centre employee nothing better than to get down to people just couldn’t believe it and introduces the project, telling the chil- building the exhibit right away; mak- were thinking ‘how do they do dren what an exhibit is and what they ing a technical drawing slows down that?’”. have to think about when they build this process. It does, however, help their own exhibit. the children to work in a more organ- Image courtesy of NEMO The rest of the project takes place at ised way and think before they act. school. The pupils work in pairs and From their technical drawing and a choose (from a list provided by the description provided by the science science centre) which of more than 20 centre, they then build the exhibit. All exhibits they want to build. They then descriptions and building instructions make a technical drawing of their can be downloaded from the Science chosen exhibit, thinking about how Center at School websitew1. Building the they are going to make it and how big exhibits involves sawing, drilling, cut- it should be. The children would like ting and pasting. For this part of the project, extra hands are needed in the Image courtesy of NEMO classroom: two extra people (parents, trainee teachers or colleagues, for example) should be sufficient. After they have finished building, the pupils do some research using their exhibit. They study how it works and what scientific phenomenon it demonstrates. Using posters A science centre at school and oral presentations, the pupils then present their research to their classmates, teachers, family and Girls became more technical friends, who have the chance to try What was striking was the fact that out the exhibits too. most of the girls considered them- The main objectives of this project selves ‘not really technical’ before the are to encourage an enquiring atti- project, whereas most of the boys con- tude to science and technology, and to sidered themselves ‘pretty technical’. demonstrate to the pupils how they After the project, the children consid- can work together, give presentations ered themselves on average more (written and oral) and acquire a high technical than before: 7% more chil- Making a technical drawing helps stu- level of technical skills. dren regarded themselves as ‘pretty dents to work in a more organised way technical’ or ‘very technical’.

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Question for the girls: Do you consider yourself technical? Learning by design Image courtesy of NEMO 70 The lesson description explains how to design the exhibit, as well as the 60 materials and tools required. However, no quantities for materials 50 are given. Before the pupils can estab- 40 lish how much of each material they need, they must decide how big their 30 exhibit will be. Once they have decid- Before the project ed this, they sketch a 1:2 scale techni- 20 After the project cal drawing, indicating how the components should be attached to each 10 other. Percentage of all girls (n = 65) Percentage The children present their technical 0 I have ten I am not really I am pretty I am very drawings to each other and their thumbs technical technical technical teacher, asking for feedback. They use this feedback to improve their technical drawing.

More significant is the increase is the process and not the end product among the girls: after the project, the that is most important. Therefore, number of girls who regarded them- guidance by the teacher focuses pri- selves as ‘pretty technical’ rose by marily on acquiring an investigative 66% and the number who considered attitude and technical skills. The Science Center at School is themselves as ‘not really technical’ Science Center NEMO provides a a project of the National fell by 35%. It seems that the boys training session for teachers to pre- Science and Technology generally overestimated their own pare for the project. Center, the umbrella organ- abilities before the project. By doing isation of Science Center the project they got a more realistic Enquiry-based learning NEMO, the largest science self-image. Girls had a more realistic It is important to realise that centre in the Netherlands. self-image to start with, but generally enquiry-based learning begins only The National Science and had less experience with technical once the exhibit has been built: the Technology Center is work- activities. By taking part in the project finished exhibit makes a physical ing with the AMSTEL they discovered that they were actual- phenomenon or technical principle Institute of the University of ly quite good at it, and that it was tangible, so the exhibits lend them- Amsterdam, the Nether - fun! selves well to follow-up research. lands National Institute for The children go through three Curriculum Development Educational trajectory research phases: first, ‘fooling around’ (SLO) and ten primary The project is connected with an with the exhibit (unfocused investiga- schools. educational trajectory for enquiry- tion), which gives rise to lots of ques- The project was financed based learning and learning by design tions; second, ‘focused experimenta- by the European Union that NEMO has developed in co-oper- tion’, where specific research ques- under PENCIL (Permanent ation with the AMSTEL Institute of tions are included in the lesson EuropeaN resource Center the University of Amsterdam. descriptions and children can discov- for Informal Learning) proj- We distinguished a ‘science trajecto- er answers themselves; and third, ect. Under this banner, 14 ry’, to which enquiry-based learning ‘theoretical research’, where pupils European science centres is central (didactics of natural sci- research using books and the Internet and museums worked with ences), and a ‘technology trajectory’, to learn about the science behind how schools and universities to to which learning by design is central the exhibit works and how those try to find new ways of shaping science education. (didactics of technology). An impor- scientific principles apply in daily BACKGROUND tant aspect of both didactics is that it life.

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Science topics

Examples of exhibits

This exhibit shows a zoetrope, a kind of forerunner of the modern film, developed at the end of the 19th century. From this exhibit, pupils learn something about the phenomenon of light (physics), the working of the eye and brain (biology), and technology (it is a technical product).

Images courtesy of NEMO

This exhibit is a special mirror consisting of loose strips with slots in between them. By placing someone in front of the mirror and someone behind – and having them look at each other in the mirror – together they can make a new face which is a mixture. This exhibit is about light and reflection (physics), and is also a technical product.

BACKGROUND Instructions for these and many other exhibits can be downloaded from the Science Center at School website .

Most of the time, the exhibits do not the English-language lesson materi- work straight away. It is important als for this project, click on ‘Primary that the teacher regards the technical Education – Teachers’ and then problems that the children encounter ‘Lesson materials’: as novel learning opportunities. Often www.sciencecenteropschool.nl/ the teacher will be tempted to think index.php?id=95 up solutions to help the children. But according to the didactics of learning by design, it is important that chil- Amito Haarhuis is the Head of dren come up with inventive solu- Education at the Science Center tions themselves. They can test NEMO in Amsterdam, the whether these work immediately and Netherlands. tell the teacher the result.

Web references w1 – More information about the project is available on the Science Center at School website. To see all

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StandardBase: a Leonardo da Vinci pilot project for practical education and training in chemistry

Image courtesy of the StandardBase project team The StandardBase Using a gas chromatograph project has produced in a Hungarian lab 72 standard analytical procedures used in industry and adapted for use by students in schools and colleges via the Internet. Ken Gadd and Luca Szalay explain the goals and the use of StandardBase products.

The aims of the StandardBase likely that many people will know is vital. Standard analytical proce- project – quality matters how to check these things. Instead, dures are used to ensure quality stan- How can you be sure your Coca we rely on qualified analytical scien- dards are met. Analytical chemists Cola® doesn’t contain too much caf- tists to tell us. employed in industry and the public feine, your wine doesn’t have too Quality control in the manufacture service sector must be suitably quali- much sulphur dioxide or the water of chemicals and products such as fied and have the skills, knowledge you drink won’t harm you? It’s not food, beverages and pharmaceuticals and experience to do their jobs well.

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Projects in science education

and 4science in the UKw4) developed and trialled 18 standard procedures each, giving a total of 72. Each institu- How to access the procedures tion, together with Eötvös Loránd University in Hungaryw5, tried out the and activities procedures developed by the others. The modified procedures and results To download a StandardBase procedure, go to the StandardBase web- were put on the StandardBase sitew6 and click on the following links in order: ‘Enter procedures data- websitew6. base’, ‘View or conduct a StandardBase procedure’, and ‘View all Analyses fell into two categories: experiments’. Now you can choose an experiment from the list by 1. Commercially available products clicking on its title, and the description of the experiment can be Colleagues in each institution downloaded in PDF format by clicking on the link ‘Show step-by-step’ analysed the same branded com- on the left-hand side of the page. Alternatively, you can find a proce- mercially available product, e.g. dure suitable for certain purposes by choosing among or typing in toothpaste, aspirin and other phar- keywords (e.g. ‘Vitamin C’) once you click on the ‘View and conduct maceutical products, cola, petrol an experiment’ link. and bubble gum (specific details The ProBase websitew9 is under construction and will be ready by the are available on the StandardBase

BACKGROUND end of 2008. website). This allowed a direct comparison. In effect, school laboratories could participate in a ‘labo- Image courtesy of the StandardBase project team ratory proficiency test’. This includes being able to use stan- 2. Environmental studies dard analytical procedures. Colleagues in each institution These procedures may be local analysed environmental samples (used by specific companies), national taken from their own locality, e.g. or international. Many standards are air and water. Students would not now international, such as the expect to get the same results as International Organization for one another. However, they could Standardization (ISO) standards. look for trends and patterns in data Scientists increasingly work with col- collected from different locations. leagues in other European countries and beyond. The StandardBase proj- Slovenian students performing a In addition to the procedures, tests ect was rooted in the belief that it StandardBase procedure were written so that students could would be beneficial to teach some check their own understanding. The common aspects of analytical proce- Teachers involved in the piloting of final stage was for students in each dures across vocational schools and the project found that the motivation country to try out the procedures. colleges in Europe. aspect was significant. Putting the sci- While this work was in progress, However, industrial standard ana- ence into real-life situations interests VaPro w7, in the Netherlands, and lytical procedures often cannot be car- and engages students. Measuring the Eötvös Loránd University developed ried out in schools because of a lack alcohol content of a bottle of beer, for the StandardBase website. of specialist equipment, chemicals, example, is more meaningful and rel- The website is now complete and expertise and time. The StandardBase evant to students than measuring its students may: download procedures; project set out to make industrial concentration in a mixture prepared download tests to check their under- standard analytical procedures acces- by the teacher. standing; compare their data with sible to students in schools and col- other students’ results; add their own leges. Procedures were adapted for Methodology and outcomes of results to the database; learn more use in these locations, piloted, revised the StandardBase project about the techniques and underpin- and added to the StandardBase website Colleagues associated with four of ning principles; and ask questions for people to use. In addition, a facility the partner institutions (Petrik with the help of the discussion forum is provided for students to share and Vocational School in Hungaryw1, and email facilities. compare their results with students in Drenthe College in the Netherlandsw2, The StandardBase project aims to other institutions and countries. Institute ‘Jozef Stefan’ in Sloveniaw3 make the learning process student-

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centred. Information and exchange of ideas and data come primarily from the internet rather than the teacher. This helps to develop some of the The Leonardo da Vinci professional skills needed by practising scientists. The role of the teacher programme may be limited to organising and supervising the practical work. The StandardBase project was, and the ProBase project is, carried out in response to the goals of the Leonardo da Vinci programme and with Brief summaries of a few the help of the Leonardo funds. StandardBase procedures The Leonardo da Vinci programme contributes to the implementation Determination of citric acid in of a vocational training policy for the European Union, which supports Hubba-Bubba chewing gum and supplements the actions of the member states (article 150 of the using acid-base titration treaty establishing the European Community). The council decision states the need to raise the quality, innovation and European dimension The aim of this analytical procedure of vocational training systems and practices, by means of transnational is to determine the citric acid content co-operation. in Hubba Bubba bubble gum. This (Source: The Leonardo da Vinci Programme’s Call for proposals) bubble gum is available in the UK BACKGROUND and most parts of Europe. The method described is based on an analytical procedure used by the Wrigley the manufacture of fluoro-polymers. tablets. This method is applicable for company in their laboratories in In this analysis, a solid state ion selec- the determination of zinc in the con- Plymouth, UK. tive electrode (ISE) is used to measure centration range of 10-200 µg/dm3. A detailed description of the proce- the potential of a fluoridated tooth- dure is published in this issue of paste sample (or fluoridated water Coming next: Problem-based Science in Schoolw8. sample). activities for vocational science education Determination of fluoride ion Determination of zinc in multivit- Students in schools and colleges of content of toothpaste using amin tablets using stripping vocational education and training potentiometry voltammetry often follow established practical pro- Fluoride is added to drinking water In the pharmaceutical industry, it is cedures. For example, they might and toothpaste to inhibit dental often necessary to determine the pres- determine the nitrate or phosphate caries; it is also present in effluents ence of metals in very small amounts, concentration in a solution. Putting from many industrial processes, e.g. e.g. trace elements in multivitamin these analyses into the context of a real problem – Why is this lake water green? – illustrates their relevance and usefulness. To develop broader professional skills as well as analyti- The main page of the cal techniques, students might work StandardBase website within a number of constraints, e.g. limited time, budget and resources. Several analytical procedures might be provided, with students deciding which is most suitable for this situation. So, the analytical techniques and A graph including the results of the underlying theory remain, but stu- determination of the iron content dents are also challenged to use them in mosskiller in a situation that imitates authentic workplace practice. Therefore the ProBase project team (formed by the same partners who took part in the Images courtesy of the StandardBase project team

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Projects in science education

Image courtesy of the StandardBase project team Web references w1 – Petrik Vocational School, The article on the Standard Hungary: www.petrikl.sulinet.hu Base project gives the read- w2 – Drenthe College Unit Techniek, er a view of the dynamic the Netherlands: world of vocational educa- www.drenthecollege.nl tion and of the potentialities w3 – Institute ‘Jozef Stefan’, Slovenia: offered by European trans- www.ijs.si/ijs.html national programmes in this w4 – 4science, United Kingdom: specific field. www.4science.org.uk With a plain style the w5 – Eötvös Loránd University, authors highlight the main Hungary: www.elte.hu features of the project, leav- w6 – The StandardBase website: ing the rest to the project’s www.standardbase.com website, which is very rich w7 – VaPro, the Netherlands: in analytical procedures Titration in a Dutch laboratory www.vapro.nl and other didactical materials. StandardBase’s winning w8 – For a full description of the ideas are the international chewing gum analysis, see the StandardBase project) wants to devel- following article in this issue of standardisation of proto- op a range of activities to show not Science in School: cols, the quality assessment just how science works, but how sci- through laboratory profi- Gadd K, Szalay L (2008) Chewing entists work. In this project, students ciency tests, the real-life flavours. Science in School 8: 34-37. use scientific knowledge to tackle experiences and e-learning- www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ problems. They (a) work in teams, (b) based methodology. issue8/chewing manage their time, workload and w9 – The ProBase website is under The article could be used to resources, and (c) communicate with development but is expected to raise the interest of second- one another and with non-scientists. be ready by the end of 2008: ary-school students by chal- These are the essential skills used by www.pro-base.eu practising scientists. lenging their skills using the We hope that more and more proposed activities. In addi- schools and colleges will make use of tion, the StandardBase web- and contribute to the StandardBase site allows students and Ken Gadd works for 4science, UK, and ProBase databases in the coming teachers to exchange infor- and Luca Szalay is based in the years. mation and compare Institute of Chemistry at Eötvös results, adding a European Loránd University, Hungary. dimension to the learning process. Giulia Realdon, Italy REVIEW

Image courtesy of the StandardBase project team The StandardBase project team

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What do we know about climate? Investigating the effects of anthropogenic global warming

In this, the second of two articles, climate researcher Rasmus Benestad from the Norwegian Meteorological Institute examines the evidence that humans are causing climate change.

t is well established that there is a the CO2 is from fossil sources, as iso- Inatural greenhouse effect on Earth tope ratios show that the carbon has that makes the planet inhabitable. So been less exposed to galactic cosmic what about anthropogenic global rays (GCRs). When protons from warming (AGW)? After all, natural GCRs collide with the nitrogen-14 climate variations existed long before (seven protons plus seven neutrons in man intervened; just look at the ice the nucleus) in the air, carbon-14 is ages. created (in addition to other isotopes From theoretical considerations, such as beryllium-10) through a you would expect that temperature nuclear reaction: would increase if heat loss was inhib- 14N + p → 14C + n ited while energy supply was con- This means that carbon with a low stant. Increasing the concentrations of isotope carbon-14 ratio must come greenhouse gases (GHGs) has the from deep in the ground, out of reach same effect as restricting heat loss, as of cosmic rays.

GHGs are transparent to sunlight but Furthermore, the ratio of O2 to N2 opaque to the infra-red light that con- has diminished. This is expected from stitutes Earth’s heat loss to space. the increased combustion of fossil

Thus, an increased greenhouse effect fuels, in which O2 combines with C to

disrupts the radiative energy balance. form CO2. The oceans have also The primary empirical evidence for become more acidic, leading to an

an ongoing climate change includes a increase in CO2 levels in both the

~30% systematic increase in CO2 lev- atmosphere and the oceans. els since a pre-industrial level of 280 After all, carbon cannot sponta- parts per million (the black curve in neously vanish from the face of Earth

the figure on page 49 shows CO2 lev- – under normal circumstances, it is els since 1958). There is no doubt that conserved. Hence, the burning of fos- Image courtesy of Karl Dolenc/iStockphoto

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Image courtesy of Rob Friedmann/iStockphoto sil fuels is expected to produce a sur-

plus of CO2 somewhere in the atmosphere, oceans and/or the biosphere. Extracting fossil carbon from deep underground removes it from these hidden reservoirs and releases it to the surface of Earth, where it remains. According to the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global mean temperature, estimated from thousands of individual thermometers scattered around the globe, has increased by 0.74 ± 0.18 ºC over the past 100 years, and appears to be rising still. Some satellite-based studies have also reported changes in the spectral characteristics of the heat radiated from Earth, in line with an increased greenhouse effect. Bore-hole measurements from below the surface can also be substantially since satellite measure- corals, sea-bottom sediments and sta- used to infer temperature changes, ment began, and the snow extent has lagmites bear witness to how the cli- and these too indicate that there has decreased too. mate has varied in the past. been a warming. There is also evidence from the Compared with these indicators, the The global mean sea level is increas- hydrologic cycle: signs of more fre- present warming seems to be excep- ing, both due to the fact that warmer quent intense downpours, and tional for at least the past 1000 years. water has greater volume and changes in the river discharge and because glaciers have melted. It has rainfall statistics. Doubts? also been documented that most gla- Additional reports on biological Those who dispute the notion of an ciers worldwide have retreated since responses fit into the picture of a AGW, popularly called climate sceptics, the end of the 19th century. The sea-ice global climate change. Changes in the have argued that global warming is a cover in the Arctic has diminished tree line, tree ring widths/density, consequence of changes in the Sun. But modern measurements of cosmic rays, sunspots and other indices used to describe the state of the Sun suggest that it has not become more CO2 The trend in T(2m) atmospheric active since the 1950s (see graph on

CO2 concentra- page 50). tions (black; Variations to the Sun’s behaviour from Mauna Loa, would not necessarily exclude the Hawaii) and the role of GHGs in climate change. If our global mean climate were to be sensitive to slight temperature

2 changes in the Sun, then it would (T(2m) orange, CO but no scale suggest that our climate is easily provided; data affected by changes in the energy from NASA balance – hence a stronger reason to GISS) think that changes in GHGs could cause a global climate change. 320 330 340 359 360 370 Other factors may affect the radia- -0.16 -0.05 0.05 0.16 0.26 0.37 0.47 0.58 tion balance, such as changes in 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Earth’s orbit around the Sun, and year solar activity. Volcanoes are known to Image courtesy of Rasmus Benestad

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Image courtesy of Rasmus Benestad any additional CO will not have Climax galactic cosmic ray (GCR) counts 1951 – 2006 2 much effect. However, one only has to

Climax GCR Comparison between look to Venus to see that the atmos- GISS T(2m) galactic cosmic rays phere doesn’t saturate that easily. One (GCRs; grey) and the can also show this theoretically. global mean tempera- Besides, it is not only the effect of CO2 ture (T(2m); orange). that matters, as there are important Although there is no feedback processes which may ampli- long-term trend in GCR behaviour, the fy (such as retreating sea ice, or air T(2m) has risen moisture) or dampen (low clouds, for example) the response to a changing

30-day mean counts 30-day greenhouse effect. But hasn’t the climate always been changing? There are scholars who 0 5000 10000 15000 -0.2 -0.04 0.12 0.28 0.44 0.6 0.44 0.28 0.12 -0.04 -0.2 argue that our climate has a naturally 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 cyclic behaviour. How do we know that the present warming is not just a inject particles into the upper atmosphere have now been reconciled with part of a natural cycle, such as a phere that block sunlight, and natural the surface data. rebound from a short ice age? as well as anthropogenic aerosols may Others have argued that our atmos- We can deduce from the laws of also have a ‘dimming’ effect, reducing phere is already opaque to infra-red physics that the mean temperature the amount of energy from the Sun radiation and is hence saturated, so does not just change spontaneously, that reaches Earth’s surface. Aerosols may also affect Earth’s heat loss – the net effect depends on the type of particle, their size, altitude and concentration. Condesation trails Changes in land surface may also play a role by changing the way the This MERIS (MEdium planet reflects light as well as the Resolution Imaging exchange of moisture and energy Spectrometer) shows between the surface and the atmos- much of north-eastern phere. Europe, including Some sceptics argue that global areas of Germany, warming is an illusion due to the Sweden, Poland and effect of urbanisation. However, this Denmark. does not explain how most of the The elongated clouds world’s oceans have warmed both around and to the east near the surface and at depths – of Denmark, particu-

where there are no cities. Nor does it larly visible over the Image courtesy of ESA explain why the greatest warming has sea, are in fact con- been observed in the Arctic, Alaska densation trails and Siberia. Besides, the urban influ- formed by water ence on the temperature record has vapour from aero- been studied and taken into account planes. The number of when estimating the global mean. contrails reflects the Another argument used by climate high level of air traffic sceptics is that satellite measurements in the skies. It is thought that these contrails can form high-altitude cirrus of the temperature in the atmosphere clouds, which could contribute towards global warming. do not show similar warming as on Work within ESA’s Data User Element (DUE) currently includes studies into the ground. This discrepancy was due condensation trails and any effects they might have on climate change. to errors in the analysis of the satellite data; the trends in the free atmos-

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as heat must be conserved. In the ply of drinking water for a large part past, something in particular caused of the world’s population. A sea-level the variations – be it changes in the rise will affect low-lying coastal land Everyone has heard about Earth’s solar orbit, atmospheric com- areas, and in some regions people climate change. The subject position, solar activity, volcanoes or may be forced to move to higher is frequently addressed by landscape changes. None of these fac- ground. the media, but the informa- tors, except for changes in GHG con- The hurricane season of 2005 pro- tion given is often incom- centrations, can explain the current duced an unprecedented number – at plete or biased by political warming. Even changes to the system least in modern times – of tropical views. As science teachers, itself, such as El Niño Southern cyclones in the Caribbean/North we have to provide students Oscillations, may produce some varia- Atlantic, some of which resulted in with correct information tions, but these tend to be weak com- substantial casualties and severe dam- and instruments to develop pared with the changes due to exter- ages. Will there be more frequent or critical attitudes based on nal forces. And regardless of cause, more powerful hurricanes/typhoons facts and aimed at active there is always a physical explanation when the world is warmer? And are citizenship. for the changes, be it external or inter- we now witnessing a trend in tropical nal. cyclone activity? At present, we can- This second of two articles Can we really trust global climate not be sure, although there are some by Rasmus Benestad is very models (GCMs)? GCMs are not per- indications that the potential for useful because it presents fect, but they are still the best tool storm intensity may rise, and that the topic clearly and objec- available for making projections for there has been an upward trend in the tively, addressing the evi- the future. A GCM may be thought of activity associated with the more dence for anthropogenic as a jigsaw puzzle, where the large intense tropical cyclones over some climate change. picture emerges from small pieces put ocean basins. I recommend this article to together in a consistent and organised science teachers who are manner. GCMs incorporate every- Social aspects willing to update their thing we know about the climate sys- In addition to the scientific issues knowledge and to second- tem in terms of physical laws and surrounding AGW, there are clearly ary-school students interest- empirical data, and provide a compre- ethical aspects too, such as those asso- ed in the facts and scientific hensive picture through the means of ciated with the realisation that rich evidence at the heart of this numerical methods on large comput- countries bear most of the responsibil- debate. The material is also ers. Some equations describing the ity for increased emissions of GHGs particularly suitable for processes cannot be solved exactly, but are the least affectedw1. There are classroom discussion and but approximations nevertheless pro- also energy considerations, and the for an interdisciplinary vide a good representation. question whether renewable sources approach to environmental of energy can replace fossil sources. education in secondary Projections for the future Furthermore, economic considera- schools. So what can we expect from an tions and political choices concerning Giulia Realdon, Italy AGW? The scientific findings pub- climate change are closely related to REVIEW lished in peer-reviewed scientific jour- energy options and greenhouse gas nals have been collected and assessed emissions. in the IPCC’s report, which then pres- The climate debate may indeed be ents the main picture for the future. one of the most profound issues of Web references According to the AR4, an AGW will our time. It would be a shame if the w1 - For a discussion of the politics of very likely result in a general warm- broader public could not participate climate change, see: ing, with a stronger response in the in this debate due to lack of under- www.opendemocracy.net Arctic and over the continents. In the standing. Hence, it is important that sub-tropics, there may be more schools teach students about climate droughts, but higher latitudes are and climate change, and that their expected to receive more precipita- information is accurate and up-to- tion. The report suggests that there date. will be more floods and famines. The glaciers may melt, reducing the sup-

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A coronal mass ejection taking place

Research into the Sun’s atmosphere

Image courtesy of SOHO (ESA & NASA)

Ever wondered what the solar wind special programme of research Ainvestigating the Sun and its means to us on Earth or what happens influence on the Solar System is currently underway. Initiated by the when the surface of the Sun erupts United Nations, the programme is called International Heliophysical sporadically? Lucie Green from Year w1 and scientists all across Europe are taking part. One topic of interest University College London’s Mullard is the Sun’s atmosphere; there are Space Science Laboratory, UK, many questions about our local star still to be answered. describes some of the recent research One of these questions arose in 1869, when spectroscopic observa- into the Sun’s atmosphere. tions of a total solar eclipse revealed a spectral line which was unrecognised in laboratories. Initially believed to be

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a new element and provisionally which are constantly being jostled named ‘coronium’, it was later found and moved around, but research is to be produced by highly ionised iron ongoing. ions, which need very high tempera- One consequence of the Sun’s hot tures (of about 1 million Kelvin) to corona, along with its high thermal form. This discovery in 1939 was the conductivity, is that it is constantly first indication that the gases in the expanding into space. This expansion solar atmosphere were much hotter is called the solar wind and there are than the surface temperature of two types: the slow wind which trav- 6000 Kelvin. This then presented a els at about 400 km/s and the fast puzzle. As you move away from the solar wind which travels at about 800 heat source (the core of the Sun), the km/s. Currently, neither the accelera-

temperature should drop. This is the Image courtesy of SOHO (ESA & NASA) tion mechanisms nor the locations of case until you reach the top of the The chromosphere taken with the these two types are really understood, photosphere, but then the tempera- SOHO spacecraft but both are being investigated. ture starts to increase with distance The solar wind blows over all the from the core. This goes against the planets and other bodies in the Solar second law of thermodynamics; a System. Some planets, like Earth, gen- cooler body cannot heat a hotter one. erate their own magnetic field: those The question then arises, what heats that have either a core of molten iron the solar corona? This is now known (like Earth) or an atmosphere of as the coronal heating problem. hydrogen that is so compressed that it Despite the discovery of the first acts like a metal (like Jupiter). This coronal emission line at a visible forms a magnetic bubble around the wavelength, most of the emission planet, around which the solar wind from the corona is at ultraviolet and normally flows. The planet and its X-ray wavelengths. When the space magnetic field act like a boulder in a era began in 1957, X-ray telescopes on river, deflecting the stream. However, rockets and satellites were able to col- the solar wind carries with it a mag- lect data from outside the Earth’s netic field and if this has a strong Image courtesy of SOHO (ESA & NASA) absorbing atmosphere and allowed southward orientation, it lines up The corona taken with the SOHO scientists to start studying what with Earth’s magnetic field. During spacecraft processes are at work. Observations these times, enhanced auroral dis- quickly showed that bright X-ray plays (the Northern and Southern emission was seen in the regions of Lights) are produced. Work is being the Sun’s atmosphere where the mag- carried out to determine how the netic fields are the most concentrated. energy from the solar wind is trans- Is there a link between the magnetic ferred into the Earth’s magnetic field fields and the heating? and atmosphere. Research is also Observations taken from spacecraft being carried out to see how the solar such as the European Space wind affects planets without a mag- Agency/National Aeronautics and netic field. For example, the Venus Space Administration SOHO mission Express mission is currently in orbit in 1995 are being used to test a num- around Venus and is measuring the ber of theories. The theories fall into erosion of the Venusian atmosphere two categories: stressing models in by the solar wind. which energy is extracted from mag- The most dramatic form of activity netic fields that thread the corona, that takes place in the Sun’s atmos- and wave models in which energy is phere are huge eruptions of plasma deposited by waves that propagate The structures in the solar atmosphere and magnetic field known as coronal up from below. The favoured idea at which are created by the magnetic mass ejections, or CMEs. Originally fields the moment is that the energy is discovered in the 1970s, it has since

derived from the magnetic fields Shine / Dick Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE) Transition Image courtesy of the been shown that their frequency

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A solar flare taking place in the Sun’s atmosphere

varies cyclically (with what is known magnetic field can be made. Under there is currently a fleet of spacecraft as the solar cycle): CMEs occur a min- these conditions, severe consequences observing the Sun and Earth to do imum of once every three days, and a are felt on Earth; heating and expan- just this. maximum of three to five times per sion of the Earth’s atmosphere leads The cause of CMEs is known to be day. These eruptions can be directed to changes in satellite orbits. The very related to the Sun’s magnetic fields, towards Earth and, just like with the real effect of CMEs makes them which are created by electric currents solar wind, a connection to Earth’s incredibly interesting to study and in what is called the solar dynamo,

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deep in the interior. Bundles of con- lide with Earth. This knowledge sitting in the atmosphere of the Sun, centrated fields rise and emerge could be used by satellite operators or which is expanding into the Solar through the photosphere and extend organisations that run electricity System. So, as well as the fundamen- up into the corona. This magnetic grids: for example, the orbits of satel- tal science that is being carried out to field is continually being injected into lites could be particularly closely understand our local star, we want to the atmosphere and it is thought that monitored when it is thought that understand our place in the Solar CMEs provide a way to remove it and CMEs will collide with Earth. System too. prevent a build-up. Studies are being The Hinode spacecraft is the equiv- carried out, with spacecraft such as alent of the Hubble Space Telescope Web references SOHO, TRACE, STEREO and Hinode, for the Sun, and it is allowing the w1 – For more information about the to monitor how the magnetic field study of the evolution of the immense International Heliophysical Year structures change over time. atmospheric magnetic structures over (2007-2009), see: The STEREO mission consists of time in great detail. It is thought that http://ihy2007.org/ two spacecraft orbiting the Sun in a the only way to get enough energy to and www.sunearthplan.net way that allows them to move away expel the billions of tonnes of solar from Earth in space (one orbit is material that make up a CME is by slightly closer to the Sun than the using energy stored in the twisted Earth’s, and one slightly further out). and distorted magnetic fields. Hinode This means that the two spacecraft is making measurements of how view the Sun from different positions twisted the field is and the results are in space and just as our two eyes give being combined with those found us a sense of depth and perspective, using STEREO. Once we understand the STEREO spacecraft are giving a why CMEs occur, we can start to pre- 3D view of the erupting magnetic dict which magnetic structures will structures (see bottom image on p 53). erupt and eventually which ones will The 3D view is being used to try and have the greatest effect on Earth. work out the physics of the eruption The continually blowing solar wind using knowledge of the structure of and sporadic CMEs mean that Earth the magnetic fields. STEREO is also is always feeling the presence of the helping predict which CMEs will col- Sun. In fact, it can be said that we are

A close-up of the chromosphere Image courtesy of Hinode JAXA/NASA

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On the trail of a cure for cancer

Joan Massagué has discovered secrets that can save lives. An expert in cell division and the spread of cancer, he is one of the 50 most quoted researchers in all scientific fields. He speaks to Sarah Sherwood about his recent work on metastasis and his hopes for a cure for cancer.

Image courtesy of IRB Barcelona

Joan Massagué

What got you started in science? al ores was like an epiphany for me. I itated my learning – but never forced Nature and collecting things have was certainly curious about how me. I think this instilled in me a true always fascinated me. I remember the things in the natural world worked, desire to learn more about things. On day we studied minerals in elemen- and I was fortunate enough to have top of curiosity, family tradition cer- tary school. The simple concept that parents who understood and cultivat- tainly played a role. I come from a metals could be extracted from miner- ed this. They stimulated me and facil- family of three generations of phar-

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Scientist profile

macists – my grandfather, uncle, I envisioned returning to Spain to activity of four genes allows a tumour father and mother were all pharma- pursue a career as a pharmacist or in cell to escape from its natural habitat, cists. the local pharmaceutical industry. and invade a distant organ. This is Naturally when it was time to Instead, one thing led to the next in what happens when a breast tumour decide what to study at university, I the USA, and after a productive post- cell metastasises to the lungs. But chose pharmacy. My studies went doctoral period with Professor what happens in one type of tumour well, and I went from exam to exam, Michael Czech, I found myself in 1982 does not always happen in another. but it wasn’t until the fourth year of as the head of an independent labora- We are now studying whether the the five-year programme that I tory group at the University of same genes are involved, for example, realised that my true love was bio- Massachusetts. At that time, I in breast cancers that spread to the chemistry. It seemed to me to be a switched from the study of diabetes brain or to bones. Hopefully, if we can boiling pot for ideas. The structure of to the study of cell and tissue growth, identify and understand the role of DNA had been solved some years which is of relevance to cancer. In the genes involved in the spread of before, and provided a cornerstone on 1989, I was offered a department chair different types of cancer, we will be which many principles of biochem- at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering able to design drugs to deactivate istry were based. Concepts like hor- Cancer Center in New York and I these genes and halt the process. mones acting on cells – and the possi- have remained there ever since. bility of understanding what exactly Are you hopeful that a cure for cancer they were and what they did – Your recent research focuses on the will be found in your lifetime? What intrigued me. So I decided to switch study of metastasis – the process by do you think is needed to achieve this? and do a doctorate in biochemistry. which a tumour spreads from one I’m very hopeful. Cancer treatment My PhD thesis focused on the organ to another, and which causes has seen incredible advances over the metabolism of glycogen and its con- 90% of all cancer deaths. How does years and highly effective treatments trol by insulin, a molecule that is this happen? now exist for certain types of involved in diabetes. One day the Until recently, metastasis was tumours. Thanks to advances in director of the department asked me, thought to be such a complex process research and the resulting drugs, “Well, what is it you want to do?” I that we didn’t even know where to some forms of childhood leukaemias, replied, “Find a cure for diabetes, of begin. In recent years, however, we for example, have a remission rate of course.” A good answer, he said, but have begun slowly but surely to up to 90%, where patients show no too ambitious. Diseases need to be uncover its secrets. It was impossible signs or symptoms of the disease. solved step-by-step and they would to say, for example, what made a can- However, there is still a long way to find a good enough project for me to cer cell release itself from one tissue go. We need to discover new treat- work on. I remember nodding and and what made it stick to another. We ments that will be more effective, less giving him a vague answer, but think- know, for example, that in order for toxic and less expensive than what we ing inside, “But what I really want to normal tumour cells to metastasise, have at present. do is find a cure for diabetes.” they must undergo certain genetic It is clear that the best research, the From 1976 to 1979, my research the- changes, and also that the tissues that kind that is really going to bring sis and early development as a scien- these cells will colonise must have about important results, will require tist flourished under the inspiring certain characteristics that favour the experts from many different fields guidance of my doctoral mentor, invasion and growth of the tumour working together – and for this we Professor Joan Guinovart. At the same cell. Many people don’t know, for need better facilities and co-operation. time, however, I witnessed the limited example, that cancer cells that origi- Nowadays cancer research relies on prospects that academic scientists had nate in the breast tend to colonise the sophisticated imaging techniques, for a future career in Spain. Decades bones, lungs, liver or brain. Tumours high-resolution X-rays, genetics, gene of negligence by the government, in the colon, however, usually metas- transcription, computer science, meagre resources and poor leadership tasise to the liver or lungs, but rarely molecular and cell biology, gene had made the prospect of research to the bones or brain. We’re not only expression and biophysics – in addi- most unattractive. So in 1979 I left for uncovering the genes that permit tion to clinical expertise. This new a period of postdoctoral training at these specific migrations to happen, culture of integrating clinical and Brown University in the United but also getting a step-by-step look at experimental sciences creates real States, convinced that those were the process. opportunities for productive interac- going to be my final years as a Recent work from my laboratory, tion. The idea now is that within three research scientist. for example, shows that the combined decades we will know enough about

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Images courtesy of IRB Barcelona

the biological and genetic basis of only very few potential drugs found Though my research laboratory is cancer to be able to make a difference. in the laboratory reach the point of based in New York, I collaborate all clinical trials, and it can take up to 15 the time with other institutes at the How do results from research get out years for a drug to be approved. It’s a local, national and international lev- of the lab and into the hospitals where long process with an enormous els, including IRB Barcelona. This is they can make a difference for investment in terms of time, effort the way research has to be done. patients with cancer? and money, but well worth it in the Scientists realise that they cannot Traditional therapies to treat cancer, end when we manage to find a treat- work effectively in isolation. Though including surgery, radiotherapy and ment that saves lives. they may be very good at their jobs, chemotherapy, have made great they’ll never reach the goal of being strides in reducing the level of mortal- What would you say to a person with able to translate basic research results ity caused by many types of cancer. cancer, or someone with a loved one into medical applications if they work But these strategies have generally with cancer, who hears about your alone. The idea is to combine scientif- focused on removing solid tumours, research and wants to know when a ic, technological and medical expert- and then treating neighbouring cells drug will be available to help them? ise to create strong integrated nodes with radiation and drugs to prevent This is a very difficult question, and with an international presence that the tumour from growing back. Often one that comes up often. I normally can work together with similar insti- the main objective of this approach is explain to people with these types of tutes and hospitals across the world to control the growth of the main questions that I am not a physician to share their knowledge and tumour, when perhaps the problem and am not qualified to treat patients. expertise. also lies elsewhere – in secondary I work in a lab and focus on the It’s an exciting time to be working tumours that appear in other parts of research behind the processes in science. Through these types of col- the body when the cancer spreads or involved in cancer, not on developing laborations, scientists now have many metastasises. Until recently, little the drugs or applying them to opportunities to spend time working research and few drug-discovery patients. The responsibility for treat- in labs in different countries. Talent efforts have focused on this aspect. ing patients and starting clinical trials, and passion for science can come Knowing the genes that are involved for example, lies with the doctors in from anywhere. Some members of my in metastasis gives us some good tar- the hospitals. What’s for sure, howev- lab come from large cities with gets for drugs that might work. er, is that to beat cancer, scientists and famous universities (such as New It is still early on, though, and the doctors must work closely together. It York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Santiago, next step is to investigate these possi- is, however, extremely gratifying Mexico, Toronto, Vienna, Munich, bilities. First, potential drugs must be when we make discoveries that end Rome, Madrid, Barcelona, Beijing, discovered and tested in the laborato- up helping people. Calcutta, Tokyo and Istanbul) but oth- ry, in cell and animal studies. Once ers come from smaller towns. One this process is finished and the poten- You left Spain 28 years ago for the student grew up in a remote tial drug proves to be promising, it USA and eventually the Memorial Himalayan valley in Nepal, another must go through a series of clinical Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. Now in a tiny island off the coast of trials – developed by doctors – in you are helping to set up the new Iceland, another in a small town in which it is tested on a group of test Institute for Research in Biomedicine northern Greece, and another in a patients with cancer to see how effec- (IRB) in your native city of Barcelona. rural area in Argentina, for example. tive it is and whether it causes side How important is it to bridge the gaps With a positive attitude and a bit of effects. This is a long process, howev- between research done in different luck, people with talent and passion er, with no guarantees. In general, parts of the world? always find a way.

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Scientist profile

Cells from a breast cancer tumour release themselves from the tissue and migrate to form a metastasis in the lung

As far as Spain is concerned, the sit- advice for future scientists? Show up uation is thankfully very different at your local college or university and Joan Massagué is a well- from when I left. There is a much bet- talk to graduate students and other known and respected ter recognition on the part of the gov- scientists. Ask them how they got international scientist. It is ernment of the need to create insti- started and what opportunities they fascinating to read how he tutes and infrastructures that allow know of for someone like you. Get entered the research field. Spanish scientists to do really signifi- diverse opinions, and then go for it! Like so many other scien- cant work. Spain has excellent cancer tists, he had ambitions to researchers who obtain very good Web resources study other subjects and results at the international level. To find out more about the research found an all-consuming However, their scientific results have group of Joan Massagué, see at: passion along the way! traditionally encountered obstacles in www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/ Professor Massagué is being translated into tangible results. 10614.ctm hopeful that therapies will We will need to find a more efficient For more information on the IRB be developed to block way to bring together the three main Barcelona, see: genes responsible for tools we have in the fight against can- www.irbbarcelona.org metastasis. In addition to cer: basic, clinical and pharmaceutical providing an overview of research. current research, the inter- One thing is certain, however, and view could be used in sev- that is that the next generation of sci- Joan Massagué is Chair of the eral ways: to aid in com- entists stands a very good chance of Cancer Biology and Genetics Program prehension; to comple- making a real difference in the fight at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering ment lessons on cancer against cancer. Our job is to ensure Cancer Center in New York, USA, genetics; as a start for that we nurture young talents and and Adjunct Director of the Institute further research into provide our biologists, geneticists, for Research in Biomedicine in leukaemia and solid pharmacists and doctors with the Barcelona, Spain. tumours; to investigate the training and resources they need to steps in drug develop- tackle the challenge head-on. My ment, from conception to clinical use; or to start a debate on government funding of cancer research and patient treatment. Shelley Goodman, UK REVIEW Image courtesy of IRB Barcelona

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Salt of the Earth

Prudence Mutowo can really identify with the organism she studies. After all, they have a lot in common. She told Vienna Leigh about researching a recently discovered archaeal species, Haloferax volcanii, which thrives in extreme conditions – and coming from Zimbabwe to the UK to pursue her career, Prudence is no stranger to those.

naturally expected to have a term habitable – and much as they easy to study. I had to learn more!” “Iculture shock when I came to may hate the weather, even visitors Prudence grew up in Mutare, the the UK,” says the University of from tropical climes can’t go so far as fourth largest city in Zimbabwe, and Nottingham PhD student, who was to describe the UK as uninhabitable. credits such an environment for much originally able to come to study for “Haloferax volcanii thrives in very salty of her interest in pursuing science. her master’s degree thanks to a presti- environments like the Dead Sea,” “Zimbabwe has a diversity of animals gious British Chevening Scholarshipw1 explains Prudence. “In such concen- and wildlife, so the surroundings for overseas students. “I expected the trations, DNA and protein aren’t able themselves provoked questions about people, food, currency, language, cul- to form crucial interactions for vital the origins of life and issues of species ture and weather to be totally differ- cellular processes. Most organisms diversity,” she remembers. “School ent. It didn’t disappoint, especially exposed to such extremes of salt are provided some of the answers I was the weather!” known to die in such conditions. looking for, as we had an environ- Unlike Prudence, though, the Also, Haloferax volcanii is known to mental science lesson every week.” organism she studies challenges the have a complex internal system, yet it After studying for her bachelor’s definition of environments that we exists as simple single cells that are degree in biochemistry at the

Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe Image courtesy of iStockphoto

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Scientist profile

Image courtesy of Prudence Motowo commission in my home country, so after multiple cross-continent tele- phone calls, protracted periods of being kept on hold while the relevant person was located, and fax machines that seized up on the last page, my application was in. But with a whole continent to compete with, I was hardly placing my bets on this one. “Had I not received the fellowship, it would have been nearly impossible for me to continue work. Now, Haloferax volcanii and I have been reunited for another year, at least until I officially complete my PhD.” Despite the hardships, though, Prudence never doubted that she’d made the right decision. “Researching in Nottingham has been wonderful for me. The university hosts top-of- University of Zimbabwe and five enough; Prudence had to finance her the-range biochemical and analytical years of research and development stay somehow. “Being a non-EU equipment, like the powerful analyti- work in pharmaceuticals, Prudence candidate, I wasn’t eligible for many cal ultracentrifuges that allow the was awarded the Chevening of the funding awards available, and study of molecules in solution. This is Scholarship by the British Council to I was faced with raising £11 000 ideal for looking at interactions that study a master of science in applied [approximately €16 000] per year to need to be maintained in an environ- biotechnology at the University of continue,” she says. “Considering ment not unlike the Sea of Galilee,” Nottinghamw2 in September 2003. Part how engrossed I had become in this she says. of her motivation in applying for this research, I wasn’t letting it go easily! I “I work alongside people from over course was the chance to undertake applied for every possible award I 20 different nationalities, and the an industrial placement with a UK could find, and was lucky to receive a potential for exchange of ideas – cul- pharmaceutical company, to see how one-year tuition scholarship from the this compared with her experience in international office at the University Zimbabwe. During this fulfilling and of Nottingham. This covered the interesting time, Prudence attended a research fees only, so I also worked lecture on halophilic (salt-loving) extra time as a resident tutor as well organisms (see box) by her current as demonstrating science practicals Halophiles supervisor, Dr David Scottw3. The for the masters and undergraduate Scott Group work on a variety of course to pay my bills.” Halophilesw5 are single- biophysical and biological problems After two years Prudence was lucky celled organisms that centred on how organisms deal with enough to be able to continue her inhabit hypersaline envi- and process biological information. research with a fellowship from the ronments. The mechanisms Current projects study olfaction, L’Oreal–UNESCO Women in Science they use to cope with high archaeal transcription, aggregate initiativew4. The award recognises salt concentrations are still structure and formation in pharma- interesting and potentially useful not clear and hence are ceutical preparations, and develop- research projects being carried out by currently intensively stud- ment of methodologies to cope with young women from each of the five ied. Some halophilic organ- non-ideal highly concentrated solu- continents. “The eve of my birthday, isms, termed obligate tions. Fascinated, Prudence had when I was informed I was a recipi- halophiles, will die if found the perfect subject for her PhD ent of the fellowship, was the most removed from an environ- research. memorable moment for me to date,” ment with a high salt con- However, having an invitation to she says. “The applications had had BACKGROUND centration. stay and continue her research wasn’t to be submitted through the UNESCO

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turally, scientifically and socially – is organisms to inhabit extraterrestrial w3 – For more information on Dr amazing. The connections between environments – a field known as David Scott and his group at the research institutes within the UK and astrobiology. Enzymes from University of Nottingham, see Europe has allowed me to go to extremophilic micro-organisms have www.nottingham.ac.uk/biosciences Switzerland, France and other labs great potential in natural resource /lookup/lookup_az.php?id=ODAz within the UK for conferences and processing in the petroleum, deter- MTg5&page_var=personal laboratory sessions.” gent and food industries.” w4 – For more information about In March 2007, Prudence was privi- And what about her own adapta- the L’Oreal–UNESCO Women in leged to attend the Biovision Life tion to her extremes in environment? Science initiative, see Sciences Forum in Lyon alongside 100 “Though it took a while to get used to www.loreal.com/_en/_ww/ other PhD students from all over the the UK, I was not expecting to feel loreal-women-in-science/ world, and listen to talks by “five life- like an outsider when I eventually w5 – Wikipedia entry for halophiles: science Nobel Prize winners! It was returned to my home country for a http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ inspirational to be given a chance to brief holiday,” she says. “Friends had Halophile speak to the people who had discov- got married and moved on; the sunny ered the very tools I am using in my climate I had enjoyed seemed overly Resources research,” she says. warm. The food tasted a bit strange To read about halophiles on the She’s totally dedicated to continu- and, in an unexpected twist, I missed ThinkQuest website, a site for ing a career in science after finishing the cold! children, written by children, visit her PhD. “I would love to do more “But as we were approaching http://library.thinkquest.org/ science communication as I find it London, the captain announced that CR0212089 and click on ‘Enter Site’ very rewarding, and would also like the ground temperature at Heathrow then ‘Halophiles’ to get involved in science policy and was -2 °C. I had walked out of a tropi- ‘Wild Things: The Most Extreme science and society activities,” cal summer’s day to sub-zero temper- Creatures’: an article on the Prudence says. “But I’ll definitely stay atures. But I was so happy to be back LiveScience website: in research. I love its unrestricted to salty organism research... and the www.livescience.com/animals/ nature, in that it allows you to focus serial tea-drinking!” 050207_extremophiles.html on a question or issue and pursue the For more information on answers in as many different ways as Web references extremophiles in general and possible. w1 – The British Chevening microbial life in hypersaline envi- “Another huge attraction is that Scholarships award scholarships to ronments in particular, see Carleton research has the potential to yield overseas students in more than 150 College’s Microbial Life Educational great benefits to human life. The find- countries to study in the UK. See Resources: http://serc.carleton.edu/ ings from my own research, for exam- www.chevening.com microbelife/ ple, may be applicable in understand- w2 – The University of Nottingham ing the possible origins of life as well website: www.nottingham.ac.uk as understanding the ability of some Image courtesy of Nico Smit/iStockphoto

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Teacher profile

Paul goes back to the classroom

As any teacher knows, the job isn’t exactly easy. So what makes a professional, experienced bioinfor- matician want to give up an established career to brave the front of a classroom? Vienna Leigh from the European Molecular Biology Laboratory investigates.

fter five years at the European time to think about it. Last year, he ABioinformatics Institute (EBI)w1 underwent major surgery for a con- in Hinxton, UK, Paul Matthews is genital heart problem, and the three making a brave move. On a scheme months’ convalescence gave him a lot called the Graduate Teacher of time to reflect on his future. Programmew2, Paul will spend one “I’d recommend open heart surgery academic year teaching at two UK to anyone who needs to work out schools, after which he will be expect- what to do with their life!” he laughs. ed to have passed all the standards to “It gave me the time to sit down and become a qualified teacher. The pro- really think about what to do next – gramme is designed to encourage and what is right for me at this stage professional people with financial of my career. I’ve worked in industry commitments, and scientists in partic- and academia for many years and ular, to enter teaching and fill the really wanted a change.” chronic shortage of science teachers. He’s leaving the EBI, located on the “I feel really lucky to have got on Wellcome Trust Genome Campus this scheme; in my area it involves near Cambridge and part of the

academic help from Cambridge European Molecular Biology Image courtesy of Ugur Evirgen/iStockphoto University, some very good local Laboratory (EMBL). The scien- schools in the partnership and the tists there collect, store and local authority,” explains Paul. In his curate databases of biological new job, he will teach children aged data including protein 11-16 biology, physics and chemistry, sequences and macromolecu- and students aged 16-18 his specialist lar structures, in effect ‘parts subjects, biology and human biology, lists’ for many living organisms, for the A level and the international so other researchers have a baccalaureate. repository of data to help them Paul had many reasons for his deci- look at how the individual compo- sion, and has definitely had plenty of nents fit together to build systems.

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In running the institute’s industry support programme, Paul catered for the major impact that advances in For anyone who faces the dilemma of whether to follow a career as a bioinformatics have on industry. The science teacher and for those who are already science teachers but programme provides training in the have doubts whether they have made the right career decision, this databases, develops bioinformatics article has all the answers. The interviewee, Paul Matthews, gives standards, helps industry partners many reasons for becoming a high-school science teacher. His deci- with technical development and pro- sion, based on a combination of unique personal, financial and social vides networking opportunities. The circumstances, is quite inspiring. partners Paul dealt with every day included large, multinational biotech, The article introduces a good debate topic and can be used in any sci- pharmaceutical, agricultural, nutri- ence or non-science lesson. Questions such as ‘Was Paul’s decision a tion, personal care and medical device good one?’, ‘Will he be better off as a science teacher or will he regret companies. it?’ and ‘Will he actually be in position to contribute more to society Paul’s decision to change jobs has as a teacher?’ can trigger lively conversations between students, espe- had both emotional and practical con- cially when considering that the article deals with the students them- siderations. “I’ve always enjoyed the selves. teaching I’ve done as part of my job Michalis Hadjimarcou, Cyprus REVIEW in the past,” he says. During his 13 years in bioinformatics, both in companies such as GlaxoSmithKline and academic organisations including the unless, like the teachers, I would actu- to engage them and make science rel- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute and ally be prepared to get in there and evant for them – will be a really the EBI, he’s had a lot of experience in have a go at it myself. So I thought, rewarding challenge,” he says. “That the classroom and is equally happy why don’t I?” will be the hardest part – trying to presenting to 20 or 200, but as he Paul believes science suffers more find ways to make potentially disin- says, “so far it has always been than other subjects when it comes to terested teenagers see how much sci- adults, and they were always already children making their subject choices ence is a part of their lives.” interested in science!” The Graduate at key stages in their schooling. “If He’s already had some experience Teacher Programme is, therefore, science isn’t taught in a way that kids of this challenge, having done several allowing Paul to fulfill a long-term can relate to, then they very quickly weeks’ placements in his host schools. dream. “I’ve often thought about dismiss it,” he says. “If even the peo- “One of those days just happened to going into teaching, but I’ve never ple who are teaching it aren’t interest- be a taster session for ten-year-olds been in a financial position to do so,” ed – because they’re covering for having their first science lesson, learn- he says. “I thought about it seriously someone, or are supply teachers, ing how to light a Bunsen burner and before I came to the EBI, but then I which is happening more and more doing flame tests,” he says. “Looking had a small family and lots of com- often – they can’t convey an excite- at their faces, not one of them was mitments. Now, things are a bit more ment for the subject. If it’s not some- bored. Not every science lesson has settled, and the scheme allows me to thing they’re passionate about, how that much hands-on fun, but if you train while retaining a steady income.” can they encourage the children to be see the light switch on in someone’s Another persuasive aspect for Paul interested in it? face as they see something or under- has been his own children. “I’m hav- “It’s not just the way it’s taught, stand something for the first time, it ing more interaction with my kids though. Science is most easily given gives you a real buzz. about what they’re learning at school up if it conflicts with other subjects. “I’m not naïve enough to think that as they get older, and more of an You never hear about someone hav- they’ll all want to learn science – and insight into what’s going on in the ing private tuition in science as they something certainly happens to make schools,” he says. “I want mine to might in French, for example, if it kids disinterested, between that have a good education in all subjects clashes with something else in the young, excited age and adolescence, but it’s almost naïve to expect that, as curriculum.” when they have to choose subjects, there’s such a shortage of teachers, Despite such challenges, though, and I’m hoping to find out what that especially in science. Teachers have a Paul has mostly positive expectations is. The opposite sex, maybe, or the difficult job and I don’t think I can about his new career. “I think switch- perception that science is too hard, or expect my children to be taught well ing kids on to science – finding ways not accessible enough.

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Teacher profile

“I don’t imagine I’ll be able to make getting the first PhD thesis in science Graduate Teacher Programme, them all brilliant scientists, but it will sent to me by a former student will be see www.tda.gov.uk/Recruit/ be nice to make a difference of any fantastic!” thetrainingprocess/typesofcourse/ sort – to have a hand in making a gtp.aspx well-rounded human being. Maybe Web references one day I’ll call a plumber, and it will w1 - The European Bioinformatics be one of my former pupils, and he’ll Institute website is www.ebi.ac.uk just be a nice guy. Having said that, w2 - To find out more about the

Image courtesy of EMBL Photolab

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Choosing Children: Genes, Disability, and Design

By Jonathan Glover

Reviewed by Michalis Hadjimarcou, Cyprus

The aim of Choosing Children is to decisions that parents are allowed to Details investigate how humanity should reg- make for their children. Publisher: Oxford University Press ulate its fast-increasing ability to As the subject of this mostly philo- Publication year: 2006 genetically design the babies of sophical book is contemporary and ISBN: 9780199290925 tomorrow. Should there be an effort to highly engaging, it is suitable for any- eliminate from future generations any one who is interested, even slightly, in disabilities and disorders that are tra- the topic of genetic intervention in ditionally considered disadvanta- humans. On the downside, the long geous to human life? And should par- and detailed philosophical and theo- ents be allowed to choose the geneti- retical discussions can be tiring to the cally determined characteristics and casual reader. Also, although the sci- qualities of their children and even to entific knowledge required to under- enhance their mental and physical stand the book is minimal, good com- abilities? mand of the English language is These possibilities raise important required to fully appreciate the philo- issues such as the extent of freedom sophical discussions. that should be given to parents to Although the philosophical details determine what their children will be in Choosing Children may make it a bit like, while at the same time ensuring ‘heavy’ for some high-school stu- the children’s right to a good life, dents, the issues it raises could make which could require protecting them excellent debate or discussion topics from their parents’ foolish or even in science or even non-science classes. harmful choices. Also, teachers could design small In order to address these questions, projects around the disorders Jonathan Glover first tackles essential described in the book, providing stu- issues such as how we define disabili- dents with essential information to ty and which disabling conditions are help them argue either side of the sufficiently disadvantageous to be debate. considered for elimination from No matter what their level of inter- future generations. Also, he tries to est or knowledge, there is a good define what constitutes a ‘good life’ chance that Glover’s discussion of and explores the concepts of human these issues will make readers re- flourishing and happiness. think and re-evaluate some of their Eventually, he investigates how the previously held beliefs. This is, per- principle of ‘what parents owe their haps, one of the most important con- children’, along with other guiding tributions of Choosing Children. principles, should be used to direct all

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Reviews

Nontraditional Careers for Chemists: New Formulas in Chemistry

By Lisa M. Balbes

Reviewed by Eric Demoncheaux, Battle Abbey School, UK

Nontraditional Careers for Chemists: College in 1996 and a master’s degree bleshooting and preventative meas- New Formulas in Chemistry is the per- in journalism from the University of ures to keep her co-workers safe, fect book for chemistry students who Wisconsin-Madison in 2002. Her job is healthy and productive. Linda’s top are interested in exploring career to communicate the science of NASA advice is that networking is vital in options beyond the laboratory. Lisa to the rest of the world. Rani advises any profession, particularly in her Balbes manages to convince the read- readers to love science, not to be own job. er that science-trained professionals afraid to explore different subjects Nontraditional Careers for Chemists is have many skills, including logical and to build up a good writing port- a well organised and insightful book. and analytical thinking, as well as folio. It would be a useful resource for all research methods that are necessary Osman F. Güner is the Executive teachers and career advisors to survive in today’s workplace. She Director of Cheminformatics and demonstrates that a chemistry back- Rational Drug Design at Accelrys Inc. ground is essential for a plethora of Osman has a BSc and an MSc in Details positions. chemistry from the Middle East Publisher: Oxford University Press Each chapter presents detailed pro- Technical University in Ankara, Publication year: 2006 files of several chemists who have Turkey, and a PhD in Physical ISBN: 9780195183665 achieved a successful career in their Organic Chemistry from the Virginia field of endeavour. The book contains Commonwealth University, USA. In valuable information on the types of his company, which makes computer skills, personality traits and knowl- science and informatics software, edge required to be competitive on Osman is directly responsible for the job market. profits and losses, and he is involved Profiles of nontraditional chemistry primarily in product planning, man- careers include communications, agement and marketing. Osman’s top information science, patent law, sales advice is that if you choose computa- and marketing, business develop- tional chemistry in life sciences as a ment, regulatory affairs, safety, com- career, you must be prepared to puter science, human resources, pub- improve your knowledge and under- lic policy and education. All contribu- standing of biology. tors give detailed accounts of their Finally, Linda Wraxall is a current positions and career paths, Criminalist Lab Safety Officer at the finishing with advice and predictions California Department of Justice DNA about the future of their jobs. Laboratory, USA. During her BSc in For example, TV producer and sci- zoology at the University of London, ence writer Rani Chohan works at the UK, she also took courses in botany National Aeronautics and Space and chemistry. Linda is responsible Administration (NASA) in the USA. for the safety of more than 100 scien- She graduated with a bachelor’s tists in the laboratory. She oversees degree in chemistry from Elmhurst training, chemical inventories, trou-

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Dance of the Tiger

By Björn Kurtén

Reviewed by Dean Madden, National Centre for Biotechnology Education, UK

Teachers and many older school Inheritors by Nobel Prize-winner students will enjoy Dance of the Tiger, William Golding or Kurtén’s more a very unusual fictional story written serious treatment, Dance of the Tiger. by a scientist about his own subject. The novel challenges the reader to The author, Swedish/Finnish speculate about possible reasons for palaeontologist Björn Kurtén, did not the Neanderthals’ extinction, with create the literary genre ‘palaeofic- clues to three possibilities scattered tion’, but he was certainly one of its throughout the text. At the end of the better writers. As Stephen Jay Gould story, Kurtén reveals the answers, as said in his introduction to Kurtén’s well as the research findings that novel (first published in Swedish as inspired several aspects of the story. Den Svarta Tigern in 1978, and then in Although Kurtén’s 1978 work pre- English in 1980), well-informed fic- dates modern molecular studies, it tional accounts are often equally as highlights a possible method of teach- valid as Rudyard Kipling’s ‘Just So’ ing students about evolutionary stories created by evolutionary biolo- processes in an entertaining manner. gists. By presenting such stories in a fictional setting, however, their specu- Details lative status is made clear. Could such Publisher: University of California fiction, on screen as well as in print, Press, Berkeley have a role in science education? Publication year: 1980 Shortly after their remains were ISBN: 9780520202771 first discovered, the Neanderthals became popular subjects for fiction. Often they were wrongly portrayed as stooped, brutish creatures of low intelligence — due in part to a flawed interpretation of early fossil evidence which has coloured popular perception of Neanderthal man ever since. However, sympathetic literary por- trayals of Neanderthals are also common, such as in the novel The

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Spring 2008 Issue 8

In this Issue: Research into the Sun’s atmosphere Lucie Green investigates what happens when the Sun erupts

Also:

Dean Madden introduces younger students to fermentation – and ginger beer!

Published by EIROforum: Supported by the European Union: Part of the NUCLEUS project:

ISSN: 1818-0353 Subscribe free online: www.scienceinschool.org Highlighting the best in science teaching and research