RC.801;
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 801
Geologic Mapping of Kentucky A History and Evaluation of the Kentucky Geological Survey U.S. * Geological Survey Mapping Program, 1960-1978 Geologic Mapping of Kentucky A History and Evaluation of the Kentucky Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Mapping Program, 1960-1978
By EARLE R. CRESSMAN and MARTIN C. NOGER
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 801
Prepared in cooperation with the Kentucky Geological Survey
A discussion of the origin, operation, cost, and economic benefits of a major geologic mapping program
1981 United States Department of the Interior JAMES G. WATT, Secretary
Geological Survey Dallas L. Peck, Director
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Cressman, Earle Rupert, 1923- Geologic mapping of Kentucky.
(Geological Survey circular ; 801) Bibliography: p. 1. Geological mapping. 2. Geology Kentucky. 3. Kentucky. University. Geological Survey. 4. United States. Geological Survey. I. Noger, Martin C., joint author. II. Kentucky. University. Geological Survey. III. Title. IV. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Circular; 801. QE75.C5 no. 801 [QE36] 557.3'OSs______79-11091 [353.008'55]
Free on application to Distribution Branch, Text Products Section, U. S. Geological Survey, 604 South Pickett Street, Alexandria, MA 22304 CONTENTS
Page Abstract ______1 Purpose of this report ______1 Origins of the program ______._ 1 Operations______4 Staffing_.__.______.______6 Procedures______6 Field methods ______6 Compilation and preparation for printing______8 Role of the Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch______9 Contributions by the Kentucky Geological Survey______10 Productivity ______11 Problems______11 Cost ______.....__.______13 Economic benefits ______14 Map sales ______14 Mineral commodities______15 \_/Oc*l______J-D Oil and gas______18 Fluorspar ______19 Clay ______19 Engineering geology ______19 Environmental geology and land-use planning______20 Industrial location ______21 Conclusion______21 References ______21
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE 1. Status of areal geologic mapping in Kentucky, prior to beginning of statewide areal mapping program______3 2. Index map of Kentucky showing location of field offices ______5 3. Length of assignments to Kentucky Branch ______7 4. Graph illustrating relationship between production of maps and size of profes sional staff ______12 5. Geologic quadrangle maps reordered by the Kentucky Geological Survey in fiscal years 1972 through 1977 ______16 6. Comparison of coal production in eastern Kentucky with that of adjacent States of the Appalachian coal field since the beginning of the mapping program ______18
TABLES
Page TABLE 1. Number of U.S. Geological Survey employees that have been assigned to the cooperative mapping program ______6 2. Professional manpower assigned to the cooperative mapping program by the U.S. Geological Survey ______6 3. Cost of the Kentucky Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Cooperative Map ping Program ______14
III Geologic Mapping of Kentucky A History and Evaluation of the Kentucky Geological Survey U.S Geological Survey Mapping Program, 1960-1978
By Earle R. Cressman and Martin C. Noger
ABSTRACT quality of some of the mapping, and the effects of relative In 1960, the U.S. Geological Survey and the Kentucky Geolog isolation on the professional development of some of the ical Survey began a program to map the State geologically at a geologists. scale of 1:24,000 and to publish the maps as 707 U.S. Geological The program cost a total of $20,927,500. In terms of 1960 Survey Geologic Quadrangle Maps. Fieldwork was completed dollars, it cost $16,035,000; this compares with an original esti by the spring of 1977, and all maps were published by December mate of $12,000,000. 1978. Although it is difficult to place a monetary value on the Geologic mapping of the State was proposed by the Kentucky geologic mapping, the program has contributed to newly dis Society of Professional Engineers in 1959. Wallace W. Hagan, covered mineral wealth, jobs, and money saved by government Director and State Geologist of the Kentucky Geological Sur and industry. The maps are used widely in the exploration for vey, and Preston McGrain, Assistant State Geologist, promoted coal, oil and gas, fluorspar, limestone, and clay. The maps are support for the proposal among organizations such as Cham also used in planning highways and locations of dams, in eval bers of Commerce, industrial associations, professional soci uating foundation and excavation conditions, in preparing en eties, and among members of the State government. It was also vironmental impact statements, and in land-use planning. arranged for the U.S. Geological Survey to supply mapping personnel and to publish the maps; the cost would be shared PURPOSE OF THIS REPORT equally by the two organizations. Members of the U.S. Geological Survey assigned to the pro In 1960, the U.S. Geological Survey and the gram were organized as the Branch of Kentucky Geology. Kentucky Geological Survey began a cooperative Branch headquarters, including an editorial staff, was at Lex- program to map geologically the entire State of ington, Ky., but actual mapping was conducted from 18 field Kentucky, an area of 40,400 square miles (104,636 offices distributed throughout the State. The Publications Di vision of the U.S. Geological Survey established a cartographic km2), at a scale of 1:24,000. The maps were to be office at Lexington to prepare the maps for publication. published as 707 U.S. Geological Survey Geologic About 260 people, including more than 200 professionals, Quadrangle Maps. Fieldwork was completed by were assigned to the Branch of Kentucky Geology by the U.S. spring 1977, and all maps were published by the Geological Survey at one time or another. The most geologists end of December 1978. assigned any one year was 61. To complete the mapping and The Kentucky Cooperative Mapping program ancillary studies, 661 professional man-years were required, compared with an original estimate of 600 man-years. was unprecedented in terms of money, manpower, A wide variety of field methods were used, but most geolo and time devoted to large-scale geologic mapping; gists relied on the surveying altimeter to obtain elevations. and considering budget and manpower restraints, Surface data were supplemented by drill-hole records, and changing National priorities, and changing con several dozen shallow diamond-drill holes were drilled to aid cepts of the proper missions of the U.S. Geological the mapping. Geologists generally scribed their own maps, with a consequent saving of publication costs. Survey, it is unlikely that similar projects will be Paleontologists and stratigraphers of the U.S. Geological undertaken in the foreseeable future. Neverthe Survey cooperated closely with the program. Paleontologic less, it is appropriate, while participants and rec studies were concentrated in the Ordovician of central Ken ords are still available, to relate the origins of the tucky, the Pennsylvanian of eastern and western Kentucky, program and the methods of operation, to sum and the Mesozoic and Cenozoic of westernmost Kentucky. marize the costs, and to enumerate the economic In addition to financial support, the Kentucky Geological Sur vey provided economic data, stratigraphic support, and drill benefits. hole records to the field offices. Geologists of the State Survey made subsurface structural interpretations, constructed bed ORIGINS OF THE PROGRAM rock topography maps, and mapped several quadrangles. Some of the problems encountered were the inadequacy of This section is based partly on an article by Wal much of the existing stratigraphic nomenclature, the uneven lace W. Hagan (1961), Director and State Geologist of the Kentucky Survey, and partly on information suggestion, Hagan met in April with Associate Di in the files of the Branch of Kentucky Geology of rector A. A. Baker and Chief Geologist W. H. Brad the U.S. Geological Survey. ley of the U.S. Geological Survey, who expressed In 1949, the U.S. Geological Survey and the Ken interest in the proposal. Hagan and Preston Mc- tucky Geological Survey entered into a program to Grain, Assistant State Geologist, then sought and produce complete topographic coverage of the received endorsements for the program from the State at a scale of 1:24,000. The program was pro Kentucky Geological Survey Advisory Board, the moted by the Kentucky Chamber of Commerce on Kentucky Chamber of Commerce, local Chambers the advice of the State Geologist, the late Daniel J. of Commerce, the Kentucky Oil and Gas Associ Jones. The mapping was completed by the late ation, the Indiana-Kentucky Geological Society, 1950's, and the topographic maps proved invalu the Kentucky Geological Society, the University of able in promoting industrial development. Kentucky, the Chesapeake and Ohio and Louisville Though Kentucky had complete topographic and Nashville Railroads, Reynolds Metals, coal coverage by 1959, the status of geologic mapping company operators, and the clay and fluorspar in (fig. 1) was woefully inadequate for a State con dustries. He also received support from officials in taining so much mineral wealth. County geologic the administration of Governor Chandler, who maps at a scale of 1:62,500 were available for about was in the last year of his term. two-thirds of the State, but less than one-third It is obvious from the above list of supporters were available in printed form. The county maps that the main selling point of the program was the were mostly on planimetric bases, and although value of geologic maps in finding and exploiting the quality of the mapping varied, most was of a mineral deposits and in promoting industrial reconnaissance nature. Furthermore, in many of development. the areas, the units mapped were biostratigraphic From July 10 to 17,1959, Hagan met with vari or chronostratigraphic and did not adequately ous members of the U.S. Geological Survey in portray the lithologic character of the bedrock. In Washington, where a tentative agreement was the eastern Kentucky coal field, several 7V6- reached on the scope, methods of operation, and minute quadrangles had been mapped and pub finances. Both parties agreed on a 10-year pro lished by members of the Fuels Branch of the U.S. gram, during which time the entire State would be Geological Survey; two quadrangles had been mapped at a scale of 1:24,000. The maps were to mapped in a clay study by members of the Mineral meet the standards already established by the Deposits Branch of the U.S. Geological Survey, but Geologic and Water Resources Divisions of the were as yet unpublished. These projects were part U.S. Geological Survey for general geologic maps of a cooperative program between the State and and to be published as multicolored maps. 1 The Federal Surveys. cost of the entire program was estimated to be On February 21, 1959, the Kentucky Society of $12,000,000, with the two organizations sharing Professional Engineers, impressed by the utility of the cost equally. The Kentucky Geological Survey recently completed topographic maps, passed a was to include $900,000 for the program in the resolution urging the preparation of a geologic State biennial budget ($300,000 for Fiscal Year map of the State. The resolution was presented to 1961 and $600,000 for Fiscal Year 1962); and the Governor A. B. Chandler, the Kentucky Legisla U.S. Geological Survey was to seek matching funds. tive Research Commission, the Kentucky Depart In January 1960, Bert Combs was inaugurated ment of Economic Development, the Kentucky as Governor of Kentucky. One of the major con Chamber of Commerce, and the Kentucky Geolog cerns of the new administration was the chronic ical Survey. W. W. Hagan, who had been appointed economic depression in several parts of the State, State Geologist and Director of the Kentucky Geo 1 The standards, promulgated in a memorandum by the Chief Geologist of the U.S. logical Survey in 1958, then contacted the Ken Geological Survey in 1956, included the following: (l)The mapping should be on a tucky Department of Economic Development, scale of 1:63,360 or larger. (2) A topographic base is essential. Planimetry, contour interval, and detail of contouring should meet the standards established by the which gave support to the proposal. Recognizing Federal Board of Surveys and Maps. (3) All geologically significant units mappable that the U.S. Geological Survey was the only or at the scale should be shown. "Mappable" refers to that which can be identified by the field geologist using lens and pick, but little else in the way of special chemical, ganization with sufficiently trained manpower to paleontologic, or other analyses. (4) Structure should be adequately portrayed. (5) undertake such a large geologic mapping program, Explanation should be concise and express the distinctive characteristics and prin cipal variations in lithology of map units and also in thickness. (6) The accuracy of Hagan contacted T. B. Nolan, Director of the U.S. location of faults and contacts shonld be shown by appropriate symbols. (7) Geologic Geological Survey, by letter in March. At Nolan's interpretations should be internally consistent. EXPLANATION 0 10 20 30 40 50 MILES if I I i___|___| Geologic maps available in printed form il r 0 10 20 30 40 50 KILOMETERS
Geologic maps available in blueline form 03 CO £U O I-J H(» Geologic maps published but out of print 3 , Areas never mapped and areas covered ii by inadequate small-scale maps
v WEST VIRGINIA J if- ' yo'MARTIN }v
*D | PIKEV S> '' x/?
^^YS.KNOTTL ) ; ' /' \ SB "2 f s II
VIRGINIA and Lieutenant Governor Wilson Wyatt undertook Richards was Branch Chief during the early economic development as his prime responsibility. stages when many of the policies and procedures Hagan discussed the mapping proposal with were developed, and he maintained the program Wyatt, who became a firm supporter. The State on schedule for 9 years; by the end of his tenure, budget, containing the requested appropriation, two-thirds of the state had been mapped. He de was approved without change by the State legis serves a large share of the credit for the success of lature in March. the program. The supplemental appropriation of $300,000 re Branch headquarters was established at Lex quested by the U.S. Geological Survey was ap ington. The headquarters staff consisted of the proved by Congress with the support of Senator Branch Chief, an Administrative Officer, a secre John Sherman Cooper of Kentucky near the end of tary, and a clerk. In addition, a Technical Reports August; and the cooperative agreement between Unit was established at Branch Headquarters to the two Surveys was signed on September 2,1960. edit maps (but not manuscripts), prior to Branch By the end of November, 30 geologists from the Chief approval. The Technical Reports Unit con U.S. Geological Survey had been assigned to the sisted of an editor, assisted at various times project, and mapping was underway. during the project by an assistant editor or by geologists assigned to editorial duties for short In summary, several factors were responsible periods. Editors in charge of the Technical Reports for the initiation of the mapping program. Three Unit and their dates of tenure are as follows: factors, apparent from the above discussion were: D. E. Wolcott__ September 1961 to August 1964 (1) The initiative of the Kentucky Society of Pro W C Swadley ___September 1964 to July 1966 fessional Engineers, who recognized the potential J. S. Pomeroy _____ August 1966 to April 1968 value of geologic maps and proposed that the State D. F. B. Black____ May 1968 to December 1970 be mapped; (2) the acumen of the State Geologist, R. C. McDowell __ January 1970 to February 1971 F. R. Shawe______..._.___ March 1971 to July 1973 who seized on the opportunity presented by the D. B. Weir ____ August 1973 to November 1977 resolution of the Kentucky Society of Professional Two of the editors deserved special mention be Engineers and promoted support among a wide cause of their work during the critical circum variety of influential organizations; and (3) the ad stances when they served. Wolcott and Branch vent of a State administration committed to im Chief P. W. Richards were largely responsible for proving the economy of Kentucky. setting the standards and procedures for re viewing and editing that were followed throughout OPERATIONS the program. Weir, who had been assistant map Although the supplemental appropriation re editor for a number of years, did a particularly commendable job in processing the large number quired to finance the first year of the program was of maps submitted toward the end of the program. not passed by Congress until the end of August 1960 and the cooperative agreement was not The Branch of Technical Illustrations (sub signed until September 2,1960, the program actu sequently the Branch of Cartography) of the Pub ally started on July 1 of that year with the arrival lications Division of the U.S. Geological Survey of A. D. Zapp in Lexington to take charge of the established a cartographic office (Kentucky Proj project for the U.S. Geological Survey. Fieldmen ect Office) at the Lexington headquarters office to began arriving in the State later in July. prepare the maps for publication. The carto graphic office was, of course, administratively in Organizationally within the U.S. Geological dependent from the Branch of Kentucky Geology. Survey, the Kentucky program was given Branch J. T. Hopkins, Jr., Chief of the Kentucky Project status within the Regional Geology Subactivity, Office from 1960 to 1969, was largely responsible which was later changed to the Office of Environ for establishing the procedures for preparing the mental Geology. The program was administered maps for publication. These procedures, described as a single project, with the Branch Chief also by Hopkins (1977), insured timely publication of a serving as Project Chief. The Branch Chiefs and uniform, high-quality product. Hopkins was suc their tenures are listed below: ceeded as chief by E. J. Gimpel, Jr., who served A. D. Zapp ______July 1960 to March 1961 P. W. Richards ______April 1961 to June 1970 from 1969 to 1978. The location of the cartographic W. W. Olive__.______._ July 1970 to June 1975 office at the Branch headquarters had many E. R. Cressman ___July 1975 to September 1978 advantages, the chief of which was the direct communication possible between the draftsmen, offices (fig. 2), though the most in operation at one the map editor, and the geologists. time was 15 in 1962. When the area of easy access The fieldwork was conducted from small offices from a field office had been mapped, the office was established in various parts of the State. Each field closed and another was opened in an unmapped office was headed by a Geologist-in-Charge, who part of the State. By the late 1960's, the construc served as liaison with the Branch Chief, assigned tion of toll roads and interstate highways made mapping priorities and assignments within his larger areas accessible to the field offices, and fre area, selected technical reviewers for maps sub quent moves were no longer required. mitted by the geologists in his office, and per The size of the professional staff of the field formed minor administrative chores. During the offices averaged four or five geologists. Several life of the project, there was a total of 18 field offices early in the project headquartered seven
OHIO 83°
ILLINOIS
37 VIRGINIA LW> 13. TENNESSEE
50 100 MILES
50 100 KILOMETERS
Field office Date opened Date dosed 1. Ashland November 1960 June 1964 2. Berea July 1961 June 1971 3. Bowling Green October 1960 June 1977 4. Columbia November 1960 August 1965 5. Corbin November 1960 November 1963 6. Elizabethtown February 1961 June 1969 7. Erlanger September 1966 June 1977 8. Flemingsburg March 1962 July 1967 9. Hazard September 1962 June 1964 10. Hopkinsville October 1962 June 1966 11. Lexington September 1961 September 1978 12. Madisonville January 1962 June 1977 13. Middlesboro September 1966 October 1974 14. Owensboro October 1961 September 1978 15. Paducah November 1960 June 1972 16. Pikeville October 1960 July 1968 17. Princeton August 1960 October 1972 18. Somerset September 1965 June 1977 FIGURE 2. Index map of Kentucky showing location of field offices. geologists. The Lexington Field Office in the last TABLE 2 Professional manpower assigned to the cooperative few years housed 10 geologists. In addition to the mapping program by the U.S. Geological Survey, listed by fiscal year professionals, two of the field offices employed [Leaders ( _ ) indicate not estimated] part-time secretaries. Professional man-years STAFFING Original Fiscal Year estimate Actual 1 About 260 people, including more than 200 pro 1961______. 30 30 fessionals, were assigned to the mapping program 1962______.______-_- 60 61 by the U.S. Geological Survey at one time or an 1963______-_ __ 70 61 other (table 1). Twenty-four of the professionals 1964______. -__.______- 70 56 were newly hired; the rest were transferred from 1965______._ 70 41 1966______70 38 other Branches in the Geologic Division. The pro 1967 _-______-__. 70 38 fessional manpower is listed by fiscal year in 1968______. ._____ 70 41 table 2. 1969______60 37 1970______30 35 TABLE 1. Number of U.S. Geological Survey employees, exclud 1971______33 ing cartographic personnel, that have been assigned to the co 1972______.___ 30 operative mapping program 1973 ______30 1974______30 Mapping personnel 1975______32 1976______..__.__..__ 32 Professional: 1977 ______25 Full-time ...... _...... ______94 1978 11 Full-time, temporary duty ______67 Total 600 661 Part-time __. _._ _ ...... 35 1 The differences between estimated and actual professional man-years resulted Total______196 from a reduction of the State appropriation in FY-65 and the consequent length ening of the program. Subprofessional: Full-time ______20 The use of faculty members from nearby univer Part-time ______19 sities as part-time mappers had several advan Total. 39 tages. These men contributed significantly to the Nonmapping personnel progress of the program, but more importantly Professional: they served as contacts with the various geology Full-time ______7 departments. The faculty members became more Part-time______2 aware of the geologic problems in the State and Members of Paleontology and Stratigraphy were thus able to direct both their own research Branch. ______14 and that of their students into more fruitful areas. Total..______--__ .___.___ 23 In turn, the results of the university research be Administrative and clerical: came available to the full-time members of the Full-time ______13 program. Part-time ______10 Figure 3 summarizes the length of assignments Total. 23 of full-time professionals to Kentucky. About two- Grand Total ______2811 thirds of the geologists headquartered in the State 'Inasmuch as some people are included in two categories, the actual total is were transferred elsewhere after an assignment of about 260. 4 years or less. However, about one-third of these For as many as half the years of the project, the transfers resulted from a reduction in the level of full-time professional staff headquartered in Ken funding in the State biennium of fiscal years 1965 tucky was less than that which could have been and 1966. supported by the budget and less than that re PROCEDURES quired to keep the mapping on schedule. It was, therefore, necessary to assign a number of geolo FIELD METHODS gists headquartered elsewhere to temporary duty Most of Kentucky is underlain by nearly hori in Kentucky. These men generally spent enough zontal sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age, but the time in the State to complete the fieldwork on one different parts of the State vary widely in the type quadrangle. and stratigraphic complexity of the bedrock, 30-i
C/5
o LU O
cc UJ CD 10-
0 1 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 YEARS FIGURE 3. Length of assignments to Kentucky Branch. amount of faulting, degree of exposure, topogra evations by hand leveling from bench marks or phy, and vegetation. Furthermore, each geologist other points of known elevation. assigned to the State came with a unique combina Correcting altimeter readings for diurnal pres tion of temperament, education, and experience. sure changes and for temperature is time- Field methods, therefore, were varied. Never consuming. In an attempt to attain the required theless, the common map scale of 1:24,000, the con accuracy more expeditiously, one quadrangle was straints of the format of the geologic quadrangle mapped on an orthophotographic base and another maps, and the interchange of information and ex on rectified aerial photographs that have been cor perience between geologists resulted in some com rected for the effects of tip and tilt the deviation mon procedures. of the film from the true horizontal at the time of The base maps were, as previously described, exposure. The field stations were located on the U.S. Geological Survey 7^-minute topographic photographs and transferred by overlay to the top quadrangle maps, most with a contour interval of ographic base map. Both methods were satis 10 or 20 ft, though in the more mountainous parts factory in areas of gentle topography, but where of eastern Kentucky the interval was 40 ft. Inas topographic contours were closely spaced, locations much as structure contours were to be shown, ele could not be transferred from either type of photo vations of field stations were determined to graph to the topographic base with sufficient within one-half of a contour interval. A wide accuracy to obtain elevations within the required variety of methods were used to locate the posi one-half of a contour interval. The use of either tions of field stations; but most geologists found orthophotographs or rectified photographs would the use of the surveying altimeter the most prac have been appropriate in many other areas of gen tical way of attaining the required accuracy. In tle topography, but the cost of the photographs areas where bench marks were sparse, the altime proved prohibitive. ter was used in conjunction with a barograph that The number of field stations occupied in a quad was located at a base station. Where differences in rangle ranged from a few hundred to a few thou elevation were small, many geologists obtained el sand, depending on the abundance of exposures, the complexity of the geology, and the predilec contours were drawn instead on the erosional sur tions of the geologist. For each quadrangle, there face cut on rocks of Eocene, Paleocene, Late Cre is an optimum number of field stations beyond taceous, and Paleozoic age; that is, at the base of which the increase in accuracy of the map is not the surficial deposits. These contours are not only commensurate with the additional effort; this useful in interpreting late Cenozoic history, but optimum number can be determined only by also have been used by drilling companies in pre experience. dicting drilling costs of water wells. Drill-hole information from published reports, logs on file at the Kentucky Geological Survey, and COMPILATION AND PREPARATION data made available from private sources, es FOR PRINTING pecially coal companies, were very useful in con Because exposures are sparse in much of Ken structing the maps. The data were used in drawing tucky and because structure contours were to be structure contours, in determining thickness of shown on the published maps, it was generally poorly exposed strata, and in analyzing facies impossible to draw contacts in the field in a man changes. Locations reported for many of the older ner that would subsequently permit construction holes were in error, and the data generally could of reasonable structure contours without consid be used with confidence only if the locations could erably altering the projected contacts. The maps be confirmed in the field. were, therefore, largely constructed in the office. Several dozen shallow diamond-drill holes were Plotted on a topographic base, a geologic map in drilled to obtain cores in areas where rocks were an area of gently dipping rocks can easily be poorly exposed and older data were few or un checked for internal consistency: The contoured obtainable. These data proved extremely useful for horizon must agree at all intersecting points with the purposes just described. Gamma-ray logs the topographic contours, the attitudes shown on made by members of the Water Resources Di the map must also be consistent with the structure vision of the U.S. Geological Survey of water wells contours, and the thicknesses given for units in the in several parts of central Kentucky also proved columnar section must match the thicknesses useful for the same purposes. shown on the geologic map. This concept of inter In much of the western Kentucky coal field and nal consistency might seem elementary and self- adjacent parts of western Kentucky near the Ohio evident, but it was novel to a surprising number of River, the bedrock is very poorly exposed and com geologists. monly mantled by Pleistocene lacustrine deposits To insure internal consistency, structure- and loess. Fortunately, many holes have been contour maps were commonly drawn of all con drilled in that area, and the geologists were able to tacts and isopach maps made of all intervals. supplement the meager surface data with the Geologic contacts were then located by placing the abundant subsurface information. Several geolo topographic base over the structure-contour map gists of the Kentucky Geological Survey were en of each horizon and drawing a line on the base map gaged nearly full-time in gathering and compiling at the elevations indicated by the structure con all the available drill-hole data. The information tours. Where the mapped units maintained a uni supplied by these men was invaluable to the form thickness throughout the quadrangle, mappers. isopachous maps were, of course, not needed, and Mapping in the Jackson Purchase region, that observed elevations could be projected from all part of Kentucky west of the Tennessee River and contacts to the contoured horizon. In some areas, within the Mississippi embayment, posed special such as parts of the eastern Kentucky coal field, problems. The strata there consist of Upper Cre thicknesses of mapped units are too erratic to en taceous and Lower Tertiary sand and clay, able the construction of meaningful isopachous surficial gravel of Miocene(?) to Pleistocene age, maps for an area the size of a 7 V^-minute and a blanket of Pleistocene loess. A truck- quadrangle. mounted auger was used extensively to determine The format of the geologic quadrangle map had the configuration of the bedrock surface and the been decided in considerable detail in the dis geology below the gravel deposits and loess man cussions between the two Surveys before the pro tle. The microflora and fauna were very useful in gram began. In order to insure both adherence to identifying the formations. Structure contours the format and an expeditious flow through the could not be shown because of the sparse data, but editorial mill, guidelines for map preparation and 8 processing were worked out and distributed to all were in large measure made possible by palynol- personnel. These were briefly described by Hop- ogical studies by R. H. Tschudy that were con kins (1969). ducted concurrently with mapping, under the A notable feature of the procedure was that leadership of W. W. Olive of the Branch of Ken nearly every geologist was required to scribe his tucky Geology. This joint effort resulted in signifi own map. This had several advantages: Though cant revisions of the stratigraphy and in revised few geologists enjoyed scribing, most agreed that dating of the initiation of the Mississippi em- it was faster and considerably more accurate than bayment. Tschudy also provided much informa inking. The composite print made from the scribe- tion indicative of the environment of deposition of coat and a negative of the base, when colored and the geologic units. labeled, made excellent, clear review copy. Finally, In addition to its purely scientific value, if the geologist's scribing was accepted by the Tschudy's work, combined with stratigraphic and Branch of Cartography as final copy, an average of mineralogic investigations by Olive and Finch 60 hours per map and one-fifth the cost of prepara (1969), has economic application. The region is a tion for printing was saved. During the midyears source of ceramic-grade clay and, as indicated by of the project, about 65 percent of the authors' pollen, most commercial clay deposits are in the scribecoats were acceptable and the money saved middle and upper parts of the Claiborne For thereby amounted to at least $25,000 a year. In the mation of Eocene age; clays in the other mapped last few years, the acceptance rate dropped to less formations contain too much montmorillonite to than 20 percent. This was largely because many of be of commercial value. Thus, the geologic maps the maps were submitted by part-time employees showing the distribution of the Claiborne, made or geologists, who were inexperienced scribers, on possible by the palynological studies, are ex temporary duty from other Branches. tremely useful guides in prospecting for clays. The Ordovician of central and northern Ken tucky and of adjacent parts of Ohio and Indiana ROLE OF THE PALEONTOLOGY has been considered classic since the latter part of AND STRATIGRAPHY BRANCH the 19th century, and the Upper Ordovician sec The rocks exposed in Kentucky are almost en tion of the Cincinnati region has long been the tirely sedimentary, and fossils are commonly standard for North America. Most of the strati- abundant and conspicuous. The desirability of graphic units recognized in these rocks had been paleontologic support was, therefore, recognized defined largely on the basis of their fauna, in from the beginning of the program. Accordingly, accord with the common practice of the time. the program financed eight full-time and six part- However, few fossil collections described in the time paleontologists and preparators of the literature were gathered from carefully measured Branch of Paleontology and Stratigraphy of the sections, the taxonomy was mostly that of the turn U.S. Geological Survey for a combined total of 30.7 of the century, and biostratigraphic zones had man-years. Much more work on Kentucky fossils never been established; thus, the section was a was supported entirely by the Branch of Paleon rather frail standard. Using these considerations, tology and Stratigraphy. Age assignments and Branch Chief P. W. Richards recognized that the correlations suggested by reports on referred fos mapping should be accompanied by paleontologic sils were useful in all parts of the State. Mackenzie and stratigraphic studies. Accordingly, R. J. Ross, Gordon, Jr., was particularly helpful; he not only Jr., John Pojeta, Jr., R. B. Neuman, 0. L. Karklins, reported on a large number of referred fossil col E. L. Yochelson, J. M. Berdan, and W. A. Oliver, Jr., lections from Mississippian and Pennsylvanian all of the Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch, rocks, but also visited the mappers in the field on and W. C. Sweet and Stig Bergstrom of Ohio State several occasions. The paleontologic work was of University visited the State on a number of occa particular value in the Cretaceous and Cenozoic of sions and collected rocks from sections measured the Jackson Purchase region of westernmost Ken by the fieldmen. Approximately 12 tons of rock tucky, the Ordovician in central and northern containing silicified fossils were collected from the Kentucky, and the Pennsylvanian of the eastern Lexington Limestone of Middle and Late Ordo and western coal fields. vician age, and a large number of collections of In the Jackson Purchase region, the identifica unsilicified material were made from the Upper tions of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations Ordovician rocks throughout their outcrop belt in Kentucky. On the published geologic quadrangle Kentucky Geological Survey provided economic maps, the locations of the collections were shown data, stratigraphic support, and drill-hole records on the map, the stratigraphic position was given to field offices. Geologists of the State Survey on the column, and the identifications were given supervised core-drilling and augering projects, in the text. As a result of close communication and constructed bedrock-topography maps, made sub cooperation between the paleontologists and the surface structural interpretations, mapped sev field mappers, the fossil collections were firmly eral quadrangles, prepared county economic keyed to a lithostratigraphic framework that was reports, microfilmed field notes, and collected based on measured sections tied together by map maps showing the locations of field stations. ping. (See Cressman, 1973, pi. 1-6, for an example.) At the start of the program, data on known eco As of this writing, studies of the collections nomically important units and potential undevel from the Ordovician made by more than a dozen oped mineral resources of the Commonwealth specialists are still in progress; seven such studies were supplied to each field office. Drill-hole records are in U.S. Geological Survey Professional paper were also supplied to field offices for use in 1066 (published as Alberstadt, 1979; Ball, 1979; projecting mapped contacts and faults and in col Branstrator, 1979; Howe, 1979; Pojeta, 1979; Ross, lating oil and gas data. In the early stages of the 1979; Sweet, 1979). When completed, these studies program, field conferences were held to acquaint will modernize the taxonomy and will establish a newly assigned geologists with the nomenclature zonal scheme that will provide a vastly improved and stratigraphic framework, and throughout the basis for comparison with other areas. Both the program stratigraphic information was provided improved taxonomy and the zonation, when com from detailed studies being conducted by Ken bined with the lithostratigraphic data, will serve tucky Geological Survey geologists. as a basis for paleoecological interpretations. We Several times during the program, diamond- emphasize that the close collaboration between core drilling and augering projects were conducted the paleontologists and the mappers has proven to obtain subsurface information for use in con invaluable to both. structing the geologic maps. Kentucky Geological The correlation of coal beds in the Pennsyl- Survey personnel contracted and supervised the vanian of eastern Kentucky, important for both core-drilling operations and assisted in some of economic and scientific purposes, is difficult be the augering and logging of holes in the Jackson cause of poor exposures, the large number of thin Purchase and Owensboro areas of western Ken coal beds, the discontinuity of some, and the split tucky. The Water Resources Division of the U.S. ting of others. Beginning in 1963 and extending Geological Survey supplied wire-line logging throughout the life of the program, R. H. Kosanke equipment, and its personnel assisted in obtaining of the Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch logs of some of the core holes. processed a large number of coal samples for In the Owensboro field office, Kentucky Geologi spores, and his reports have been of much assis cal Survey geologists and geologic assistants pre tance in correlating the beds. R. C. Douglass, also pared maps showing the bedrock topography in of the Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch, has areas where the bedrock was concealed by large dated a number of limestone units from both the areas of surficial deposits. Where sufficient data eastern and western Kentucky coal fields on the were available, the location of selected coal beds basis of their fusulinids. As a result of Douglass' beneath alluvial deposits were shown. They also investigations in the western coal field where the made the subsurface structural interpretations rocks are poorly exposed, some limestone units as for some geologic maps. The bedrock maps were mapped in the field have been found to be mis- constructed at a scale of 1:24,000 and were printed correlated; the revised correlations will be most on transparent material so they could be overlain helpful in the summary report on that area. Doug on the geologic maps. The maps were printed by lass' work has also resulted in a more refined the U.S. Geological Survey as part of its Miscel correlation between the two coal fields. laneous Geologic Investigation Series. Indexes of test holes and maps at a scale of 1:24,000 showing CONTRIBUTIONS BY THE KENTUCKY their locations were prepared from the data used GEOLOGICAL SURVEY in the subsurface interpretations and are open- In addition to the conception, initiation, and filed at the Henderson office of the Kentucky continuing financial support of the program, the Geological Survey. Also available from the State 10 Survey is a map at a scale of 1:48,000 showing quadrangles a year. The rate of mapping might locations of drill holes in the southern part of Ohio have been expected to differ with the complexity of County. geology, but in fact the variation between geolo During the latter part of the program, geolo gists in the same field office was greater than the gists of the State Survey mapped some quad variation between field offices. rangles in eastern Kentucky. Kentucky Geological Survey personnel have prepared or have in progress a new series of PROBLEMS county economic reports based in part on data No large program is entirely free of problems, gathered as part of the mapping program. Reports and the Kentucky Cooperative Mapping program have been published for Alien, Galloway, Hancock, was no exception. Now that the work is complete, Marshall, and Warren Counties (Branson, 1966; most of the problems encountered, even those that McGrain, 1968; McGrain and others, 1970; Mc- appeared severe at the time seem minor. Never Grain, 1970; McGrain and Sutton, 1973). The theless, we will discuss some of these problems and McCracken County report was published in 1979 indicate actions that we believe might have ame (McGrain, 1979). liorated them, with the hope that others might Kentucky Geological Survey personnel have benefit from our experience. microfilmed original field notes. These microfilms Inasmuch as a cooperative program of this scope and the maps showing the locations of field sta was unprecedented, it was inevitable that some tions are on file and available for inspection at the friction should develop between personnel of the office of the Kentucky Geological Survey in U.S. Geological Survey and of the Kentucky Geo Lexington. logical Survey. On the administrative level, some The following Kentucky Geological Survey per conflicts arose over the scope of authority and re sonnel were at one time or another assigned pri sponsibility of the Chief of the Branch of Kentucky marily to the mapping program: E. R. Branson, Geology and the Program Coordinator for the M. 0. Smith, and M. C. Noger, Program Coordi Kentucky Geological Survey. The contract nators; J. M. Poteet, L. R. Ponsetto, W. E. Jackson, between the two organizations was short and gen R. G. Ping, G. J. Grabowski, R. E. Sergeant, eral, allowing considerable room for interpreta Geologists; and J. C. Kerns, D. K. Tully, and J. L. tion, and many details had to be hammered out Kenkler, Geologic Assistants, Lexington; and A. S. through experience. We doubt that these conflicts Smith and R. N. Norris, Geologists, and G. E. could have been entirely avoided, but we can as Carpenter and T. Ball, Geologic Assistants, sure others that such problems can be overcome Owensboro. and that close and effective cooperation can be established. Some antagonism developed in the early years PRODUCTIVITY of the program between members of the two Sur Figure 4 illustrates the cumulative number of veys at the field level. Some members of the geologic quadrangle reports and the cumulative Branch of Kentucky Geology, most of whom were professional man-years for the life of the mapping experienced geologists, resented what they consid program. A comparison of the two curves shows ered to be interference by some members of the that the rate of production varied only slightly State Survey, whereas some members of the State from the average of 1.1 geologic quadrangle re Survey felt that their opinions, based on their ports per man-year for the entire program (ex longer experience in the State, were not ade cluding 11 man-years in fiscal year 1978 that were quately considered by members of the Federal devoted largely to the preparation of summary Survey. As members of the two organizations be reports). Figure 4 indicates an increasing pro came more familiar with the capabilities, person ductivity in the first few years; a fall in pro alities, and methods of operation of members of ductivity, stabilizing at one report per man-year in the other, the friction subsided, and close working the middle years; and an increase in the years fol relations developed. These close relations might lowing 1972 as the planned data of completion have been established earlier, if some members of approached. the State Survey could have been assigned at least The productivity for different individuals part-time to actual field mapping along with the ranged from one quadrangle every 4 years to two U.S. Geological Survey personnel. 11 700 707 / /
650
600
CJ 550 o LU 500 (D CO 0:450 O Q_ LLJ CC400 LJJ 350 Geologic quadrangle maps submitted to Branch ^QC <§.9300 0°250 CD CD Professional man-years LLJ U_ 200 O QC Q_ 150
100
50
0 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 FISCAL YEAR FIGURE 4. Graph illustrating relationship between production of maps and size of professional staff.
Problems of stratigraphic nomenclature caused State, but who were not directly involved in the many disputes in the early years and at one time mapping, opposed changes with a fervor that is seemed to threaten the existence of the program. commonly evoked by tinkering with an old and Much of the existing nomenclature had been es familiar nomenclature. The conflict between the tablished early in the century, generally on the field mappers and those attached to the existing basis of stratigraphic studies that had a strong nomenclature was finally resolved by revising the paleontologic component, and the formational nomenclature when clearly required, but showing units had never been tested by mapping at more the older nomenclature by a separate column on than a reconnaissance scale. It was inevitable that the geologic quadrangle map. parts of this nomenclature would prove inade The older stratigraphic nomenclature may have quate for the type and scale of mapping planned needed major overhaul, but no arrangements had for the program, and, indeed, the field geologists been made for stratigraphic studies in advance of were soon proposing major revisions. Some of the mapping, possibly because it was assumed that those geologists who had been educated in Ken the stratigraphy was already well known. Thus, a tucky and had most of their experience in the geologist mapping his quadrangle might find that 12 none of the units he could map were formally close field supervision and field checking, but the named. If his assignment was to map one or two organization of the Kentucky program was such 7 ¥2-minute quadrangles, he was not able to judge that only the Branch Chief had supervisory au the extent or regional significance of his individual thority, and the demands on his time were such map units. Furthermore, strata of the same age that he could not have actually supervised the might be mapped from two or more field offices, fieldwork. In retrospect, we believe that formal but the stratigraphic relations between the areas supervisory authority should have been delegated might not be known. Coordinators were eventually to the Geologists-in-Charge of the field offices and designated for parts of the section where problems that field checking should have been an integral became especially severe, but the coordinators had part of the program. no formal authority and their principal responsi The Federal and State Surveys had different, bilities remained geologic mapping. In hindsight, sometimes conflicting, viewpoints. For example, we believe that many problems could have been the U.S. Geological Survey prefers not to maintain anticipated and avoided and much additional small field offices and, if such offices are un significant information generated if regional stra avoidable, tries to rotate personnel frequently tigraphy had been considered an integral part of because a variety of assignments is considered the program from the beginning and if some geo essential to professional advancement. The State logists had been given stratigraphic studies as Survey, on the other hand, felt that geologists their principal assignment. should remain in field offices for longer terms to Rather strangely, the necessity for significant benefit from the experience gained in the area. The changes in stratigraphic nomenclature does not matter was compromised, but for a variety of rea seem to have been anticipated in the negotiations sons no regular, consistent plan of rotation was that led to the program. It should have been obvi developed. As predicted, long-term assignments ous that the much more detailed scale of the map did indeed have an adverse effect on the profes ping and advances in stratigraphic science would sional development of some of those who remained make many changes inevitable. in Kentucky for many years, especially those head Geologic mapping involves a large amount of quartered in the smaller field offices. The lack of an interpretation and, as noted by Harrison (1963, easily accessible library, of laboratory facilities, p. 225), a good geologic map is the result of and particularly of contact with geologists of research of a high order. Not all geologists are different backgrounds and interests made it ex equally capable, and, naturally, the quality of tremely difficult to keep informed on new devel maps produced by different geologists varies. The opments in the science. Undoubtedly, both the overall quality of the Kentucky maps is very high, mapping project and the careers of the men would but a few maps are definitely inadequate. In the have benefited from a regular, planned rotation. In following paragraphs, we will discuss a few pro the absence of rotation, the adverse effects could cedures that we believe would have improved have been ameliorated by temporary duty assign quality. ments to projects in other States and by Like most other specialties in the profession, participation in short courses and other means of geologic mapping requires aptitudes that are not continuing education; but during much of the possessed by all, and those with the aptitude must project, money was not available for such develop proficiency through training and experi alternatives. ence. Considering the varied backgrounds of men assigned to the program, we believe that the qual COST ity of the maps could have been improved and time The original estimate and the actual expendi saved in the long run by requiring training of all tures for the mapping program are listed in geologists in techniques of both mapping and com table 3. The overmatching by Federal funds from pilation. We strongly recommend that such train fiscal years 1973-1977 resulted from a change in ing be an integral part of any similar program the methods of assessment for administrative initiated in the future. overhead by the U.S. Geological Survey. The review and editorial system was admirably The actual cost of the program in terms of 1960 devised and conducted to insure internal consis dollars was one-third greater than the original es tency, but a map can be internally consistent and timate. This resulted from the following fac largely wrong. The only way to insure accuracy is tors: (l)The program required 661 professional 13 TABLE 3. Cost of the Kentucky Geological Survey U.S Geological Survey Cooperative Mapping Program [Leaders ( _ ) indicate not estimated]
Kentucky Original Authorization Total in1 fiscal year estimate State Federal Total 1960 dollars 1961 ______600,000 300,000 300,000 600,000 600,000 1962 ______._ 1,200,000 600,000 600,000 1,200,000 1,188,000 1963 ______1,400,000 600,000 600,000 1,200,000 1,176,000 1964 ______1,400,000 600,000 600,000 1,200,000 1,162,000 1965 ______1,400,000 450,000 450,000 900,000 859,000 1966 ______1,400,000 450,000 450,000 900,000 845,000 1967. ______1,400,000 500,000 500,000 1,000,000 913,000 1968 ______1,400,000 500,000 500,000 1,000,000 887,000 1969 ______1,200,000 510,000 510,000 1,020,000 869,000 1970 ______600,000 510,000 510,000 1,020,000 824,000 1971 ______550,000 550,000 1,100,000 839,000 1972. 575,000 575,000 1,150,000 841,000 1973 ______600,000 664,900 1,264,900 897,000 1974 ______630,000 814,200 1,444,200 963,000 1975 ______675,300 923,500 1,598,800 961,000 1976 ______718,000 924,600 1,642,600 899,000 1977 718,000 890,000 1,608,000 806,000 1978. 539,500 539,500 1,079,000 506,000 Total ______._.. 12,000,000 10,025,800 10,901,700 20,927,500 16,035,000
1 Based on the Consumer Price Index . man-years to complete rather than the original mation in the files of the Branch of Kentucky Geol estimate of 600; (2) salaries of full-time profes ogy, but several have been described by McGrain sionals increased due to promotions, ingrade (1971). raises, and government-wide pay increases that more than compensated for inflation; and (3) in MAP SALES creased assessments were made by the U.S. Geo Sales are an indication of the extent to which logical Survey in 1973 and subsequent years. the geologic quadrangle maps are used. The maps are available for purchase from the Kentucky Geo ECONOMIC BENEFITS logical Survey, the Kentucky Department of Com The main impetus behind the mapping was the merce, and the U.S. Geological Survey. The U.S. expected stimulus the maps would provide to the Geological Survey does not keep a separate record economic development of Kentucky. Although of the sales of geologic quadrangle maps of Ken scientific and educational benefits are and will con tucky, but sales in recent years by the first two tinue to be considerable, the success of the pro organizations are listed in the table below. The gram should be evaluated in terms of its principal sales show that the maps are used extensively, but goal of economic development. The geologic maps they give no hint as to purpose or user. are widely used in mineral exploration, for en Kentucky Kentucky gineering purposes, and for land-use planning, but Geological Department of the monetary value of these uses is extremely Year Survey Commerce Total difficult to determine. Most of the information is 1972______4,519 ______-1 ______--1 anecdotal, and a value can seldom be placed on a 1973______6,319 ______--1 ______-1 single use. 1974______10,109 ______5,000 ______15,109 In the following pages, we list data on geologic 1975______14,062 ______5,207 ______19,269 quadrangle map sales to demonstrate that the 1976______13,220 ______6.0112 ______19,231 maps are widely used and then analyze the sales 1977______14,688 ______--1 ______-1 1 Information not available. figures for indications as to the types of uses. We ' Does not include sales for last 3 months of year. then present examples in order to document actual economic benefits accruing from specific uses of Total sales figures for individual quadrangles the maps. The examples, which are by no means are not available; however, the Kentucky Geologi exhaustive, have been selected mostly from infor cal Survey receives a stock of 180 maps from the 14 U.S. Geological Survey when they are published quadrangle reports are providing landowners and and reorders maps as their stocks are depleted. operators a better basis on which to estimate both The number of copies reordered can be used as an quantity and quality of the coal reserves, making indication of the relative demand for the various possible more reliable decisions on sale of land and quadrangles. Figure 5 shows the number of copies on mineral development. The general tendency of reordered for each quadrangle in the fiscal years individual coal seams to have the same quality 1972 through 1977. The demand has been greatest over wide areas is an important factor in esti for maps in the eastern Kentucky coal field. Maps mating the value of coal reserves; so the cor in the western Kentucky coal field are next in de relation of coal beds is an economically valuable mand, followed by those in the western Kentucky product of the geologic mapping. fluorspar district. Several individual geologic Coal operators and geologists who have not rec quadrangle maps are in particular demand- ognized geologic structure have miscorrelated coal Mammoth Cave for recreational purposes, Ford beds, and the geologic mapping has led to changes quadrangle for use by students at the University in operators' exploration programs. In one in of Kentucky, Morehead quadrangle for use by stu stance, plans to acquire land were changed when dents at Morehead University, and Lawrenceburg the operator realized that the coal bed on the land (Indiana-Kentucky) quadrangle for use in study he planned to lease was not the coal bed he sought. ing landslides that have caused problems along the In another instance, an operator's drilling pro banks of the Ohio River. Sales are also greater for gram was changed when he learned that the fail maps of areas near urban centers than for those of ure to recognize the dip of the strata had led to the surrounding open countryside. plans to drill a stratigraphically higher coal bed than the commercially valuable bed he wanted. MINERAL COMMODITIES In the western Kentucky coal field, as in eastern COAL Kentucky, the geologic maps have been instrumen Figure 6 compares coal production in the tal in the opening of a number of mines. The maps eastern Kentucky coal field with production in the are also used widely in property evaluation. Ac neighboring States of West Virginia, Ohio, and cording to McGrain (1971, p. 6), more than one- Tennessee from 1960 to 1974. Coal production in half million tons of coal have been recovered from eastern Kentucky has continued to increase, outliers of the No. 9 and No. 11 coal beds, near whereas production in the adjacent States has ei Madisonville, which were unknown to coal compa ther remained relatively constant or has declined nies before geologic maps (Kehn, 1963,1964) were in recent years. The reasons for the greater in published on the area. creases in production in Kentucky are complex; The No. 4 coal bed of western Kentucky contains but, as shown below, the geologic quadrangle maps a high-quality stoker and coking coal, known re are undoubtedly used widely in the area and may serves of which were nearly depleted by the time be a contributing factor. the mapping program began. Mapping and cor The following paragraphs present several exam relation of coal beds in the southwestern part of ples of uses of the geologic maps from many that the western Kentucky coal field have shown that have been reported. the No. 4 had been miscorrelated with a strati In eastern Kentucky, the geologic quadrangle graphically higher bed (Kehn and others, 1967). As maps are used extensively to block out coal proper a result, many test holes for coal in the area had ties for leasing and to plan detailed drilling for not been drilled deep enough to encounter the precise evaluation. One operator stated that ex No. 4. An independent engineer has estimated that ploration tends to be deferred until maps are the revised correlation may double the coal re available. Certainly, in recent years, the Lexington serves of that area, and McGrain (1971, p. 6) stated office has received requests to open-file quadrangle that further exploration based on the new cor maps in eastern Kentucky as soon as announce relation will probably add several million tons to ments have been made that the fieldwork has been the reserves. completed. The maps in the western coal field have been of Mapping has demonstrated persistence of beds use not only in locating coal, but also in planning containing steam and coking coal and has thus led mining operations. The geologic map of the Saint to exploration in areas not previously thought by Charles quadrangle (Palmer, 1967) was useful in operators to be worthy of exploration. The geologic determining the direction and the amount of offset 15 "89: 87° 88 86
39C 10 20 30 40 50 MILES
10 20 30 40 50 KILOMETERS
INDIANA
--'-^ Western Kentucky Coal Field ;i _ 75 1 - fi 60 71tr" 72 38° - " 60 -1 _ 80 90 74 /4 73 f 64 64 - 63 76 -" 69- ,'--40 I*' - rt 100 n 1 1 FIGURE 5. Geologic quadrangle maps reordered by the Kentucky Geological Survey in fiscal years 1972 through 1977. Number Survey between July 1, 1972, and June 30, 1977. Number in upper left corner of each quadrangle is last two digits of year June 30,1977, or original stock had not been depleted. The fluorspar district and the eastern and western Kentucky coal fields that was needed in order to alleviate roof-rock and recovered or within a 150-ft radius, if the location ventilation problems caused by faulting in two cannot be recovered. The locations of drill holes underground coal mines. Using this map, a U.S. used for structural control are shown on the pub Bureau of Mines inspector was instrumental lished geologic maps of the Robards and Delaware in getting the operating companies to offset the quadrangles, Henderson County, Ky. (Fairer, 1973; main mine entries, both of which followed faults. Johnson, 1973). Using the quadrangle maps and Structure contours on the No. 9 coal bed in two information collected during the mapping, the quadrangles were used by an engineer of another 15-ft radius can be used. The additional recov company in planning mining operations. erable coal has an estimated value of $150,000. An interesting unanticipated use of the maps Perhaps the most striking example of using the was reported by the Peabody Coal Company. State maps in the coal fields was reported by Knight law requires that coal cannot be mined within a (1976, p. 8). A 70- to 80-million-ton coal field with 15-ft radius of a drill hole, if the location can be a gross value at 1974 prices of $1,127,000,000 was 16 VIRGINIA Eastern Kentucky Coal Field in lower right corner of each quadrangle is quantity of geologic quadrangle maps reordered by Kentucky Geological of original publication of geologic quadrangle map. Quadrangles with no numbers had either not been published by are the principal mineral-producing areas of the State. found by use of the maps. Knight did not identify The usage of geologic maps is so varied and carries so many the location of the deposit. facets that it is hard to describe or express the value in specific terms. The oil industry uses these maps for elevation control, outcrop OIL AND GAS positions and data on subsurface rock units that enable geolo It is more difficult to evaluate the impact of the gists to help plan drilling programs. The value of this data is geologic maps on oil and gas exploration than on difficult to express in monetary terms but for every drilling coal mining, partly because it is difficult to evalu location made, money can be saved by prior usage of the geo logic maps. Geologic maps are considered a basic tool in plan ate the relative contribution of surface geology, ning seismic and core drilling programs. Knowledge of mined subsurface geology, and geophysics in the discov out areas, alluvium and bedrock is very pertinent in planning ery of new fields. It is certain, though, that the such programs. Thousands of dollars can be saved in good plan maps are widely used by the oil and gas industry, ning as compared to going into an area blind. as shown by a quotation from E. J. Combs of the A few specific examples are listed below: Sun Oil Company (written commun., 1967). Information on geologic quadrangle maps was 17 160 r 140 ^120 h-O £100 80 U- O C/D z 60 o 40 20 Tennessee 0 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 YEAR FIGURE 6. Comparison of coal production in eastern Kentucky with that of adjacent States of the Appalachian coal field since the beginning of the mapping program. Data from U.S. Bureau of Mines (1960-1974). used in conjunction with subsurface and geo ploring for oil and gas. Maps of the St. Charles and physical data from other sources in locating the Nortonville quadrangles (Palmer, 1967,1968) were Cecelia gas storage field for the city of Elizabeth- used by one oil company to find new and to extend town and in defining the limits of the East Grady- known oil and gas reserves along faults. Fault ville oil and gas field near Somerset, Ky. The maps trends of the Reineke fault system in the Mad- were also used to define the trend and extent of an isonville East quadrangle (Kehn, 1963) continue to oil-producing reef of Mississippian age in south- serve as a guide in prospecting for oil and gas central Kentucky. reserves. The Gradyville East field was discovered in July The following quotation is from a letter to the 1969 in Adair County. The discovery well was locat Kentucky State Survey from an independent oil ed, probably prior to the mapping, on a large company: plunging anticline, and oil was discovered in the This letter is to inform you that the lease and oil discovery in Knox Dolomite (Cambrian and Ordovician). Sub Southern Logan County is a direct result of the Geological sequent drilling followed the trend of a large mapping program in the state of Kentucky, being conducted by plunging anticline shown on the Gradyville and you and the USGS. The procuring of a lease block and the drilling of a test well Columbia geologic quadrangle maps (Taylor, 1963; were a direct result of a structural feature contained on your Lewis and Thaden, 1963). By early 1970, at least 17 Homer Quadrangle. The surface structure was borne out, in oil wells had been completed. Although other fac depth, as indicated by the results of our well. In my opinion, a tors contributed to the oil entrapment, the signif significant discovery of oil and gas reserves have been a direct icant geologic fact is that drilling on the anticline, result of your mapping program. I feel that the industry, and our company in particular, owes a debt of gratitude to your which is shown on the geologic maps, reveals organization for pushing the economic mapping series for the structurally high Ordovician rocks 1,500 ft below state of Kentucky. the Mississippian strata at the surface. The Homer quadrangle had been mapped by Gild- In western Kentucky, the locations of folds, ersleeve (1966). Many examples could be added, faults, and sandstone channels shown on geologic but those given above are adequate to demonstrate quadrangle maps have been widely used in ex that the maps are valuable to the industry. 18 FLUORSPAR the mapping, there has been extensive and contin The Illinois-Kentucky fluorspar district has ued leasing of clay deposits as the maps have been produced more than three-fourths of the fluorspar published. Many of these leases will undoubtedly mined in the United States. Though the area has be brought into production in the future. been in production for many years, Trace (1974, p. 74) estimated that reserves were adequate for at ENGINEERING GEOLOGY least 15 to 20 years, and Pinckney (1976) stated To geologists, a somewhat unexpected result of that reasonable projections indicate that the area the project was the varied and extensive use of the of potential production is more than twice as large maps for engineering purposes; they are used more as the area of known production. in this manner than for any other single purpose Fluorspar is localized either as veins along a except coal exploration. Many engineering firms series of complex, northeast-trending, steeply dip are aware of the program and routinely use the ping normal fault zones or as bedding replacement maps in evaluating foundation and excavation deposits along three horizons in rocks of Mississip- conditions and in preparing Environmental Im pian age. Most of the Kentucky deposits are of the pact Statements. The following quotation is from first type. The geologic quadrangle maps show the a request received from Fuller, Mossbarger and faulting more accurately than previously available Scott, Civil Engineers, Inc., for the open-filing of maps and can be used to predict the positions of an unpublished map: horizons favorable for mineralization at depth. We routinely utilize published geologic quadrangle maps in Industry uses them to help determine favorable planning and executing subsurface investigations for en areas for the core drilling required to determine gineering projects. In that we are experiencing the need for the presence, size, and shape of orebodies. An indica such data for a specific site within the limits of the Monticello tion of the potential value of the maps is the state quadrangle, we would appreciate the benefit of related infor mation your branch may now possess. Indeed, the U.S.G.S. ment by W. W. Weigel, a geologic consultant (oral information might well have a major influence on the overall commun., 1968), that if similar maps had been feasibility of the project. available in southeastern Missouri, $25,000,000 Only a few specific uses by such firms have come could have been saved on a $750,000,000 explora tion program. to our attention, and it is impossible to estimate the economic impact of the maps, even in these Mapping in Livingston and Crittenden Counties (Trace, 1962) revealed the presence of a fault that examples. The Kentucky Department of Highways has had not been known previously. After the geologic regularly used the maps during studies of new map was published, exploration along the fault by routes, and in several instances project geologists a company resulted in the discovery of a fluorspar were able to forewarn of potential problems while body of more than 100,000 tons (McGrain, 1971, the geologic mapping was in progress. McGrain p. 7). At the 1977 price of about $90 a ton, this one deposit is valued at more than $9,000,000. (1971, p. 3) wrote the following: Field geologists working in the Jackson Purchase region of CLAY western Kentucky recognized certain situations where porous, water-bearing gravels or sands resting on relatively imper The Jackson Purchase region of westernmost vious clays could produce unstable slope and foundation condi Kentucky is a major source of ball clay, which is tions. The proposed route of the Purchase Parkway was produced from rocks of Eocene age. Mineralogic through an area where this situation was common. Engineers and ceramic analyses reported by Olive and Finch of the Kentucky Department of Highways were alerted. As the (1969) have shown that the composition of the result of conferences with mapping project geologists and fur ther engineering studies, three to four miles of the proposed clays is closely related to stratigraphy. Clays of route of the Parkway were relocated. Assuming the average of the Wilcox and Claiborne Formations of early and a minimum of one slide per mile on the first proposed route and middle Eocene age are highly kaolinitic and are corrective measures costing an estimated $200,000 to $500,000 suitable for use in ceramics; on the other hand, per slide, it is easy to calculate the implications of geologic clays in the Jackson Formation of late Eocene age mapping to this construction project. are generally montmorillonitic and are suitable This is not the only instance of highway relocation for use as animal bedding. The distribution of ex based on information from the geologic mapping, nor posed clay deposits in these formations is shown will it be the last. on the geologic quadrangle maps. Although only a Relocation during the late 1960's of State High few new clay pits have been opened as a result of way 119 in southeastern Kentucky was disrupted 19 by a series of landslides which caused considerable Highways, was a savings of about $80,000 in core property damage and abandonment of portions of drilling costs in 1967 along Kentucky Highway 15 the new roadway. The slides, some new and others between Jackson and Hazard in eastern Kentucky reactivated, were a surprise to Highway Depart through using the maps to predict the depth of ment personnel who had been advised by a consul coals under the highway right-of-way. tant that the landslide potential of the route was In the Paducah area of western Kentucky, un- low. A. J. Froelich of the U.S. Geological Survey, consolidated sediments and earthquakes cause who had recently started mapping a nearby area, many foundation probelms. Engineering geology examined the slide areas for the geologic factors studies of parts of the area were published by involved. Nichols (1968) and Finch (1968) as byproducts of Froelich (1970) showed that a unique set of con the mapping program. According to Paul Moore, ditions in the area had been disturbed by the high Building Inspector for Paducah, these publications way construction, resulting in the slides. Route 119 have been particularly useful in providing answers runs along the Cumberland River on the south side to queries as to engineering properties of rock of and parallel with Pine Mountain, which trends units, foundation requirements, and seismic zon northeasterly 100 miles across southeastern Ken ing for structures such as a high-rise apartment, a tucky. Interbedded shale, siltstone, sandstone, control tower at the local airport, and a large shop coal, and associated underclay forming the south ping mall. The report by Nichols was also used by slope of Pine Mountain dip toward the Cumber the Corps of Engineers in determining foundation land River. Landslides had repeatedly occurred requirements for a post office building. As the Pa where these dipping strata had been undercut by ducah area expands in population, the usefulness the Cumberland River. Old slides had been reactiva of these reports and the geologic maps on which ted and new slides initiated by the road construc they are based will undoubtedly increase, though tion. Parts of Highway 119 were then redesigned no monetary value can be placed on the savings. and relocated on the basis of Froelich's study. The The geologic quadrangles are used extensively savings cannot be determined, but the construc by the Soil Conservation Service in Kentucky in tion of one stretch of highway that was built be Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Pro fore Froelich's study and largely destroyed by a grams. In watershed development, the maps are major slide cost $4,000,000. used during field examinations and preliminary In 1968, the Kentucky Department of Highways investigations, and in watershed planning and and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad re operations for the proper selection and placement quested that priority be given to mapping several of structure sites, which are the key to flood con quadrangles along Pine Mountain in order to aid trol. Factors influencing the selection of sites in planning for a tunnel through Pine Mountain. Pine clude structural stability; availability of borrow Mountain is on the leading edge of the Pine Moun materials; the presence or absence of mineral re tain overthrust sheet, and the mapping (Froelich sources, especially coal; and, in some cases, the and others, 1970) revealed that the route originally ability of a structure to maintain permanent water chosen for the tunnel, located on the basis of a storage. The maps are effectively used to help iden report by a consultant, would be through crushed tify problem areas. According to J. M. Burns and and broken rock of the overthrust zone. The plans B. J. Hines (written commun., 1968) of the Soil for the tunnel were eventually abandoned. Conservation Service, the availability of a good John S. Stokely (oral commun., 1968), a consult geologic map during structure site evaluations ing geological engineer, a major part of whose eliminates from 2 to 3 days of investigation. Ex business is contract drilling for the Kentucky De penses for a day's operation were estimated by partment of Highways, has estimated that the Burns and Hines to range from $200 to $400, so availability of a geologic map saves the State 10 savings would range from $400 to $800 per site. percent of the cost of highway investigations. A About 25 sites are investigated annually, with a District Engineer of the Highway Department yearly savings of about $15,000. stated that the geologic maps saved the Depart ment millions of dollars in the planning and the ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY AND letting of contracts for two parkways in southern LAND-USE PLANNING and southeastern Kentucky. An example, con The major use of the geologic quadrangle maps tributed by another engineer of the Department of as basic data for environmental geology studies 20 and land-use planning lies in the future. The Ken sites which have resulted in new plants at Bowling Green, tucky Geological Survey and the U.S. Geological Hickman, Murray, Princeton, Richmond, Russellville, and South Portsmouth. One Chamber of Commerce official reported Survey plan a future cooperative study in a three- that the geologic maps allow his office to be acquainted with the county area of northern Kentucky that will be a potential of all sections of his county and to document their pilot program for other environmental geology evaluation of the foundation conditions at possible plantsites. studies elsewhere in the State. Municipal and Further, these available geological data permit industrial de county officials in other areas in the State have velopers to speak with a degree of authority which generates already expressed interest. Land planning in Ken confidence in and prestige for their office. tucky is generally done on a countywide basis, and The Executive Secretary of the Murray Cham planners generally find that scales of 1:48,000 or ber of Commerce, Murray, Ky., wrote the following 1:50,000 are the most useful for their needs and in a letter to the President of the University of that smaller scales are nearly useless. Kentucky after two major companies had selected Although environmental geology studies are in Murray as the site for plants: their infancy in Kentucky, the geologic maps have Through the efforts of the Kentucky Geological Survey, a com already proven useful. In Fayette County, which in plete mapping program in Galloway County has been a major cludes Lexington, engineering geologic maps com factor in the attraction of these two fine industries. piled from the quadrangle maps by C. G. Johnson The mapping program referred to is, of course, the of the U.S. Geological Survey were instrumental in cooperative Kentucky Geological Survey-U.S. Geo convincing officials that a site proposed for a new logical Survey program. sanitary landfill was unsuited because it would con tribute to ground-water pollution. A landfill-site CONCLUSION map prepared by M. C. Noger and others of the We have been able to estimate a monetary value Kentucky Geological Survey based on data on the for only a few of the uses described in the pre quadrangle maps and some additional fieldwork ceding pages, but we have not been able, in this was used in determining a suitable site, which is report, to quantify most of the benefit. The infor now in operation. mation which we have provided, however, does Other examples in which the geologic maps have support the thesis that geologic mapping has a proven useful are: (1) The Corps of Engineers re positive benefit on economic development and can views and approves all applications for mining result in saving taxpayer money on the application permits and for other activities that might affect of government services. Though all geologic maps water quality in the Cumberland River basin. In eventually become obsolete, those of Kentucky will evaluating the permits, they use the geologic quad continue to be used beyond the turn of the century rangle maps extensively to determine the location and will continue to return benefits to citizens of of coal beds, the stability of slopes, and the most the State and Nation. suitable locations for holding ponds. (2) Project geologists have supplied information and assis tance to the U.S. Forest Service in the preparation REFERENCES and review of management plans for the Beaver Adkison, W. L., and Johnston, J. E., 1964, Geology of the Sal- Creek Wilderness Area in the Daniel Boone Na yersville North quadrangle, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-276. tional Forest. (3) The National Park Service has Alberstadt, L. P., 1979, The brachiopod genus Platystrophia used the geologic maps to determine local geologic from the Ordovician of Kentucky, in Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., conditions and land and mineral values in the Big Contributions to the Ordovician paleontology of Kentucky Smith Fork Public Reservation Area in southern and nearby States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1066-B, 20 p. Kentucky. Ball, B. M., 1979, Edrioasteroids (Echinodermata), in Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., Contributions to the Ordovician paleontology INDUSTRIAL LOCATION of Kentucky and nearby States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1066-E, 7 p. The State of Kentucky and local Chambers of Blade, L. V., 1966, Geologic map of parts of the Hamlin and Commerce have found the geologic maps of value Paris Landing quadrangles, western Kentucky: U.S. Geo in attracting industry. McGrain (1971) wrote the logical Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-498. following: Branson, E. R., 1966, Economic geology of Alien County, Ken tucky: Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Data derived from geologic mapping have been used by the Report 1, 22 p. Kentucky Department of Commerce, local chambers of com 1969, Economic geology of Simpson County, Kentucky: merce, and consulting engineers for the evaluation of industrial Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Report 3,20 p. 21 Branstrator, J. W., 1979, Ordovician Asteroidea (Echinoderm- Lewis, R. Q., Sr., and Thaden, R. E., 1963, Geology of the Col ata) from Kentucky, in Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., Contributions umbia quadrangle, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geo to the Ordovician paleontology of Kentucky and nearby logic Quadrangle Map GQ-249. States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1066-F, McGrain, Preston, 1968, Economic geology of Galloway County, 7 p. Kentucky: Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Re Cressman, E. R., 1973 [1974], Lithostratigraphy and deposition- port 2, 35 p. al environments of the Lexington Limestone (Ordovician) 1970, Economic geology of Marshall County, Kentucky: of central Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Report 5,33 p. Paper 768, 61 p. 1971, Geologic mapping provides key to environmental Fairer, G. M., 1973, Geologic map of the Robards quadrangle, and natural resources development in Kentucky: Kentucky Henderson and Webster Counties, Kentucky: U.S. Geologi Geological Survey, ser. 10,12 p. cal Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-1084. -1979, Economic geology of McCracken County, Kentucky: Finch, W. I., 1968, Engineering geology of the Paducah West Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Report 7,32 p. and Metropolis quadrangles in Kentucky: U.S. Geological McGrain, Preston, Schwalb, H. R., and Smith, G. E., 1970, Eco Survey Bulletin 1258-B, 19 p. nomic geology of Hancock County, Kentucky: Kentucky Froelich, A. J., 1970, Geologic setting of landslides along south Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Report 4, 24 p. slope of Pine Mountain, Kentucky: Highway Research McGrain, Preston, and Sutton, D. G., 1973, Economic geology of Record, no. 323, p. 1-5. Warren County, Kentucky: Kentucky Geological Survey, Froelich, A. J., Wolcott, D. E., Rice, C. L., and Maughan, E. K., ser. 10, County Report 6, 28 p. 1970, Preliminary geologic map of Pine Mountain in Har- Nichols, T. C., Jr., 1968, Engineering geology of the Paducah lan, Letcher, and Pike Counties, Kentucky: U.S. Geological East quadrangle in Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Bul Survey Open-file Report, 8 p. letin 1258-A, 13 p. Gildersleeve, Benjamin, 1966, Geologic map of the Homer Olive, W. W., and Finch, W. I., 1969, Stratigraphic and mineral- quadrangle, Logan County, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Sur ogic relations, and ceramic properties of clay deposits of vey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-549. Eocene age in the Jackson Purchase region, Kentucky, and Hagan, W. W., 1961, Progress report of Kentucky areal geologic in adjacent parts of Tennessee: U.S. Geological Survey Bul mapping program, in McGrain, Preston, and Crawford, letin 1282, 35 p. T. J., eds., Proceedings of the technical session, Ken Palmer, J. E., 1967, Geologic map of the Saint Charles quad tucky Oil and Gas Association, 25th annual meeting, rangle, Hopkins and Christian Counties, Kentucky: U.S. June 1-2,1961: Kentucky University Special Publication 4, Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-674. p. 11-20. 1968, Geologic map of the Nortonville quadrangle, Hop- Harrison, J. M., 1963, Nature and significance of geologic maps, kins and Christian Counties, Kentucky: U.S. Geological in Albritton, C. C., ed., The fabric of geology: Reading, Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-762. Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley, p. 225-232. Pinckney, D. M., 1976, Mineral resources of the Illinois- Hopkins, J. T., Jr., 1969, Cartographic activities of the geologic Kentucky mining district: U.S. Geological Survey Profes mapping program in Kentucky, in Rose, W. D., ed., Pro sional Paper 970, 15 p. ceedings of the technical session, Kentucky Oil and Gas Pojeta, John, Jr., 1979, Introduction, in Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., Association, 32d annual meeting, June 6-7,1968: Kentucky Contributions to the Ordovician paleontology of Kentucky Geological Survey Special Publications 17, p. 78-82. and nearby States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 1977, Cartographic activities of the areal geologic map Paper 1066-A, 48 p. ping program of Kentucky: American Society of Cartogra Ross, R. J., Jr., 1979, Additional trilobites from the Ordovician phers Bulletin, v. 10, no. 1, p. 1-7. of Kentucky, in Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., Contributions to the Howe, H. J., 1979, Middle and upper Ordovician plectambon- Ordovician paleontology of Kentucky and nearby States: itacean, rhynchonellacean, syntrophiacean, and trimerel- U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1066-D, 13 p. lacean brachiopods from Kentucky, in Pojeta, John, Jr., Sheppard, R. A., 1964, Geology of the Portsmouth quadrangle, ed., Contributions to the Ordovician paleontology of Kentucky-Ohio, and parts of the Wheelersburg and New Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper Boston quandrangles, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey 1066-C, 18 p. Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-312. Johnson, W. D., Jr., 1973, Geologic map of the Delaware quad Sweet, W. C., 1979, Conodonts and conodont biostratigraphy of rangle, western Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic post-Tyrone Ordovician rocks of the Cincinnati region, in Quadrangle Map GQ-1087. Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., Contributions to the Ordovician pale Kehn, T. M., 1963, Geology of the Madisonville East quadrangle, ontology of Kentucky and nearby States: U.S. Geological Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Survey Professional Paper 1066-G, 26 p. Map GQ-252. Taylor, A. R., 1963, Geology of the Gradyville quadrangle, Ken 1964, Geology of the Madisonville West quadrangle, Ken tucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map tucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-233. GQ-346. Trace, R. D., 1962, Geology of the Salem quadrangle, Kentucky: Kehn, T. M., Palmer, J. E., and Franklin, G. J., 1967, Revised U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-206. correlation of the No. 4 (Dawson Springs No. 6) coal bed, 1974, Illinois-Kentucky fluorspar district, in Hutcheson, Western Kentucky coal field, in Geological Survey Re D. W., ed., A symposium on the geology of fluorspar; Forum search 1967: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper on geology of industrial minerals, 9th, Proceedings: Ken 575-C, p. C160-C164. tucky Geological Survey Special Publication 22, p. 58-76. Knight, H. E., 1976, Use of geologic maps for exploration for U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1960-1974, Minerals yearbook [annual energy and mineral resources: American Society of Car publication]: Washington, U.S. Government Printing tographers Bulletin, v. 9, no. 2, p. 1-9. Office, pages vary. 22 *U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981-361-614/275