sign in sign up
<<
Home , Awaous melanocephalus, Humboldtia laurifolia, Ichthyophis glutinosus, Mangifera, Mystus keletius, Notostigma

Marsland Press Journal of American Science 2009:5(2) 69-82

Analog forest’s contribution to conservation; a biodiversity assessment of an analog forest on a private property in south-western wet zone of

1Wasantha K.D.D. Liyanage, 2Saman N. Gamage, 1Lai Xulong, 1Julia Ellis Burnet

1School of Environmental Studies, University of Geosciences, 388, Lumo Road, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074ˈP.R. China. 2 Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Colombo, Colombo 03, Sri Lanka

Abstract Most natural ecosystems in the wet zone are severely fragmented and interspersed between human managed agro ecosystems and home gardens. There is growing evidence that traditional agro-ecosystems contribute to sustain the regional biodiversity of many invertebrate and vertebrate . Analog forests, as a concept, is accepted by agronomists and conservationists, bringing profits on a long-term, sustainable basis. Bangamukanda Estate is an example of an 18 hectares plantation (tea, rubber and cinnamon) that has been converted into an analog forest. The objective of the study was in assessing the current biodiversity in this 30-year-old analog forest with special reference to vertebrate species and major . A total of 197 plants species were recorded of which 63 were endemic to Sri Lanka. A sum of 207 vertebrates species belonging to 79 families were observed during the study period. From those, 48 species were endemic to Sri Lanka. The findings of the survey clearly highlight the contribution of analog forest systems towards sustaining a rich biodiversity. In addition, analog forest systems can be used to link the forest patches in the wet zone. [Journal of American Science 2009:5(2) 69-82] ( ISSN: 1545-1003)

Key words: Analog forest, biodiversity, critically endangered, fragmentation

1. Introduction (IUCN, 2004). Even though Sri Lanka’s Among all the biological resources of Sri biodiversity is thought to be very high, at present Lanka, forests are ecologically remarkable, only a small fraction of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity environmentally indispensable, socio- is known to science (Nekaris et al., 2005). Also, economically invaluable and culturally little information is available regarding the inseparable from the Sri Lankan traditional way affects of habitat disturbance on the fauna of Sri of life (Pemadasa, 1996). From a biological point Lanka. Sri Lanka also has one of the densest of view, wet zone forests are more important than human populations in Asia; which has resulted in others. The lowland wet zone of the island has much of its original forests being cleared for been identified with highest incidence of settlements, cultivation, and production of timber. biodiversity of Sri Lanka (Pethiyagoda, 1994), Hence, the lowland forests of the wet zone, and a high percentage of endemism. However, a which harbours 90% of the 830 endemic majority of these species are listed as threatened flowering plants, have suffered the greatest loss (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1990). A

69 Analog forest’s contribution to biodiversity conservation Wasantha K.D.D. Liyanage et al. burgeoning population, demand for subsistence habitat loss and fragmentation due to their land and a high proportion of endangered and highly specific habitat requirements, and in endemic species within the wet zone of Sri Lanka many cases they have limited ability to move have resulted in its being declared a critically through and utilize the land use matrix endangered eco-region; designated as one of the (McAlpinea et al., 2006). world’s 11 biodiversity ‘hyperhot’ hotspots in In recent decades, sustainable farmers and demand of extensive conservation investment researchers around the world have responded to (Brookes et al., 2002; Nekaris et al., 2005). the extractive industrial model with ecology These wet zone ecosystems harbour a based approaches variously called high percentage of endemic and globally eco-agriculture, agro-forestry or analog forest threatened species of as well. (Earles, 2005). Non-farmed portions of the According to the previous studies conducted mainly agricultural landscapes can provide by Senanayake and Moyle (1981); Erdelen patches of habitat for forest wildlife and form (1989); Kortmulder et al. (1990) and corridors that connect protected areas and allow Pethiyagoda (1994), 29 endemic fish species species to continue genetic contact with are present in this region of which 20 are populations as would have occurred if not restricted to this area. Pethiyagoda and isolated (Scherr and Shames 2006). There is Manamendra-Arachchi (1998) and growing evidence that traditional Manamendra- Arachchi and Pethiyagoda agro-ecosystems contribute to sustain the (2005) noted that most of Sri Lanka’s regional biodiversity of many invertebrate and fauna is faced with the risk of vertebrate species (Lawler, 2001). extinction due to the loss and fragmentation of Vast extents of Sri Lanka's biodiversity their habitat as well as habitat quality rich lands that were transformed into degradation due to pollution. Many species mono-crop plantations during the colonial era known from 19th century museum collections are regenerating in many places due to various are not recorded during present surveys and reasons, both natural and anthropogenic. are probably extinct (Meegaskumbura et al., Bangamukanda Estate is an example of an 18 2002). Two primate taxa, Semnopithecus hectares plantation land (tea, rubber and vetulus nester, and Loris tardigradus cinnamon) that has been deliberately nycticeboides are endemic to the reclaimed as an analog forest as a direct result south-western wet zone forests of Sri Lanka of the far sighted, land use policy of Sri Lanka and categorized as a critically endangered during 1970 -1977, which introduced crop species and it’s also listed as one of the top diversification in uneconomic tea plantations. 25 endangered primates in the world due to Bangamukande Estate is situated in Pitigala, habitat loss (Mittermeir et al. 2006). The loss Galle, Sri Lanka. The land is formed into an and fragmentation of forest habitats by human undulating terrain that consists of a series of land use are recognized as important factors ridges and valleys with an altitudinal range influencing the decline of forest-dependent from 100m to 300m. It has an intricate fauna. Many forest dependant mammal species, network of small streams, which drain into the other than bats, are particularly sensitive to Benthara River. In 1904 ancestors of the

70 Marsland Press Journal of American Science 2009:5(2) 69-82 present owner planted agricultural mono-crops average annual rainfall, average temperature such as cinnamon, rubber, and tea. This and relative humidity are 2300mm, 280C and practice was continuing up to 1973. It was 90% respectively. Approximate distances from changed in 1973 and 12 hectares of cinnamon BKE to the larger forest complexes are as and tea land was transferred to analogue forest follows: using a government subsidy, under crop To South 4 km Polgahakande-Malabure diversification of uneconomic tea lands. The forest reserve remaining rubber field of 6 hectares is To East 1 km Hiniduma forest reserve presently been allowed to regenerate into To Southwest 8 km Beraliya forest reserve forestland while been cropped (Wimalasuriya, To Southeast 100 m Bangamukanda 2006). proposed forest Analog forest is a -dominated To Southeast 8 km Kannaliya-Dediyagala- ecosystem that is analogous in structure and Nakiyadeniya forest function to the original climax and sub-climax reserve community. With time, the natural succession To Northeast 12.5 km Sinharaja forest of any undisturbed forest community is to reserve World Heritage increase in diversity and stability until a highly site complex ecosystem or Climax State is reached. To North 11 km Kalugalkande Forest When an ecosystem is designed to mimic the Hermitage and reserve indigenous Climax State, the efficiency and Figure 1 shows the location of BKE and dynamics of the natural processes can be surrounding forests. replicated; such forests are referred to as analog forests. As well to their ecological distinctiveness, analog forests are considered to provide economic benefits. A wide range of Sri Lanka supplies can be produced that may include: , nuts, herbs, cut flowers and cut-foliage, pharmaceuticals and timber. Furthermore, this type of concept can be used to link the fragmented forest patches in the wet zone of Sri Lanka. BKE Therefore, the main objective of this study was to assess the biodiversity of this analog forest with special reference to the vertebrate fauna and major species. 2. Materials and methods Bangamukande Estate (BKE) is situated in Niyagama Divisional Secretate Area in

Galle District of Southern Province of Sri BKE Figure 1: Location of Bangamukanda Estate (BKE) and Lanka, at 060 20' 46" N - 0800 16' 26" E, The surrounding Forests

71 Analog forest’s contribution to biodiversity conservation Wasantha K.D.D. Liyanage et al.

Surveys were carried out dividing BKE all litter in the plot, tree trunks, branches, into 4 plots, in relationship to different levels under stones and logs (Heinen, 1992). In of regeneration. Vegetation sampling used the addition, fixed line transects were also used to Quadrant method; in addition each quadrant of assess the herpetofauna. 400 m2 was subdivided in to 25 grids of 4m x 2.2 Avifauna and Mammals 4m quadrants. Within each quadrate, all plants A fixed line transect method was used equal to and above 1 m in height and 2 cm in assess avifaunal and mammal richness of the girth size were listed. Individuals with study site (Sutherland, 1996). Day and night (CBH)>10cm were measured and recorded as surveys were conducted between August 2003 . Vines occurring on trees were described and April 2006. Field observation was carried qualitatively. out at 6.30 am to 9.00 am and 4.00 pm to 6.00 Different methodologies were used to pm. Furthermore, night observations were assess the vertebrate fauna in BKE, including carried out between 7.00 pm to 10 pm and systematic line transect surveys of primates, 2.00 am to 6.00 am. Headlamps were used to recording of the presence of species spot animals at night and red lights were used whenever they were seen, and a trapping to prevent the animals from been frightened. regime for rodents (Shermann traps), arboreal Nocturnal animals were identified according to rodents (Chardonnet traps) and slender lorises colour, size and shape of eye shine and eye (live mammal traps). Invertebtrates were movement. Transects were surveyed by one or excluded from the survey and fish were only two people at a speed of 0.5 to 1 km/hr, sampled at two sites. , many of depending on time of the day at which survey which occur in the treetops and were was conducted (day or night) and depending only sampled opportunistically. The following on the terrain and weather conditions. methods were applied for sampling different 2.3 Identification taxa: Vertebrates species were identified using 2.1 Herpetofauna the most recent taxonomic keys or guides Quadrate sampling was the main method available such as; Freshwater fish: used for herpetofauna. It involves placing Pethiyagoda (1991), Pethiyagoda (1998); small quadrates at randomly selected sites Amphibians: Dutta and within a habitat and thoroughly searching Manamendra-Aarachchi (1996), Manamendra- these squares for presence of herpetofauna Arachchi and Pethiyagoda (1998), (Heinen, 1992). A total of 18 quadrates (8 x 8 Manamendra- Arachchi and Pethiyagoda m) were placed at randomly selected points of (2005), Meegas- kumbura and each study site. When placing quadrates, areas Manamendra-Arachchi (2005); Reptiles: De with a deep slope or areas adjacent to tree-fall Silva (1990), Pethiyagoda and gaps were omitted. A polythene fence (45cm Manamendra-Arachchi, (1998); Birds: Henry height) was placed along the sides of the (1978), Kotagama and Fernando (1993); quadrate to prevent animals from escaping. At Mammals: Phillips (1980), Corbet and Hill least two people were engaged in all sampling (1992), Groves (2001). Furthermore, sessions. Sampling involved sorting through Bambaradeniya eds. (2006) was used for

72 Marsland Press Journal of American Science 2009:5(2) 69-82 confirmation of nomenclature. to Sri Lanka (table 1). The species list is 3. Results composed of amphibians (17 species), A total of 197 plants species were (25 species), tetra pods reptiles (17 species), recorded (Appendix 1) of which 63 (39%) fish (23 species), birds (90 species) and were endemic while 75 species are used for mammals (34 species). Fresh water fish had medicinal purposes. From animal species the highest number of endemism (48%). The recorded (Appendix 2-6), 207 vertebrates overall endemism was also high (23%). species belonging to 79 families were observed from which 48 species are endemic Table 1: Recorded number of vertebrate species, families and endemism % in the each group during the study period.

Taxa No. of Species No. of families No. of spp. Endemic & % Plants 197 63 63 (39%) Fish 23 8 11 (48%) Amphibians 17 4 7 (24%) Snakes 25 5 6 (24%) Tetrapod Reptiles 17 5 7 (41%) Birds 90 39 12 (13%) Mammals 34 18 5 (15%) Total Vertebrates 207 79 48 (23%)

Table 2 shows the conservation status of several threatened species found in the study site of which two were vulnerable, five were 4. Discussion endangered, one was critically endangered and The results indicate that the BKE analog one was data deficient.This critically forest is an agro-ecosystem that sustains a high endangered frog (Philatus nemus) is a newly species richness of plants and vertebrate fauna. described species and previously it was only A variety of methods targeting different groups found in Hiniduma forest reserve of Sri Lanka. enabled the documentation of BKE Table 2: Conservation statuses of some biodiversity as expressed in terms of species threaten species, which were found in richness. The total vertebrate richness shows Bangamukanda Estate. the BKE maintains high species diversity. In addition to the species richness, the study site Species Conservation status Polipedates longinasus Endangered is providing niches for a large number of Polypedates eques Endangered endemic vertebrates. The results clearly show Philatus nemus Critically- that agro-forestry systems are closer to natural Endangered conditions in maintaining high biodiversity. Nanophrys ceylonensis Vulnerable Lepidocephalichthys jonklaasi Endangered Furthermore, the study site is providing niches Sicyopus jonkalaasi Data deficient for 9 globally threatened species of which one Loris tardigradus tardigradus Endangered is critically endangered. This clearly shows the Semnopithecus vetullus vetullus Endangered Macaca sinica aurifrons Vulnerable importance of this ecosystem. Most birds and mammals species used the estate as a

73 Analog forest’s contribution to biodiversity conservation Wasantha K.D.D. Liyanage et al. temporary refugia or feeding area, while they the Indomalayan Region: A systematic move from one forest patch to another. Thus, Review. Oxford University, Oxford, UK. these results demonstrate the advantages of De Silva A. (1990). Colour Guide to the using such type of systems for connecting Snakes of Sri Lanka. R & A Publishing forest patches in the country. Ltd., Avon, England, 130pp. 5. Conclusion Dutta, S.K., & Manamendra-Arachchi, K. According to the results can conclude the (1996). The Amphibian fauna of Sri analog forest systems are sustaining high level Lanka. Wildlife Heritage trust of Sri of vertebrate diversity and endemism. As a concept, the analog forestry systems are Lanka, Colombo, 280pp. biodynamic and environmentally friendly Dutta, S.K., & Manamendra-Arachchi, K. (Earles, 2005). The results were agreed to this (1996) The Amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka. concept. The findings of the survey clearly Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, highlight the contribution of the analog forest Colombo. 280 P. systems towards sustaining a rich biodiversity. Earles, R. (2005). Sustainable Agriculture: An Further, such agro-ecosystems can be used to Introduction Publication of ATTRA, the link the forest patches in the area. National Sustainable Agriculture Acknowledgements Information Service. USA. We wish to acknowledge Mr. Sunil Erdelen, W. (1989) Aspects of the Wimalasuriya and members of LORRIS (Land Owners Restore Rainforests In Sri Lanka) and biogeography of Sri Lanka. Forschungee BEOG (Bangamukande Environmental Aug. Ceylon. 3: 73-100. Observation Group) for invaluable assistance Groves, P.C. (2001). Primate . provided in the field. We thank the Chinese Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington Scholarship Council for granting a scholarship D.C. and other facilities. Also a word of gratitude goes to the International corporation office of Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. and Gunatilleke, C.V.S. the China University of Geosciences for all the (1990). Distribution of floristic richness care and advice. and its conservation in Sri Lanka. References Conservation Biology, 4(1): 21-30. Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (Edited). (2006). Henry, G.M. (1971). A guide to the Birds of Fauna of Sri anka: status of Taxonomy, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) with 30 half-tone Research & Conservation. The World plates of which 27 are coloured and 136 Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka black and white drawings. (2nd edition). & Government of Sri Lanka. Viii + 308pp. K.V.G. de Silva & Sons, , Ceylon Brookes, T.M., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, (Sri Lanka). 457pp. C.G., Da Fonseca, G.A.B., Rylands, A.B., Heinen, J.H. (1992). Comparisons of the leaf Konstant, W.R., Flick, P., Pilgrim, J., litter herpetofauna in abundoned cacao Oldfield, S., Magin, G. & Hilton-Taylor, C. plantaions and primary rain forest in (2002) Habitat loss and extinction in the Costa Rica: some implications for faunal hotspots of biodiversity. Conservation restoration. Biotropica 24(3): 431-439. Biology. 16(4): 909-923. IUCN (2004) IUCN red list of threatened Corbert, G.B. & Hill, J.E. (1992). Mammals of

74 Marsland Press Journal of American Science 2009:5(2) 69-82 species, 2004. http://www.iucn.org Meegaskumbura, M., & Kortmulder, K., Padmanadhan K.G. & de Silva, Manamendra-Arachchi, K. (2005). S.S. (1990). Pattern of distribution and Description of eight new species of shrub endemism in some cyprinid fishes, as frogs (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae: Philautus) determined by the geomorphology of From Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of South-west Sri Lanka and soth Kerala Zoology, Supplement No. 12: 305-338. (). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwater. 1(2): Mittermeier, R.A., Valladares-Pádua, C., Rylands, 97-112. A.B., Eudey, A.A., Butynski, T.M., Kotagama, S.W. & Fernando, P. (1992). A field Ganzhorn, J.U., Kormos, R., Aguiar, J.M., guide to the birds of Sri Lanka. Wildlife and Walker, S. (2006). Primates in Peril: The Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo 8, World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates, 2004–2006. Primate Conservation. 20: 1–28 Srilanka. 226pp. Nekaris, K.A.I., Liyanage, W.K.D.D. & Lawler, S. P. (2001). Rice fields as temporary Gamage, S.N. (2005) Influence of forest wetlands: A review. Israel J. of Zoology, structure and floristic composition on 47 (3), 513-528. population density of the red Slender Manamendra-Arachchi, K., & Pethiyagoda, R. Loris (Loris tardigradus tardigradus) in (1998). A synopsis of Sri Lankan Masmullah proposed forest reserve, Sri Bufonidae (Amphibia: Anura) with Lanka. Mammalia. 69(2): 201-210. discription of new species. J. South Asian Pemadasa, M.A. (1996) The green mantle of Nat. Hist., 3(1), 213-247. Sri Lanka. National Library Services Manamendra-Arachchi, K., & Pethiyagoda, R. Board, Sri Lanka. 242 P. (2005). The Sri Lankan shrub-frogs of Pethiyagoda, R. (1991) Fresh water fishes of Philautus Gistel., 1848 (Ranidae: Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Rhacophorinae), with discription of 27 Lanka. 362p new species. The Raffles Bulletin of Pethiyagoda, R. (1994) Threats to the Zoology, Supplement No. 12: 163-303. indigenous fresh water fishes of Sri Lanka McAlpinea, C.A., Rhodesa, J.R., Callaghanc, & remarks on their conservation. J.G., Bowena, M.E.,  Lunneyd, D., Hydrobiologia. 285: 189-201. Mitchellc, D.L., Pullara, D.V. & Possingham, Pethiyagoda, R. (1998). Freshwater fishes of H.P. (2006) The importance of forest area Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust, and configuration relative to local habitat Colombo. xiv+362pp. factors for conserving forest mammals: A Pethiyagoda, R. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K. case study of koalas in Queensland, (1998) Evaluating Sri Lanka’s amphibian Australia. Biological Conservation 132: diversity. Occasional Papers, Wildlife 153-165. Heritage Trust, Colombo. 2:1-12. Meegaskumbura, M., Bossuyt, F., Pethiyagoda, Pillips, W.A.A. (1981). Manual of the Mamals R., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Bahir, M., of Sri Lanka. Wildlife and Nature Milinkovitch, M.C., & Schneider, C.J. Protection Society of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). (2002) Sri Lanka: An Amphibian Hot Spot. Colombo. Vol. I, II, & III. The Ecology. Scherr, S.J. & Shames, S. (2006). Agriculture: a

75 Analog forest’s contribution to biodiversity conservation Wasantha K.D.D. Liyanage et al.

threat or promise for biodiversity Sutherland, J.W. (1996). Ecological census conservation. Arborvitæ The IUCN/WWF techniques. Cambridge University Forest Conservation Newsletter. Press.UK. 336pp. Senanayake, F.R., & Moyle, P.B. (1981) Wimalasuriya, S.H. (2006) Resurrecting Razed Conservation of freshwater fishes of Sri Rainforests. Part 1. Wimalasuriya Lanka. Biological Conservation. 22: Property Developers, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 181-195. 35 pp.

Appendix 1: List of plants species observed at BKE (*denotes endemic species)

ORDER: Angiospermae Family: Acanthaceae 24. Lobelia nicotinifolia 1. Strobilanthes calycina Family: Celastraceae 2. S. cordifolium 25. *Bhesa zelanica 3. Asystasia gangetica Family: Clusiaceae 4. Justicia adhatoda 26. Calophyllum thwaitesii 5. Ecobolium ligustrinum 27. C. trapazifolium Family: 28. C. bracteatum 6. Semecarpus mooni 29. C. soulattri 7. *S. nigro-viridis 30. C. inophyllum 8. *S. subpeltata 31. Garcinia terpnophylla 9. * 32. G. quaesita 10. 33. G.. morella 11. *Campnosperma Zelanica 34. Mesua ferrea Family: Annonaceae Family: 12. *Xylopia championii 35. bellirica 13. *Cyathocalyx zeylanica Family: Concolvulacea 14. X. Parvifolia 36. Operculina tuepethum Family: Apocynaceae 37. Ipomoea obscura 15. Alastonia macrophilla Family: Connaraceae 16. A.Scholaris 38. Rourea minor 17. Pagiantha dichotoma Family: Dilleniaceae Family: Araceae 39. Dillenia triquetra 18. Pathos scandens 40. *D. retusa Family: Asclepiadaceae 41. Schumacheria castaneifolia 19. Tylophora indica Family: Dioscoreaceae Family: Bombacaceae 42. Dioscorea spicata 20. Bombax ceiba Family: Dipterocarpacea 21. Ceiba pentandra 43. *Diptherocapus zelanicas 22. *Cullenia zeylanica 44. D. hispidus Family: Burseraceae 45. D. gardneri 23. *Canarium zelanicas 46. Shorea megistophylla Family: Campanulaceae 47. Stemonoporus canaliculatus

76 Marsland Press Journal of American Science 2009:5(2) 69-82 48. Vateria copallifera 81. *Strychnos cinnamomifolia Family: Ebanaceae 82. Gaerinera vaginans 49. Diospyros atrata Family: 50. D. quaesita 83. *Axinandra zeylanica Family: Elaeocarpaceae 84. * octandra 51. Elaeocarpus subvillosus 85. O, aspera Family: Euphorbiaceae 86. Melastoma malabathricum 52. Bridelia retusa 87. Lijndenia capitellata 53. *B. moonii Family: Meliaceae 54. P. indicus 88. *Dysoxylum championii 55. Croton officinalis 89. Swinitenia macrophylla 56. Chaetocarpus castanocarpus 90. Toona sinensis 57. *Fahrenheitia zelanicas Family: Menispermaceae 58. Macaranga peltata 91. Coscinium fenestratum 59. Digina 92. Tinospora malabarica 60. Hevea braziliensis 93. Cyclea burmanni 61. Aporosa cardiosperma Family: Minomiaceae 94. Hortonia floribunda Family: 62. Albizia falcataria Family: Moraceae 63. mooniana 95. *Artocarpus nobilis 64. laurifolia 96. A. heterophyllus Family: Flacourtiaceae 97. A.altilis 65. *Scolopia schreberi 98. Ficus elastica 66. *Erithrospermum zeylanicum 99. F. h isp ida 67. *Homalium Zeylanicum 100. F. nervosa Family: Hippocrateaceae 101. F. fergusonii 68. Salacia reticulata 102. F. tsiela Family: Lamiaceae Family: Myristicaceae 69. Pogostemon heyneanus 103. *Horsfieldia iryaghedhi Family: Lauraceae 104. H. iriya 70. Cinnamonum verum 105. *Myristica dactyloides 71. C. dubium Family: Myrtaceae 72. Multiflorum 106. Syzygium firmum 73. Litseifolium 107. S. opperculatum 74. L. gardeneri 108. *S. makul Family: Leguminosae 109. S. aromaticum 75. Adenanthera aglaosperma Family: Ochnaceae 76. Pongamia pinnata 110. *Ochnacseae jabotapita 77. Quassia inidica 111. O. lanceolata 78. Dalbergia pseudosis Family: Olacaceae 79. Puereria phasioloides 112. *Olax zeylanica Family: Liliaceae Family: Oleaceae 80. *Sansevieria zelanica 113. Olea glandulifera Family: Loganiaceae Family: Orchidaceae

77 Analog forest’s contribution to biodiversity conservation Wasantha K.D.D. Liyanage et al. 114. Dendrobium maccarthiae 140. Filicium decipiens Family: Palmae 141. Dimocarpus longan 115. Areca catechu 142 Nephelium lappaceum 116. Caryota rivalus Family: Sapotaceae 117. *C. zeylanicus 143. Isonandra compta 118. C. urenus Family: Simaroubaceae Family: Pandanaceae 144. Quassia indica 120. Pandanus thwaitesii Family: Smilacaceae 121. *P. Zeylanicus 145. *Smilax zelanica Family: Passifloraceae 122. Adenia palmate Family: Staphyleaceae Family: Piperaceae 146. Turpinia malabarica 123. Piper sylvestre Family: Symplocaceae Family: Poaceaegramineae 147. Symplocos cochinchinensis 124. Ochalandra stridula Family: Theaceae 125. Bamboosa valgaris 148. Camellia sinensis Family: Potamogetonaceae Family: Thymelaeaceae 126. Potamegeton roxburgianus 149. Gyrinops walla Family: Rhamnaceae Family: Tiliaceae 127. Ziziphus oenoplia 150. Berrya cordifolia Family: Rhizophoraceae 151. Microcos paniculata 128. Anisophyllea cinnamomoides 152. Grewia orientalis 129. Carallia brachiata Family: Verbenaceae Family: Rosaceae 153. Tectona grandis 130. Gaertnera vaginans 154. Vitexr pinnata 131. Hedyotis fruticosa 155. Lantana camara 132. Mussaenda frondosa 156. Clerodendrum infortunatum 133. *Prunus walkeri Family: Vitaceae Family: Rubiaceae 157. Seratia pecata 134. Canthium dicocum Family: Zingiberaceae 135. Ophiorrhiza mungos 158. Costus sepicious Family: Rutaceae ORDER: Gymnospermae 136. *Micromelum minutum Family:Cyatheaceae 137. Acrenychia pedunculata 159. Cyathea hookeri 138. Euodia lunuankenda 160. Paathara Family: Sapindaceae 161. Kekilla 139. Harpullia arborea Appendix 2: List of fresh water fish observed at BKE (*denotes endemic species) Order: Elopiformes Family: Aplocheilidae Family: Balitoridae 1. Aplocheilus werneri Werner’s killifish 5. *Schistura notostigma Banded mountain Family: Anguillidae loach 2. Anguilla icolor Level finned eel Family: Cobitidae Family: 6. *Lepidocephalichthys jonklaasi Jonklas loach 3. gulio Long whiskered 7. Lepidocephalichthys thermalis Common spiny 4. Mystus keletius Yellow catfish loach 78 Marsland Press Journal of American Science 2009:5(2) 69-82 8. Danio malabaricus Giant danio 18. *Rasboroidus vaterifloris Golden rasbora 9. Esmos thermoicos Flying barb Family: Gobiidae 10. *Garra ceylonensis Stone sucker 19. melanocephalus Scribbled goby 11. Puntius amphibious Scarlet-banded barb 20. *Sicyopus jonkalaasi Lipstick goby 12. Puntius bimaculatus Redside barb Family: Belontiidae 13. *Puntius cumingii Cuming’s barb 21. *Belontia signata Comb-tail 14. *Puntius nigrofasciatus Black barb Family: Channidae 15. *Puntus sinhala Filamented barb 22. Channa gachua Brown snakehead 16. *Puntius tittaya Cherry barb 23. *Channa orientalis Smoothbrested snakehead 17. Rasbora daniconius Striped rasbora

Appendix 3: List of amphibians observed at BKE (*denotes endemic species) Order: Apoda 8. Hoplobatrachus crassus Jerdon’s bull frog Family: 9. Nanophrys ceylonensis Sri Lankan rock frog 1. glutinosus Common yellow-band 10.*Lankanectus corrugatus Corrugated water frog cecillian 11.Euphlyctis hexadactylus Indian green frog Order: ANURA 12.Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis Skipper frog Family: Bufonidae – terrestrial frogs Family: Rhacophoridae – arboreal frogs 2. Bufo melanostictus Common house toad 13.*Polypedates eques Saddled tree frog 3. *Bufo atukoralei Athukorala’s toad 14.* Polypedates cruciger Common hourglass Family: Ranidae – aquatic frogs treefrog 4. Rana aurantiaca Golden frog 15.*Polipedates longinasus Long-snouted tree frog 5. R.ana temporalis Bronzed frog 16.*Philatus. folicla Anthropogenic shrub frog 6. Fejervarya kirthisinghe Kirtisinghe’s frog 17.*Philatus. nemus Southern shrub frog 7. Fejervarya limnocharis Common paddy field frog

Appendix 4: List of reptiles observed at BKE Order: Serpentes 14. Dendrelaphis bifrenalis Bronze back Family: Boidea 15. Dendrelaphis tristis Common bronze back 1. Python molurus Rock python 16. Dryocalamus nympha Bridal Family: Elapidae 17. Coelognathus helena Trinket snake 2. Naja naja naja Indian cobra 18. Lycodon aulicus Wolf snake 3. * Bungarus ceylonicus Ceylon krait 19. Lycodon striatus Shaw’s wolf snake Family: 20. Ptyas mucosus maximus Rat snake 4. *Xenochrophis asperrimus Checkered keel back 21. arnensis Common kukri 5. Xenochrophis piscator Checkered keel back Family: Uropeltidae 6. *Baloniphis ceylonensis Sri Lankan Keelback 22. *Cylindrophis maculata Pipe snake 7. *Aspidura brachyorrhos Boie’s roughside 8. Amphiesma stolata Buff-stripped keel back 9. Oligodon sublineatus Streaked Kukri Snake 10. Ahaetulla nasutus Green vine snake Family: Viperidae 11. Boiga ceylonensis Sri Lanka cat snake 23. Hypnale hypnale Hump-nosed 12. Boiga forsteni Forsten’s catsnake viper 13. Chrysopelea ornata Gold & black tree 24. *Trimeresurus trigonocephalus Green pit viper snake 25. Daboia russellii Russell’s viper

79 Analog forest’s contribution to biodiversity conservation Wasantha K.D.D. Liyanage et al. Order: Sauria 10. *Lankascincus gansi Gans’s lanka skink Family: Agamidae Family: Varanidae 1. Calotes calotes Green garden lizard 11. Varanus bengalensis Land monitor 2. Calotus versicolor house lizard 12. Varanus salvator Water monitor 3. *Calotus liolepis Whistling lizard Family: Gekkonidae 4. *Ceratophora aspera Rough-horn lizard 13. Cnemaspis podihuna Small Day Gecko 5. *Otocryptis wiegmanni Kangaroo lizard 14. Hemidactylus frenatus Asian House Gecko 6. *Lyriocephalus scutatus Hump-nosed lizard 15. Hemidactylus brooki Brooke’s House Gecko Family: Scincidae 16. Gehyra mutilata Four-clawed Gecko 7. Mabuya carinata Rat snake skink Family: Trionychidae 8. *Nessia burtoni Three-toe snakeskink 17. Lissemys punctata Flapshell turtle 9. *Lankascincus fallax Common Lanka skink

Appendix 5: List of birds species observed at BKE (*denotes endemic species) Order: Pelicaniformes 19. P.cyanocephala Plum headed parakeet Family: Phalacrocoracidae 20. *Loriculus beryllinus Sri Lankan hanging parrot 1. Phalacrocorax niger Little cormorant Order: Cuculiformes Order: Ciconiformes Family: Cuculidae Family: Ardeidae 21. Eudynamys scolopacea Asian Koel 2. Bubulcus ibis Cattle egret 22. Centropus sinensis Greater coucal 3. Egretta garsetta Little egret 23. *C chlororhynchus Green billed coucal 4. Ardeola grayii Indian pond heron Order: Strigiformes Order: Falconiformes Family: Tytonidae Family: Accipitridae 24. Bubo nipelensis Spot bellied eagle owl 5. Ictinaetus malayenisi Black eagle 25.*Glaucidium castanontum Chestnut backed owlet 6. Haliastur indus Brahmini kite Family: Strigidae 7. Spizaetus cirrhatus Changeble hawk eagle 26. Strix letogrammica Brown wood owl 8. Spilornis cheela 27. Ketupa zelanicas 9. Accipiter bandius Shikra Order: Caprimulgiformes Order: Galiformes Family: Podargidae Family: Phasianidae 28. Batrachostomus monilieger Frog mouth 10. *Gallus lafayetii Sri Lankan junglefowl Order: Apodiformes 11. *Galloperdix bicalcarata Sri Lankan spurfowl Family: Apodidae Order: Gruiformes 29. Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian palm swift Family: Rallidae Family: Hemiprocnidae 12. Amaurornis phoenicurus White breasted water hen 30. Hemiprocne coronata Crested tree swift Order: Columbiformes Order: Trogoniformes Family: Columbidae Family: Trogonidae 13. Chalcophaps indica Emerald dove 31. Harpactes faciatus Malabar trogon 14. Ducula aenea Green imperial pigeon Order: Coraciformes 15. Treron bisenta Orange breasted green pigeon Family: Alcedinidae 16. T. Pompadora Pompadour green pigeon 32. Ceyx erithacus Oriental dwarf kingfisher 17. Streptopelia chinensis Spotted dove 33. Alcedo atthis Common kingfisher Order: Psittaciformes 34. Halcyon smyrnensis White breasted kingfisher Family: Psittacidae Family: Meropidae 18. Psittacula krameri Rose ringed parakeet 35. Merops philippinus Blue tailed bee-eater 80 Marsland Press Journal of American Science 2009:5(2) 69-82 36. Merops leschenaultia Chestnutheaded bee-eater 63. Hypothymis azurea Black-naped Monarch Family: Coraciidae 64. Copsychus saularis Oriental magpie robin 37. Eurystomus orientalis Dollar bird 65. Cyornis tickelliae Tickell’s blue Family: Bucerotidae flycatcher 38. *Ocyceros gingalensis Gray hornbill Family: Rhipiduridae Order: Piciformes 66. Rhipidura aureola White browed fantail Family: Capitonidae Family: Sittidae 39. Megalaima zelanica Brown headed barbet 67. Sitta frontalis Velvet fronted nuthatch 40.*M. rubricapilla Crimson fronted barbet Family: Silviidae 41.*M, flavifrons Yellow fronted barbet 68. Orthotomus sutorius Common tailerbird Family: Picidae 69. Phylloscopus trochiloides Greenish tree warbler 42. Chrysocolaptes lucidus Greater flamback 70. P. magnirostris Large-billed leaf warbler 43. Pitta brachyura Indian pitta 71. Turdoides affinis Yellow billed babbler 44. Dendrocopos nanus Pigmy woodpecker 72. Rhopocichla atriceps Dark fronted babbler 45. Dinopium benghalense Red backed woodpecker 73. *Pellorneum fuscocapillum Brown capped babbler Order: Passeriformes 74. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Scimitar Babbler Family: Motacillidae Family: Paridae 46.Dendronantus indicus forest wagtail 75. Parus major Great tit Family: Hirundinidae Family: Dicaeidae 47. Hirundo daurica Red rumped swallow 76. Zosterops palpebrosa Oriental white-eye Family: Campephagidae 77. *Dicaeum vincens Legge’s flowerpecker 48. Pericrocotus flammeus Scarlet minivet 78. Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Small flowerpecker 49. P. cinnamomeus Small minivet Family: Nectarinidae Family: Pycnonotidae 79. Nectarinia zeylanica Purple rumped sunbird 50. Hypspetes leucocephalus Black bulbul 80. Nectarinia lotenia Long billed sunbird 51. *Pycnonotus melanicterus Black crested bulbul 81. Nectarinia asiatica Purple sunbird 52. Pycnonotus cafer Red vented bulbul Family: Zosteropidae 53. Pycnonotus luteolus White browed bulbul 82. Zosteropes palpebrosus Small white-eye 54. Iole indica Yellow browed bulbul Family: Sturnidae Family: Passeridae 83. Acridotheres tristis Common myna 55. Lonchura striata White-rumped Muniya 84. Gracula religiosa Hill myna 56. Lonchura punctulata Scaly-breasted Muniya 85. *G ptilogenys Sri Lankan myna Family: Irenidae Family: Oriolidae 57. Chloropsis cochinchinensis Blue winged leafbird 86. Oriolus xanthornus Black headed oriel 58. Chloropsis aurifrons Gold fronted leafbird Family: Dicruridae 59. Aegithina tiphia Common iora 87. Dicrurus caerulescens White bellied drongo Family: Laniidae 88. Dicrurus paradisius lophorhinus Crested drongo 60. Lanius cristatus cristatus Brown shrike Family: Artamidae Family: Muscicapidae 89. Artamus fuscus Ashy wood swallow 61. Muscicapa daurica Asian brown flycatcher Family: Corvidae 62. Terpsiphone paradisi Asian paradise 90. Crovos macrohynches Jungle crow flycatcher

Appendix 6: List of mammals observed at BKE (*denotes endemic species) Order: Chiroptera Family: Pteropidae

81 Analog forest’s contribution to biodiversity conservation Wasantha K.D.D. Liyanage et al. 1. Cynopterus sphinx Short-nosed fruit bat 19.Vandeleuria oleracea Long-tailed tree mouse 2. Pteropus giganteus Flying fox Family: Hystricidae Family: Emballonuridae 20. Hystrix indica Porcupine 3. Taphozous melanopogon Black-bearded sheath- Order: Pholidota tailed bat Family: Manidae Family: Rhinolophidae 21. Manis crassicaudata Indian Pangolin 4. Rhinolophus rouxi Rufus horseshoe bat Order: Lagomorpha 5. Hipposideros lankadiva Great leaf-nosed bat Family: Leporidae Family: Vespertilionidae 22. Lepus nigricollis Black-Napped Hare 6. Pipistrellus ceylonicus Kelaart’s pipistrel Order: Carnivora 7. Kirivoula pictus Painted bat Family: Viverridae Order: Primata 23. Viverricula indica Ring-tailed civet Family: Loridae 24.Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Palm cat 8.*Loris tardigradus tardigradus S.L.Red slender 25.*Paradoxurus zeylonensis Golden palm civet Loris Family: Cercopithecidae Family: Herpestidae 9. *Macaca sinica aurifrons Dusky toque macaque 26. Herpestes brachyurus Brown mongoose 10.*Semnopithecus vetullus vetullus Purple faced leaf 27. Herpestes smithii Black-tipped monkey mongoose Order: Rodentia Family: Felidae Family: Sciuridae 28. Prionailurus rubiginosa Rusty-Spotted Cat 11. Funambulus palmarum Palm squirrel 29. Panthera pradus kotiya Leopard 12. Funambulus layardi Flame-striped jungle squirrel 30.Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing cat 13. Funambulus sublineatus Dusky-striped jungle Family: Mustelidae squirrel 31. Lutra lutra Otter 14.Ratufa macroura melanochra Black and yellow Family: Canidae giant squirrel 32. Canis aureus Jackal Family: Muridae Order: Artiodactyla 15. Bandicota indica Malabar bandicoot Family: Suidae 16. Mus booduga Field mouse 33. Sus scrofa Wild boar 17. Mus musculus Indian house mouse Family: Tragulidae 18.Rattus rattus Common house rat 34. Moschiola meminna Mouse deer

82