Introduction

N o t e s

Introduction

1 . W i l l i a m J a m e s , Principles of Psychology (New York: Fawcett Publications, 1963), 208. Cited in David Bakan, Attention (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, 1966), 16. Compos sui means “master of oneself.” 2. One academic text with 686 pages of scholarship has interesting pieces, but is not written in a manner to interest or inspire a classroom teacher or counselor. Kathryn R. Wentzel and Allan Wigfield, eds., Handbook of Motivation at School (New York: Routledge, 2009). Another large volume of 593 pages by national authorities on teaching is packed with ideas and sources but written to an academic audience. Linda Darling-Hammond, and John D. Bransford, eds., Preparing Teachers for a Changing World: What Teachers Should Learn and be Able to Do (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005). 3. See Russell Jacoby’s argument about the decline of public intellectuals in The Last Intellectuals: American Culture in the Age of Academe (New York: Basic Books, 1987). If educators were active as public intellectuals outside school or college walls, we might see more respect for the profession and less teacher bashing. 4. Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci, “Promoting Self-determined School Engagement: Motivation, Learning, and Well-Being,” in Handbook of Motivation at School , ed. Kathryn R. Wentzel and Allan Wigfield (New York: Routledge, 2009), 171–195. 5 . P e t e r K e m p , Théorie de L’engagement— Pathetique de L’engagement [Theory of Engagement—Feeling of engagement] (Paris: Seuil, 1973). 6. Psychologists distinguish between states and traits in terms of how long the psychological condition exists and how many facets of personality are implicated. Traits are assumed to be more constant forces in motivation than are temporary, psychological states . 7. I am grateful to Maxine Greene for this powerful example, which she uses in her writing and lectures. 8 . M a x i n e G r e e n e , Landscapes of Learning (New York: Teachers College Press, 1978). Greene developed this concept from the thinking of social philosopher Alfred Schutz, On Phenomenology and Social Relations , ed. Helmut Wagner (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970); and Schutz with Thomas Luckmann, The Structures of the Lifeworld (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, l973). 9. Arthur Chickering and Jackson Kytle, “The Collegiate Ideal in the Twenty-first Century,” in Reconceptualizing the Collegiate Ideal, ed. J. Douglas Toma and Adrianna Kezar, (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), 109. 1 0 . M a r y C . B a t e s o n , Composing a Life (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1989). 11. For more on my personal journey while writing the book as well as other topics by chapter, go online: http://www.jacksonkytle.com 168 Notes

Part I To Want to Learn

1 . M a x i n e G r e e n e , Landscapes of Learning (New York: Teachers College Press, 1978), 46. (Emphasis added.) 2. The terms theory and perspective, used interchangeably, refer to a set of assumptions and a small number of loosely coordinated concepts that are useful in studying certain problems. 3 . E l i z a b e t h M i n n i c h , Transforming Knowledge (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990).

1 Educator as Idealist

1. Elizabeth Reid and Lisa Miller, “An Exploration in Mindfulness: Classroom of Detectives” Teachers College Record 111 no. 12, 2009, 2775–2785. Online: http://www .tcrecord.org/library > ID Number: 15785, Date Accessed: May 25, 2011. 2. Of course, religious schools would argue that values are absolutely vital to their mis- sions. In that regard, many American independent colleges were started by religious orders. See George D. Kuh and Elizabeth J. Whitt, The Invisible Tapestry (Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Higher Education, 1988), 54–55. In the last 50 years or so, most have become secular institutions. 3. Two recent books suggest that spiritual values are receiving new emphasis in secular institutions. Sharon Daloz Parks, Big Questions, Worthy Dreams: Mentoring Young Adults in Their Search for Meaning, Purpose and Faith (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000) and Arthur W. Chickering, Jon C. Dalton, and Liesa Stamm, Encouraging Authenticity and Spirituality in Higher Education (San Franciso: Jossey-Bass, 2005). 4. Gould’s fascinating life and music have been studied. See a website in his name maintained by the National Library of Canada: Online: http://www.gould.nic-bnc.ca/>. Jonathan Cott, Conversations with Glenn Gould (Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1984). 5. According to Helmut Wagner, life-world is Edmund Husserl’s concept, which Alfred Schutz treated as the whole array of experiences in daily life in which people subjectively understand the world and act in it. It is a person’s fundamental reality. Alfred Schutz, On Phenomenology and Social Relations, ed. Helmut Wagner (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 14. 6 . J o h n D e w e y , Democracy and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 7 . B e n j a m i n B a r b e r , A Passion for Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 185. 8 . P a u l L . W a c h t e l , The Poverty of Affluence (New York: Free Press, 1983). 9 . J u r g e n H a b e r m a s , Legitimation Crisis (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), 75. 10. To cite a few, Fritz Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1958); John Bowlby, Attachment and Loss (New York: Basic Books, 1969); Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (New York: Doubleday/Currency, 1990). 11. While mental models are usually conceived as being cognitive representations, that is not quite right because the brain-mind-body’s patterns also connect emotional and motor systems. 1 2 . S e n g e , The Fifth Discipline . Bowlby, in Attachment and Loss , prefers to say “working models,” presumably to note the provisional nature of such representations. Notes 169

1 3 . S i m i l a r l y , p e o p l e d e v e l o p naive theories of personality to explain interpersonal relations, naive theories of society to explain intergroup relations, and so on. Inchoate mental models combine to form a common-sense psychology, Fritz Heider argued, that people use to understand their subjective environment, to move about the life-world, and to manage interpersonal relations. That psychology’s assumptions and naive theories, however, are not normally in our awareness. Becoming educated means exploring, perhaps changing, these unconscious patterns. 14. Scott G. Paris, and Richard S. Newman, “Developmental Aspects of Self-regulated Learning,” Educational Psychologist 25, no. 1 (1990): 87–102. 15. Alexander Astin argues that many educators are not well prepared for teaching and they treat teaching as a black box. Achieving Educational Excellence (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1985), 135. 16. Frank Smith, To Think (New York: Teachers College Press, 1990). 17. Melvin Miller asserts a theory of the evolution of worldviews in “World Views, Ego Development, and Epistemological Changes from the Conventional to the Postformal: A Longitudinal Perspective,” in Transcendence and Mature Thought in Adulthood , ed. Melvin E. Miller and Susanne R. Cook-Greuter (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994). 18. Theodore J. Marchese, “The New Conversations about Learning: Insights from Neuroscience and Anthropology, Cognitive Science and Work-Place Studies,” Assessing Impact: Evidence and Action (Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education, 1997). 19. Wendy Kohli observes that existential becoming is a central category in Greene’s thinking in her essay “Philosopher of/for Freedom,” in A Light in Dark Times: Maxine Greene and the Unfinished Conversation , ed. William Ayers and Janet L. Miller (New York: Teachers College Press, 1998). 20. Maxine Greene, “Revisioning John Dewey,” lecture at the University of Vermont, October 20, 1997. 21. Maxine Greene, Releasing the Imagination (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995). 22. Ivan Illich, Deschooling Society (New York: Harper & Row, 1971). 2 3 . S e y m o u r S a r a s o n , Revisiting “The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change” (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996), 386. 2 4 . D o n a l d S c h ö n , The Reflective Practitioner (New York: Basic Books, 1983). 25. Richard Hofstatder, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (New York: Knopf, 1963). 26. For a discussion of theory building in education, go online: http://www.jacksonkytle .com. 2 7 . F r i e d r i c h N i e t z s c h e , On the Genealogy of Morals and Ecce Homo , trans. Walter Kaufman and R. J. Hollindale, ed. Walter Kaufman (New York: Vintage, 1967), 555. 28. Richard Rorty, “Method, Social Science, and Social Hope,” in The Postmodern Turn , ed. Stephen Seidman (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 2 9 . S a r a s o n , Revisiting “The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change . ” 3 0 . G r e e n e , Landscapes of Learning . 31. Maurice Natanson, ed., The Problem of Social Reality, Collected Papers 1 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1967), 213. 32. Parker Palmer, The Courage to Teach (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), 7. 3 3 . P a l m e r , The Courage to Teach, 37. I admire Palmer’s humanistic, spiritual perspective on education but worry about the extent to which the enlightened teacher’s persona becomes yet another impediment to learning, if that soft authority dominates the group. Students can learn a great deal from autocrats and imperfect authorities who invest themselves fully in teaching. 170 Notes

3 4 . V i r g i n i a W o o l f , Three Guineas (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1938). 35. Bertell Ollman, Alienation , second ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976). 36. Rorty, “Method, Social Science, and Social Hope.” 37. My thanks to Richard J. Bernstein, Dean of the Graduate Faculty, The New School, for this idea, which is discussed in his Hannah Arendt and the Jewish Question (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996). 3 8 . F r a n k S m i t h , The Book of Learning and Forgetting (New York: Teachers College Press, 1998). 39. Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge (New York: Macmillan, 1980). 4 0 . A s t i n , Achieving Educational Excellence . 41. Phenomenology is a challenging but valuable topic in philosophy and I use only a few elements. For example, see Alfred Schutz, On Phenomenology and Social Relations .

2 Gritty Reality

1. Deborah Meier, “Educating a Democracy: Standards and the Future of Public Education,” 2002, 5. [http://bostonreview.mit.edu/BR24.6/] Originally published in the February/March 2000 issue of Boston Review . 2 . P a r k e r P a l m e r , The Courage to Teach (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), 6. (Emphasis added.) 3. John Taylor Gatto, “Against School: How Public Education Cripples Our Kids, and Why,” Harper’s Magazine , September 2003, 33–38. Gatto, a sharp critic of contemporary education, faults compulsory public education. But what is the alternative, given the diversity of needs in modern society? The problem is less the compulsory part than what we do with the curriculum, its purposes, and design. 4. Arthur Chickering and Jackson Kytle, “The Collegiate Ideal in the Twenty-first Century,” in Reconceptualizing the Collegiate Ideal, ed. J. Douglas Toma and Adrianna Kezar (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999). 5. Data taken from 1999 HERI survey of student attitudes. Survey responses of 261,217 freshmen who entered 462 two-year and four-year institutions in the fall. Adjusted data to represent population of 1.64 million, first-time, full-time freshmen. Available at: http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/heri or 3005 Moon Hall, UCLA, Box 951521, LA, CA 90095–1521. 6 . A r t h u r L e v i n e a n d J e a n e t t e S . C u r e t o n , When Hope and Fear Collide: A Portrait of Today’s College Student (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998). 7 . L e v i n e a n d C u r e t o n , When Hope and Fear Collide , 157. 8 . P a l m e r , The Courage to Teach , 17–21. 9. Alan Guskin, in personal communication with the author, 2000. 10. Robert B. Barr and John Tagg, “From Teaching to Learning: A New Paradigm for Undergraduate Education,” Change 27, no. 6 (1995): 12–14. 1 1 . R o b e r t D . P u t n a m , Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000). Sherry Turkel makes a similar case for new media in Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other (New York: Basic Books, 2011). 1 2 . D e b o r a h M e i e r , In Schools We Trust: Creating Communities of Learning in an Era of Testing and Standardization (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002). 1 3 . M e i e r , In Schools We Trust , 5. Notes 171

14. Edmund V. O’Sullivan, Amish Morrell, and Mary Ann O’Connor, eds., Expanding the Boundaries of Transformative Learning (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 4. 15. O’Sullivan, Morrell, and O’Connor, Expanding the Boundaries of Transformative Learning , 4–5. 16. See Benjamin Barber, A Passion for Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 214–224. 1 7 . S a r a s o n , Revisiting “The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change,” 379. 1 8 . E r n e s t B o y e r , College (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 2. 19. Arthur Chickering, personal communication with the author, 2000. 20. Deborah Meier, The Power of Their Ideas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995). 2 1 . T h e o d o r e S i z e r , Horace’s Compromise (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984). 2 2 . T h e o d o r e S i z e r , Horace’s Hope: What Works for the American High School (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996). Long an advocate of alternative education, Sizer and his wife agreed to be coprincipals of Parker, a new junior and senior high school founded on progressive principles such as emphasizing individualized learning, empowering students and teachers in the school, and using exhibitions to demonstrate mastery rather than depending upon passing tests. See James Traub, “Sizer’s Hope,” New York Times Educational Supplement, August 2, 1998, 26. 2 3 . A n a n e c d o t e r e l a t e d i n Shaping the Future , a report on college math and science instruction by the National Research Council, l996. Information on the National Research Council is available at http://www.nas.edu/nrc. 24. Diane Ravitch, “School ‘Reform’: A Failing Grade,” The New York Review of Books , September 29, 2011 LVIII, no.14, 32–35. 2 5 . B a r b e r , A Passion for Democracy . 26. Lewis Lapham, “Notebook: School Bells,” Harper’s Magazine August 2000: 7–9.

3 Perspectives on Engaged Living

1 . J o h n D e w e y , Experience and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1963), 49. 2. On alienation, see Richard Schacht, The Future of Alienation (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1994). Carol S. Dweck, “Motivational Processes Affecting Learning,” American Psychologist 41 (1986): 1040–1048. 3 . W i l l i a m J a m e s , The Varieties of Religious Experience (New York: Modern Library, 1958). 4 . J a m e s , The Varieties of Religious Experience , 243. 5. In contemporary social psychological terms such as Langer might use, people remain attached to the frames used to interpret and label powerful experience. 6 . J a m e s , The Varieties of Religious Experience , 284. 7. Se l e c t w o r k s : W i l l i a m J a m e s , e d . , R o b e r t D . R i c h a r d s o n , The Heart of William James (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2011). Stephen Rockefeller, John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Robert B. Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991); Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2001); James Garrison, Dewey and Eros (New York: Teachers College Press, 1997); Stephen Fishman and Lucille McCarthy, John Dewey and the Challenge of Classroom Practice (New York: Teachers College Press, 1998). 8. Taken from Greene’s 1997 lecture, “Revisioning John Dewey,” on the occasion of John Dewey’s birthday at the University of Vermont, Burlington, Dewey’s birthplace, October 20, 1997. 172 Notes

9 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 5. Later, on page 30, he puts the goal differently, writing of his search for “a coherent theory of experience, affording positive direction to selection and organization of appropriate educational methods and materials.” 10. David Kolb makes the same point in Experiential Learning (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1984). 11. Peter S. Hlebowitsh, Radical Curriculum Theory Reconsidered: A Historical Approach (New York: Teachers College Press, 1993). In addition to Dewey’s endorsement of the scientific method and experimentation in education, Garrison comments on the intuitive, humanistic spirit of inquiry in Dewey’s thinking in Dewey and Eros . 1 2 . D e w e y , Experience and Education . 1 3 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 25. 14. Kolb extended Dewey’s interest in experiential learning by developing a two-dimensional model of the learning process , leading to four learning modes: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation, which are mea- sured by the Learning Styles Inventory, widely used in adult education. Like Dewey and others we discuss, Kolb believes that learning is best conceived as a process—not in terms of fixed outcomes, but as the result of continuous transactions between person and environment. 1 5 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 27. 1 6 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 27–28. 17. Jackson Kytle, “An Education Up Close and Personal,” in Progressive Education for the Nineties and Beyond, ed. Wilfred Hamlin (Plainfield, VT: Goddard College, 1993). 1 8 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 72. 1 9 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 38. 2 0 . J o h n D e w e y , Art as Experience (New York: Capricorn Books, 1958), 13. (Emphasis added.) 2 1 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 39. 2 2 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 43. 2 3 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 45. 24. Earlier, accreditation associations and professional associations like the American Bar Association weighed objective, input variables more heavily than process ones. The recent interest in moving away from input measures, like size of library, faculty credentials, and number of courses, to outcome measures allows more freedom in the way students and teachers construct learning situations. 2 5 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 60. 2 6 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 60. 2 7 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 72. 28. For two applications of this idea, see Donald Schön, The Reflective Practitioner (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Laurent Daloz, Effective Teaching and Mentoring (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986). 29. All quotes from Dewey, Experience and Education , 18–19. 30. Attributed to Tim Pitkin. For more on Goddard and Pitkin, see Ann Benson and Frank Adams, To Know for Real (Adamant, VT: Adamant Press, 1987) and Wilfred Hamlin, ed., Progressive Education for the Nineties and Beyond (Plainfield, VT: Goddard College, 1993). 3 1 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 67. 3 2 . H l e b o w i t s h , Radical Curriculum Theory Reconsidered . 3 3 . D e w e y , Experience and Education , 48. 34. The first wave of progressive reform occurred in the 1930s leading to the revitalization of Goddard, Bennington, and Sarah Lawrence, and the founding of Black Mountain. The second wave, 30 years later, created schools like Hampshire College, Evergreen State College, and New College (one in Florida and a separate one in San Francisco), and Notes 173

a host of progressive schools whose students were working adults, chiefly the off-campus Antioch units, Fielding Institute, Saybrook Institute, and the Union Institute, created at a conference organized by Goddard and Antioch. 3 5 . H l e b o w i t s h , Radical Curriculum Theory Reconsidered , 66. 36. Hlebowitsh acknowledges the idealism of what he calls progressive-experimentalist vision but is worried about excesses of the critical theory approach to curriculum theory because of its authoritarianism and unwillingness to adapt to the needs of real schools (see Hlebowitsh, Radical Curriculum Theory Reconsidered, 46) and the general threats that radical challenges pose to the democratic institution of the public school. Of critical theo- rists he says: “radical commentators have written much about how schools fail to abide by a visionary and enlightened ideal, but they have also left us with little in the way of solutions that might work within the social and political realities of our schools.” (46). 37. See Dewey, Experience and Education , 89–90. 38. Abraham Maslow, Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences (New York: Penguin Books, 1977), 91–94. 39. Abraham Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1968), 114. 4 0 . M a s l o w , Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences , 65. 41. For a comparable account of peak experience interpreted in religious terms, sometimes called the experience of the numinous, see Thomas Moore, The Re-enchantment of Everyday Life (New York: HarperCollins, 1996). We return to this topic in part II. 42. Maslow was both a researcher and practicing psychotherapist who searched for a theory of personality that was, in his view, neither mechanistic (like behaviorist learning theory, popular in the l960s) nor deficit oriented (like psychiatric models of pathology, past and present). 4 3 . A b r a h a m M a s l o w , The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (New York: Penguin Arkana, 1993). 44. Abraham Maslow, “Deficiency Motivation and Growth Motivation,” Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 3 (1955): 14. 45. Csikszentmihalyi acknowledges the similarity of his work to Maslow’s peak experience in The Evolving Self (New York: HarperCollins, 1993). 46. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow (New York: HarperPerennial, 1991), xi. 4 7 . M i h a l y C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 28, 29, and 2. 4 8 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow , 2. 4 9 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Flow , 31. 5 0 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow , 26. 5 1 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , The Evolving Self , 33. 5 2 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow , 31. 5 3 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow , 31. 5 4 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow , 128. 5 5 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow , 68. 5 6 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow , 81. 5 7 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow , 115. 5 8 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow , 32, 131–132, 141. 59. Csikszentmihalyi also speculates about the transcendent self as an ideal self, referring to a person whose “psychic energy is joyfully invested in complex goals” in The Evolving Self , 208. 60. Ellen Langer, Mindfulness (Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley, 1998), 57. 61. See Ellen Langer, The Power of Mindful Learning (Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley, 1997), 63–64. 174 Notes

6 2 . I n L a n g e r ’ s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k , Counterclockwise , she makes no reference to the philosophy or practice of progressive education even though many of her insights and findings are relevant. Ellen J. Langer, Counterclockwise: Mindful Health and the Power of Possibility (New York: Ballantine Books, 2009). 6 3 . L a n g e r , The Power of Mindful Learning , 13. 6 4 . L a n g e r , Counterclockwise . 6 5 . L a n g e r , The Power of Mindful Learning , 137. 66. See William Kahn, “The Psychological Condition of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at Work,” Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 4 (1990): 692–724 and “To Be Fully There: Psychological Presence at Work,” Human Relations 45, no. 4 (1992): 321–345. It would be interesting to apply the Tavistock concepts he uses to explain how students learn and express themselves inside the formal role of student. 67. The extensive literature on alienated labor has been “forgotten” by contemporary management literature. The early Marx had powerful insights into the way workers can be alienated from control of their labor with parallel separations from relations with fellow workers and the nature of language. 68. Charles Guignon and Dirk Pereboom are less convinced than I am about the implicit morality of existentialism. They note the argument that existentialism is a privileged discourse of the Western elite who focus on personal authenticity more than social justice. Charles Guignon and Dirk Pereboom, eds., Existentialism: Basic Writings (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 1995), xxxvi-xxxvii. While there is no explicit morality, social motives are important in Heidegger’s theory, Nietzsche’s protests on behalf of everyman, Camus’s books, and Greene’s request to be awake in the world. That Heidegger once belonged to the Nazi party and that Nietzsche expressed anti-Semitic views complicates our evaluation of their theories and lives. 6 9 . B l a i s e P a s c a l , Thoughts. Trans. W. F. Trotter. (New York: P.F. Collier & Son Company, 1910), 78. Also cited in William Barrett, What is Existentialism? (New York: Gross Press, 1964), 77. 70. A good starting point for reading Nietzsche is “Thus Spake Zarathustra,” The Portable Nietzsche , ed. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Viking Penguin, 1982). 7 1 . A l b e r t C a m u s , The Stranger (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1942). 72. Edmund O’Sullivan, Amish Morrell, and Mary Ann O’Connor discuss spiritual issues at length in Expanding the Boundaries of Transformative Learning (New York: Palgrave, 2002). For an example of a self-help approach to restoring a close relationship with life, see Thomas Moore, The Re-enchantment of Everyday Life (New York: HarperCollins, 1996). 7 3 . M a x W e b e r , The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1958). 74. See Friedrich Nietzsche, The Gay Science (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), 279. 75. Tony Judt called Camus a model public intellectual. Camus had edited Combat , the French resistance paper in World War II. “On ‘The Plague,’” The New York Review of Books , November 29, 2001: 6–9. 76. Maxine Greene, Teacher as Stranger (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1973). 7 7 . A l b e r t C a m u s , Albert Camus: Lyrical and Critical Essays, ed. Philip Thody (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), 342. (Emphasis added.). 78. Guignon and Pereboom, Existentialism: Basic Writings . Compare their notion of pre- dicament to Dewey’s idea of the learning situation. 79. Jurgen Habermas, Legitimation Crisis (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), 37. 8 0 . C h r i s t o p h e r L a s c h , The Culture of Narcissism (New York: Norton, 1979); Paul L . Wachtel, The Poverty of Affluence (New York: Free Press, 1983); Michael Ignatieff, The Needs of Strangers (New York: Viking Penguin, 1985); Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Notes 175

Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business (New York: Penguin, 1985); Kenneth Gergen, The Saturated Self (New York: BasicBooks, 1991); Zygmunt Bauman, Liquid Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Polity Press, 2000). 81. See the anarchist text of Situationist activist Guy Debord, The Society of the Spectacle (Detroit: Black and Red, 1977). For a broad collection of articles, see Ken Knabb, ed., Situationist International Anthology (Berkeley, CA: Bureau of Public Secrets,1981). 82. Maxine Greene, “Revisioning John Dewey,” lecture at the University of Vermont, October 20, 1997. 8 3 . Q u o t e s f r o m G r e e n e , The Dialectic of Freedom, 2–3. Also, see Maxine Greene, Releasing the Imagination (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995); William Ayers and Janet Miller, eds., A Light in Dark Times: Maxine Greene and the Unfinished Conversation (New York: Teachers College Press, 1998). 84. Greene, “Revisioning John Dewey.”

Part II Brain, Mind, and Body

1. Oliver Sacks, “This year, change your mind.” New York Times , January 1, 2011: A19. 2. Nicholas Humphrey goes further to make the provocative argument that this “magic show,” this reverie we experience of our own consciousness, is enjoyable, creates a sense of self, and motivates people to stay alive. Soul Dust: The Magic of Consciousness (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011). 3. Malcom Gladwell argues that we do not consider all the variables that contribute to an excellent performance. Genius is overrated and he cites the work of Anders Ericsson that what matters is ten thousand hours of focused repetition. Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2008). 4 . S e e D a n i e l D e n n e t t , Kinds of Minds (New York: Basic Books, 1996), and Rosenthal, The Nature of Mind; other classic sources are John Searle, The Mystery of Consciousness (New York: New York Review Book, 1997); Stephen Pinker, How the Mind Works (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997); Richard Ornstein, The Right Mind (New York: Harcourt Brace & Co., 1997). 5 . C a n d a c e P e r t , Molecules of Emotion (New York: Scribner, 1997), 185. 6 . P e r t , Molecules of Emotion , 189. 7 . D e n n e t t , Kinds of Minds, 74. My analysis here and elsewhere leans on his clear thinking. 8 . D e n n e t t , Kinds of Minds , 72. He writes about the “Myth of Double Transduction”— that the brain somehow transduces neural signals into the “mysterious, nonphysical medium of the mind. ” 9. “New levels require an addition of principles; they neither deny nor contradict the explanations appropriate for lower levels. The principles of aesthetics do not preclude a chemi- cal analysis of pigments in the Mona Lisa—but only a fool would invoke such chemistry to explain the essence of the lady’s appeal.” Stephen Jay Gould, An Urchin in the Storm (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987), 69. 10. Tyler Burge, “A Real Science of Mind.” New York Times, “Opinionator,” December 19, 2010. 11. Kahneman argues that the human penchant for meaning-making often pulls us toward the wrong decision. Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011). Another challenge to rationalist views of human behavior is from Jonathan Haidt, The Happiness Hypothesis (New York: Basic Books, 2006). 176 Notes

12. Eric R. Kandel, James Schwartz, and Thomas Jessell, eds., Principles of Neural Science . fourth ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000). 13. Marcia Mentkowski et al., Learning that Lasts (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999). 14. John Medina, Brain Rules (Seattle, Washington: Pear Press, 2008). 15. Andrew N. Meltzoff and Wolfgang Prinz, eds., The Imitative Mind: Development, Evolution, and Brain Bases (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002). 16. Nancy Nager and Edna Shapiro, eds., Revisiting a Progressive Pedagogy: The Developmental Interaction Approach (New York: State University of New York Press, 2000). 17. Michael Nerney, a former teacher and national expert on adolescence and substance abuse, made this intriguing argument in a lecture on Vermont Public Radio. Online: http://www.vpr.net/episode/51346/ > More could be said here, as Carol Gilligan has observed, about the social pressures on young girls to suppress achievement, or as observed by others, on the pressure placed on young boys to “tough it out,” to not express feelings. Carol Gilligan, Between Voice and Silence: Women and Girls, Race and Relationships (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1997). 18. Nerney, online: http://www.vpr.net/episode/51346/

4 Psychology of Involvement

1. Zencey, personal communication with author, l996. 2. Fun is a motive seldom studied by social scientists, which I find curious. 3. This was a favorite expression of the late Richard Hathaway of Vermont College. 4. Spatial metaphors like “higher” or “deeper” are misleading as are notions that consciousness or most complex human attributes are best denoted by a body organ or brain loca- tion. Think in terms of information systems and networks of systems. 5. Special thanks go to Andrew Schmookler for redirecting my thinking. I was caught up with the dynamics of peak experiences, paying less attention to non-peak moments, or all-important transitions. 6. Traits are assumed to be more constant forces in motivation than are temporary psychological states, as previously discussed. 7. By “correlated” we mean that they are not perfectly independent dimensions. Imagine a Venn diagram where the circle for each dimension shares some portion of the others’ space. 8 . D a v i d L a B e r g e , Attentional Processing: The Brain’s Art of Mindfulness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995). 9. Like motivation, attention is inferred from observable behavior. That is, we see others “paying attention,” or notice ourselves watching something intently, and are surprised by the concentration. 10. Peter Milner, Physiological Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970). 11. Feeling self-conscious in itself is an interesting dimension, usually experienced by people as an uncomfortable feeling because one feels exposed, perhaps vulnerable. Made the butt of a practical joke, a person feels self-conscious, embarrassed; this is not the same as being aware of what one is doing at a particular moment. 12. Some scholars like Nicholas Humphrey believe that mammalian species like dogs and primates, with whom we share so much neurobiology, may be conscious of a range of emotions, although perhaps not the self-awareness of Homo sapiens. 13. For example, see Robert W. White, “Competence and the Psychosexual Stages of Development,” Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1960); Richard DeCharms, Personal Causation: The Internal Affective Determinants of Behavior (New York: Academic Press, 1968); Edward Deci and Richard Notes 177

M. Ryan, Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior (New York: Plenum, 1985); Julian Rotter, “Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement: A Case History of a Variable,” American Psychologist 45, no. 4 (1990): 489–493. 14. The definitions used vary, and most personality constructs have at least one type of measurement, usually a paper-and-pencil attitude scale, and claim empirical support (usually correlations). Few constructs acknowledge their competitors or show empirical evidence of independence. 1 5 . T o d d F . H e a t h e r t o n , Neuroscience of Self and Self-Regulation . An online version of a paper published in the Annual Review of Psychology . Online: https://www.google.com /search?rlz=1C1GGGE_enUS385US385&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&q=Todd+F. +Heatherton%2C+Neuroscience+of+Self+and+Self-Regulation 16. A recent topic of scholarly interest (and contention) is mirror neurons, which, proponents using fMRI methods argue, underlie imitation, vicarious learning and perhaps empathy, our ability to understand and care for another person. Mirror neurons refer to neurons that fire when an animal does something and when it observes another animal doing something. This suggests one neurobiological mechanism, at least, for the observational learning in schools, also known as vicarious learning and modeling. 17. Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci, “Promoting Self-determined School Engagement: Motivation, Learning, and Well-Being,” in Handbook of Motivation at School, ed. Kathryn R. Wentzel and Allan Wigfield (New York: Routledge, 2009). Charles Guignon and Dirk Pereboom, eds., Existentialism: Basic Writings (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 1995), 200. 18. Guignon and Pereboom, Existentialism , xxxv. 19. Jurgen Habermas, Legitimation Crisis (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973). 20. Abraham Maslow, Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences (New York: Penguin Books, 1977), 91–94. 21. Perhaps the positive mood changes that teachers experience during a lecture reinforce the value they attach to the performance, making it hard for them to challenge the lecture as an educational medium. 22. As we consider in chapter 7 , getting going is often the difficult moment because psychological experience is not yet elevated. If it is a cardiovascular activity like jogging, athletes know that the first few minutes are likely to be uncomfortable. 23. Abraham Maslow, The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (New York: Penguin Arkana, 1993), 335. 2 4 . M a s l o w , The Farther Reaches of Human Nature, 270–279. 2 5 . T h o m a s M o o r e , The Re-enchantment of Everyday Life (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), xi. 2 6 . R u d o l f O t t o , The Idea of the Holy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958). Cited by Moore, The Re-enchantment of Everyday Life , 299. 27. Phillip E. Hammond and David W. Machacek, Soka Gakkai in America: Accommodation and Conversion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). 28. Jim Castelli, How I Pray (New York: Ballantine Books, 1994). 2 9 . S e e H a r v e y C o x , The Rise of Pentecostal Spirituality and the Reshaping of Religion in the Twenty-first Century (Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley, 1994) and Grant Wacker, Heaven Below (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003). 30. Professor Leonard Hummel of the Lutheran Seminary would remind us that religious revivals are common and that the Pentecostal movement, for instance, had earlier roots in the Holiness movement of the 1800s. Personal communication with the author, 2011. 31. Heather Wax, “How Global Pentecostalism is Changing the World,” Templeton Report , July 28, 2011. Online: http://www.templeton.org/templeton_report/20110728/index.html 3 2 . W i l l i a m J a m e s , The Varieties of Religious Experience (New York: Modern Library, 1958). 178 Notes

33. My thanks to Professor Margaret Blanchard for this observation. Personal communication with the author, 1996. 34. Thich Nhat Hanh, The Miracle of Mindfulness (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987). 35. For colorful examples of people “going to the edge” in sports, hobbies, war, sex, and pursuits like running with the bulls in Pamplona, see Michael J. Apter, The Dangerous Edge: The Psychology of Excitement (New York: The Free Press, 1992). Stephen Lyng, “Edgework: a Social Psychological Analysis of Voluntary Risk-taking,” American Journal of Sociology 95, no. 4 (1990): 85–86. 36. Clifford Krauss, “Undercover Police Ride Wide Range of Emotion.” The New York Times August 29, 1994, B3. 3 7 . J a c k K a t z , Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions in Doing Evil (New York: Basic Books, 1988). 3 8 . A p t e r , The Dangerous Edge , 145. 39. A 2003 estimate is that yearly the American amusement-park industry books $9.6 billion and entertains 320 million people. American Coaster Enthusiasts, a voluntary association, has 8,500 members. “Coasting,” The Economist, June 28, 2003: 30. 4 0 . M a r v i n Z u c k e r m a n , Sensation Seeking: Beyond the Optimal level of Arousal (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979). 41. Edward Hallowell and John Ratey, Driven to Distraction (New York: Touchstone, 1994). 42. For a compendium of attention-getting devices used in carnivals, see Ricky Jay, Learned Pigs & Fireproof Women (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1998). 43. Social psychologists study large and small groups, and dyads of two persons, which can be our most powerful developmental relationships (parents, advisors, coaches). 44. Eric Hoffer, The True Believer (New York: Harper and Row, 1951). 45. Two business books apply concepts about attention span to industry as well as competition among experience providers: Thomas H. Davenport and John C. Beck, The Attention Economy Understanding the New Currency of Business (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press, 2001), and B. Joseph Pine and James H. Gilmore, The Attention Economy: Work is Theater & Every Business a Stage (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press, 1999). 46. This is true of other species whose inner lives we are only beginning to explore. 4 7 . J o h n D e w e y , Experience and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1963). (Original published 1916.) 48. 4 8 . D e b o r a h M e i e r , The Power of Their Ideas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995). In Schools We Trust: Creating Communities of Learning in an Era of Testing and Standardization (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002). 4 9 . M a r g a r e t S i n g e r e t a l . , Report of the APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Techniques of Persuasion and Control , 1986. Online at: http://www.rickross.com/ 50. Research on groups, social movements, and psychological identity began during World War II as social scientists, notably refugees from Germany and occupied Europe, sought to understand the rise of fascism in advanced countries like Germany and Italy. 5 1 . E u g e n e G a l a n t e r , Cults: Faith, Healing, and Coercion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Philip Zimbardo and Michael Leippe, The Psychology of Attitude Change and Influence (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991); Neil Osherow, “Making Sense of the Nonsensical: An Analysis of Jonestown,” in Readings about the Social Animal, ed. Eliot Aronson (New York: W.H. Freeman and Co., 1992), 68–86. 52. I know from personal experience as a graduate student at Columbia that leaving a true- belief group like an anarchist commune is far more difficult emotionally for individuals than it seems to outsiders. Notes 179

53. Avishai Margalit, “The Suicide Bombers,” The New York Review 50, no. 1 (January 16, 2003): 36–39. 54. Nasra Hassan, “Letter from Gaza: An Arsenal of Believers,” The New Yorker November 19, 2001: 36–41. 55. Zimbardo and Leippe, The Psychology of Attitude Change and Influence ; Eliot Aronson, The Social Animal , eighth ed. (New York: Worth Publishers, 1999). 56. Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter, and Kurt W. Back, Social Pressure in Informal Groups (New York: Harper, 1950). 57. Dissonance theory suggests a counterintuitive notion, namely, that it is easier to get behavior change in converts by getting them to proselytize even if at first they do not believe the message. 58. A related phenomenon is the Stockholm syndrome, where captives form emotional bonds with their captors. One explanation is that human beings are social and adaptive animals whose attitudes, in the short term, can change. Attitude change is not necessarily a rational or conscious process. 59. Zimbardo and Leippe, The Psychology of Attitude Change and Influence . 60. Lee Ross, “The Intuitive Psychologist and His Shortcomings,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 10, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 173–220. 61. David Gutmann, “The Subjective Politics of Power: The Dilemma of Post-superego Man,” Social Research 40, no. 4 (1973): 570–616. 62. Robert K. Merton gave us powerful concepts like manifest and latent functions, and the unintended consequences of purposive social actions. Social Theory and Social Structure (New York: Free Press, 1968).

5 Learning, Motivation, and Biological Systems

1 . E l l e n J . L a n g e r , Counterclockwise: Mindful Health and the Power of Possibility (New York: Ballantine Books, 2009), 183. 2. Indeed, we learn more from our failures than from just being given the right answer, an idea at risk in today’s accountability culture where teaching to the test undermines the integrity of the whole enterprise. 3 . M a r c i a M e n t k o w s k i e t a l . , Learning that Lasts (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999). 4 . E d w a r d J . K h a n t z i a n , Addiction and the Vulnerable Self (New York: Guilford Press, 1990). 5. About the value of exercise, go online: http://www.faqs.org/health-encyc/The- Lifetime-of-a-Human-Being/Aging-and-What-To-Do-About-It-The-value-of-exercise. html#ixzz1CdD4551W 6. See Gretchen Reynolds, “How Exercise Can Strengthen the Brain.”Online: http://well .blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/28/how-exercise-can-strengthen-the-brain/ 7. James M. Dabbs and Mary G. Dabbs, Heroes, Rogues and Lovers: Testosterone and Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002). 8. Lee T. Gettler, Thomas W. McDade, Alan B. Ferani, and Christopher W. Kuzawa,“Longitudinal Evidence that Fatherhood Decreases Testosterone in Human Males.” Published online September 12, 2011, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science , pasted from http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/09/02/1105403108> Allan Mazur and Joel Michalek, “Marriage, Divorce, and Male Testosterone,” Social Forces 77, no. 1 (1998): 315–330. 180 Notes

9 . W i l l i a m J a m e s , The Varieties of Religious Experience (New York: Modern Library, 1958). (First published 1902.) 1 0 . J e r o m e B r u n e r , In Search of Mind: Essays in Autobiography (New York: Harper and Row, 1983), 66. 11. Unless otherwise noted, my technical descriptions depend upon Kandel, Schwartz and Jessell, Essentials of Neural Science and Behavior , and Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz and Thomas M. Jessell, Principles of Neural Science , fourth ed. (New York: McGraw- Hill, 2000). Another source is Sam Wang, The Neuroscience of Everyday Life (Chantilly, VA: The Great Courses, 2010). DVD Online: http://www.thegreatcourses.com 1 2 . B r u n e r , In Search of Mind, 100. He adds, “It is a system of a complexity that can accom- modate the need to give special place to surprises, to the probability structure of the world as represented in ‘models’ that the brain stores, and to the requirements of acts- in-programs.” 13. Neuromuscular communication is not as complex as signaling among central neurons, which involves more varied transmitters, both excitatory and inhibitory functions, and different types of ion channels. 1 4 . D e n n e t t , Kinds of Minds , 72. 15. The molecular keys that unlock the gates that control transaction between nerve cells at the synaptic junctions are glutamate molecules, dopamine molecules and norepineph- rine molecules, among others. 16. Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, Principles of Neural Science , 251. 17. Psychologists have long studied individual differences in reactivity to external stimuli. See Witkin’s concept of field dependence. Herman A. Witkin and Philip K. Oltman, “Cognitive Style,” International Journal of Neurology 6, (1967): 119–137, and Stanley Schachter, “The Interaction of Cognitive and Physiological Determinants of Emotional States,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology , vol. 1, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 1964), 49–80. 1 8 . P e r t , Molecules of Emotion . Pert describes contemporary research that focuses on the nature of the neurotransmitter molecules—specifically, one type of information mol- ecule called ligands—as they inhibit or accelerate the signal. Ligands are distributed though the brain and body where the main information channels are the nervous, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid systems. 19. Pert uses a lovely image to describe receptor molecules made of strings of peptides made, in turn, of amino acids “strung together in crumpled chains, looking something like beaded necklaces that folded in on themselves.” Pert, Molecules of Emotion , 22. 20. Pert’s book is fascinating for its mix of her work on peptides and emotional states, her struggle as a woman scientist, and her growing interest in holistic health. 2 1 . P e r t , Molecules of Emotion , 145. 22. Meaning-making is less rational than it might sound because unconscious emotional factors can pull meaning toward old biases. Current books by Daniel Kahneman and Jonathan Haidt, cited earlier, speak of the power of emotional or intuitive factors. 23. When it comes to memory, the nervous system has limits. One curious thing about brain-mind interactions is that people cannot reexperience the exact nature of percep- tions like smell, or even pain, unless the stimuli are present again. Women may recall that childbirth was painful , but may not remember the exact feeling—we can recall that the coffee in Rome smelled great , but cannot recreate the exact experience. 24. J. Allan Hobson, The Chemistry of Conscious States (Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1994), 83. 25. Hobson’s theory is preferred because this theory makes fewer assumptions than others like Jungian analysis and parsimony is an important criterion for “good” theory in the social sciences. Notes 181

26. A large literature exists and several scholarly websites relating to the subject, are available. A starting point into the entangled issues is online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder > 27. Tyler Burge, “A real science of mind.” New York Times, “Opinionator,” December 19, 2010. 2 8 . D a n i e l N . R o b i n s o n , Consciousness and its Implications (Chantilly, VA: The Teaching Company, 2007). 29. To suggest the complexity, it can be argued that a materialist “upward causation” view holds that all mental events are caused by physiology and brain activity. Some neurosci- entists argue for a “downward causation” perspective where mental events actually exert causal influence on brain physiology and activity. Perhaps both paths are open. 30. For a notable exception, see Richard J. Davidson and Anne Harrington, eds., Visions of Compassion: Western Scientists and Tibetan Buddhists Examine Human Nature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001). Davidson is the William James and Vilas Research Professor of Psychology and Psychiatry at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and director of the Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior. 31. John Searle, “The Mystery of Consciousness Continues. A review of Antonio Damasio’s Self Comes to Mind: Constructing the Conscious Brain. ” The New York Review of Books , June 9, (2011): 50–52. While Searle admires Damasio’s effort to coordinate the development of self with consciousness, he says the argument is flawed. 32. Gulio Tononi, “Consciousness as Integrated Information: A Provisional Manifesto.” Biological Bulletin 215 (2008): 216–242. Giulio Tononi and Gerald Edelman, Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagination (London: Allen Lane, 2000). 3 3 . P e r t , Molecules of Emotion,185. She speculates that “mind is the flow of information as it moves among the cells, organs, and systems of the body.” Kandel and colleagues suggest that studies of visual attention may provide ideas about conscious awareness. Evidence points away from a master area, or a grand synthesis, and more toward distributed, mul- tistage processing, about which little is known. Eric R. Kandel et al., Essentials of Neural Science and Behavior , 504. 34. Ashlee Vance, “In Pursuit of a Mind Map, Slice by Slice.” New York Times , Tuesday, December 28, 2010, D1. 35. Sam Wang, The Neuroscience of Everyday Life (Chantilly, VA: The Great Courses, 2010). DVD www.thegreatcourses.com. He includes many resources including a neurophilosophy blog. Online: http://scienceblogs.com/neurophilosophy/2008/08/welcome_to _your_brain.php 36. Human beings have great capacities, but we struggle to visualize large numbers like billion or trillion, which then makes it so hard to understand topics like the body’s complex systems with its trillions of synapses, not to mention evolutionary time, or the vast distances of an expanding universe(s). 37. Abhishiktananda, “Simply Becoming Aware.” The Sun , October, (2010): 32–33. From his book: Saccidananda: A Christian Approach to Advaitic Experience (Delhi, ISPCL , 1974, 1997). 3 8 . M a r t h a N u s s b a u m , Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). 3 9 . D e n n e t t , Kinds of Minds , 149 and 157. 4 0 . N i c h o l a s H u m p h r e y , Soul Dust: The Magic of Consciousness (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011). 4 1 . J o n a t h a n H a i d t , o n l i n e : Edge, “Moral Psychology and the Misunderstanding of Religion.” http://edge.org/conversation/moral-psychology-and-the-misunderstanding- of-religion. Published September 21, 2007, retrieved March 10, 2012. Also, see Haidt’s provocative review of insights from social psychology, The Happiness Hypothesis (New York: Basic Books, 2006). 182 Notes

4 2 . E l l i o t A r o n s o n , The Social Animal (New York: Worth Publishers, 2007), tenth ed. 43. Leon Festinger, “The Psychological Effects of Insufficient Reward,” American Psychologist 16 (1961): 11. 4 4 . A l f r e d S c h u t z , The Phenomenology of the Social World (Evanston, I.L.: Northwestern University Press, 1967). 45. The remarkable power of placebos (based on expectations) in research and medicine, in general, cannot be explored here, except to say that experimenters and subjects alike are interpreting beings trying to understand what is expected of them. That is why careful experiments use control groups and the design is double blind (experimenters are blind to the prediction). 46. Martin Seligman and his colleagues founded the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania. Online: http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/books.htm He has numerous publications including Seligman, Learned Optimism, Second ed. (New York: Pocket Books, 1998). 47. Neuroscientist Richard J. Davidson, a pod cast on NPR. Online: http://being.publicradio .org/programs/2011/healthy-minds/ 48. This research is an extension of the Pygmalion effect, which asserts that teacher expectations can create a self-fulfilling prophecy, perhaps in both learner and student. See Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson, Pygmalion in the Classroom (New York: Irvington, 1992). 49. For information on Project Bright Idea. Online: http://www.ncpublicschools.org/ec / i d e a / > 50. Langer takes a cognitive approach to mindfulness, with less attention to moral or spiritual dimensions. For other views on mindfulness, see Jon Kabat-Zinn, Wherever You Go There You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life (New York: Hyperion Press, 1996). For a Buddhist-inspired discussion of different stages of attention, see B. Alan Wallace, The Attention Revolution: Unlocking the Power of the Focused Mind (Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2006). 5 1 . L a n g e r , Counterclockwise , 14. 5 2 . L a n g e r , Counterclockwise , 190. 53. Interest in mindfulness is increasing in both education and counseling psychology. For example, see Daniel J. Siegel, Mindfulness and Mindsight: Their Role in Neural Integration and Mental Health. APA 2011, Plenary Speaker. Also, Lisa Miller has several empirical studies, for example: Elizabeth Reid and Lisa Miller, “An Exploration in Mindfulness: Classroom of Detectives,” Teachers College Record 111, no.12 (2009): 2775–2785. 54. Carol S. Dweck and Allison Master, “Self-theories and Motivation: Students’ Beliefs about Intelligence,” in Handbook of Motivation at School, Kathryn R. Wentzel and Allan Wigfield (New York: Routledge, 2009), 123–140. 55. To get started, go online: http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/youthviolence /schoolviolence/ Also, see the Journal of School Violence , http://web.me.com/michaelfurlong /JSV/Home.html 5 6 . S i m i l a r l y , g o o n l i n e : h t t p : / / w w w . w e b m d . c o m / d e p r e s s i o n / g u i d e / d e t e c t i n g - d e p r e s s i o n 5 7 . O n l i n e : h t t p : / / w w w . w e b m d . c o m / b i p o l a r - d i s o r d e r / g u i d e / b i p o l a r - d i s o r d e r - c a u s e s 58. Projection and displacement are psychic mechanisms by which the mind tries to cope, unconsciously, with conflict: first, by blaming others for our own shortcomings, and second, by putting psychic energy into activities that are tangential to what we might be doing. 59. The use of narratives and how people create them is a common theme, both in literature and psychology, albeit with different connotations. 60. This is a central tenet of positive psychology, discussed earlier. Notes 183

61. Notable exceptions are Jeffrey Arnett, Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from Late Teens through the Twenties (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004) and Sharon Parks, Big Questions, Worthy Dreams: Mentoring Young Adults in their Search for Meaning, Purpose, and Faith (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2000). 6 2 . Individuation is the technical term in psychology for the process by which one becomes an individual with unique attributes. 63. For that reason alone, we challenge the assumption of inerrant memory because the nature of human experience and memory makes it too subject to problems like retro- spective distortion. 64. For basic sources on Mead and Lewin, see George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self, and Society. ed. Charles W. Morris (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934) and Kurt Lewin, Field Theory in Social Science. ed. D. Cartwright (New York: Harper & Row, 1951). 6 5 . M i h a l y C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Flow (New York: HarperPerennial, 1991); intrinsic motivation is defined by goals and values important to the individual whereas extrinsic motivation is more external in the form of grades or tangible rewards. 66. Michael E. McCullough and Brian L. B. Willoughby. “Religion, Self-Regulation, and Self-Control: Associations, Explanations, and Implications.” Psychological Bulletin 135 (2009): 69–93.

Part III Considerations for Learning and Motivation

1 . D o n a l d S c h ö n , The Reflective Practitioner (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 3. (Emphasis added.) 2 . J a c q u e s E l l u l , The Technological Society (New York: Vintage Books, 1964). 3. Some researchers distinguish among implicit, informal, and formal learning. John Bransford is the founding director of the Learning in Informal and Formal Environments (LIFE) center, a multi-institution NSF Science of Learning Center at the University of Washington in cooperation with Stanford University and SRI International. Online: h t t p : / / l i f e - s l c . o r g /

6 Ten Considerations for Better Learning

1 . A l e x a n d e r A s t i n , Achieving Educational Excellence (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985), 133. 2. For examples, see Arthur Chickering and Zelda Gamson, eds., Applying the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991); Marcia Mentkowski et al., Learning That Lasts (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999); Deborah Meier, In Schools We Trust: Creating Communities of Learning in an Era of Testing and Standardization (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002); Theodore J. Marchese, “The New Conversations about Learning: Insights from Neuroscience and Anthropology, Cognitive Science and Work-Place Studies,” Assessing Impact: Evidence and Action (Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education, 1997). 3. For a lucid discussion of fabled Black Mountain College, long defunct, see Martin Duberman, An Exploration in Community (New York: Dutton, 1972); for detailed 184 Notes

commentary on the second wave of progressive American colleges, see Gerald Grant and David Riesman, The Perpetual Dream (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977). 4. Robert Putnam expresses his admiration for the public spiritedness of the Progressive Era in Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000). 5. Indeed, the more grand the promise, the more hidden the consequences. One has to expect a host of nontrivial, unanticipated consequences to purposive social action. The classic article is Robert K. Merton’s, “The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action,” American Sociological Review 1 (1936): 894. 6. Parker Palmer, “The Heart of a Teacher: Identity and Integrity in Teaching,” Change 29, no. 6 (1997): 14–22. 7 . S e y m o u r S a r a s o n , Revisiting “The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change” (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996), 379. 8 . R e n a t e N . C a i n e a n d G e o f f r e y C a i n e , Making Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain (Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley, 1994). 9. Marchese, “The New Conversations about Learning,” 79–85. 10. See Marcia Mentkowski and Associates, Learning That Lasts: Integrating Learning, Development, and Performance in College and Beyond (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000). 11. Malcom Gladwell, Outliers (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2008). 12. Arthur Chickering, personal communication with the author, 1997. 13. George Kuh and Elizabeth Whitt’s definition of culture is: “the collective, mutually shaping patterns of norms, values, practices, beliefs and assumptions that guide the behavior of individuals and groups in an institute of higher education and provide a frame of reference within which to interpret the meaning of events and actions on and off campus.” George D. Kuh and Elizabeth J. Whitt, The Invisible Tapestry: Culture in American Colleges and Universities (Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Higher Education, 1988), 13. 14. See Alexander Astin, What Matters in College? (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993); George Kuh et al., Involving Colleges: Successful Approaches to Fostering Student Learning and Development Outside the Classroom (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991). 1 5 . A s t i n , Achieving Educational Excellence, 143. 16. Kuh et al., Involving Colleges . 1 7 . A s t i n , Achieving Educational Excellence . 18. Cited by Kuh and Whitt, The Invisible Tapestry , 71–72. 19. Arthur Chickering, personal communication with author, 1997. 20. A college or university also provides lifelong learning for one or more members of the same family who are active members of the college at different parts of their lives, earn- ing different degrees and attending alumni colleges. 21. Debate can be passionate at The New School about the extent to which the administration supports the academic values of the Graduate Faculty, successor school to the sto- ried “University in Exile” of the 1930s, when the New School admitted 180 intellectual refugees from Europe. For histories of The New School, see Peter Rutkoff and William Scott, New School: A History of the New School for Social Research (New York: The Free Press, 1986); Claus-Dieter Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile, trans. Rita and Robert Kimber (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1993). 22. Harriet K. Cuffarro, Nancy Nager, and Edna K. Shapiro, “The Developmental- interaction Approach at Bank Street College of Education.” In Jaipaul Roopnarine and Notes 185

James Johnson, eds., Approaches to Early Childhood Education, fourth ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2005), 280–295. 23. Davis chronicles the work of Royce (“Tim”) Pitkin, President of Goddard College, who coined a phrase still alive in the community that students are not “vessels to be filled nor lamps to be lighted.” Only students can light themselves. 24. William A. Kahn, “To be Fully There: Psychological Presence at Work,” Human Relations 45, no. 4 (1992): 321–345. 2 5 . A l f r e d N . W h i t e h e a d , The Aims of Education and Other Essays (New York: Macmillan, 1959). 26. The progressive school that wants to last has to find mechanisms for curbing narcissistic behavior and promoting genuine collaboration. The Quakers have a process call “elder- ing” by which difficult members of a group are pulled aside and encouraged to go along with the spirit of the group. 27. That is not to say that hazing that is demeaning or lacks safety is justifiable. The psychological and group dynamics are the same, which partly explains why hazing has such appeal. 28. Roger C. Schank, and Chip Cleary, Engines for Education (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1995). 29. Arthur Chickering, personal communication, l997. 30. Maxine Greene, “Revisioning John Dewey,” lecture at the University of Vermont, October 20, 1997. 3 1 . T h e o d o r e S i z e r , Horace’s Compromise (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984). 32. Paulo Freire and Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation: Dialogues on Transforming Education (Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey/Greenwood Press, 1987); Stephen Brookfield, Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995); Pepi Leistnyna, Arlie Woodrum, and Stephen Sherblom, Breaking Free: The Transformative Power of Critical Pedagogy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review, 1996). 33. Joe L. Kincheloe and Shirley R. Steinberg, Unauthorized Methods: Strategies for Critical Thinking (New York: Routledge, 1998). 3 4 . P e t e r S e n g e , The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (New York: Doubleday/Currency, 1990); Fred Kofman and Peter Senge, “Communities of Commitment,” in Learning Organizations, ed. Sarita Chawla and John Renesch (Portland: Productivity Press, 1995). 35. Practices like block crediting lead to credit inflation because a teacher may be reluctant to fail a student for an entire semester if the work is marginal. If a student reaches too high and cannot finish parts of the learning plan, why should he or she get the same credit for the term as a student who chooses more realistic goals and meets each of them? Having standards for the partial award of academic credit gives teachers a more flexible tool than all-or-nothing crediting. 3 6 . L a u r e n t A . D a l o z , Effective Teaching and Mentoring (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986). 3 7 . F r i e d r i c h N i e t z s c h e , Human, All Too Human (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1986). 38. Parker Palmer, “The Heart of a Teacher: Identity and Integrity in Teaching,” Change 29, no. 6 (1997): 14–22. 3 9 . S i z e r , Horace’s Compromise, 163. 4 0 . S e e S i z e r , Horace’s Compromise ; Deborah Meier, The Power of Their Ideas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995); Stanley Aronowitz, The Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the Corporate University and Creating True Higher Learning (New York: Beacon, 2000). 186 Notes

4 1 . R o b e r t K e g a n , In Over Our Heads (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994). 42. Peter D. Kramer, Moments of Engagement: Intimate Psychotherapy in a Technological Age (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989). 43. For example, see Robert B. Barr and John Tagg, “From Teaching to Learning: A New Paradigm for Undergraduate Education,” Change 27, no. 6 (1995): 12–14. 44. Perhaps we do not understand how power works in the archetypal role set of learner and master learner, either from the perspective of a conventional discipline like social psychology or, even less, as seen by a radical philosopher like Michel Foucault in his Power/ Knowledge (New York: Macmillan, 1980). 45. Certain extreme views in progressive education hold that no difference in power should exist. How the difference in power is used and explained, and whether teachers are able to let go, as they should when students move in a different direction, makes all the difference. 46. Robert Tremmel, “Zen and the Art of Reflective Practice in Teacher Education,” Harvard Educational Review 63, no. 4 (1993): 438. (Emphasis added.) 47. Tremmel, “Zen and the Art of Reflective Practice in Teacher Education,” 456. 4 8 . Techné should not be valued over telos, explicit purposes to drive learning, certainly not at the expense of human experience with ever-new technology. This is no argument against technology, either electronic or in the form of group dynamics. Rather, we should begin with clear purposes, being alert to misuse of powerful tools. 4 9 . G e o r g e K u h e t a l . , Involving Colleges , 111. 5 0 . M e i e r , The Power of Their Ideas , 107. 5 1 . M e i e r , The Power of Their Ideas , 111–112. 5 2 . M e i e r , The Power of Their Ideas , 113. (Emphasis added.) 5 3 . M e i e r , The Power of Their Ideas, 113. 5 4 . S i z e r , Horace’s Compromise , 40. (Emphasis added.) 55. Guy Debord, The Society of the Spectacle (Detroit: Black and Red, 1977). For other biting critiques, see Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business (New York: Penguin, 1985) and Benjamin Barber, A Passion for Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 214–224. 5 6 . K u h , Involving Colleges ; Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991). 57. Students who attend commuter colleges and adults attending low-residency programs face special problems because their experience on campus is limited. There also may not be intentional programming of out-of-class experience, which could reinforce and extend learning and development. Pascarella and Terenzini say one-third of American colleges do not have student residences. 58. Craig Howley and Robert Bickel, “Research about School Size and School Performance in Impoverished Communities,” in ERIC Digest (December 2000), ERIC, ED 448968. 59. The argument for having large schools and consolidated schools has been: economies of scale and access to specialized academic subjects. But lower completion and achievement rates attached to large size reduce real savings. Cost per graduate is a better measure than cost per student. 60. Too little distance between student and teacher can be problematic. Classic psychoana- lytic theory, for example, holds that a degree of distance and objectivity enhances the therapeutic process because defense mechanisms like projection and displacement are visible to both therapist and client. Transference relations are central to the treatment. Humanistic psychology argues for less distance, but this may be confusing because the client may not welcome the closeness and may be disturbed by irrational projections. Notes 187

6 1 . S e e M a r t i n H e i d e g g e r , What Is Called Thinking? (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1968), 75. (Emphasis added.) 6 2 . J o h n D e w e y , Experience and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1963), 48. 63. Maxine Greene, Releasing the Imagination (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995). 64. See Menkowski et al., Learning that Lasts . 65. To teach topics like statistics that frighten students, I like to involve them in an applied project of their design, such as a survey of attitudes toward student services. Where the content to be studied, however, is an advanced skill that affects the lives of others, like psychological testing, bridge construction, or flying a plane, learning content must be given more weight. 6 6 . G r e e n e , Releasing the Imagination , 52. 6 7 . G r e e n e , Releasing the Imagination, 52. Also, dialectical logic is better than formal logic because the former focuses on process in learning and the nature of change. Dialectical logic drives creative thinking and a deeper understanding of difficult relationships between self and the object world around. 68. I borrow this term, retroduction, from Selltiz et al. who say this is the actual logic used in social research. Claire Selltiz, Lawrence S. Wrightsman, and Stuart W. Cook, Research Methods in Social Relations, third edition (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976). 69. John Bransford, I recall, once observed that effective teaching is less lecturing before a problem set starts than letting students have experience with it and then coaching from the side. 70. Go to www.jacksonkytle.com for recent sources and discussion. 71. For more information, go online: http:// www.compact.org. 72. This small group of colleges has recently formed a consortium, Work Colleges, funded by a federal grant. For connection to the consortium, go online: http://www.berea.edu. Also see Donald Asher, Cool Colleges (Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 2000). I am not thinking about federal work-study, which has less substance than envisioned, because student work can be poorly supervised. 73. See Brian Harward and Louis Albert, “Service and Service-learning: A Guide for Newcomers,” AAHE Bulletin 46, no. 6 (1994): 10–12; Robert A. Rhoads and Jeffrey P. Howard, eds., Academic Service Learning: A Pedagogy of Action and Reflection (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997). 74. Defining as Antioch’s co-op program has been to the college, extended in the l970s to its adult centers nationwide, the potential of the co-op experience was never met at the Antioch College because the co-op experience receives only perfunctory reflection, in my opinion. For more on Antioch’s use of co-op education and several histories of the College, go online: http:// www.jacksonkytle.com. 75. A good deal of the learning was no longer under direct faculty supervision (for good and ill). If you speak with Antioch alumni/ae of any generation, they remember most fondly their co-op assignments, much more than the major or their professor. 76. Thomas A. Angelo and Patricia K. Cross, Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers , second ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1994). 77. Alfie Kohn, Punished by Rewards (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993). 7 8 . L a u r e n t A . D a l o z , Effective Teaching and Mentoring (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986). Also, see Sharon Daloz Parks, Big Questions, Worthy Dreams: Mentoring Young Adults in Their Search for Meaning, Purpose and Faith (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000). 7 9 . G . W i g g i n s , Educative Assessment: Designing Assessments to Inform and Improve Student Performance (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998). 80. Students applying to a traditional school, especially in science or business, may have problems getting their transcript accepted. Personal intervention by the faculty member 188 Notes

or the dean usually gets around this problem. Some institutions like Antioch allow grade equivalents, but this erodes institutional and consumer confidence in the legitimacy of narrative feedback. 8 1 . K e g a n , In Over Our Heads , 42. 82. The argument can be extended to using certain forms of testing, especially where a technical vocabulary must be learned. Here, it is helpful to check on what is really being understood, using a pop quiz or a direct question to a student. Nodding heads in class cannot be trusted. But having said this, we may mistake the appearance of learning in skillful test taking for its substance, such as how well new concepts are integrated into existing knowledge structures. 8 3 . P e t e r E l b o w , Everyone Can Write: Essays Toward a Hopeful Theory of Writing and Teaching Writing (New York: Oxford University, 2000); John C. Bean, Engaging Ideas: The Professor’s Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking and Active Learning in the Classroom (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996). 84. Much the same point could be made for building formal public speaking into most classes (not just as a specialized course). Goddard and Vermont College ask their adult students to present their own work to peers and the faculty twice a semester, which helps them identify with the work and, in time, helps them become self-confident as artists and intellectuals. Although not intended as a formal learning outcome, graduates become public speakers, which helps them become leaders. 85. Scott G. Paris, and Richard S. Newman, “Developmental Aspects of Self-regulated Learning,” Educational Psychologist 25, no. 1 (1990): 87–102.

7 Six Considerations to Improve Motivation

1. Kathryn R. Wentzel and Allan Wigfield, eds., Handbook of Motivation at School (New York: Routledge, 2009). 2. I happened upon Terror Management Theory too late for inclusion in this book. While intriguing for its concepts from the viewpoints of anthropology, social psychology, and existentialism and the use of experimental methods, the claim of master motive sounds extreme. A place to start the study of the theory is: Brian L. Burke, Andy Martens, and Erik H. Faucher, “Two Decades of Terror Management Theory: A Meta-analysis of Mortality Salience Research,” Personality & Social Psychology Review 14 (2010): 155–195. 3 . W i l l i a m R y a n , Blaming the Victim (New York: Vintage Books, 1976). 4. James Côté and Anton Allahar. Generation on Hold: Coming of Age in the Late Twentieth Century (New York: New York University Press, 1996). 5 . R a y m o n d C a l l a h a n , Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964). 6. Calls for student-centered learning in education and, lately, patient-centered care in health care are well-intended, but difficult to put into practice. 7. Dave Eggers and Ninive Clements Calegari, “The High Cost of Low Teacher Salaries,” The New York Times , (Sunday, May 1, 2011): 12. 8. For an overview of resilience theory, see John W. Reich, Alex J. Zautra and John S. Hall, eds., Handbook of Adult Resilience (New York: Guilford, 2010). Also, George Bonanno, “Loss, Trauma, and Human Resilience: Have We Underestimated the Human Capacity to Thrive after Extremely Adverse Events?” American Psychologist 59 (2004): 20–28. Notes 189

9. Maggie Jones, “How Little Sleep Can You Get Away With?” The New York Times Magazine , (April 17, 2011): 41–44. 1 0 . J o h n M e d i n a , Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home and School (Seattle, WA: Pear Press, 2008). His lively book and website make strong claims that are, however, backed by research articles from diverse academic disciplines. 11. Ellen J. Langer, Counterclockwise (New York: Ballantine Books, 2009). 12. Intrinsic motivation has been studied by social psychologists for more than 50 years. For one perspective, see Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior (New York: Plenum, 1985). 13. For a useful compendium of methods, see Marilyn Friend and Lynne Cook, Interactions: Collaborative Skills for School Professionals . sixth edition. (New York: Prentice Hall, 2009). 14. The authors found that boosting a sense of belonging among black college freshmen improved GPA through to the senior year and improved self-reported health and doctor visits. Gregory M. Walton and Geoffrey L. Cohen, “A Brief Social-Belonging Intervention Improves Academic and Health Outcomes of Minority Students,” Science 18 vol. 331, no. 6023 (March 2011): 1447–1451. 15. For a fuller discussion of reflective teaching and learning to learn, see John Loughran, Developing a Pedagogy of Teacher Education: Understanding Teaching and Learning about Teaching (New York: Routledge, 2006). 16. Perhaps a choice becomes conscious to us only after we observe ourselves taking the first steps. 17. Todd Heatherton, Neuroscience of Self and Self-Regulation . 18. Roy F. Baumeister, Todd F. Heatherton, and Diane M. Tice, Losing control: How and Why People Fail at Self-regulation (San Diego: Academic Press, 1994). Roy F. Baumeister and John Tierney, Willpower: Rediscovering the Greatest Human Strength (New York: Penguin Press, 2011). 19. Ellen Langer, Counterclockwise, 183.

C o n c l u s i o n

1. Too late for this writing, I began to think about one rare but frightening form of adapta- tion to modernity that deserves serious study: the alienation of males—those who do not have relationships and meaningful work, may not know how to process their feelings about being alone or angry, and may take it out on others whether as rape, murder, serial killing, or work and school violence. For a preliminary discussion, go online: http:// www.jacksonkytle.com 2. Wang argues that, neurologically, multitasking is not likely, but one can improve the speed of switching among channels. Sam Wang, The Neuroscience of Everyday Life (Chantilly, VA: The Great Courses, 2010). DVD www.thegreatcourses.com 3. My thanks go to Professor Ann Stanton for her observation that the social role of mother and wife puts special demands on the attention system. 4. Alienation from meaningful work, in particular, and from society, in general, has been studied extensively by social scientists like Richard Schacht, who emphasizes the ways experience at work affects quality of life and even personality development. Richard Schacht, The Future of Alienation (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1994). For other resources, go to my website: www.jacksonkytle.com. 190 Notes

5. See William A. Kahn, “To be Fully There: Psychological Presence at Work,” Human Relations 45, no. 4 (1992): 321–345. 6. Martha Nussbaum argues for a cognitive-evaluative view of emotion in which appraisal, cognition, emotion, and sense of identity interact in Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). 7 . S e e N i c h o l a s H u m p h r e y ’ s i n s p i r i n g b o o k , Soul Dust. Apter and others write about why people pursue excitement, especially when bored. Michael Apter, The Dangerous Edge: The Psychology of Excitement (New York: The Free Press, 1992). My observation is more general than the pursuit of excitement, or peak experience per se. What fascinates is the human propensity to manipulate lived experience, that motive being daily, unceasing, and mostly unconscious. 8 . E d w a r d J . K h a n t z i a n , Addiction and the Vulnerable Self (New York: Guilford Press, 1990). 9. Athletes use “mind exercises” and aerobic workouts to tune their physiology, especially to increase alertness and elevate mood as a function of changes in neurotransmitters, hormones in the blood stream, and the release of dopamine when the body is made to work hard. See Steven Ungerleider, Mental Training for Peak Performance (Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1996). 10. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Finding Flow (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 26. 11. Some progressive organizations do try to balance corporate efficiency with ideal human development. At the very least we can organize the work and school day and take into account how the brain-mind-body functions, with regard to the need for rest and regu- lar exercise. 1 2 . E r v i n g G o f f m a n , The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor, 1959). 13. Feigning involvement is not necessarily inauthentic but an example of normal coping by individuals finding their way through the life-space, with all its uncertainty and changes. Individuals need private space, especially given the unceasing pressures of group life. 14. Cathy N. Davidson, Now You See It: How the Brain Science of Attention Will Transform the Way We Live, Work, and Learn (New York: Viking Penguin, 2011), 7. 1 5 . S h e r r y T u r k l e , Alone Together: Why We Expect More From Technology and Less From Each Other (New York: Basic Books, 2011). 16. Professor Ann Stanton of Vermont College talks about the dirty secret of education, that getting an education costs money, time, and brings an inevitable discomfort because learning introduces doubt and cognitive tension. Personal communication with author, l999. 17. For an empirical research program that explores existentialist questions, see Steven J. Heine, Travis Proulx, and Kathleen D. Vohs, “The Meaning Maintenance Model: On the Coherence of Social Motivations,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 10, no.2 (2006): 88–110. 1 8 . I s a i a h B e r l i n , The Crooked Timber of Humanity (New York: Princeton University Press, 1991), 13–14; last Berlin quote cited by Alan Ryan, “Wise Man,” New York Review of Books , December 17 (1998): 36. 19. I am grateful to Professor Tom Abshire of Vermont College for pointing out that influ- ential clergy of the day also adopted existentialist views and saw no contradiction of the views with articles of faith. 2 0 . E m m y v a n D e u r z e n , Everyday Mysteries: A Handbook of Existential Psychotherapy, second ed. (New York: Routledge, 2010). 21. Something of this exists in the widespread use of group dynamics in schools and corporate training to elevate mood and motivation, independent of the nature of the goals being discussed. Notes 191

22. For motivation methods in general, see Raymond J. Wlodkowski and Margery B. Ginsberg, Teaching Intensive and Accelerated Courses: Instruction that Motivates Learning (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2010) and Raymond J. Wlodkowski and Margery B. Ginsberg, Diversity and Motivation: Culturally Responsive Teaching (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995). For comparison of contemporary approaches, see Michael Theall, ed., Motivation from Within: Approaches for Encouraging Faculty and Students to Excel (San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 2000) and M. Kay Alderman, Motivation for Achievement: Possibilities for Teaching and Learning , third ed. (New York: Routledge, 2008). 23. Jacques Ellul wrote a searching critique of modernity in The Technological Society (New York: Vintage Books, 1964) in which, like Max Weber, he critiques the ways in which technique and rational control have penetrated so many parts of modern life that were once subjective, whole, and human. 24. Jack Mezirow, “A Critical Theory of Self-directed Learning,” in Stephen Brookfield, ed., Self-directed Learning: From Theory to Practice (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985). 25. Richard Rorty, “Method, Social Science, and Social Hope,” in Stephen Seidman, ed., The Postmodern Turn (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 63. 26. Morton Deutsch, my first advisor at Columbia, was a student of Kurt Lewin when Lewin taught at MIT. 2 7 . C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , Finding Flow , 131. 28. Thich Nhat Hanh, The Miracle of Mindfulness (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987). (Emphasis added.) 29. Teachers know that the mood of young people can be quite intense and volatile, positive and negative, sometimes leading to self-destructive acts. They also bring great idealism, so important to learning. 30. Social scientists like Auguste Comte, who in his day challenged the authority of the Church in state affairs, used positivist assumptions. But the savants, as Comte put it, have not been able to demonstrate the predictive validity of the scientific method when applied to individual actions, leading some contemporary thinkers like Foucault to say that hermeneutic and qualitative methods are preferred. Both perspectives are useful. 31. Quotes from Rorty, “Method, Social Science, and Social Hope,” 57. He cautions that neither the lean, analytical language of natural science nor the objective-appearing language of behaviorese, which apes the natural sciences, is “Nature’s Own Language” and neither can gain intellectual legitimacy. 32. See Andrew Delbanco for a historical perspective on the origins of hope in the American experiment in democracy. The Real American Dream: A Meditation on Hope (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); also James W. Frazer, A History of Hope (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). 33. Rorty, “Method, Social Science, and Social Hope,” 62. 34. Rorty, “Method, Social Science, and Social Hope,” 64. 35. Rorty’s cautious, optimistic tone is quite apparent in his comment that Dewey’s vocabulary “allows room for unjustifiable hope, and an ungroundable but vital sense of human solidarity.” “Method, Social Science, and Social Hope,” 64. 3 6 . S h a r o n D a l o z P a r k s , Big Questions, Worthy Dreams: Mentoring Young Adults in Their Search for Meaning, Purpose and Faith (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000). 3 7 . J a m e s B . S i m p s o n , Simpson’s Contemporary Quotations (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1988). 38. Technology for direct manipulation of body systems and accompanying mood states is available today and improving, a fact that is surfacing ethical-political debates, as Herman Kahn predicted in the l960s. To use his provocative example from a lecture at Columbia in 1969, will I be allowed to hardwire my hypothalamus for pleasure, or will the state or corporation lock me out for so many hours a day to work? 192 Notes

3 9 . E r v i n g G o f f m a n , The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor, 1959). 40. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991). 41. What are the images we use to imagine the exchanges between person and environment, and the human experience? Even after many tries, I do not have the right metaphor. I do know that the notion of a discrete, corporal body misleads. If the information flows could be made visible, we would be suspended in space, Gulliver-like, by hundreds of pieces of string. 42. James M. Dabbs and Mary G. Dabbs, Heroes, Rogues and Lovers: Testosterone and Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000). 43. See Goffman; Elizabeth Ellsworth, Teaching Positions: Difference, Pedagogy, and the Power of Address (New York: Teachers College Press, 1997). 4 4 . W a n g , The Neuroscience of Everyday Life , Course Guidebook, 44. 45. Theodore J. Marchese, “The New Conversations about Learning: Insights from Neuroscience and Anthropology, Cognitive Science and Work-Place Studies,” Assessing Impact: Evidence and Action (Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education, 1997). Enduring learning benefits from reworking memory and connecting it to new experience, not unlike how character develops. 46. We have not considered the idea that neuronal networks are in competition with one another, or thought about the way that new networks are activated when we sleep. 47. Martin Orne wrote about demand characteristics in experiments, an idea extended to therapy and other settings. See his “On the Social Psychology of the Psychological Experiment: With Particular Reference to Demand Characteristics and their Implications,” American Psychologist 1 7 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 7 7 6 – 7 8 3 . I n d e x

a c t i v e l e a r n i n g , 1 7 , 2 6 , 1 8 8 A s t i n , A l e x a n d e r , 1 5 – 1 6 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 – 1 4 , a d a p t i v e l e a r n i n g , 6 6 , 6 8 , 1 2 2 1 6 9 – 7 0 , 1 8 3 – 4 a d r e n a l i n e ( see risk behaviors) a t t e n t i o n ( see also m o t i v a t i o n ) , 8 – 1 5 , 2 1 – 3 2 , a l i e n a t i o n , 7 , 2 9 , 5 1 , 8 3 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 5 , 1 7 0 , 3 4 , 4 0 – 7 , 5 4 – 6 , 6 5 – 8 9 , 9 1 – 9 , 1 0 2 – 3 , 1 7 1 , 1 8 9 1 3 2 , 1 3 5 , 1 5 0 – 3 , 1 6 0 – 3 , 1 7 6 – 8 , 1 8 1 , A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n ( see also e d u c a t o r s ) , 1 5 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 0 1 9 , 2 6 , 3 1 , 3 5 , 4 5 , 1 1 2 s p a n , x v i i , 6 6 , 7 0 , 8 9 , 9 4 , 9 6 , 1 3 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 7 8 c l a s s s i z e , 2 0 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 2 a w a r e n e s s ( see also c o n s c i o u s n e s s ) , 3 9 , 5 4 , competition for learner attention, 21 5 6 – 6 0 , 6 4 – 7 6 , 7 7 , 8 5 – 6 , 8 8 – 9 , competition in the experiential 9 7 – 9 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 9 , 1 4 6 , 1 5 1 – 2 , m a r k e t p l a c e , 8 0 , 8 5 1 6 0 , 1 6 9 , 1 8 1 consumerist mentality brought to s c h o o l , 1 9 B a n k S t r e e t C o l l e g e , 1 1 5 , 1 8 4 displaced anger at teachers, 22 B a r b e r , B e n j a m i n , 7 , 2 7 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 1 , 1 8 6 e d u s p e a k a n d t i r e d w o r d s , x v , 1 4 B a t e s o n , M a r y C a t h e r i n e , x v i , 1 6 7 faculty administration conflict, 21 B a u m e i s t e r , R o y ( see also willpower theory), extreme pressure on schools and 1 4 7 , 1 8 9 c o l l e g e s , 2 0 biological systems in learning and e v i d e n c e o f s t u d e n t d i s e n g a g e m e n t , 1 6 motivation, 87–108 l o s s o f p e r s o n a l v o i c e , x v i , x v i i changing view of brain-mind-body, marriage of unrealistic expectations to 5 9 – 6 1 i n a d e q u a t e r e s o u r c e s , 2 7 B o y e r , E r n e s t , 2 4 , 1 1 5 , 1 7 1 problems of expanded mission, unclear Bransford, John D., 167 , 183 , 187 purposes, human scale, pedagogy, Bruner, Jerome, 91 , 180 public will, 23–7 B u d d h i s m , 5 , 7 5 schools as de facto social service agencies, 23 campus-based work, 130–1 teachers as service providers in consumer C a m u s , A l b e r t , x i v , 1 2 , 4 8 – 5 0 , 1 0 6 , 1 7 4 s o c i e t y , 2 0 C h i c k e r i n g , A r t h u r W . , 2 6 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5 , A n t i o c h C o l l e g e , x v i i i , 1 1 5 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 , 1 1 8 , 1 6 7 – 8 , 1 7 0 – 1 , 1 8 3 – 5 1 7 3 , 1 8 7 – 8 c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t , 1 5 , 5 9 , 1 1 3 A r o n s o n , E l l i o t , 8 1 , 1 7 8 – 9 , 1 8 2 cognitive existential theory a r o u s a l ( see also p l e a s u r e ) , 6 7 , 7 4 , 7 8 , 9 3 , ( see also psychological involvement), 1 5 2 , 1 7 8 5 4 , 1 0 4 – 8 , 1 6 0 – 1 , 1 6 4 , 1 9 0 s e n s a t i o n - s e e k i n g m o t i v e , 7 8 brain-mind-body def., 56 194 Index cognitive existential theory—Continued a n d c o l l a t e r a l l e a r n i n g , 3 6 , 5 9 , 6 0 , d e m a n d e n v i r o n s , x i i , 5 4 , 6 0 , 8 1 , 9 0 , 8 0 , 1 1 9 1 0 6 – 8 , 1 4 2 – 3 ; i n f o r m a t i o n a n d e x p e r i e n t i a l e d u c a t i o n , 3 2 – 3 , 1 6 5 e n v i r o n s , 1 0 5 : p e e r e n v i r o n s , and progressive philosophy, 31–2 , 117 107 ; work environs, 107 a n d s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , 3 2 – 5 dynamic interaction of individual t h e o r y , l i m i t s o f , 3 6 – 7 capacities, language and social ties, 57 D w e c k , C a r o l S . , 2 9 , 1 0 2 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 1 , 1 8 2 human beings as pattern seekers and meaning makers, xii , 104–8 e d u c a t o r s ( see also teaching) intimate connections between person a n d a u t h o r i t y , 3 5 – 7 , 4 7 , 8 9 , 1 0 5 , 1 1 1 , and near environs, 164 1 3 3 , 1 4 4 learning to monitor personal motivation a n d f e e d b a c k , 1 3 2 – 5 , 1 3 8 , 1 6 3 , 1 8 8 and learning, 141 , 145 a n d h o p e , 1 5 4 – 6 0 l i f e p r o j e c t , x i v , 6 – 8 a s i d e a l i s t s , 5 – 2 0 near environment and gene a s m e n t o r s , x v , 1 2 0 – 3 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 6 , 1 6 0 e x p r e s s i o n , 5 7 s t e r e o t y p e s o f , 2 1 c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( see also a w a r e n e s s ) , 1 7 1 , traditional vs. progressive 1 7 8 , 1 9 1 ( see also p r o g r e s s i v e e d u c a t i o n ) , 3 3 – 5 considerations for better learning, E l l u l , J a c q u e s , 1 2 3 , 1 3 2 , 1 5 7 , 1 8 3 , 1 9 1 1 1 1 – 3 5 , 1 8 3 c r i t i q u e o f m o d e r n i t y , 1 5 7 considerations to improve motivation, e m o t i o n s ( see also m o o d ) , 5 9 , 6 0 , 6 7 – 9 , 1 3 7 – 4 7 7 3 – 6 , 7 8 , 8 7 , 1 0 0 , 1 4 6 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 6 , 1 8 1 Côte, James E., 139 , 188 e n g a g e d l i v i n g , 2 9 – 5 2 , 1 2 0 – 1 , 1 7 1 C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , M i h a l y , 4 0 – 5, 4 7 , 5 3 , e n g a g e m e n t t h e o r y , 1 4 , 2 9 , 3 0 , 4 6 – 7 , 6 9 , 6 0 , 6 3 , 6 9 , 7 1 , 1 0 7 , 1 5 2 – 3 , 1 5 7 1 2 1 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 5 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 4 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 6 autotelic personality (compare s o c i a l e n g a g e m e n t ( compare psychological s e l f - a c t u a l i z i n g p e r s o n a l i t y ) , 4 3 , 6 9 i n v o l v e m e n t ) , x i v , 2 4 , 6 5 , 6 9 – 7 0 entropy, natural state of, 41 e x e r c i s e ( see also r e s t ) , 5 8 , 6 8 , 8 9 – 9 1 , 1 4 1 – 2 , E x p e r i e n c e S a m p l i n g M e t h o d , 4 0 1 5 1 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 1 , 1 7 9 , 1 9 0 flow experience, characteristics of, 40 e x i s t e n t i a l i s m ( see also G r e e n e ) , 1 3 , 3 0 , f l o w t h e o r y , 4 0 – 5 3 7 , 4 8 – 5 2 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 9 , 1 5 6 , l e a r n i n g t o c o n t r o l a t t e n t i o n , 4 2 1 7 4 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 8 t h e o r y , p r o b l e m s o f , 4 2 – 3 e x i s t e n t i a l p r e d i c a m e n t , 5 0 c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n , 5 , 1 0 , 1 8 , 2 0 , 2 4 , 3 6 – 7 , t h r o w n n e s s , 5 0 – 1 8 0 , 1 1 0 – 2 1 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 8 – 3 1 , 1 4 4 , 1 5 7 , e x p e r i e n t i a l e d u c a t i o n , 3 1 – 3 , 3 7 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 , 1 7 2 – 3 1 2 8 – 3 2 , 1 6 2 – 5

D a l o z , L a u r e n t A . , 1 2 0 , 1 3 3 , 1 7 2 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 7 F e s t i n g e r , L e o n , 8 3 , 1 0 0 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 2 D e b o r d , G u y , 5 0 – 1 f l o w t h e o r y ( see Csikszentmihalyi) Deci, Edward L. F o r d i s t e d u c a t i o n , 1 , 1 0 – 1 1 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 9 i n t r i n s i c m o t i v a t i o n , x i i i , 6 9 , 1 4 3 – 4 , F r e u d , S i g m u n d , 9 9 , 1 0 5 1 6 5 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 6 – 7 , 1 8 9 D e n n e t t , D a n i e l , 5 6 , 9 2 , 1 0 0 , 1 6 0 – 1 , G o d d a r d C o l l e g e , x v i i , x v i i i , 3 5 , 3 7 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 0 – 1 1 1 5 – 1 7 , 1 3 1 , 1 4 4 , 1 7 2 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 8 D e w e y , J o h n , 7 , 1 3 – 1 5 , 2 7 , 2 9 , 3 1 – 7 , 4 5 , Goffman, Erving, 153 4 7 , 5 2 , 5 6 , 8 0 , 1 0 6 – 7 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 8 , G o u l d , G l e n n , 6 , 5 8 , 1 3 6 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 5 1 1 9 , 1 2 5 – 6 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 8 – 9 , 1 6 5 , 1 6 8 – 9 , G r e e n e , M a x i n e , x v , 1 , 2 , 9 , 1 0 – 1 3 , 2 7 , 1 7 1 – 3 , 1 7 5 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 7 3 1 – 2 , 3 9 , 4 8 , 4 9 – 5 2 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 6 , Index 195

1 2 9 – 3 0 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 5 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 5 , 1 6 5 , Kahn, William A., 12 , 45–51 , 116 1 6 7 – 9 , 1 7 4 – 5 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 7 investments of self in work, 45 a n d C a m u s , x i v , 4 8 – 5 0 role theory, use of, 45–7 a n d D e w e y , 5 2 , 1 7 1 Tavistock theory, use of, 45–6 and dialectical logic, 129 , 187 theory of presence in work, 45–8 and existentialism, 48–52 t h e o r y , l i m i t s t o , 5 7 , 5 8 a n d t h e r o u t i n e , 1 0 , 3 6 , 5 1 , 1 5 5 , Kandel, Eric, 176 , 180–1 , 186 1 6 1 , 1 6 5 Khantzian, Edward J., 151 Guignon, Charles & Dirk Pereboom, 50 , self-medication hypothesis, 151 6 9 , 1 7 4 , 1 7 7 K u h , G e o r g e D . , 1 1 4 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 5 , 1 6 8 , 1 8 4 Guskin, Alan, 21 , 170 L a n g e r , E l l e n , 4 3 – 7 , 5 3 , 6 0 , 7 1 – 2 , 8 7 , 1 0 2 , H a b e r m a s , J u r g e n , 7 , 5 0 , 6 9 , 1 7 4 , 1 7 7 1 4 3 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 4 , 1 7 1 , 1 8 2 c i v i c p r i v a t i s m , 7 , 5 0 , 6 9 m i n d f u l n e s s t h e o r y , 4 3 – 4 , 8 7 , 1 4 7 H a i d t , J o n a t h a n , 1 0 0 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 0 , 1 8 1 m o n i t o r i n g v a r i a b i l i t y , 1 0 2 – 3 Hanh, Thich Nhat ( see also Buddhism ; t h e o r y , l i m i t s t o , 4 5 , 7 1 m i n d f u l n e s s ) , 7 7 , 1 5 8 , 1 7 8 , 1 9 1 l e a r n i n g ( see also m o t i v a t i o n ; p r o g r e s s i v e Harvard University, xvii , 132 education theory), 109–36 H e a t h e r t o n , T o d d , 6 9 , 1 4 6 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 9 l e a r n i n g a n d c o m m u n i t y , 1 8 , 2 4 , 3 6 , s e l f - r e g u l a t i o n t h e o r y , 6 9 1 1 5 – 1 7 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 0 – 1 H e i d e r , F r i t z , 9 , 1 6 8 , 1 6 9 learning from personal experience h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ( see also American ( see also p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e ) , x v i i , e d u c a t i o n ) , x v , 9 , 1 8 , 2 1 , 8 5 , 1 1 0 , x v i i i , 1 , 1 1 , 1 9 , 3 3 – 5 , 5 8 , 9 7 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 7 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 5 , 1 8 4 1 2 5 , 1 2 8 – 3 0 , 1 4 1 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 8 H l e b o w i t s h , P e t e r , 3 6 – 7 L e v i n e , A r t h u r , 1 9 , 1 7 0 H o b s o n , J . A l l a n , 8 2 – 5 , 1 1 8 , 1 1 9 , 1 9 6 , portrait of today’s college students, 19 1 9 7 , 2 0 0 H o f f e r , E r i c , 8 2 Marchese, Theodore, 9 , 112 , 163 H u m p h r e y , N i c h o l a s , 6 5 , 1 0 0 , 1 7 5 – 6 , 1 8 1 M a s l o w , A b r a h a m ( see also humanistic hypothetical construct def., 58 p s y c h o l o g y ) , 3 2 , 3 7 – 4 0 , 4 3 , 4 5 , 4 7 , h u m a n i s t i c p s y c h o l o g y ( see also Maslow), 6 4 , 7 1 , 7 3 , 1 5 6 , 1 7 3 3 7 – 9 , 1 0 5 , 1 5 6 being-motivation vs. deficiency- motivation, 39 i n d i v i d u a l i z e d l e a r n i n g ( see also characteristics of peak experience, 37–8 p r o g r e s s i v e e d u c a t i o n ) , 6 0 , 9 4 , characteristics of plateau experience, 38 , 73 9 6 , 1 1 6 , 1 3 5 , 1 7 1 h i e r a r c h y o f n e e d s , 3 8 i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y , 8 , 4 1 , 5 5 , 7 2 , 8 8 , s e l f - a c t u a l i z i n g p e r s o n a l i t y , 3 8 – 9 , 4 3 , 6 8 9 1 – 1 0 2 , 1 0 5 – 1 0 , 1 3 3 – 4 , 1 5 0 – 1 , theory of peak experience, 37–40 1 6 0 – 5 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 6 , 1 8 0 – 2 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 2 theory, limits to, 39–40 M e d i n a , J o h n J . , 9 6 , 1 4 1 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 6 J a m e s , W i l l i a m ( see also s p i r i t u a l ) , x i , M e i e r , D e b o r a h , 1 7 , 2 3 , 2 5 , 8 1 , 1 0 6 , 3 0 – 1 , 3 8 , 4 2 , 4 5 , 4 7 , 5 3 , 7 3 , 1 2 2 – 4 , 1 7 0 , 1 7 1 , 1 8 3 7 5 , 7 9 , 9 1 , 1 5 7 thick culture and competition for learner c o n v e r s i o n e x p e r i e n c e , 3 0 a t t e n t i o n , 8 1 faith-states, experience of, 30 m e m o r y , 9 3 – 4 , 9 6 – 7 , 1 2 7 , 1 4 1 , 1 6 4 , focusing and surrendering, 31 1 8 0 , 1 8 3 , 1 9 2 religious experience and engagement limits of memory, 180 t h e o r y , 3 0 – 1 and lived experience, 94–7 196 Index

m e n t a l m o d e l s , x v , 1 1 , 1 5 , 2 6 , 5 4 – 7 , 7 0 , p e p t i d e s , 5 6 , 7 8 , 9 3 , 1 5 2 – 3 , 1 8 0 8 0 – 3 , 9 6 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 9 , s e r o t o n i n , 7 3 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 5 1 3 5 – 6 , 1 5 0 – 3 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 8 – 9 N e w S c h o o l , x v i i i , 3 5 , 1 2 0 , 1 7 0 , 1 8 4 m i n d s e t s , 8 , 2 3 , 4 4 , 5 5 , 7 2 , 8 0 – 2 , N i e t z s c h e ( see also e x i s t e n t i a l i s m ) , 1 2 , 4 8 – 9 , 9 8 , 1 0 1 – 2 , 1 0 7 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 6 , 1 3 9 , 1 2 0 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 9 , 1 7 4 , 1 8 5 1 4 7 , 1 6 0 – 1 , 1 6 4 N u s s b a u m , M a r t h a , 6 8 , 9 9 , 1 8 1 , 1 9 0 Mentkowski, Marcia, 176 , 179 , 183–4 Mezirow, Jack, 157 , 191 O ’ S u l l i v a n , E d m u n d , 1 2 , 2 3 , 1 3 9 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 4 M i d d l e b u r y C o l l e g e , x v i i i Miller, Lisa, 5 , 168 , 182 P a l m e r , P a r k e r , 1 3 – 1 4 , 1 7 – 2 8 , 2 0 , 1 1 2 , m i n d f u l n e s s ( see H a n h ; L a n g e r ; M i l l e r ) 1 6 9 , 1 8 4 M i n n i c h , E l i z a b e t h , 1 8 , 1 6 8 Pascarella, Ernest T. & Patrick m o d e r n i t y , 1 , 7 , 1 1 , 1 3 , 4 3 , 4 8 , 5 0 , 7 4 , 8 4 , T e r e n z i n i , 1 1 3 , 1 2 5 , 1 6 1 , 1 8 6 , 1 9 2 1 1 0 , 1 4 0 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 1 Paris, Scott G., 8 , 136 , 169 and existentialism, 48–52 student and teacher theories of m o o d ( see also e m o t i o n s ; p s y c h o l o g i c a l learning, 8 involvement), 120–1 P a r k s , S h a r o n D a l o z , 1 5 9 , 1 6 8 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 1 c h a n g e s i n , 1 4 – 1 5 , 2 6 , 2 9 – 3 0 , 3 8 , 4 2 , p e a k e x p e r i e n c e ( see also M a s l o w ) , 1 2 , 1 6 , 2 9 , 5 4 , 6 0 , 6 3 – 7 9 , 8 5 , 8 8 – 9 3 , 9 8 , 1 0 3 – 4 , 3 7 – 4 0 , 4 3 , 5 3 , 6 4 – 6 , 6 9, 7 0 – 4 , 8 4 – 5 , 1 0 7 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 4 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 5 – 6 , 1 4 0 – 7 , 9 5 , 1 0 9 , 1 5 1 , 1 6 0 , 1 7 3 , 1 7 6 , 1 7 7 , 1 9 0 1 5 1 – 3 , 1 6 0 – 3 , 1 7 7 , 1 9 0 – 1 p e r s p e c t i v a l i s m ( see also Nietzsche), 12–13 M o o r e , T h o m a s , 7 3 – 4 , 1 7 3 a n d R o r t y , 1 2 m o t i v a t i o n , x i i i , 2 , 5 – 1 8 , 2 2 – 4 0 , 4 3 – 5 , t e a c h e r a s p e r s p e c t i v a l i s t , 1 2 – 1 3 5 4 – 8 1 , 8 5 , 8 9 , 9 7 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 7 – 1 3 , P e r t , C a n d i c e , 5 5 , 9 3 , 9 8 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 0 , 1 8 1 1 1 8 – 4 7 , 1 4 9 – 5 4 , 1 6 0 – 5 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 3 , p l e a s u r e ( see also a r o u s a l ) , 6 4 , 7 7 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 3 , 1 7 6 – 7 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 2 – 3 , 1 8 8 , 1 9 1 1 5 7 , 1 9 1 boredom and low motivation in school, positive psychology, 101 , 106 x i i i , 1 5 – 1 6 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 4 1 , 7 0 , 7 8 , p r o b l e m s i n l i v i n g ( see also l e a r n i n g ; 9 4 , 1 2 1 , 1 5 1 m o t i v a t i o n ; s e l f - m o t i v a t i o n ) , x i i , x i i i , daily life vs. high focus motivation, 3 1 , 5 1 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 1 2 0 , 1 4 9 , 1 6 5 1 1 3 , 1 3 9 p r o g r e s s i v e e d u c a t i o n ( see also D e w e y ) , 1 5 , holistic approach to, 2 3 1 , 3 5 – 7 , 5 9 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 9 , 1 3 3 , 1 7 2 , 1 8 6 intrinsic motivation, 127 , 143 , 165 progressive education theory m a n a g i n g s e l f - m o t i v a t i o n , x v i i , 1 1 , ( see also cognitive existential theory), 4 4 , 1 1 2 , 1 3 7 – 4 7 , 1 4 6 , 1 4 9 – 5 4 1 5 , 3 1 , 3 5 – 7 , 1 1 1 – 3 6 m a s t e r m o t i v e s , 1 3 9 advantage of experience-based m i d d l e - r a n g e e x p e r i e n c e , 5 3 , 9 5 – 6 methods, 163–5 rhythms and dynamics of, xiii , 142 advantages of holistic perspective, 164 s e n s a t i o n - s e e k i n g m o t i v e , 7 8 being vs. becoming, 9 l e a r n i n g t o l e a r n , 9 7 , 1 0 8 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 6 , 1 8 9 narrative evaluation, 133–5 process vs. content in learning, xvi , 11 , 143–6 N e r n e y , M i c h a e l , 6 0 , 1 7 6 p r o g r e s s i v e , d e f i n i t i o n o f , 1 5 n e u r o b i o l o g y , 5 4 , 5 9 – 6 0 , 8 8 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 6 , progressive vs. traditional education, 1 4 6 , 1 5 4 , 1 6 0 , 1 7 6 3 1 , 3 4 – 5 n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s , 5 8 , 7 6 , 7 8 , 9 0 – 3 , schools as laboratories for democracy, 33 1 0 3 , 1 4 3 , 1 5 1 , 1 6 0 , 1 9 0 teaching and counseling as moral d o p a m i n e , 5 8, 6 8 , 7 8 , 9 0 , 9 2 , 1 0 3 , a c t i v i t i e s , x i , 1 3 1 4 3 , 1 5 1 , 1 6 1 , 1 8 0 , 1 9 0 theory of learning from experience, 32 Index 197 psychological involvement theory, xii, xiii, Sacks, Oliver, 53 6 4 – 7 , 7 0 – 1 , 7 5 – 7 , 8 5 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 7 , S a r a s o n , S e y m o u r , 1 0 , 1 3 , 2 4 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 1 3 2 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 6 1 6 9 , 1 8 4 d i m e n s i o n s o f , 1 1 6 – 2 3 : a t t e n t i o n , 1 1 7 – 1 9 ; S a r t r e , J e a n - P a u l , 3 7 , 4 9 , 1 0 6 , 1 6 7 , c o n s c i o u s n e s s , 1 1 9 – 2 0 ; m o o d , 1 2 0 – 1 ; 1 6 8 , 1 7 0 s e l f - f o c u s i n g , 1 2 1 – 3 S e a r l e , J o h n , 9 7 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 1 g r o u p s a n d , 9 7 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 5 – 7 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 4 S c h ö n , D o n a l d , 1 1 , 1 0 9 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 7 , learning to manipulate psychological 1 2 9 , 1 6 9 e x p e r i e n c e , 8 5 Schutz, Alfred, 13 l i f e a c t i v i t i e s a n d , 1 0 0 – 5 , 1 5 1 s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h , 1 6 , mass movements, alternative 1 6 7 , 1 7 0 , 1 8 2 r e l i g i o n s a n d , 1 0 7 – 1 6 w i d e - a w a k e n e s s , 1 3 p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d , 5 1 , 7 0 , 7 3 , s c h o o l s a n d c o l l e g e s ( see also American 1 0 1 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 0 education) r i s k b e h a v i o r s a n d , 6 0 , 7 0 , 7 5 , 7 8 , 1 3 2 culture of, 125–6 , 163 s o c i a l e n g a g e m e n t a n d , 5 6 , 1 1 7 , e x p a n d e d m i s s i o n s o f , 2 9 , 3 0 1 2 2 – 3 , 1 5 9 size of, 140–2 , 145–6 s p i r i t u a l / r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e a n d , 7 3 – 5 a s s p i r i t u a l c o m m u n i t i e s , 1 6 3 , 1 6 4 psychological problems in school s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n ( see also Maslow), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, 39–40 7 8 , 8 8 , 9 3 , 9 5 – 6 , 1 0 3 , 1 5 1 , 1 8 1 s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , 1 4 , 4 0 , 4 2 , 7 1 b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r , 8 8 , 1 0 3 – 4 , 1 8 2 s e l f - f o c u s i n g ( compare Heatherton d e p r e s s i o n , 2 9 , 5 1 , 6 0 , 6 7 , 8 4 , 8 8 , 9 3 , and also psychological involvement), 1 0 3 – 4 , 1 8 2 4 1 , 6 4 – 5 , 6 8 – 7 0 , 8 5 , 8 8 , 1 0 7 , p a r a n o i d s c h i z o p h r e n i a , 8 8 , 1 0 3 1 2 6 , 1 4 0 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 8 s c h o o l v i o l e n c e , 8 6 , 1 0 2 – 4 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 9 s e l f - m o t i v a t i o n ( see also motivation), 108 , s u b s t a n c e a b u s e , 6 0 , 8 9 , 1 0 4 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 1 1 4 1 , 1 4 9 – 5 4 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 5 P u t n a m , R o b e r t , 2 1 – 2 , 5 0 , 1 7 0 , 1 8 4 Singer, Margaret, 82 , 178 t e l e v i s i o n a n d s o c i a l d i s e n g a g e m e n t , 2 1 S i z e r , T h e o d o r e R . , 1 3 , 2 5 , 3 2 , 3 7 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 0 – 4 , 1 7 1 R a v i t c h , D i a n e , 2 6 , 1 7 1 s o c i a l g r o u p s ( see also group experiences), R e i d , E l i z a b e t h , 5 , 1 6 8 , 1 8 2 4 6 , 6 0 , 8 0 – 6 r e l i g i o n ( see also J a m e s ) , 3 0 – 1 , 4 9 , 7 3 – 5 , a n d i n d i v i d u a l , 5 6 , 6 9 , 7 0 , 1 0 5 – 2 3 , 8 5 , 1 5 7 , 1 5 9 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 3 1 6 1 – 2 , 1 7 2 r e l i g i o u s / s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e s , 3 0 – 1 , 3 8 , a n d p o w e r , 1 5 , 6 0 , 8 3 – 4 , 1 4 4 , 1 5 4 , 1 7 0 7 3 – 4 , 8 3 , 1 1 3 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 3 – 4 , t r u e - b e l i e f g r o u p s ( see also Hoffer), 1 6 8 – 7 1 , 1 7 4 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 2 8 2 – 6 a n d p r a y e r , 3 1 , 7 3 – 4 , 9 9 s o c i a l h o p e , 5 2 , 1 5 4 – 9 , 1 6 9 , 1 7 0 , 1 9 1 g r a c e , e x p e r i e n c e o f , 3 0 , 5 1 , 7 4 – 5 , 8 3 s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ( see also social j i h a d , e x p e r i e n c e o f , 8 3 p s y c h o l o g y ) , 3 3 – 5 , 4 2 , 5 0 , 5 7 , numinous, experience of, 74 , 173 5 9 , 7 7 r e s t ( see also e x e r c i s e ) , 6 8 , 7 7 , 8 6 , 8 8 – 9 1 , s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y , x v – x i x , 6 4 , 1 0 6 , 1 2 0 , 1 4 1 – 3 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 1 9 0 1 2 2 , 1 3 9 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 6 , 1 8 8 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 2 s l e e p d e p r i v a t i o n , 8 9 – 9 1 cognitive social psychology, 101 , 106 r o l e t h e o r y ( see Kahn) c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e ( see also Festinger), R o r t y , R i c h a r d , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 8 , 3 1 , 1 5 7 – 9 , 8 3 , 1 0 0 – 1 , 1 7 9 1 6 9 , 1 9 1 s e l f - j u s t i f i c a t i o n , 8 3 , 8 5 , 1 0 0 – 1 , 1 0 6 , Ryan, Richard M., 167 , 177 1 6 2 198 Index

s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e ( see religious experience) van Deurzen, Emmy, 156 , 190 S t e r l i n g C o l l e g e , x v i i i , 1 1 5 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 V e r m o n t C o l l e g e , x v i i i , 1 7 6 , 1 8 8 , 1 9 0

Teachers College Columbia University, W a c h t e l , P a u l , 7 , 5 0 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 4 x v i i i, 1 7 1 , 1 7 8 , 1 9 1 W a n g , S a m , 9 8 , 1 6 3 , 1 8 0 – 1 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 2 t e a c h i n g ( see also educators) Wentzel, Kathryn R. & Allan Wigfield, a s a c a l l i n g , 2 2 1 3 8 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 8 p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r , 1 0 9 – 3 6 willpower theory, 147 , 189 t e c h n o l o g y ( see also E l l u l ) , 15 4 , 1 7 0 , 1 8 6 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 W o o l f , V i r g i n i a , 1 3 , 5 2 , 7 1 , 1 7 0 t e l e v i s i o n , e f f e c t s o f , 2 1 – 2 , 4 2 , 5 0 , 6 4 , work colleges, 131 7 2 , 1 1 4 , 1 5 8 Wlodkowski, Raymond J., 12 , 191 t e s t o s t e r o n e , 6 0 , 9 0 – 1 , 1 6 0 , 1 7 9 , 1 9 2 t r a n s c e n d e n c e ( see also peak experiences; Zimbardo, Philip, 83 , 178 r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s ) , 2 9 , 7 1 , 1 5 5 , 1 6 9 Z u c k e r m a n , M a r v i n ( see also Turkel, Sherry, 170 s e n s a t i o n - s e e k i n g m o t i v e ) , 7 8