RELIGIOUS MEDIA USE AND AUDIENCE’S KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE, AND BEHAVIOR: THE ROLES OF FAITH MOTIVATION, PROGRAM APPEALS, AND DUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING

Kisung Yoon

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

May 2011

Committee:

Dr. Louisa Ha, Advisor

Dr. Lance Massey Graduate Faculty Representative

Dr. Gi Woong Yun

Dr. Sung-Yeon Park

ii

ABSTRACT

Dr. Louisa Ha, Advisor

The effect of religious media is a controversial topic of debates among religious media practitioners, theologians, and ministers in religious communities because they differently understood the roles of religious media on audience members’ religious practice. Based on the uses and gratification (U&G) perspective, this dissertation investigated how audience members’ motivation to deepen their faith via religious media affects their religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavioral intention. This study examined (a) how religious media affect religious audience members, (b) how the effect differs in a various demographic and religious audience groups, such as education, income, the duration of audience members’ religious experience, their activeness in practicing their faith, and their motivation to deepen their faith, and (c) how the employment of the central vs. peripheral information processing strategies influences the outcomes of religious media use. This study proposed that the relationship between the faith motivation and the outcomes of religious drama exposure will be mediated by the employment of the information processing strategy in the elaboration likelihood model

(ELM).

A three-phase pre-test and post-test field experiment was conducted to trace the changes in participants’ religious knowledge, religious attitudes, and religious behavioral intention.

Participants watched one hour-long manipulated rational or emotional religious drama in their parishes. In data analysis, participants were divided into novice Catholics and experienced

Catholics, passive Catholics and active Catholics, and Catholics with low faith motivation and iii

those with high faith motivation to test the premises of the U&G and the ELM.

The results show that religious drama is an effective format in religious programming in

audience members’ religious knowledge increase, their religious attitude reinforcement, and their religious behavioral intention changes. Some demographic variables, such as education and household income, affect the outcome variables. The three faith related variables, (a) the duration of practicing faith, (b) audience members’ activeness in practicing faith, and (c) their motivation to deepen their faith via religious media, interact with one another and directly affect audience members’ religious knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention. Therefore, the moderating model explains the effects of religious drama exposure better than the mediating model. Theoretical and practical implication of this research is discussed. iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I, firstly, appreciate 240 participants who completed all three phases of the experiment. I remember a participant who could not understand the questionnaires. However, she continued to participate in this study with the help of another participant who explained the questions with simple words. This dissertation was possible because of 240 participants like the two. I also give thanks to the unknown numerous workers in religious media, who dedicate their lives to the production and distribution of religious programs as their vocations. I am thankful for the audience members of religious media. Without them, the religious media cannot exist.

I am indebted to my advisor and the committee chair, Dr. Louisa Ha, who encouraged me to develop my own research area and guided the course of writing my dissertation. My committee members, Dr. Gi Woong Yun, Dr. Sung-Yeon Park, and Dr. Lance Massey, deserve my cordial appreciation for their support and their invaluable comments. Dr. Yun provided me with the social scientific methodological ground and Dr. Park taught me the theoretical ground.

Because of them with other faculty members at Bowling Green State University, now I have a tool and a blueprint to develop my own study.

I have to thank Kyle Holody, a friend in my cohort who has studied and researched together with me for the last four years, for his proof-reading of the dissertation. Last but not the least, I give thanks and praise to Jesus Christ, who is the way, the truth, and the life. v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Research Problem ...... 1

The Catholic Church in South Korea ...... 5

Catholic Broadcasting in South Korea ...... 6

The Programming of PBC ...... 8

Religious Media and Atypical Programming ...... 9

Purpose of the Study ...... 10

Significance of This Study...... 13

Organization of the Dissertation ...... 16

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 17

Uses and Gratifications ...... 17

Religious Media Use and Its Outcomes ...... 23

Cognitive Information Processing of Media Content ...... 27

Religiosity ...... 30

Appeal Types ...... 32

Mediation of Information Processing Model...... 34

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH MODEL AND HYPOTHESES ...... 37

Research Questions for Immediate and Delayed Effects ...... 37

Effects of Demographic Variables ...... 38

Effects of Faith Variables...... 39

Effects of Faith Motivation on the Information Processing Strategy ...... 41

Effects of Experience on the Information Processing Strategy ...... 42 vi

Effects of Appeal Types on the Information Processing Strategy ...... 42

Effects of the Information Processing Strategy on Outcomes ...... 44

Mediation of Information Processing ...... 45

CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH METHOD ...... 46

Experimental Design ...... 46

Survey Instrument Development ...... 47

Experimental Procedure ...... 48

Stimulus ...... 48

Participants ...... 50

Manipulation Check ...... 51

Operationalization of Variables ...... 51

Passive Catholics and Active Catholics ...... 51

Faith Motivation ...... 52

Central Processing and Peripheral Processing ...... 52

Religious Knowledge ...... 53

Religious Attitude ...... 53

Religious Behavior ...... 54

Covariates ...... 54

Statistical Techniques ...... 55

CHAPTER V: RESULTS ...... 56

Profile of Participants ...... 56

Religion and Media Use Profile of Participants ...... 58

Missing Data ...... 62 vii

Data Examination and Scale Validation ...... 62

Multicollinearity ...... 65

Reliability ...... 66

Manipulation Check ...... 70

The Effects of Demographic Variables ...... 75

The Effects of Faith Variables ...... 76

Testing Effect Models of Religious Drama Exposure ...... 79

Testing Mediating Models of Religious Drama Exposure ...... 84

CHAPTER VI: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ...... 98

Effects of Religious Drama Exposure ...... 98

Different Effects of Religious Media on Audience Members ...... 104

The Roles of Audience Members’ Religious Experience and Faith Motivation ...... 106

The Roles of Audience Members’ Activeness and Information Processing Strategies ...... 108

Implications of the Study ...... 109

Theoretical Implications ...... 109

Practical Implications ...... 112

Limitations and Suggestions ...... 114

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 117

APPENDIX A: RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRES USED IN EXPERIMENT ...... 129

APPENDIX B: CONTENT OF RATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL APPEALS ...... 173

APPENDIX C: HSRB APPROVAL ...... 176

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Faith Motivation and Appeal Types...... 47

Table 2. Demographic Profile of Participants ...... 58

Table 3. Religion and Media Use Profile of Participants ...... 60

Table 4. Comparison between Low and High Likability ...... 61

Table 5. Normality of Distribution ...... 63

Table 6. Comparison between Novice and Experienced Catholics ...... 64

Table 7. Comparison between Passive and Active Catholics ...... 65

Table 8. Correlation between Experience and Activeness ...... 65

Table 9. Correlation of Activity, Faith Motivation, and Church Experience ...... 66

Table 10. Index Items in the Study ...... 67

Table 11. Reliability of the Scales ...... 68

Table 12. Immediate Religious Knowledge Change ...... 70

Table 13. Manipulation Check ...... 71

Table 14. Comparison between Female and Male in Perceived Appeal Types ...... 71

Table 15. Comparison between Low and High Faith Motivation in Perceived Appeal

Types ...... 71

Table 16. Immediate Effects ...... 72

Table 17. Immediate Religious Behavioral Intention Change in the Practice of

Christian Values (Factor 1) and Learning the History of the Korean Catholic

Church (Factor 2) ...... 73

Table 18. Delayed Effects ...... 74

Table 19. Delayed Religious Behavior Change in the Practice of Christian Values

(Factor 1) and Learning the History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2) ...... 75

Table 20. Regression Models of Demographic Variables...... 76 ix

Table 21. Demographic Predictors of the Delayed in Religious Behaviors of

the Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1) and Learning the History of

the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2) ...... 76

Table 22. Activity Participation and Information Processing Route ...... 77

Table 23. Comparison between Passive and Active Catholics ...... 78

Table 24. Comparison between Novice and Experienced Catholics ...... 78

Table 25. Comparison between Low and High Faith Motivation ...... 80

Table 26. Correlation between Faith Motivation and Information Processing Route ...... 80

Table 27. Correlation between Faith Experience and Information Processing Route ...... 82

Table 28. Appeal Type and Information Processing Strategies ...... 82

Table 29. Comparison between Information Processing Strategies in Religious

Knowledge ...... 83

Table 30. Comparison between Information Processing Strategies in Religious Attitude ...... 83

Table 31. Comparison between Information Processing Strategies in Religious

Behavioral Intention and Behavior ...... 84

Table 32. Comparison between Information Processing Strategies in Religious

Behavioral Intentions Related to the Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1)

and Learning the History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2) ...... 85

Table 33. Predictors of Religious Knowledge ...... 86

Table 34. Predictors of Religious Attitude ...... 90

Table 35. Predictors of Religious Behavior ...... 94

Table 36. Predictors of Religious Behavior related to the Practicing Christian Values

(Factor 1) ...... 96

Table 37. Predictors of Religious Behavior related to Learning History of the Korean

Catholic Church (Factor 2) ...... 96

Table 38. Summary Results of Hypotheses Testing ...... 97 x

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Relationship between Faith Motivation and Reactionary Motivation ...... 19

Figure 2. Religious U&G Model ...... 21

Figure 3. General U&G Model ...... 22

Figure 4. Mediating Effect Model...... 35

Figure 5. Hypothesized Model for Faith Motivation, Experience, Appeal Type-to-

Information Processing Strategies...... 43

Figure 6. Hypothesized Mediation Model ...... 45

Figure 7. Moderating Model of Religious Knowledge ...... 86

Figure 8. Delayed Religious Knowledge Change: Interaction between Experience and

Faith Motivation ...... 87

Figure 9. Moderating Model of Religious Attitude ...... 89

Figure 10. Delayed Religious Attitude Change: Interaction between Faith Motivation

and Information Processing ...... 91

Figure 11. Moderating Model of Religious Behavioral Intention ...... 93

Figure 12. Immediate Religious Behavioral Intention Change: Interaction between

Experience and Processing Strategy ...... 95 1

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

Research Problem

Religious broadcasting has played an important role in media history, even from the start of broadcast communication. For example, Reginald Fessenden, the scientist who broadcast the first radio program on Christmas Eve of 1906, played “O Holy Night” on his violin and read the

Nativity story of Jesus from the Gospel of Luke, to mark the occasion (Hadden & Swann, 1981).

Later, after radio broadcasting had become an influential medium in 1920s, Moody Radio of

Chicago began airing religious programs in 1926 (Lochte, 2007; Trammel, 2007). In 1928,

Fulton J. Sheen, a famous Catholic program host, started his radio show, The Catholic Hour.

The popularity he gained from the show later extended to his 1950s TV show, Life is Worth

Living, just as TV broadcasting was becoming a dominant mass medium (Melton, Lucas, &

Stone, 1997). The Emmy Award for Most Outstanding Television Personality he won in 1952 indicated how popular Sheen was, despite being a religious figure working with major TV networks (Hadden & Swann, 1981; Horsfield, 1984).

Religious media are the media run by religious institutions to promote the faith of audience members who are in their religious denominations and to share religious values and information with audience members who are not. Religious institutions are aware of how important the media are in the promotion of their religious beliefs. For instance, in 1954 the

Catholic Church established the Pontifical Commission for the Cinema, Radio, and Television in the Holy See. Later, the title was changed to the Pontifical Council for Social Communications.

To this day the Church continues to issue official documents that stress the religious and ethical use of social media – from Vigilanti Cura (Pius XI, 1936) to New Technologies, New

Relationships: Promoting a Culture of Respect, Dialogue and Friendship (Benedict XVI, 2009). 2

In this latter document, Benedict XVI (2009) emphasized new communication technologies

should be used to promote solidarity among different groups, so that they become true channels

of communion and contribute to a culture of respect, dialogue, and friendship.

Religious media are a specialized but vibrant segment of today’s broadcasting industry.

Religious TV networks, such as the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN), the Inspiration

Network (INSP), the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), and the Eternal Word Television

Network (EWTN), actively broadcast religious and family-oriented programs via multiple media outlets. For example, EWTN, a United States-based Catholic television network, airs religious programming 24 hours a day to 144 countries and territories via cable systems, wireless cables, direct broadcast satellite (DBS) systems, and other various media outlets (“Eternal Word

Television Network,” n.d.). In addition to these networks, in 2006 there were 2,772 religious radio stations in North America broadcasting religious music and talk programs full time, a dramatic increase from 1,052 in 1989 (Lochte, 2007). Trammel (2007) reported that, whereas the audience of other radio formats is declining, the Christian radio audience has increased by

38% since 1998. Furthermore, religious broadcasting ministry organizations continue to purchase the airtime of local networks, such as Sunday morning daypart, to air syndicated religious programs.

Religious broadcasting is not just proliferating in the U.S., but in different countries around the world. In fact, there are broadcasting stations, either Catholic-owned or which broadcast Catholic programming although they are not Catholic-owned, in 34 countries:

Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica,

Croatia, Dominican Republic, Espana, France, Germany, Honduras, India, Italy, Korea, Mexico,

Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Puerto 3

Rico, Romania, Spain, Switzerland, the U.S., and West Indies (“Catholic Radio and Television

Network,” 2007). For example, the Catholic Media Network broadcasts religious and alternative programs over its 25 FM and 27 AM member stations to achieve their common goal of evangelization in the Philippines (“Catholic Media Network,” n.d.).

Even though religious media have existed since the inception of mass media and are worldwide phenomena, scholarly attention to these media has been relatively less than to other media research areas, especially in regards to the effects of religious media on their audience

(e.g., Buddenbaum & Stout, 1996; Korpi & Kim, 1986). In general, the existing literature on effects stemming from religious media has investigated three areas. The first area involved the demographic characteristics of religious media audience (e.g., Buddenbaum, 1981; Gaddy &

Pritchard, 1985; Parker, Barry, & Smythe, 1955). According to these studies, religious media audience members were older, poorer, and less formally educated than the average Americans.

In addition, they were more likely to be women and manual workers. However, the scholars did not further question the role of demographic variables in the effect of the religious media to their audience members. As the previous literature revealed, if the audience of religious media were the underprivileged groups in religious communities, the media can be a good channel to provide educational information to these groups. In the history of U.S. broadcasting, many educational

TV programs were used to reach marginalized groups. For instance, one intention behind the production of Sesame Street was to provide educational opportunities to children from lower income households (Coates, Pusser, & Goodman, 1976; Mandal, 2006). Because these families cannot afford pre-school classes for their children or may not be able to provide as much parental guidance to their children as do richer families, children’s TV programs were perceived by the

Sesame Street producers as a useful means to reach these children and to prepare them, with less 4

social expense, for their elementary classes. Along this line, if religious media were used by more underprivileged groups than other demographic groups in religious communities, the media can be used to provide religious educational opportunities to these groups. Therefore, this research examined whether the use of religious media influences audience members’ religious knowledge. Additionally, this research posited, if religious media do have an influence on audience members’ religious knowledge, which groups were more influenced by the use of religious media?

The second area researchers have investigated involved religious media audience members’ motivations for their religious media consumption, as seen in the uses and gratifications (U&G) tradition (e.g., Abelman, 1987a; 1987b; Buddenbaum, 1981; Ho, Lee, &

Hameed, 2008; Korpi & Kim, 1986; Laney, 2005; Paine, 2005). The results of these studies revealed two distinct religious motivations that differed from general motivations: faith and reactionary motivations. Whereas faith motivation described how the audience members used religious media to deepen their faith, reactionary motivation described how they used the media to avoid mainstream commercial media (Abelman, 1987a). According to these two motivations, the audience used religious media to strengthen their existing belief and to relieve their dissatisfaction with the mainstream media. Previous literature about religious audience members’ mainstream media use provided support to the findings of a reactionary motivation.

For example, a study showed religious media audience members avoided sexually explicit and violent content in the mainstream media (Buddenbaum & Stout, 1996). In addition, heavy use of religious TV was negatively associated with the use of general TV (Fore, 1984). However, this group of scholars did not inquire whether these distinct motivations were reflected in the audience members’ media use, and if so, how their motivations affected the outcomes of their 5

media use.

In the third area of research, a few researchers have further investigated the effects of

religious media. For instance, a study revealed that religious media use can affect audience

members’ behavior. Korpi and Kim (1986) found gratifications obtained from religious media use explained financial contribution of audience to the media. As the results of this study provided evidence of religious media’s behavioral effect, religious media researchers need to further inquire about the relationship between religious media use and other potential outcomes.

Existing literature showed that there was a positive relationship between audience members’

religious beliefs and their religious media use (Fore, 1984). This association can be interpreted

that the audience with strong religious beliefs used religious media and these media reinforced

their religious beliefs. In other words, it seems religious media were mostly used by audience

members who had strong faith motivation to affirm their existing faith. However, only a handful

of studies have rigorously investigated the causal relationship between the faith of audience

members and their religious media use (e.g., Abelman, 1987a; 1927b; Korpi & Kim, 1984) . In

addition, other possible outcomes, such as an increase in audience members’ religious knowledge

and other behavioral changes/reinforcement, have not been fully examined. This research

intended to contribute to the existing religious media U&G and religious media effect studies by

investigating the consequences of religious media use.

The Catholic Church in South Korea

Whereas Buddhism is the biggest religion in South Korea, the Catholic Church is one of

the smaller religious groups in South Korea. About 10.1% of the population is Catholic

(Catholic Bishops Conference in Korea, 2009). In terms of social economic status, many

constituents of the Church are from middle class families. Although the Catholic Church is small 6

in number, it has been influential in the society because of its constant involvement with social

issues, such as the democratization of South Korea and fighting for human rights for

marginalized peoples. For example, Cardinal Stephen Kim, the first cardinal of South Korea,

strongly opposed the military dictatorships in the 1970s and 1980s and often publically voiced

his opinions for the farmers who were in hunger strikes and for ethnic Koreans migrated from

China to protect their basic human rights. A recent survey by a weekly magazine reported that the most trustworthy religion in South Korea is the Catholic Church (Go, 2009). This was especially true in respondents from Seoul, the capital city of South Korea, and among those in their 40s and 50s; they showed higher trust in the Catholic Church than other demographic groups.

Catholic Broadcasting in South Korea

The condition of religious media in South Korea differs from the one in the U.S.

National networks do not provide free airtime to religious organizations nor do they sell their airtime slots to them. Therefore, the only channels through which religious programs can be broadcast are dedicated religious TV or radio channels. Pyeonghwa Broadcasting Corporation

(PBC) is the Catholic cable channel in South Korea. It was founded in 1995 by the Archdiocese of Seoul when the Korean Broadcasting Commission (KBC) allotted a group of cable television channels to religious organizations to accommodate diversity in cable broadcasting. Other religious cable networks such as Buddhist Television Network (BTN) and Christian Television

System (CTS) were also founded during this time. These diverse religious channels mirror the religious diversity in South Korea: Buddhism, Christian denominations, and Confucianism. In

2002, PBC expanded to the direct broadcast satellite (DBS), as did other religious channels. In the same year, Christian Broadcasting System (CBS), which started its FM radio station as early 7

as in 1954, began to broadcast its programming over the cable and DBS.

PBC owns and operates not only the cable and DBS channel but also other media outlets, such as an FM radio network and a weekly newspaper. Since 1990, it has been airing liturgical programs and music shows via PBC FM. These programs are mostly intended to be compatible with audience members’ life styles, such as for homemakers or commuters driving cars. In addition to these popular formats, as an alternative medium to mainstream commercial media, the radio station also airs programs for specific underserved audience groups, such as teens, soldiers, and senior citizens. For instance, even though programs targeting senior citizens are not marketable to advertisers, PBC continues a senior program that delivers health information, healthy lifestyle, and pop music liked by senior citizens. However, PBC also does make an effort to expand the coverage area of their programs to sell advertising spots in higher rates. An example of these efforts is four local stations in addition to the central station in Seoul to cover most densely populated areas in South Korea: Busan, Daegu, Daejeon, Gwangju and Seoul.

PBC positions itself as an evangelization medium and a vehicle of delivering Catholic values to the South Korean society. Its mission statement reveals that PBC aims to proclaim the

Good News in the world and to bring the peace of Christ into society (“PBC,” n.d.). Its logo and name reflect its mission and self-understanding. For example, the company’s logo includes the shape of a dove and the first letter of the acronym PBC. The “P” in PBC stands for Pyeonghwa, which means peace in Korean. This design reflects PBC’s ambitious role as a promoter of peace and justice in South Korea, which experiences social conflicts among different demographic groups in the South Korean society.

8

The Programming of PBC

Just as the history of religious media in the U.S. showed that religious programming formats were closely related to the media’s target audience and financial structure, religious media in South Korea were also shaped by these factors. For instance, the programs of PBC consist of 14% liturgy and devotional prayer formats, 14% music and variety, 62% talk shows and lectures, 5% news and information, and 5% documentary (Yoon, 2007). When compared to the programs of EWTN, a Catholic cable network in the U.S., PBC uses more diversified and commercial formats. PBC uses more music and variety shows and news formats than EWTN.

On the other hand, EWTN produced more programs in the liturgy and devotional prayer formats

(Yoon, 2007). This difference in program formats can be explained by their target audience and financial structure. PBC does not have the financial ground to rely solely on advertisements nor audience donations. Because 10.1% of South Koreans, or about 5.1 million, are Catholics

(Catholic Bishops Conference in Korea, 2009), PBC cannot solely depend on Catholics as its audience. If PBC produced programs acceptable only to Catholics, the size of its maximum audience would be very limited. It needs to draw larger audience members to sell advertisement spots to commercial companies. Therefore, it cannot follow the business model of the network sustaining-time programs of the U.S. religious media history. The Catholic Church in the U.S. has 23% of population, or 69.1 million people, in its membership. Therefore, the U.S.-based

EWTN can focus solely on Catholic-oriented program because the potential size of its audience is much larger than an audience made up entirely of Catholics in South Korea.

Additionally, members of the Catholic Church in South Korea tend to be from middle class families. Therefore, while EWTN has received monetary contributions from its audience when facing various crises in maintaining and expanding its facilities (Arroyo, 2005), PBC 9

cannot expect the same level of substantial financial support from its audience. The paid-time audience supported syndicated model for religious media programs in the U.S. was therefore not applicable to similar media in South Korea. This difference in financial structures between the

U.S. and South Korean Catholic media also influences the topics of programs that the two can offer. EWTN can focus more on religious topics, while PBC tends to incorporate religious topics into discussions of broader social issues. With their limited potential audience groups, PBC needs to reach to not only Catholics, but also non-Catholic Christians, people from other religious traditions, and people with no religion.

Religious Media and Atypical Programming

Even though religious media in the U.S. have stronger religious characteristics than those in South Korea, religious media in the U.S. have also employed not only typical religious programs but also family-oriented non-typical religious programming often found in mainstream commercial media, such as talk shows, children’s shows, dramas, game shows, news/magazine shows, sports, and music/variety shows (Abelman, 1987a; Abelman & Neuendorf, 1985; Blake,

2005; Parker, Barry, & Smythe, 1955). Although U.S. religious media have actively adopted

these formats, there have been criticisms that including such commercial formats in religious

programming to reach broader audience members serve to water-down core religious messages

(Kennedy, 1995). While many religious media are less financially bounded to audience ratings because their revenue is often not generated from advertising, critics argued that the use of atypical religious formats is a strategy to draw audience as many as possible because they still depend on viewers’ financial support. In other words, although the religious media did not make most of their money from adverstisements, they used their programs to “advertise” for direct donations from their audience members. 10

One of the most popular atypical formats used by religious media is film or drama.

Although religious films that depict Biblical stories do exist, there has been little systematic

research conducted to find the roles such non-typical religious program formats serve. Producers of these films assume that the films provide religious information to audience members in an

entertaining way. For example, a study reported that The Passion of the Christ, a religious film

depicting the last 12 hours of earthly life of Jesus Christ, was moving and educational to its

audience (Brown, Keeler, & Lindvall, 2007). Even though this study concluded that the film had

entertainment and educational effects, the finding was limited because it was based solely on a

cross sectional online survey with convenient samples.

If communication scholars and practitioners research more about how religious films or

dramas affect their audience, the roles of religious media in their audience members’ religious

lives will be more clearly revealed. If religious films or dramas increase audience members’

religious knowledge and influence their religious attitude and behavior, religious films or dramas

are an effective and cost-efficient way to educate audience members – rather than educating

people individually. Religious leaders can use mass media to educate their members in religious

communities. Therefore, this study attempted to clarify the relationship between the exposure to

religious drama and their audience members’ religious lives by examining the specific effects

religious drama has on their audience members.

Purpose of the Study

Although this study specifically investigated the area of religious drama exposure, it

aimed to advance the U&G perspective in general by incorporating information processing

strategies into the picture of gratifications sought (GS) and gratifications obtained (GO)

relationship. The U&G perspective has examined various motivations behind media usage, as 11

well as the relationships between GS and GO (e.g., Katz, Gurevitch, & Haas, 1973; McQuail,

Blumler, & Brown, 1972; Palmgreen, Wenner, & Rayburn, 1980; Rubin, 2002). It has also been

conceptually synthesized with media effects research as uses and effects (U&E) research

(Windahl, 1981). However, U&G did not specifically explain the process of how audience

members’ motivations were fulfilled through media use. Previous literature revealed that an

audience’s information processing strategy in the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) may explain the how in the relationship between motivation and outcomes (Eveland, 2001). Eveland

(2001) reported that a more motivated audience more fully employed their intellectual resources to process information presented by the media, which resulted in different knowledge and attitude outcomes. The ELM explained audience members select an information processing strategy between the central route and the peripheral route to process content based on their willingness and ability (e.g., Petty, Priester, & Brinol, 2002). Based on the ELM and U&G, this study examined how a specific motivation - faith motivation - related to its outcomes through information processing strategies.

Firstly, this study questioned how faith motivation affected audience members’ information processing strategies. It postulated that participants with high faith motivation would employ the central information processing route because they are more willing than those with low faith motivation to employ their full intellectual resources to process content information. In addition, because the topic of religious media is more relevant to them, they would be more willing to engage in a more effortful information processing route as described in the ELM (e.g., Petty, Priester, & Brinol, 2002) or in the heuristic systematic model (HSM, e.g.,

Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989). On the other hand, participants with low faith motivation will use the peripheral processing route because they are less willing than those with high faith 12

motivation to employ their mental resources to consider the merits of media content. In addition, they have relatively fewer resources to elaborate new information, such as knowledge and experience about their religion.

This study also inquired how information processing strategies influenced the outcomes of media use in terms of knowledge, attitude, and behavior. Eveland (2001) reported that elaborative processing significantly increased knowledge. However, he did not further investigate the relationship between elaborative processing and attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, even though the ELM argued elaborative information processing may influence individuals’ attitude. Therefore, incorporating these two additional outcome variables in the cognitive mediation model (CMM; Eveland, 2001) can provide a more comprehensive picture of media usage.

Lastly, this study examined the potential effect of different appeal types on knowledge acquisition: rational and emotional appeals. Whereas rational appeal is an attempt to influence audience members with information or facts, emotional appeal is an attempt to influence audience members with emotion-stimulating content (Rosselli, Skelly, & Mackie, 1995). The current study explored how audience members of religious drama respond differently to rational, as opposed to emotional, appeals in media content. It was hypothesized that even though participants with low faith motivation may be less willing to elaborate information presented with a rational appeal, they may be influenced by an emotional appeal because a peripheral information processing may be employed when audience members face emotionally appealing media content. Therefore, it was hypothesized audience members may employ different information processing strategies to these two stimuli and, accordingly, the outcomes of media use can vary. 13

Significance of This Study

This study was theoretically meaningful because it comprehensively illustrated the media use process by connecting the U&G perspective with the ELM. The U&G has been combined with other existing theories to offer a holistic explanation of media usage in previous media use literature. For instance, the cultivation (e.g., Holbert, Kwak, & Shah, 2003), social identity (e.g., Abrams & Giles, 2007; Cohen, 2008), social cognition (e.g., LaRose & Eastin,

2004), social comparison and distinctiveness (e.g., Knobloch-Westerwick, Appiah, & Alter,

2008), and knowledge gap (e.g., Eveland, Shah, & Kwak, 2003; Thorson, Jin, & Beaudoin,

2003) were tested with the U&E. A research direction of these collaborative approaches was to try to understand perceptual and cognitive process in audience members’ mind to fully explain their active media use. Another direction of these studies was to comprehend the consequences of active media consumption at the societal level. These studies broadened the perspective of

U&G to both ends of a holistic media use: to the psychological process of media use and to the outcomes of active media use in society. However, only a handful of researchers have studied active media consumption in the context of the ELM, as in the present study. For instance,

Eveland (2001) employed the ELM to investigate the process of active media consumption in his

CMM. He found that surveillance motivation seeking, a main motivation of news usage, indirectly affects learning from news content through elaborative processing. Although a person may be highly motivated to learn, if the information of media content is not processed, he or she cannot increase his or her knowledge. Even though Eveland contributed to U&G research by providing evidence that a specific motivation expedited learning through information processing strategy, he did not further ask other potential outcomes, such as attitudinal and behavioral changes or reinforcements although a main interest of the ELM is whether the information 14

processing strategy affects audience members’ attitude. Therefore, this research can fill in a hole in the CMM by conducting an experiment on the attitudinal and behavioral effects of processing strategies. In addition, by applying the CMM, which has mostly been used to study political news, to the field of religious media, this study contributed to the CMM research.

Another theoretical contribution of this study came from testing two different appeal types of religious media: rational appeal and emotional appeal. Although the employment of different appeals has frequently been studied in research concerned with the influence of persuasive messages in various areas such as advertising, political campaigns, and public service announcement (PSA; Rosselli, Skelly, & Mackie, 1995; Wang, 2008; Yeh & Lin, 2010; Zinn &

Manfredo, 2000), they have rarely been examined in the context of religious media research.

Both of these approaches have often been used in religious media to persuade audiences, but this study was the first to have examined them in such a context. In this study, participants were assigned to a version of Father Choi Yang Up, a historical religious drama about the second

Korean Catholic priest, with two different appeal types. The relationships between each appeal, information processing strategies, and outcomes revealed in this study provided valuable inputs to religious media scholars, as well as to practitioners in the production of religious media content.

If the results show that a rational appeal more increases audience members’ religious knowledge and changed/reinforced their religious attitude than an emotional appeal, the researcher can conclude that providing rich information to audience members would be a more effective production type to trigger their elaborative information processing and to affect their religious knowledge and attitude. On the other hand, if an emotional appeal is more effective than a rational appeal, it could be argued that the persuasion based on emotional stimulation 15

would be a better production type to influence audience members’ attitude and that the

persuasion may occur without any active information processing.

To study these concepts and relationships, this study employed a field experiment. This

experiment incorporated three phases of surveys (pre-, post-, and delayed tests) to trace changes over time. Participants took the first phase survey three weeks in advance of exposure to stimuli.

The second phase of surveys was conducted immediately after exposure to the stimuli, and the third was conducted three weeks after the exposure. This extended period of data collection allowed differentiation of immediate and delayed effects of religious media use in terms of knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention. In addition, the rich data allowed the researcher to complement previous studies based on cross sectional surveys (e.g., Buddenbaum, 1981; Gaddy

& Pritchard, 1985).

In addition to these theoretical contributions via an experimental method, the present research can potentially benefit religious media producers and managers in understanding what effects their programs have and in identifying who the most influenced audience members by their programs were. The information about both the effects of their program in terms of religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavioral intention and the characteristics of the most influenced audience groups may help the producers evaluate their program. This evaluation process is the last step of their current production and at the same time the first step of their new production. The evaluation may tell what they have done well and which areas they can improve in the next show. This process helps them produce more customized shows to audience members who are in different stages in their faith: novice Catholics or experienced

Catholics, and passive or active Catholics in practicing their faith.

This current research sought to examine the roles of religious media use. Producers of 16

religious media content, and their audiences, were usually overly optimistic or overly pessimistic

in estimating the influence of religious media based on a few systematic academic research

(Abelman & Neuendorf, 1985; Gerbner, Gross, Hoover, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1984).

Televangelists argued that religious media help audience members embrace the gospel more fully.

However, ministers in local churches and theologians insisted that the use of religious media is a

too-simple alternative to the full participation in physical religious communities. Therefore, a

systematic study on the influence of religious media was necessary to provide scientific evidence

regarding the effect of religious media.

Organization of the Dissertation

This dissertation consisted of six chapters. Chapter 1 presented research problems, the purpose of the study, and the significance of the study. Chapter 2 presented reviews of previous literature on religious media use, the U&G perspective, the ELM, the CMM, and two appeal

types, as relevant theoretical frameworks and guides of this study. Chapter 3 presented a

research model with research questions and hypotheses based on the research problems and

literature reviews presented in chapters 1 and 2. Chapter 4 presented the research method used

in the study, including descriptions of the participants, data collection procedures, and

instruments. Chapter 5 presented the data analysis and results. Chapter 6 presented the results

with discussion and conclusions, implications for future studies, and limitations of the current

study. 17

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

Uses and Gratifications

The theoretical bases of this research were the uses and gratifications (U&G) perspective and the elaboration likelihood model (ELM). In the history of media studies, the introduction of

U&G brought a paradigmatic change in the research area. Although early media research mostly focused on the effects of media use from a functionalistic perspective (e.g., Lasswell, 1927,

1948; Lazarsfeld & Merton, 1948), the U&G emphasized the role of active participants in the process of media consumption (e.g., Conway & Rubin, 1991). Klapper (1963) characterized this change by arguing research shifted from asking, “What does mass communication do to people?” to “What do people do with mass communication?” (p. 523). The primary focus in the U&G approach was to investigate an audience’s media use in relation to their needs, motivations, and gratifications (e.g., Katz, Gurevitch, & Haas, 1973; McQuail, Blumler, & Brown, 1972;

Palmgreen, Wenner, & Rayburn, 1980; Rubin, 2002); however, this research area has also expanded to explore the social and psychological origins of audience members’ motivations, their media use, and any consequences of media consumption (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch,

1973).

Indeed, the most frequently used theoretical framework in religious media study was the

U&G. Despite this, however, U&G of religious media study has remained in its initial descriptive phase, such as studies concerned with identifying the demographic characteristics and motivations of religious media audiences. In general, these results showed religious media audience members were older, poorer, and less educated than the general population

(Buddenbaum, 1981; Gaddy & Pritchard, 1985). Women and people with physical labor professions used more religious media (Buddenbaum, 1981; Gaddy & Pritchard, 1985). In 18

addition, among various religious denominations, conservative evangelical Protestants tend to be

heavier users of religious media (Buddenbaum, 1981; Gaddy & Pritchard, 1985). This heavy

consumption of religious media by evangelical and fundamental Protestants was a result of the

broad shift in religious media format from network sustaining-time programs to paid-time audience supported syndicated programs (Horsfield, 1984). The initial U&G research regarding the demographic characteristics of religious media was expanded to the identification of motivations of religious media audience members.

Religious U&G research so far has identified two distinctive religious motivation factors: faith and reactionary (Abelman, 1987a). The faith motivation factor included religiosity, salvation, and closeness to God. The reactionary motivation factor consisted of dissatisfaction with non-religious media, avoidance, spiritual guide, and moral support. Interestingly, the reactionary motivation was stronger factor than the faith motivation indicating that religious media audience members used the media more because they were dissatisfied with mainstream commercial media rather than because they desired to deepen their faith. In other words, aversion to commercial media content leads the audience to religious media use. At the same time, high correlations between the two factors (Abelman, 1987b) showed reactionary and faith motivations were closely connected to each other. In addition, the fact that spiritual guide was loaded in reactionary motivation also supported the idea of a close relationship between these two motivations. This correlation is conceptualized in Figure 1.

The faith and reactionary motivations of religious media use were also found in U&G studies conducted in South Korea. Researchers have identified motivations of Catholic radio use in South Korea (Baek, 2003; Park, 2005). In two separate studies, listeners expressed dissatisfaction with commercial radio programs. For instance, they tuned in to Catholic radio “to 19

listen to less commercial shows” (Park, 2005, p. 34) and “to listen to different shows from those of other stations” (Baek, 2003, p. 67). In addition, the audience members sought media content that better served their needs to increase their religious knowledge. For example, they listened to the radio “to listen to church news” (Park, 2005, p. 34), “to seek peace in my mind” (Baek, 2003, p. 67), “to increase religious knowledge” (Baek, 2003, p. 67; Park, 2005, p. 34), and “to find answers for my religious questions” (Baek, 2003, p. 67). Even though these studies did not carefully examine the relationship between reactionary motivation to mainstream media and faith motivation, the motivations identified in the two studies explained the audience members’ dissatisfaction with commercial media and their active pursuit of religious media.

An important finding from the two studies (Baek, 2003; Park, 2005) was that the faith motivation of audience members stemmed from their cognitive and mental needs. In their religious media use, audience members sought to fulfill their intellectual needs.

Figure 1. Relationship between Faith Motivation and Reactionary Motivation 20

They wanted to learn more about their religion and to increase their religious knowledge. In

addition, they used religious media to look for psychological or spiritual comfort. Audience

members sought peace of mind and an answer to their own religious conflicts. Even though faith

motivation was from audience members’ psychological status and the motivation was an

important cause of religious media use, the outcomes of religious media use were influenced by

audience members’ religiousness, an existing attitude. For instance, a separate study reported

that audience members’ religiousness is a stronger factor than their religious media use in

predicting their non-financial support for religious media (Korpi & Kim, 1986). In the study,

audience members’ religiousness was a stronger predictor of audience members’ non-financial

support, such as to “talk positively with others about a religious program” and to “encourage

others to watch or listen” (Korpi & Kim, 1986, p. 412), than their religious media exposure.

However, gratifications obtained from religious media use did not explain audience members’

non-financial support. This finding indicated that outcomes of religious media use were

produced not because audience members were satisfied by their media use but because audience

members’ prior religious attitude was strong and led them to decide to react on religious media.

In short, it seems whereas religious media audience members use the media to deepen their faith, the outcomes of the use are affected by their existing attitude affects.

Although some prior religious media studies have provided some empirical evidence of the perceptual (e.g., Gerbner, Gross, Hoover, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1984) and behavioral (e.g.,

Gaddy & Pritchard, 1985) effects of religious media on its audience, research overall has not investigated the effects of religious media thoroughly. Figure 2 depicts what has been studied in

the religious U&G study and Figure 3 describes the results of general U&G research. An apparent difference between the religious U&G model and the general U&G model was that the 21

religious U&G model has a weak link between religious media use and outcomes. However, the general U&G model showed clear links among audience members’ gratifications sought (GS), media use, and gratifications obtained (GO)/outcomes, in knowledge (e.g., Eveland, 2001), attitude (e.g., Krcmar & Kean, 2005; Mondi, Woods, & Rafi, 2008; Nabi, Sitt, Halford, &

Finnerty 2006; Slater, Hayes, & Ford, 2007; Slater & Rasinski, 2005) and behavior (e.g., Greene

& Krcmar, 2005; Holbert, Kwak, & Shah, 2003). This comparison suggests that religious U&G researchers need to investigate further the outcomes of religious media use. These efforts may contribute to a fuller understanding of religious media use and its effects on audience members.

After the seminal studies of media use from the U&G perspective (Katz, Gurevitch, &

Haas, 1973; McQuail, Blumler, & Brown, 1972; Palmgreen, Wenner, & Rayburn, 1980), more recent U&G research has incorporated the media effect theories into the perspective to investigate a comprehensive process of media use (e.g., Greene & Krcmar, 2005; Holbert, Kwak,

Figure 2. Religious U&G Model (dotted line is a weak link).

22

& Shah, 2003; Krcmar & Kean, 2005; Mondi, Woods, & Rafi, 2008; Nabi, Sitt, Halford, &

Finnerty, 2006; Slater, Hayes, & Ford, 2007; Slater & Rasinski, 2005; Song, LaRose, Eastin, &

Lin, 2004). These studies were designed to integrate the strengths of the U&G perspective while also compensating for its possible weaknesses. Even though the U&G brought a paradigmatic change in the functionalistic viewpoint of media effects research by emphasizing the active role of audience members, it could not clearly explain where the needs and motivations of audience came from. These later studies have helped address that concern. Audience members’ motivations can come from their psychological tendencies and personal experiences. For example, having a sensation seeking tendency and negative experience with alcohol-related injuries influenced audience members’ exposure to crime news (Slater, Hayes, & Ford, 2007). In addition, these studies provided explanations of the cognitive process between GS and GO. For instance, media exposure, attention, and information processing routes mediated audience members’ needs and the outcomes of these needs (Holbert, Kwak, & Shah, 2003; Slater &

Rasinski, 2005).

Figure 3. General U&G Model 23

Based on this uses and effects perspective (Windahl, 1981), this research examined the

outcomes of religious media use caused by audience members’ motivations, such as their

pursuits of deeper faith, moral support, and spiritual guidance (e.g., Abelman, 1987a; 1987b;

Buddenbaum, 1981; Ho, Lee, & Hameed, 2008; Laney, 2005; Paine, 2005). In particular, this

study explored the role of audience members’ faith motivation when they watched a religious

drama.

Religious Media Use and Its Outcomes

The most frequently discussed topic regarding religious media use and its outcomes was

whether the use of religious media affected audience members’ attendance at local churches.

Pastors in local churches have been concerned that religious programs may substitute local church attendance; however, the preachers and hosts of religious programs have insisted that religious programs complement, rather than compete with, their audience’s church-going experience (Fore, 1984; Gaddy & Pritchard, 1985). A group of researchers also inquired about the impact of religious media use on audience members’ church attendance (Abelman, 1987a;

Fore, 1984; Gaddy & Pritchard, 1985; Korpi & Kim, 1986; Pettersson, 1986). Their findings were inconsistent on this issue. For example, Pettersson (1986) argued that religious shows would not substitute church attendance because gratifications obtained (GO) from televised services differed from those of physical participation. On the other hand, Korpi and Kim (1986) found that the shows could replace church attendance in cases when audience members financially supported the media. The contributors considered their religious media experience as superior to attending local church and evaluated highly the religious benefits of religious media use. 24

Whether religious media use reduced their audience members’ church attendance is not clearly answered. A previous study showed that both positive and negative relationships co-exist.

Whereas three percent of the religious media audience reported their use of religious media

decreased their involvement in the local church, seven percent reported it increased their

involvement (Fore, 1984). This finding revealed that even though religious media played two

contradictory roles, the complementary role of religious media was stronger than the role of

substitution. Another interesting point was that 90% of religious media audience members were

not influenced by their religious media in terms of their church attendance. In addition, 14% of

the religious media audience said their religious media use was a substitute for church attendance

and 20% said they used religious media on Sundays during church hours (Fore, 1984). The

study further showed that some specific groups of people anticipated religious media as being an

alternative to church participation: seniors, people with low levels of education, divorced people,

and people dissatisfied with their local churches. This finding revealed that people who needed

special assistance and people who felt physical or mental discomfort joining in church activities

used religious media as a substitute. It seemed these audience pre-conditions accelerated the

displacement effect of religious media use on church attendance. However, when these

demographic and psychological variables were held constant, religious media use in general did

not lower audience members’ church attendance.

As complementary and substituting relationships were affected by audience members’

conditions, the programming of religious media may also influence these two relationships. For

instance, programming formats can affect the relationship, positively or negatively, of religious

media use with physical church attendance. If religious media fill their schedule with

preaching/revival or liturgy, religious media use is negatively associated with church attendance. 25

The functional similarity hypothesis, tested by Gaddy and Pritchard (1985), explained this

negative relationship. The hypothesis posited that if an audience can get similar experiences

with less effort, the religious media audience may choose viewing those shows at home over

attending church services. However, if the religious media employ other popular formats mostly

used in the mainstream media, such as drama, news/magazine shows, and movies, they may be

positively related to church attendance because watching these shows are very different from the

experience of going to church. In this case, a complementary relationship can be made.

As the selection of programs can affect the role religious media play, scheduling those programs may also influence that role. When programmers plan their schedule, the presumed lifestyle or habit of audience is an important element for consideration (Eastman & Ferguson,

2006). They think about how their programs can fit in audience members’ lifestyle. This is called the strategy of compatibility. However, if programmers schedule preaching/revival or liturgy programs in the morning daypart (9 a.m. to noon) on Sunday, this goes against the strategy and tries to compete with audience members’ church attending habits. In this case, these programs may then have more possibility of reducing audience members’ church attendance.

However, if a programmer places these programs in other airtime slots, such as the afternoon

(noon to 4 p.m.) or prime access (7 to 8 p.m.), these programs can be used by audience members who missed Sunday services or want to attend an additional service. For example, PBC Cable, the Catholic channel in South Korea, programmed Sunday Mass at 7 p.m. With this program scheduling strategy, the channel positioned the program as complementary to Sunday Mass attendance. Therefore, these two important roles of programming, program formats and scheduling, may positively or negatively affect the relationship of religious media use with church attendance. 26

The history of religious media in the U.S. revealed changes in the formats of religious programs, their target audience, and the financial sources. The main type of religious programs in the 1940s and 1950s was network sustaining-time programs (Horsfield, 1984). Since religious programs were considered as programs that served public interests, commercial networks produced those programs in association with major religious organizations, such as the Catholic

Church and mainline Protestant organizations, to meet requirements of the Federal

Communication Commission. The networks asked these religious organizations to adjust the format and topic of those shows to draw as many audience members as possible, so that the networks could sell advertising spots to commercial companies. Therefore, these programs mostly employed talk show or other commercial media formats and dealt with broad topics. For instance, even though Fulton J. Sheen was the Catholic Archbishop of New York, he drew a range of audiences, from Catholics to mainline, evangelical, and fundamental Protestants, with a variety of topics, from the conflicts among family members to classical literature (Horsfield,

1984).

However, after the 1960s, the types of religious programs shown were gradually changed by evangelical and fundamental Protestant organizations. Because they were not given free airtime advantages by networks, the organizations purchased local stations’ commercial airtime to broadcast their programs. This type of religious program is called a paid-time audience supported syndicated programs (Horsfield, 1984). Because the organizations purchased airtime slots, they could control the format and topics of those programs. The mostly frequently used formats were preaching and revival formats. In addition, since these programs needed strong financial support from their audience to continue to air, most programs relied on charismatic and attractive hosts and the range of topics was narrower than on network sustaining- 27

time programs. In terms of the role of religious media in church attendance, whereas the

network sustaining-time programs were more complementary in nature, paid-time audience

supported syndicated programs were more competing with local churches.

Cognitive Information Processing of Media Content

Previous communication scholars actively employed social psychology theories to investigate cognitive processing of media content (e.g., Bilandzic, 2006; Braverman, 2008;

Dunlop, Wakefield, & Kashima, 2010; Eveland, 2001). In the early 1980s, the heuristic

systematic model (HSM) provided a general theoretical ground for dual information processing routes. The HSM explained that audience members who were exposed to a message may employ either heuristic or systematic information processing routes (Bohner, Rank, Reinhard,

Einwiller, & Erb, 1998; Bradley, 2007; Chaiken, 1980; Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989;

Chaiken & Maheswaran, 1994; Chen, Duckworth, & Chaiken, 1999; Griffin, Neuwirth, Giese, &

Dunwoody, 2002; Meyers-Levy & Maheswaran, 2004; Neuwirth, Frederick, & Mayo, 2002).

According to the HSM, audience members use considerably large amounts of cognitive effort to understand and evaluate a message through the systematic processing route. However, when audience members employ the heuristic route, they use little effort to assess the validity of media messages, instead relying on non-content heuristic cues such as source expertise, source likability, message length, and consensus information. The presence of the two information processes can be explained by an audience’s pursuit of efficiency. In other words, they want to accomplish their task - judging the validity of an argument presented to them - with the least effort possible.

Prior HSM literature indicated that when topics are relevant to audience members or if the consequences of their validity judgment are important, they are more likely to engage in the systematic processing strategy (Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989). In addition, high 28

involvement triggers audience members to use the systematic information processing strategy

(Chaiken, 1980). Contrarily, low involvement leads audience members to use the heuristic

strategy. Task involvement and the perception of important consequence were often

interchangeably used in the HSM literature (Chaiken, 1980). Conceptually, when a person

perceives the consequence of their media content evaluation is salient to them and/or to others, they may be more involved with their media use.

The ELM (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Petty, Priester, & Brinol, 2002) also has provided a similar insight to communication researchers, namely that audience members may use central or peripheral routes to process media content. According to this model, if audience members use the central route, they will elaborate on new information using their previous knowledge and experience, then decide whether to change their existing attitude or not (Petty, Priester, & Brinol,

2002). Since audience members using the central route use more effort to process information, they will be more critical of media content and less susceptible to the influence of that content.

However, once they incorporate the new information into their existing attitude, their newly modified or reinforced attitude will be persistent. On the other hand, if audience members employ the peripheral route, they will be less critical and may more easily accept media messages because of their aroused affective state. However, the effects of media use may be eroded more quickly for audience members using the peripheral route than in the case of people using the central route.

Both the ELM and the HSM presented communication researchers with the possibility that audience members, even those with similar demographic characteristics, can employ different routes when they process media information and, therefore, may be affected differently.

One of the similarities between the ELM and the HSM was that they both emphasized the ability 29

and the motivation of audience members to process media content carefully when they decided

to employ a more effortful processing route (Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989; Petty, Priester,

& Brinol, 2002; Petty & Wegener, 1999). However, there was a clear difference between the two

models in regards to outcomes. Whereas HSM researchers were interested in how message

receivers judged the validity of a presented argument, the ELM researchers were focused on

whether message receivers changed their previous attitude and linked new information to

previous knowledge. In addition, although the models’ conceptualizations of effortful processing were similar, the process paths featuring less processing effort – heuristic and peripheral - have

important differences. While the heuristic route of the HSM was activated by heuristic, yet still

cognitive, cues, the peripheral route of the ELM explained that the persuasion was possible even

without any message- or issue-related cognitive effort put forth by audience members (Chaiken,

Liberman, & Eagly, 1989). In the current study, the ELM was more suitable because this study

was focused on the persuasive effects of religious media on audience members who were at a

different level of intellectual engagement with media content.

Based on these previous studies and existing theories, the present study inquired how

audience members’ faith motivations affect their religious knowledge, attitude, and behavioral

intention via different information processing strategies. This study adopted the CMM (Eveland,

2001) to investigate the relationships among religious media use motivations, information

processing strategies, and outcomes. The study provided evidence of the mediating role of

elaborative processing on the relationship between surveillance motivation and political

knowledge. Audience members used news media to collect information surrounding them.

However, the outcomes of this motivation, an increase of political knowledge, were mediated by

audience members’ information processing route. The Evelnad’s study is important because it 30

revealed the role of audiences’ mental processes in explaining media effects which previous

media research did not pay enough attention on. In addition, Beaudoin and Thorson (2004)

found that elaborative processing mediated not only the relationship between surveillance

motivation and political knowledge, but also the relationship between anticipated interaction

motivation and political knowledge. Audience members who watched news to prepare

themselves for future political discussions increased their political knowledge through the

elaborative processing of the information. These results opened a possibility that audience

members’ purposeful media use may activate the central processing route, which in turn affects the outcomes of media use.

Religiosity

The most frequent design of media research incorporating a religious variable was investigating the effect of religiosity, a general predisposition related to how deeply audience members’ lives are rooted in their religion, on their general media use (e.g., Armfield & Holbert,

2003). In the literature, there was not a consented conceptualization of religiosity. For instance,

Alston (1975) defined religiousness as “the degree of one’s connection or acceptance of their

religious institution, participation in church attendance and activities, as well as one’s regard for

the leaders or the religion and church” (p. 166). Hamilton and Rubin (1992) conceptualized

individuals’ high or low religiosity as their membership in conservative or liberal religious

denominations. Hollander (2006) argued religiosity has two constructs: salience of religion in

one’s live and frequency of church attendance. The key components of religiosity in previous

literature are the intrinsic construct, such as audience members’ faith, and the extrinsic construct,

such as practicing their faith, although these constructs may be closely connected to each other

(Croucher, Turner, Anarbaeva, Oommen, & Borton, 2008). 31

The current study proposed faith motivation, audience members’ motivation to deepen

their faith using religious media (Abelman, 1987a), may better explain religious media use than the intrinsic construct of religiosity because the purposeful motivation of audience members may affect audience members’ activeness in religious media use and, eventually, the results of the use according to the U&G. For instance, Armfield and Holbert (2003) reported a negative

relationship between religiosity and general Internet use. Even though this finding revealed a

simple phenomenon that more religious individuals would use the Internet less, it did not further

explain how the negative relationship exists. However, if individuals use the Internet for their

religious purposes, such as seeking religious information online, managing their relationship

with church members, or buying religious items, their religiousness was a positive predictor of

Internet use (Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2001; Pew Internet & American Life Project,

2004). Therefore, the current study tested faith motivation as an independent variable in the

model of religious media effects.

In addition, this study rigorously tested the duration of and activeness in practicing

audience members’ faith in the model of religious media effects based on the ELM instead of

investigating an overall relationship between the extrinsic construct of religiosity and religious

media use. According to the ELM, the knowledge and experience of audience members affect

their elaborative information processing. Therefore, when audience members use religious

media, the duration of their religious experience and their active participation in religious

activities may affect their elaboration process. The current study proposed that the two religion

variable may better explain religious audience members’ religious media use and, eventually, the

outcomes of the use. 32

Appeal Types

Many persuasion studies have investigated the difference in message effectiveness

between rational appeal and emotional appeal content in various contexts (Flora & Maibach,

1990; Rosselli, Skelly, & Mackie, 1995; Studts, Ruberg, McGuffin, & Roetzer, 2010; Wang,

2008; Yeh & Lin, 2010; Zinn & Manfredo, 2000). A rational appeal was an attempt to influence the attitude and behavior of audiences by providing information or facts; an emotional appeal

was an attempt to influence the attitude and behavior of audiences by stimulating their emotions

or feelings. Since a rational appeal focuses on the information in media content and an

emotional appeal focused on the emotion stimulating content, appeal type studies often

employed the ELM as their theoretical ground. Previous literature showed that when individuals

were exposed to media content having rational appeals, the central information processing

strategy was more likely to mediate the relationship between media use and attitude change. On

the other hand, when audience members were exposed to emotional appeal content, the

peripheral information processing strategy (termed as affective elaboration) was more likely to

mediate the relationship between media use and attitude change (Rosselli, Skelly, & Mackie,

1995).

Most persuasion research has considered that persuasion based on rational appeal was superior to the one based on emotional appeal because of the lasting influence of the message.

Although it was more difficult to persuade message recipients with rational appeals, once they accepted the message attitude change caused via the central route would last longer than the one caused via the peripheral route because receivers have scrutinized the argument and validity of message with their intellectual effort. However, in the case of persuasion based on emotional appeals, although the message may more easily influence the attitude of audience, the effect is 33

more likely to disappear as emotional arousal vanishes and heuristic cues are forgotten.

Therefore, when new messages are presented to audience members, they may change their attitude based on the new information.

Although the central information processing strategy has been evaluated superior to the peripheral strategy by persuation researchers because of the lasting effect change obtained from the central processing, some recent studies have reported that persuasion based on emotional appeal can also have a lasting effect because of the memory impression. For example, Zinn and

Manfredo (2000) found that individuals who were exposed to a message against a ban on wild animal trapping, presented with an emotional appeal, recalled the message more quickly than people who were exposed to a rational appeal message. This fast recall indicated that emotional appeals may make stronger impressions on participants than rational appeals. Another study also showed that respondents were exposed to an anti-AIDS public service announcement (PSA) presented with an emotional appeal remembered more information than those who were exposed to a rational appeal PSA (Flora & Maibach, 1990).

However, whether this stronger effect from emotional appeals is connected to behavioral intention or behavior enactment is questionable. In another study, emotional appeals were more effective at influencing individuals’ behavioral intention to register to bone marrow and stem cell donation than rational appeals (Ruberg, McGuffin, & Roetzer, 2010); however, there was no difference between emotional and rational appeals at a mock vote on wild animal trapping (Zinn

& Manfredo, 2000). In addition, a marketing study found that better recall of a product does not always correspond to preference for the product (Costley & Brucks, 1992). However, even though recallability caused by emotional appeal does not automatically produce better outcomes, it can affect message recipients psychologically. For instance, the participants in the anti-AIDS 34

PSA study expressed stronger desire to learn more about AIDS when they watched the PSA with

emotional appeal than rational appeal (Flora & Maibach, 1990). Therefore, it is essential to

measure both immediate and delayed effects in appeal types and ELM studies because such

measurements allow the researcher to capture the effects of different appeal types and

information processing strategies over time.

Mediation of Information Processing Model

Between two distinct motivations of religious media, the current study concentrated on the role of audience members’ faith motivation on their religious knowledge, religious attitude,

and religious behavioral intention. This was because the motivation may better explain their

active use of religious media than reactionary motivation. As previous U&G research indicated

(e.g., Eveland, 2001; Rosselli, Skelly, & Mackie, 1995), it is worth to investigate the mediating

role of information processing strategies on the corresponding relationship between GS and GO

because “what matters is how one processes the material during its presentation” (Anderson,

1980, p. 197). Baron and Kenny (1986) defined a mediator as a third variable “which represents

the generative mechanism through which the focal independent variable is able to influence the

dependent variable of interest” (p. 1173). In the mediating model (Figure 4), there are two

additional paths in addition to the direct path from the independent variable to the dependent

variable: the path from the independent variable to the mediator and the one from the mediator to

the dependent variable. If a partial mediating effect exists among these three paths, the

relationship in the main, first path should be significantly reduced when the second and third

mediating paths are controlled for (Baron & Kenny, 1986). In an entire mediating model, the

direct relationship will disappear when the second and third paths are controlled for (Baron &

Kenny, 1986). 35

Media researchers have rigorously employed mediating models to explain more

comprehensive media use processes (e.g., Slater, Hayes, & Ford, 2007; Slater & Rasinski, 2005).

Because media use is a part of an audience’s lived experiences, conceptualizing media use as a mediator can provide a more realistic picture of media effect process. For instance, if Slater,

Hayes, and Ford (2007) attempted to find the sole effect of media use on risk judgment, by

controlling for personality traits and audiences’ experiences yet ignoring the mediating effects of

media use, they might conclude that the effects of media use on adolescent’s risk judgment were

very weak. However, audience members who experienced alcohol-related accidents used

alcohol-related media content more and the media use influenced adolescent’s risk judgment.

Therefore, as the use of experience related media content mediated the relationship between

audience members’ personality and experience and their perception in Slater, Hayes, and Ford

(2007), the current study conceptualized that religious media use may mediate the relationship

between audience members’ religious experience and faith and the outcome variables: their

religious knowledge, religious attitude, and behavioral intention.

Figure 4. Mediating Effect Model. Adapted from “The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations,” by R. Baron and D. A. Kenny, 1986, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), p. 1176. Copyright 1986 by the American Psychological Association.

36

In addition, the current research proposed that the mediating model may help religious media researchers clarify the cognitive process of religious media use over the moderating model.

Baron and Kenny (1986) emphasized the role of mediating models, “Whereas moderator variables specify when certain effects will hold, mediators speak to how or why such effects occur” (p. 1176). For example, Slater and Rasinski (2005) identified the cognitive process in the mediation of media use on the relationship between demographic variables, sensation seeking, previous experience with alcohol-related accidents, and risk judgment. People who have sensation seeking personality and people who have firsthand or secondhand experience with alcohol-related mishaps paid more attention to news content about violence and the media use affected their social risk judgments. The study suggested that pre-existing religious experience and religious activeness may affect their information processing and, eventually, the outcomes of active media use. 37

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH MODEL AND HYPOTHESES

Based on the uses and gratifications (U&G) perspective, the elaboration likelihood model

(ELM), and the cognitive mediation model (CMM), this research investigated the role of faith motivation in audience members’ choice of information processing strategies and the outcomes

of religious drama exposure. It was proposed that audience members’ information processing

strategy mediated the relationships between their faith motivation and the outcome variables:

religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavioral intention. In addition, this study

also tested how two different appeal types influenced the employment of information processing

strategy and, eventually, the outcomes of media use in the context of religious media.

Research Questions for Immediate and Delayed Effects

The first research question explored the immediate and delayed effects of religious drama

exposure. As the ELM conceptualized, audience members who employed the central processing strategy would scrutinize information presented to decide whether they would change/reinforce their existing attitude or not. As the result of this elaborative intellectual process based on their previous knowledge and experience, they would gain more knowledge from media content than the counterparts who employed the peripheral strategy. This process is gradual and cumulative because they scrutinize and elaborate information presented. However, audience members who employed the peripheral processing strategy would respond to information presented faster than the counterparts who employed the central processing strategy since they processed the information based on their aroused emotion. Therefore, the audience members’ response is immediate but may not last long.

Whereas immediate religious behavioral intention change described the difference between the scores of religious behavior in Time 1 and Time 2, delayed behavior change 38

described the difference between the scores in Time 2 and Time 3. Since the second religious behavior was measured immediately after exposure, participants did not have a chance to change their actual behavior. For instance, although they were willing to use more religious media to learn the history of the Korean Catholic Church after exposure to the stimulus, participants could not act based on their intention. Therefore, the behavioral intention change was deemed a more appropriate concept for measurement after the second phase than was actual behavior change.

However, religious behavior in the third phase was measured three weeks after participants were exposed to the stimulus. In the period between Time 2 and Time 3, participants had the opportunity to act based on their intention. For instance, they may recommend to their friends and neighbors to use religious media. In this case, the researcher could argue the participants’ had moved from behavioral intention to actual behavior. Therefore, even though the researcher did not measure by direct observation, behavior change deemed a more appropriate concept for measurement after the third phase than was behavioral intention change. Based on this conceptualization, the first two research questions about the immediate and delayed effects of religious drama exposure were posed:

RQ1: What are the immediate effects of religious drama exposure in terms of religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavioral intention?

RQ2: What are the delayed effects of religious drama exposure in terms of religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavior?

Effects of Demographic Variables

Demographic variables of audience members may also influence the employment of

information processing strategy and outcome variables because they may have different

intellectual ability and attitude depending on their age, education, and income. For instance, 39

more educated audience members may learn more religious knowledge from their media use

than less educated members because they have been trained to think logically in their formal

education. In addition, audience members’ financial condition may influence the outcomes of

media use because wealthier audience members may have more psychological and physical

resources to implement their behavioral intention than less wealthier members. In the case of the

Sesame Street, although the original production intention was to reduce the gap between pre-

schoolers’ knowledge from low income household and those from high income household, the

children who acquired the most knowledge was the ones from richer household. Therefore, the

third research question about the effects of demographic characteristics of audience members

was posed as follows:

RQ3: Which demographic groups are more influenced by religious drama exposure?

Effects of Faith Variables

Participants were divided into two “types” of Catholics according to their activeness in

practicing their faith. Passive Catholics met only minimum church recommendation, such as

participation in a church activity. On the other hand, active Catholics were people who

participated in more than two religious activities, such as Bible studies, devotional prayer groups,

or voluntary service groups. Therefore, active Catholics may have more experience in religious

communities. This previous experience can be used to elaborate information presented in

religious drama and this may affect the outcomes of religious drama exposure. Because no prior

research has been done on the effects of the “type” of practicing faith among Catholics on their information processing and outcomes, two research questions about audience members’ activeness were posed: 40

RQ4: Do passive Catholics and active Catholics employ different information processing strategies in their religious drama exposure?

RQ5: Do passive Catholics and active Catholics show different outcomes from their religious drama exposure?

The current investigation also explored the differences in information processing strategies, religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavioral intention between two different groups of participants: novice Catholics and experienced Catholics. Novice Catholics were identified as people who accepted Catholic faith but did not have significant religious knowledge and experience because of the short period of participation in religious communities.

Even though some novice Catholics may be highly motivated to learn through their media use, their lack of knowledge and experience may limit their ability to process the information.

Experienced Catholics were people who have practiced their faith for more than five years; therefore, they may have more chances to learn religious knowledge and to experience religious lives in their communities than the novice Catholics. This time division was chosen because

Catholics receive the Sacrament of Confirmation within three to five years after their baptism in the Catholic Church in South Korea. These years are considered as a period for deepening their faith. Whereas the Sacrament of Baptism is a rite to accept new members into the Church, the

Sacrament of Confirmation is to strengthen them by the Holy Spirit. Confirmation recipients are asked to take on new responsibilities in their new roles in religious communities as matured members. For instance, the duty or right to serve as sponsors for another member’s baptism is given to people who have received the Sacrament of Confirmation. The duration of practicing faith can indicate audience mebers’ religious experience and knowledge. Hence, the “type” of

Catholic participants may affect their information processing and outcomes in the ELM. Since 41

no prior research has been done on the effects of audience members’ duration of faith on their

information processing and outcomes, a research questions was posed:

RQ6: Do novice Catholics and experienced Catholics show different outcomes from their religious drama exposure?

Participants were divided into Catholics with high faith motivation and those with low

faith motivation. This study postulated that because audience members with high faith

motivation are actively seeking to deepen their faith through media use, they are more willing to

employ their full cognitive efforts to process information presented than those with low faith

motivation. On the other hand, audience members with low faith motivation are less willing to

employ their intellectual ability to process the information. In this case, they are more likely to

use the peripheral processing strategy than the central processing strategy. This different

employment of information processing strategy will eventually influence the results of religious

drama exposure. Therefore, the research question about the effect of faith motivation was posed:

RQ7: Do Catholics with low faith motivation and Catholics with high faith motivation show different outcomes from their religious drama exposure?

Effects of Faith Motivation on the Information Processing Strategy

The ELM (e.g., Petty, Priester, & Brinol, 2002) or in the HSM (e.g., Chaiken, Liberman,

& Eagly, 1989) explained that when media content is relevant to audience members, they are

more likely to employ more effortful information processing strategy. Since the subject in a religious drama is more relevant to highly motivated audience member to deepen their faith than less motivated audience members, they are more likely to employ the central processing strategy.

However, the content of a religious drama is less relevant to less motivated audience members.

Therefore, if these audience members need to process information, they are more likely to do so 42

using the peripheral route than the central route. This study posed the following hypotheses

about the effect of faith motivation on the employment of the information strategy:

H1a: Individuals with high faith motivation are more likely to engage in the central processing strategy in religious drama exposure than those with low faith motivation.

H1b: Individuals with low faith motivation are more likely to engage in the peripheral processing strategy in their religious drama exposure than those with high faith motivation.

Effects of Experience on the Information Processing Strategy

Because novice Catholics have less religious knowledge and experience than experienced

Catholics, they are more likely to employ the peripheral processing strategy. However,

experienced Catholics are more likely to elaborate information presented based on their religious knowledge and experience. In this case, it is the central processing strategy. Therefore, the

following two hypotheses were proposed:

H2a: Novice Catholics are more likely to engage in the peripheral processing strategy than the central processing strategy.

H2b: Experienced Catholics are more likely to engage in the central processing strategy than the peripheral processing strategy.

Effects of Appeal Types on the Information Processing Strategy

When individuals are exposed to great amounts of new information, they elaborate on

new information, using the central processing strategy. Previous research showed that the central

information processing was the route used most often by audience members exposed to rational

appeal content (Rosselli, Skelly, & Mackie, 1995). On the other hand, an elicited affective state

associated with an advocated argument – such as a strong emotional appeal – lowers an 43

audience’s level of scrutiny and trigger them to employ peripheral information processing

strategy (Rosselli, Skelly, & Mackie, 1995). Figure 5 depicts how audience members’ faith

motivation, the duration of practicing faith, and appeal types affect the employment of

information processing strategies. The two hypotheses about appeal types were generated:

H3a: Individuals who are exposed to rational appeal content are more likely to employ the central processing strategy.

H3b: Individuals who exposed to emotional appeal content are more likely to employ the peripheral processing strategy.

Figure 5. Hypothesized Model for Faith Motivation, Experience, Appeal Type-to-Information Processing Strategies

44

Effects of the Information Processing Strategy on Outcomes

The ELM explained that when audience members receive new information from media content, they decide to process the information through the elaborative route or the peripheral route based on their ability and willingness. Individuals who employed the central processing strategy elaborated on new information using their previous knowledge and experiences to decide whether they would change/reinforce their attitude or not. Since the decision was made via their intellectual scrutiny, their attitude would not be easily changed. However, because individuals who employed the peripheral strategy processed the information based on their aroused emotion, their response to the information was immediate and the new attitude may be more susceptible to change when they were faced with new messages. Because elaborative processing required message receivers to engage fully in information processing, the processing may accelerate audience’s learning (Eveland, 2001).

The elaborative process may also influence audience members’ behavioral intention.

Since audience members scrutinized presented information with their existing knowledge and experience, they are likely to understand better how their intended action would be beneficial and/or difficult than they would without elaborating. As the perspective of the theory of reasoned action suggested, individuals’ decisions to act in various situations are based on perceived benefits and costs. Therefore, this study hypothesized the following statements:

H4a: Central processing of religious drama content, as opposed to peripheral processing, will generate greater knowledge increase on the subject.

H4b: Central processing of religious drama content, as opposed to peripheral processing, will generate greater persistent attitude changes on the subject.

H4c: Central processing of religious drama content, as opposed to peripheral processing, will generate greater behavioral intention changes on the subject. 45

Mediation of Information Processing

As Slater and Rasinski (2005) suggested that audience members’ active media use mediated the relationship between their personality and experience and their perception, this study hypothesized that audiences’ faith motivation, their activeness in practicing their faith, religious experience, and may affect the information processing strategies audience members employed in their media use and the strategies would influence the outcomes of the media use.

The complete research model of the study is illustrated in Figure 6. This study hypothesized the following statements:

H4a: The relationship between faith motivation and knowledge will be mediated by participants’ processing strategies.

H4b: The relationship between faith motivation and attitude will be mediated by participants’ processing strategies.

H4c: The relationship between faith motivation and behavior will be mediated by participants’ processing strategies.

Figure 6. Hypothesized Mediation Model 46

CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH METHOD

The current study employed an experimental design. Even though experiments have

been considered low in external validity (Babbie, 2007), the method was deemed appropriate for

the present study because of the need to investigate a causal relationship between a specific

motivation for religious media usage and its outcomes.

Experimental Design

The study used a 2 (faith motivation) x 2 (appeal types) pre-test and post-test

experimental design. In the process of data analysis, participants were divided into high and low

faith motivation groups by using their faith motivation index score. A median-split method was

employed in the recoding process. In the experiment, participants were randomly assigned to

rational appeal and emotional appeal content groups. Therefore, four experimental groups were

created as shown in Table 1.

The current study also used a pre-test and post-test experimental design because without measuring the previous level of religious knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention, the researcher cannot be sure whether any changes were caused by the stimulus. Researchers stressed that this design may reveal the clear effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable although score changes may be influenced by participants’ sensitization on instruments,

(Babbie, 2007; Kerlinger & Lee, 2000). For instance, it is possible that an individual with previous knowledge will be highly motivated to learn because religious knowledge is important to the person. However, it is also possible that that person will not be motivated because he or she already has knowledge of the presented information. Conversely, if an individual feels he or she has inadequate knowledge, the person can be more highly motivated to learn. Alternatively, that individual may not be motivated because the information is not useful to the person. 47

Table 1. Faith Motivation and Appeal Types.

High faith motivation/ High faith motivation/ Rational appeal Emotional appeal Low faith motivation/ Low faith motivation/ Rational appeal Emotional appeal

Therefore, it was deemed to use the current experimental design to ensure measurement of and distinction between such possibilities.

The current study employed a variety of methods to minimize the sensitization effect.

Firstly, measurement questions were rephrased and reordered in each phase of the experiment.

In addition, there was a three-week interval between the first and the second survey, and between the second and the third survey. Alongside religious knowledge questions, a few distracting questions about Cardinal Kim were inserted. In February of 2009, the death of Cardinal Kim, the first cardinal in Korea, was a big news topic in South Korea. Therefore, these questions were deemed as enough to distract participants attention. Participants were also asked whether they had looked for other sources besides the stimulus, a step that helped the researcher judge whether the results truly resulted from the stimulus.

Survey Instrument Development

Prior to the actual experiment, a pre-test of the instruments was conducted in April, 2010 at a Korean Catholic Church in Michigan. Based on responses to the open-ended questions from this pre-test, the indices of religious attitude and religious behavior were developed. After the pre-test was completed, the questionnaires were translated into Korean; all surveys were conducted in South Korea in the native language. To ensure the accuracy of translation, two bilingual graduate students translated the Korean version of questionnaires into English. These were then compared with the original version of questionnaires. The original version and 48

translated version of the questionnaires were highly concurrent. The research design, English and Korean consent forms, and questionnaires were approved by the Human Subjects Review

Board at Bowling Green State University in May, 2010.

Experimental Procedure

Implementation of the three phases of the experiment took three months, between June and August, 2010. In the first phase, participants took a survey inquiring about their faith motivation, pre-exposure religious knowledge, pre-exposure religious attitude, pre-exposure religious behavior, and demographic variables. Participants who had watched the drama were excluded based on their answer to a screening question (n = 7). After three weeks, participants watched their assigned stimulus for about one hour in their respective parishes and were asked to fill out the second survey immediately; the survey took about 15-minutes to complete. The survey included manipulation check questions, an elaboration list question, immediate post- exposure religious knowledge, immediate post-exposure religious attitude, and immediate post- exposure religious behavioral intention. Three weeks later, in the third phase, an additional 15- minute-long survey was conducted in participants’ respective parishes to examine delayed post- exposure religious knowledge, delayed post-exposure religious attitude, and delayed post- exposure religious behavior. A mail form of the third survey was also available at participants’ request.

Stimulus

This study chose Father Choi Yang Up, a drama aired on PBC, as the stimulus material.

The selected stimulus was considered to increase the external validity of this study because the original drama was produced to air on a religious channel. The drama was based on 18 existing letters of Father Choi Yang Up, the second Korean priest in the history of the Korean Catholic 49

Church. When the Catholic faith was first introduced in Korea in the early 19 century,

Confucianism, the dominant philosophy of the ruling class at the time, emphasized that the world could reach harmony if all constituents in a society kept four primary orders: the order between a king and officers, the order between men and women, the order between different classes, and the order between the elder and the young. Perceiving the Catholic faith as a threat to these orders because of the Church teaching about equality among different classes and between men and women and, eventually, to the harmony of the society, the kings of Korea prohibited the

Catholic faith. Therefore, French missionaries could not free proclaim their faith in Korea.

Because they could be easily identified due to their different appearance, the missionaries were not able to travel in public. If found preaching, they were arrested, persecuted, and martyred.

Therefore, one of the first attempts they made was to ordain Koreans to priesthood, so they might freely evangelize people, traveling from mission to mission, without being “identified” as

Catholic. Father Choi Yang Up, the protagonist of the drama, was one of the first three candidates selected by the missionaries in 1836. He was educated in China and the Philippines and returned to Korea after his ordination in Beijing. While the first Korean priest, Father Kim

Dae Gun, worked in Korea for only about one year before he was arrested and decapitated,

Father Choi Yang Up journeyed across the Korean Peninsula for about 12 years, teaching

Catholics and celebrating Sacraments for them. During this time, he also sent 19 letters, written in Latin, to his former professors in China, although the ninth letter had been lost.

In the remaining 18 letters, Father Choi Yang Up reported the situation of the early

Catholic Church in Korea, such as how many people the Church had and how many catechumens he had baptized. These letters contained rich information about the status of the early Catholic

Church in Korea. In addition, they described how the Catholics had been arrested, interrogated, 50

tortured, and persecuted. They also depicted Catholics’ miserable living conditions caused by

losing their jobs and possessions while escaping from persecution by police officers and

neighbors. These informative and affective elements found in these letters were theatrically presented in the drama, Father Choi Yang Up.

For the purpose of manipulation, the drama was edited to create two versions: 52 minutes of content for the rational appeal and 62 minutes of content for the emotional appeal.

The rational appeal stimulus depicted historical information of the early Korean Catholic Church

and descriptive statistics about the Catholics’ religious lives. On the other hand, the emotional

appeal stimulus focused on the suffering of the Catholics under persecution. The story line of

the original drama was maintained and thus some scenes were kept in both versions. For

instance, a scene wherein Father Choi Yang Up kissed the ground after returning to Korea, a

scene of celebrating Mass that emphasized equality among all classes, and a scene of Catechism

were all included in both stimuli. The drama depicted how Father Choi Yang Up was selected as

a seminarian. After the completion of study in China, he returned to Korean and travelled

mission to mission to celebrate Mass and the Sacrament of Confession. He endured severe

suffering from hunger, a betrayal of fellow Catholics, and persecutions. More detailed

descriptions of the two stimuli are provided in Appendix B.

Participants

Participants were recruited from three parishes in the Diocese of Busan, South Korea. In

each parish, participants were recruited from two groups. The researcher recruited Catholic

participants through parish bulletin announcements and verbal announcements in Masses.

Alternatively, catechumens were recruited in their baptism preparation classes. To ensure

participants had equal involvement in the experiment, they were all told that their surveys were 51

conducted to collect data for the researcher’s dissertation, that the drama originally aired on the

Catholic PBC cable channel in South Korea, and that their individual identities would be kept

confidential.

Manipulation Check

Participants were randomly assigned to rational appeal content or emotional appeal

content groups, using number cards. Consecutively numbered cards were distributed one by one

to participants according to the order of their seats. People with odd number cards were assigned

to the rational appeal content group, while those with even number cards were assigned to the

emotional appeal content group. The rational appeal content manipulation was checked with a

seven-point Likert scale statement, “The program is based on facts and information” ranging

from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree.” The emotional appeal content manipulation was checked with another seven-point Likert scale statement, “The program appealed to my emotions

and feelings.” Both statements were included in each treatment group.

Operationalization of Variables

Novice Catholics and Experienced Catholics

Novice Catholics were operationalized as people who were preparing their baptism or

Catholics who have participated in the Catholic Church for five years or less. Experienced

Catholics were operationalized as Catholics who have practiced six years or more. The duration of practicing faith was an important indicator of their experience in religious communities.

Passive Catholics and Active Catholics

Passive Catholics were operationalized as Catholics who were participating in one or less religious activities, such as Bible studies, devotional prayer groups, or community service groups.

Active Catholics were operationalized as Catholics who were participating in two or more 52

religious activities. Parcitipating in two or more extra religious activities was an important

indicator of their activeness in practicing their faith.

Faith Motivation

Faith motivation was measured using seven seven-point Likert scale items, each ranging

from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree.” The first three items were developed by Abelman

(1987a): “Because the religion is important in my life, I will watch Catholic television programs,” “Because Catholic television programs are helpful to my salvation, I will watch

them,” and “Because I feel I am close to God when I watch Catholic television programs, I will

watch them.” Because the exact wording of these items from Abelman was not available, the

researcher re-created the three items using general terms from the names of the faith motivation

typology of his paper: religiosity, salvation, and closeness to God. Three additional items from

Baek (2003) were included: “I will watch Catholic television programs to increase my

knowledge as a Catholic,” “I will watch Catholic television programs to seek peace in my mind,”

and “I will watch Catholic television programs to find answers for my religious questions.” The

wording was changed from Catholic radio programs to Catholic television programs because the

original items were generated from the motivations of Catholic radio listeners. A general item “I

expect watching Catholic television programs will deepen my faith” has also been added to the

index. A Cronbach’s α was computed on the combined scale to examine its reliability; the

resulting α was .94, showing high reliability of the index for faith motivation.

Central Processing and Peripheral Processing

Information processing routes were measured by asking participants to list any element or

detail of the drama they elaborated on within three minutes (Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989;

Koh & Sundar, 2010; Rosselli, Selly, & Mackie, 1995). Answers to this open-ended question in 53

the second survey were coded by two coders. They counted how many items participants

remembered from the drama. In the elaboration likelihood model, a low number of thoughts was

regarded as the evidence of peripheral information processing and a high number of thoughts was considered as the evidence of central information processing. In the current study, the number of thoughts was recoded into a dichotomous variable: the peripheral information processing (0-2 topics, 47.1%) vs. the central information processing (3-8 topics, 52.9%).

Approximate middle point was chosen for the comparison purpose. The inter-coder reliability for the number of thoughts was .97, using the Krippendorff α reliability test.

Religious Knowledge

Religious knowledge was measured using seven true or false and multiple choice questions about the history of the Catholic Church in Korea, such as “From which cause did Fr.

Choi Yang Up die?” and “In which language did the early Korean Catholic Church celebrate

Mass?” Each correct answer was given 1 point; each incorrect or no response was given 0 point.

Religious Attitude

In the earlier pre-test, 47 participants watched the original version of the drama and were asked to list any changes in their minds that occurred because of the viewing. Based on their responses, the 10-item religious attitude index was created. The items were then adjusted to reflect more closely the drama content and to ensure they were relevant to both stimuli of the study. The participants were asked whether they agreed to 10 seven-point Likert scale statements, such as “Every member in the Church is equal in God,” and “I believe God is always with me,” ranging from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree.” These points were summed to produce the variable of religious attitude. 54

Religious Behavior

In the earlier pre-test, 47 participants watched the original version of the drama and were

asked to list actions they decided to take as a consequence of the viewing. Based on their

responses, the 10-item religious behavior index was generated. The items were then adjusted to reflect more closely the drama content and to ensure they were relevant to both stimuli of the study. In the current study, the participants were asked whether they agreed to 10 seven-point

Likert scale statements, such as “I pray to Korean Saints asking their intercession,” and “I forgive my friends and neighbors even when they harm me.” The answer ranged from “Strongly

Disagree” to “Strongly Agree.” The points were summed to produce the variable of religious behavior.

Covariates

Previous cognitive processing literature revealed that highly religious participants might use non-content cues in the media, such as source expertise and source likability, to activate a

less effortful processing route. Therefore, these two variables were controlled for in this study.

In the case of source expertise, some participants might have been aware that PBC is the

Catholic cable channel in South Korea while others might not. Therefore, the researcher

informed all participants of the fact that the drama had been previously broadcasted by the

channel. In addition, some participants might have already liked the channel from their own

previous use. To statistically control for source likability, pre-existing preference for the cable

channel was measured by a seven-point Likert question in the first phase survey. The complete

questionnaire is provided in Appendix A. 55

Statistical Techniques

To detect the changes in the outcome variables, paired-sample t-tests were performed: immediate and delayed religious knowledge, immediate and delayed religious attitude, immediate behavioral intention, and delayed behavior. The effects of faith motivation, activeness in practicing faith, the duration of religious experience, appeal types, and the processing strategy on the outcome variables were tested by the independent sample t-test. χ2-

test was conducted to check relationships between faith motivation and the employment of the

processing strategy, between activeness in practicing faith and the strategy employment, between

the duration of religious experience and the strategy employment, between appeal types and the

strategy employment, and between appeal types and the strategy employment. The correlations among three religion-related variables, such as activeness in practicing faith, the duration of religious experience, and faith motivation were high. Therefore, an interaction term was inserted to regression models. Most regression models had very small predicting powers for delayed religious knowledge change, immediate and delayed religious attitude change/reinforcement, immediate religious behavioral intention, and delayed religious behavior change. To investigate the interaction relationships among the independent variables, the interaction graphs were plotted.

56

CHAPTER V: RESULTS

Profile of Participants

Participants were recruited from three Catholic parishes in the Diocese of Busan, South

Korea. In the first phase, there were 374 participants. By the second phase, there were 268 participants (72% of the original set). A total of 64% of the first participants completed all three phases of this study, resulting in the final usable sample size of 240. The drop-outs had been expected due to the lengthy period and the amount of effort and time required to complete three phases. The larger drop-out between the first and second phases can be additionally explained by a face saving practice common in Asian countries. Although the researcher explained the whole process of this study before participants took began the first phase, participants who did not want to participate in the full process did not immediately withdraw their participation because they needed to save face. Rather than leaving the experiment before it began, participants who wished to leave did so between the research phases. In addition, the drop-outs between the second and third phases were caused by the various vacation plans of participants.

The typical summer vacation season in Korea begins at the end of July, when the third phase of survey was conducted. To reduce this drop-out rate, participants who planned a trip during the period of the third phase were asked to indicate this on the consent form. In those cases, the third questionnaire was mailed to their home. Participants were also given an option to fill out the third survey in their parish offices after returning from their vacation. Because this study compared the results of the first and second surveys and those of the second and third surveys, only completed questionnaires (n = 240) were used in data analysis. The demographic profile of the participants is shown in Table 2.

Among participants, there were more females (79.8%) than males (20.2%), showing a 57

bias towards females because the Catholic Church in South Korea is comprised of 58.5%

females and 41.5% males (Catholic Bishops Conference in Korea, 2009). In terms of age, many

participants were from 40 to 49 year-old group (32.3%) or 50 to 59 year-old group (35.3%).

Others participants were from 19 to 29 year-old group (3.8%), 30 to 39 year-old group (10.1%),

60 to 69 year-old group (13.5%), or 70 year-old or over group (5%). This age profile was also

biased toward older Catholics, because 20 to 29 year-old group (21.6%), 30 to 39 year-old group

(18.9%), 40 to 49 year-old group (19.9%), 50 to 59 year-old group (19.7%) are main age groups

of the Korean Catholic Church after the 18 or less group is removed (Catholic Bishops

Conference in Korea, 2009). Therefore, the results of the study should be interpreted with caution.

Compared with the 2010 national average annual family incomes of about US $36,660

(Statistics Korea, 2010), participants in the current study were from lower income families, consisting of less than about US $20,000 (33.8%), about US $20,000-29,999 (22.5%), about US

$30,000-39,999 (22.5%), about US $40,000-49,999 (9.5%), about US $50,000-59,999 (4.3%),

and more than about US $60,000 (7.4%). In terms of their education attainment, most

participants received less than high school education or high school diploma (62.6%); the

remaining education categories were: one to three years college education (15.4%), bachelor’s degree (20.1%), and masters or doctoral degree (2.1%). This profile of education attainment was similar with the result of the national census because 65.7% of South Koreans received less than high school education or a high school diploma and 34.3% received a college or higher level of education (Statistics Korea, 2005). The demographic profile of participants is shown in Table 2.

58

Table 2. Demographic Profile of Participants (n = 240)

Gender n % Male 190 20.2 Female 48 79.8 Missing=2 Age 19-29 9 3.8 30-39 24 10.1 40-49 77 32.3 50-59 84 35.3 60-69 32 13.5 70 or over 12 5.0 Missing=2 Family Annual Income Approximately less than US$20,000 77 33.8 Approximately US $20,000-29,999 52 22.5 Approximately US $30,000-39,999 52 22.5 Approximately US $40,000-49,999 22 9.5 Approximately US $50,000-59,999 10 4.3 Approximately more than US $60,000 17 7.4 Missing=10 Education Less than high school or high school diploma 146 62.6 1-3 years college education 36 15.4 Bachelor’s degree 47 20.1 Masters or doctoral degree 5 2.1 Missing=6

Religion and Media Use Profile of Participants

Participants have practiced their faith for 0 to 10 years (28.3%), 11 to 20 years (29.9%),

21 to 30 years (16.9%), 31 to 40 years (10.6%), 41 to 50 years (8.8%), and 51 years or more

(5.5%). For the purpose of comparison, participants who had practiced their faith for five years or less were categorized into novice Catholics (19.4%) and those who had practiced their faith for six years or more were categorized into experienced Catholics (80.6%).

Most participants attended Mass more than the Church’s minimum requirement, which is every Sunday Mass. Of the participants, 0.9% had not attended Mass at all, 7.1% attended one to 59

three Sunday(s) per month, 22.8% attended every Sunday, 54% attended every Sunday and one

to three weekday(s), and 15.2% attended almost everyday. In terms of their activeness in

practicing faith, Catholics who did not take part in any organization or took part in only one

organization were grouped as passive Catholics (44.9%) and Catholics who took part in two or

more organizations were grouped as active Catholics (55.1%). Even though participation in

extra church activities is encouraged by church leaders, it is not a requirement for every member

as Sunday Mass attendance is required. For the purpose of comparison, a median-split method was utilized to divide participants according to their religious organization participation.

Faith motivation was audience members’ motivation to deepen their faith by using religious media. This motivation was measured by the faith motivation index, raging from 0 to

49 points. Based on the median split method, participants were divided into Catholics with low faith motivation (50.2%, n = 109, M = 4.29, SD = .84) and those with high faith motivation

(49.8%, n = 108, M = 6.54, SD = .52). In terms of PBC TV use, participants differed greatly.

Approximately 32.6% participants were frequent PBC TV users (two to three days a week or

more), about 36.4% were occasional users (once a week to once a month), and about 31% had

never watched PBC TV. The researcher explained to participants that only those who had not

watched the stimulus drama could participate in this study. Participants’ religion and media use

profile are shown in Table 3.

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Table 3. Religion and Media Use Profile of Participants (n = 240)

Duration of Practicing Faith n % 0-10 years 67 28.3 11-20 years 71 29.9 21-30 years 40 16.9 31-40 years 25 10.6 41-50 years 21 8.8 51 years or more 13 5.5 Missing=3 Experience Novice Catholics 46 19.4 Experienced Catholics 191 80.6 Activeness Passive Catholics 105 44.9 Active Catholics 129 55.1 Faith Motivation Low Motivation 109 50.2 High Motivation 108 49.8 Mass Attendance Never 2 0.9 1-3 Sunday Mass(es) 16 7.1 Every Sunday 51 22.8 Every Sunday and 1-3 weekday Mass(es) 121 54.0 (Almost) Everyday 34 15.2 Missing=16 Frequency of PBC TV Use Never 74 31.0 Once a month 38 15.9 Once in 2 weeks 14 5.9 Once a week 35 14.6 2-3 days a week 49 20.5 (Almost) Everyday 29 12.1 Missing=1 PBC Likability M: 5.06 SD: 1.51 Maximum: 7 Minimum: 1 Missing=16

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Table 4. Comparison between Low and High Likability

Low Likability High Likability t n M (SD) n M (SD) Immediate Religious Knowledge 112 3.26 (1.81) 122 2.58 (1.72) -2.92** (possible range: -7 to7) Delayed Religious Knowledge 110 -.15 (1.33) 123 .25 (1.38) 2.29* (possible range: -7 to7) Immediate Religious Attitude 103 .30 (.92) 113 .17 (.80) -1.14 (possible range: -3 to 3) Delayed Religious Attitude 100 .08 (.84) 116 .16 (.69) .72 (possible range: -3 to 3) Immediate Religious Behavioral 81 3.95 (8.38) 87 4.43 (7.27) .39 Intention (possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Behavior 95 1.73 ( 6.11) 101 .06 (8.06) -1.11 (possible range: -7 to 7) Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

In addition, participants were asked how much they liked PBC TV on a seven-point index because, while the researcher could not control how much participants liked the source of the stimulus message, their opinion of the station could be a non-cognitive cue in their response to the stimulus. The mean of likability was 5.06 (SD = 1.51). Table 4 shows the effects of likability on immediate and delayed religious knowledge. Unexpectedly, participants who liked PBC TV less gained more immediate religious knowledge than the ones who liked the channel more.

However, three weeks after exposure, the participants who liked the channel less forgot what they learned from the religious drama and the participants who liked the channel more maintained their increased religious knowledge. This result indicated that the level of source likability positively influenced the learning process of religious knowledge, but only in a delayed term. Because likability is a significant variable on immediate and delayed religious knowledge, the variable was included in the immediate and delayed religious knowledge regression models to control for the variable. 62

Missing Data

Some respondents failed to complete some of the survey questions. It appeared that these questions were not intentionally skipped to avoid answering certain questions, for some participants skipped one to three whole pages of the survey (n = 6). Other subjects missed one or two item(s) in an index. Because there was a “0 = I do not know” option in every seven-point index, it seemed that these missing data were not signs of respondents’ “refusal to respond.” It could therefore be assumed these missing data occurred randomly and did not systematically affect the relationships between the independent and dependent variables (Cohen & Cohen,

1983). These 0s and missing data were treated as system missing answers in data analysis.

Missing values were not artificially replaced by other or average values. The few people who missed more than the half of the questions in a questionnaire were dropped from analysis (n = 4).

Data Examination and Scale Validation

An important assumption of regression is normal distribution of the data. All exogenous variables and most of endogenous variables showed a low to moderate level of skewness

(between .01 to .88) with sound standard deviations. However, an endogenous variable, the religious attitude, showed highly skewed distribution to the left. This skewness mirrored the participants’ high religiousness, indicating a high concentration of highly religious participants as opposed to moderately or lightly religious participants. This skewness to the left occurred because although the researcher tried to recruit participants from various levels of faith, many highly religious Catholics participated in this study.

The result of Mass attendance, that 69.2% respondents participated in Mass every Sunday and one to three weekday(s) or almost everyday, showed that subjects were very religious.

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Table 5. Normality of Distribution

Exogenous Variables M SD Skewness Duration of Practicing Faitha 21.69 16.03 .65 Activenessb 1.85 1.43 .61 Faith Motivation 5.41 1.32 -.45 Number of Thoughts 2.71 1.51 .58 (range: 0 to 8) Endogenous Variables Religious Knowledge in First Phase 2.30 1.47 -.01 Religious Knowledge in Second Phase 5.19 1.46 -.86 Religious Knowledge in Third Phase 5.26 1.37 -.86 Religious Attitude in First Phase 6.16 .83 -1.03 Religious Attitude in Second Phase 6.33 .77 -1.39 Religious Attitude in Third Phase 6.40 .78 -1.75 Religious Behavior in First Phase 4.46 1.18 .07 Religious Behavior in Second Phase 4.82 1.12 -.16 Religious Behavior in Third Phase 4.91 1.12 -.07 Note. a Scores in years, b Scores in the number of religious group participated

In data analysis, attempts were made to transform the variable to improve the distribution by

using statistical techniques such as taking square roots or logarithm. However, they did not

improve the normality. Therefore, the religious attitude variable was re-coded as relative

intervals: low (31-56, 25.9%), moderately low (57-64, 27.6%), moderately high (65-69, 22.4%),

and high religious attitude (70, 24.1%). Even though this transformation lowered the quality of

data, the recoding process was not against the original intention of this study because it was

designed to capture the general influence of religious drama on audiences’ religious attitude. The

normality of variables is shown in Table 5.

In terms of the duration of practicing faith, participants were divided into novice or experienced Catholics. Data shows novice Catholics differed from experienced Catholics.

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Table 6. Comparison between Novice and Experienced Catholics

Novice Catholics Experienced Catholics t n M (SD) n M (SD) Faith Motivation 39 5.00 (1.37) 176 5.48 (1.30) 2.07* Pre-test Religious Knowledge 46 1.33 (1.21) 191 2.53 (1.44) 5.24*** Pre-test Religious Attitude 41 5.56 (.96) 184 6.30 (.73) 5.53*** Pre-test Religious Behavior 30 3.94 (1.19) 153 4.56 (1.16) 2.68** Activeness a 45 .96 (1.07) 188 2.07 (1.42) 4.94*** (range: 0 to 6) Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001, a Scores in the number of religious group participated

Novice Catholics had significantly lower motivation to deepen their faith via religious media than the experienced Catholics (see Table 6). They also had significantly lower religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavior than the experienced Catholics. They also less actively participated in religious organizations than the experienced Catholics. Hence, it was important to distinguish between the two groups in subsequent analysis.

As shown in Table 7, passive Catholics were almost as high in faith motivation as active

Catholics, but they had significantly lower religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavior than active Catholics.

The relationship between the duration of participants’ religious experience and their religious activity participation showed that novice Catholics were more likely to be passive in practicing their faith and experienced Catholics were more likely to be active (χ2=15.82, p

< .001) as shown in Table 8.

The variable number of thoughts describes the number of topics subjects identified in their answers to the open-ended question in the second survey that asked what they have thought about while watching the stimulus. 65

Table 7. Comparison between Passive and Active Catholics

Passive Catholics Active Catholics t n M (SD) n M (SD) Faith Motivation 92 5.32 (1.41) 121 5.48 (1.25) .85 Pre-test Religious Knowledge 105 2.07 (1.50) 128 2.45 (1.44) 2.01* Pre-test Religious Attitude 96 5.99 (.95) 127 6.29 (.71) 2.61* a Pre-test Religious Behavior 79 4.07 (1.10) 103 4.75 (1.16) 4.00*** Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001, a Equal variance were not assumed

Table 8. Correlation between Experience and Activeness

Passive Catholics (n = 104) Active Catholics (n = 129) Novice Catholics (n = 45) 32 (71.1%) 13 (28.9%) Experienced Catholics (n = 188) 72 (38.3%) 116 (61.7%)

A low number of thoughts was considered as the evidence of peripheral information processing in the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) and a high number of thoughts was regarded as the evidence of central information processing. In this study, the variable was recoded as the peripheral route (0-2 topics, 47.1%) and the central route (3-8 topics, 52.9%). A median-split method was employed for a comparison purpose.

Multicollinearity

Another assumption of regression is that the independent variables are not closely correlated with one another. Multicollinearity is a close correlation among a group of independent variables (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Because a variable exhibiting multicollinearity explains the same variance explained by another independent variable, it does not increase the explanatory power of a regression model described below. To examine whether independent variables in the regression model were related to one another, the exact of correlation among (a)

66

Table 9. Correlation of Activity, Faith Motivation, and Church Experience

Activity Faith Motivation Church Experience r (n) r ( n) r (n) Activity 1 (234) Faith Motivation .10 (213) 1 (217) Church .17* (233) .23** (215) 1 (237) Experience Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

audience members’ activeness in practicing faith, (b) their motivation to deepen their faith via religious media, and (c) their duration of practicing faith was examined. Table 9 shows that participants’ duration of practicing faith was significantly correlated with their participation in church activities and with their motivation to increase their faith via media use. Therefore, an interaction term of audience members’ activeness in practicing their faith, their motivation to deepen their faith via religious media, and the duration of practicing faith was developed by multiplying the z-scores of these three variables. The interaction term was entered in the regression models.

Reliability

A reliability test examines the consistency of items in an index to measure a concept.

Table 10 shows the item statements in indices used in this study; Table 11 shows the reliability of the scales employed in the study. Cronbach’s α for both the exogenous and endogenous variables reached satisfactory levels, ranging from 0.85 to 0.94.

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Table 10. Index Items in the Study

Exogenous Variable Faith Motivation A1. I expect watching Catholic TV programs will deepen my faith. A2. Because religion is important in my life, I will watch Catholic TV programs. A3. Because Catholic TV programs are helpful to my salvation, I will watch them. A4. Because I feel I am close to God when I watch Catholic TV programs, I will watch them. A5. I expect watching Catholic TV programs will increase my religious knowledge as a Catholic. A6. I expect watching Catholic TV programs will be helpful to find answers for my religious questions. A7. I expect watching Catholic TV programs will help me find peace in my mind. Endogenous Variables Religious Knowledge B1. Fr. Choi Yang Up wrote Korean songs to teach illiterate Catholics catechism. B2. Catholics in the early Korean Church had to memorize catechism to receive the Communion. B3. Fr. Choi Yang Up was the only Korean priest in the Korean Catholic Church when he returned to Korea after completing his study abroad. B4. Fr. Choi Yang Up passed away because of illness and overwork. B5. Fr. Choi Yang Up passed away near Mun Kyung. B6. Mass in the early Korean Catholic Church was celebrated in Latin. B7. Father Choi Yang Up had walked from China after his study to return to Korea. Religious Attitude C1. I should give thanks to God not only in good times but also in bad times. C2. Every member in the Church is equal in God. C3. Whenever I ask God’s help, God always helps me, especially at difficult moments. C4. Attending Mass is a very important part of my life. C5. I believe that God is always with me. C6. If I do not practice what I have learned from the Church, the teaching would be of no use. C7. What I do to people in need is what I do to God. C8. Forgiving neighbors’ faults even seventy of seven times is one of the most important virtues of Christians. C9. When I meet fellow Catholics in a church, I need to treat them as brothers and sisters in Christ. C10. The Gospel of Jesus Christ is the source of my true happiness. Religious Behavior D1. I talk about the lives of Korean Saints with my friends and neighbors. D2. I pray to Korean Saints, asking for their intercession. D3. I pray for the beatification and canonization of Korean martyrs and unknown Saints. D4. I recommend to my friends and neighbors to learn the history of the Korean Catholic Church through religious media. D5. I often use religious media about the history of the Korean Catholic Church. D6. I forgive my friends and neighbors even when they harm me. D7. I serve God in serving people in need. D8. I actively participate in church groups. D9. I overcome difficulties in my life, meditating on the suffering and death of Christ. D10. I treat my fellow Catholics as brothers and sisters in Christ.

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Table 11. Reliability of the Scales

Exogenous Variable Cronbach’s α n of Items Faith Motivation .94 7 Endogenous Variables Religious Attitude (First Phase) .85 10 Religious Attitude (Second Phase) .90 10 Religious Attitude (Third Phase) .89 10 Religious Behavior (First Phase) .87 10 Religious Behavior (Second Phase) .88 10 Religious Behavior (Third Phase) .88 10

In addition, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on each scale to see if the items

within reflected one or several dimension(s). The results show that faith motivation was comprised of only one factor, but religious attitude and religious behavior consisted of two factors. The two factors of religious attitude were religious attitudes to God (Factor 1) and religious attitudes to community (Factor 2). The items in Factor 1 were “I believe that God is always with me” (.83), “Attending Mass is a very important part of my life” (.81), “Whenever I ask God’s help, God always helps me, especially at difficult moments” (.80), “I should give thanks to God not only in good times but also in bad times” (.64), and “The Gospel of Jesus

Christ is the source of my true happiness” (.58). The second factor, religious attitudes to community, was comprised of “Forgiving neighbors’ faults even seventy of seven times is one of the most important virtues of Christians” (.82), “When I meet fellow Catholics in a church, I need to treat them as brothers and sisters in Christ” (.76), “What I do to people in need is what I do to God” (.62), “Every member in the Church is equal in God” (.48), and “If I do not practice what I have learned from the Church, the teaching would be of no use” (.43). Even with presence of the two factors, the religious attitude index was highly reliable with a Cronbach’s α 69

of 0.85 for the first phase, of 0.90 for the second phase, and of 0.89 for the third phase of the study.

Religious behavior was also consisted of two factors: The practice of Christian values in daily life (Factor 1) and learning the history of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2). The items in Factor 1 involved indirect messages of the drama, such as, “I overcome difficulties in my life, meditating on the suffering and death of Christ” (.81), “I actively participate in church groups” (.74), “I treat my fellow Catholics as brothers and sisters in Christ” (.73), “I serve God in serving people in need” (.67), and “I forgive my friends and neighbors even when they harm me” (.58). The items in Factor 2, learning the history of the Korean Catholic Church, involved direct messages of the drama, such as “I recommend my friends and neighbors to learn the history of the Korean Catholic Church through religious media” (.81), “I often use religious media about the history of the Korean Catholic Church” (.74), “I talk about the lives of Korean

Saints with my friends and neighbors” (.73), “I pray for the beatification and canonization of

Korean martyrs and unknown Saints” (.65), and “I pray to Korean Saints, asking their intercession” (.63). Even with the presence of two factors, the religious behavior index was highly reliable with a Cronbach’s α of 0.87 for the first phase, of 0.88 both for the second and third phases.

Because religious knowledge was measured cumulatively by counting correct and incorrect answers to true and false questions and multiple-choice questions, the reliability of this variable was not tested. However, Table 12 shows that the general tendency of difficulties of religious knowledge questions was maintained.

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Table 12. Immediate Religious Knowledge Change

1st Phase 2nd Phase 3rd Phase Correct Answer Correct Answer Correct Answer n % n % n % Traveling Method of Fr. Choi 23 9.4 137 58.1 162 67.5 Place of Fr. Choi’s Death 28 11.8 160 67.5 202 84.2 Reason of Fr. Choi’s Death 50 21.1 224 94.5 201 83.8 Teaching Catechism with Korean Song 91 38.4 190 80.1 145 60.9 Fr. Choi was the only Korean Priest. 98 41.3 149 62.8 163 68.2 Memorizing Catechism to Receive 136 57.4 171 72.2 200 83.3 Communion Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Manipulation Check

To examine whether or not the manipulation of exposure to the rational appeal or

emotional appeal was successful, participants were asked how much they agreed to two

manipulation check seven-point questions: “The drama consists of a lot of facts and

information.” (the rational appeal manipulation check) and “the drama deeply appeals to my emotions and feelings.” (the emotional appeal manipulation check). Subjects who were exposed to rational appeal perceived the content was rational (t = 40.41, p < .001) and subjects who were exposed to emotional appeal perceived the content was emotional (t = 68.67, p < .001).

However, they also perceived the content as the opposite appeals. The exposure type did not affect participants’ perception of the rational appeal (t = -1.39, p = n.s.) or the emotional appeal manipulation (t = .00, p = n.s.). The results are shown in Table 13.

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Table 13. Manipulation Check

Rational Appeal Exposure Emotional Appeal Exposure t n M (SD) n M (SD) Perceived Rational Appeal 108 6.01 (1.57) 130 5.76 (1.18) -1.39 Perceived Emotional Appeal 108 6.00 (1.09) 129 6.00 (1.01) .00 Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Table 14. Comparison between Female and Male in Perceived Appeal Types

Female Male t n M (SD) n M (SD) Perceived Rational Appeal 189 5.87 (1.43) 47 5.87 (1.17) .00 Perceived Emotional Appeal 188 6.09 (1.00) 47 5.68 (1.14) -2.40* Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Table 15. Comparison between Low and High Faith Motivation in Perceived Appeal Types

Low Faith High Faith Motivation t Motivation n M (SD) n M (SD) Perceived Rational Appeal (possible 109 5.68 (1.39) 106 6.14 (1.28) 2.53* range: 0 to 7) Perceived Emotional Appeal (possible 108 5.78 (1.07) 106 6.25 (.98) 3.40** range: 0 to 7) Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Table 14 shows that even though gender did not affect the perceived rational appeal, it

did affect the perceived emotional appeal. Female participants perceived the drama as having

more emotional appeal. Participants’ faith motivation affected the perceived rational appeal (t =

2.53, p < .05) and the perceived emotional appeal (t = 3.40, p < .01). Participants who were

highly motivated to deepen their faith via religious media perceived the drama as more rational

and more emotional regardless of the appeal type they were exposed (see Table 15). 72

Table 16. Immediate Effects

1st Phase 2nd Phase t n M (SD) n M (SD) Immediate Religious Knowledge 234 2.29 (1.47) 234 5.20 (1.46) 24.71*** Immediate Religious Attitude 216 6.18 (.83) 216 6.34 (.77) 3.72*** Immediate Religious Behavioral Intention 168 4.44 (1.15) 168 4.86 (1.12) 6.97*** Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Therefore, these results indicated that participants’ pre-existing characteristics may more affect their perception of appeal types than the actual exposure.

Research Questions for Immediate and Delayed Effects

RQ1: What are the immediate effects of religious drama exposure in terms of religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavioral intention?

Although there was not a control group, the result of the pre-test comparing with immediate post-test of the same subjects showed a general tendency that exposure to the religious drama used in the experiment significantly increased audience members’ religious knowledge (t = 24.71, p < .001), religious attitude (t = 3.72, p < .001), and religious behavioral intention (t = 6.97, p < .001) in general (see Table 16).

In particular, in terms of behavioral intention, although both types of religious behavioral intentions (the practice of Christian values: Factor 1 and learning the history of the Korean

Catholic Church: Factor 2) were influenced, religious drama exposure more affected learning the history of the Korean Catholic Church-related behaviors (direct messages of the drama, t = 7.75, p < .001) than the practice of Christian value-related behaviors (indirect messages of the drama, t

= 3.90, p < .001) as Table 17 shows. 73

Table 17. Immediate Religious Behavioral Intention Change in the Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1) and Learning the History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2)

1st Phase 2nd Phase t n M (SD) n M (SD) Immediate Religious Behavioral Intention 204 4.99 (1.22) 204 5.22 (1.11) 3.90*** Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1) Immediate Religious Behavioral Intention 179 3.88 (1.43) 179 4.51 (1.38) 7.75*** Learning the history of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2) Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

To statistically control for the influence of other sources to participants, the second questionnaire

included a question about whether they sought information from outside sources. The result

shows that outside source information did not affect the outcome variables: religious knowledge

(t = -.13, p = n.s.), religious attitude (t = .95, p = n.s.), or religious behavioral intention (t = -.31, p = n.s.).

RQ2: What are the delayed effects of religious drama exposure in terms of religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavior?

There was no significant change in participants’ religious knowledge three weeks after exposure (t = .67, p = n.s.). At the third phase, they kept the knowledge they gained from the exposure at the second phase. However, audience members positively changed their religious attitude (t = 2.06, p < .05) and religious behavior (t = 2.22, p < .05) over time. The results suggested that although the effect of religious drama exposure in religious knowledge was immediate, the effects on religious attitude and behavior were slow but cumulative. Table 18 shows the delayed effects of religious drama exposure.

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Table 18. Delayed Effects

2nd Phase 3rd Phase t n M (SD) n M (SD) Delayed Religious Knowledge 233 5.20 (1.46) 233 5.26 (1.38) .67 Delayed Religious Attitude 217 6.35 (.75) 217 6.42 (.77) 2.06* Delayed Religious Behavior 196 4.83 (1.11) 196 4.94 (1.10) 2.22* Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Among religious behavior, there was no change in learning the history of the Korean

Catholic Church-related behaviors (direct messages of the drama) (t = .20, p = n.s.), but the

practice of Christian value-related behaviors (indirect messages of the drama) kept increasing

(t = 3.34, p < .01). These results indicate that although the effect of the direct messages of

religious drama exposure was immediate in increasing audience members’ behavioral intention,

the effect of the indirect and broad messages of the religious drama exposure was gradual and

cumulative. To control for, statistically, the influence of other sources to participants, the third

questionnaire included another question about whether they sought information from outside

sources. Information from outside sources did not affect delayed increase in religious attitude

(t = -.51, p = n.s.) and religious behavior (t = -1.96, p = n.s.). Table 19 shows the different

delayed effects of religious drama exposure on religious behavior related to the practice of

Christian values in daily lives and those related to learning the history of the Korean Catholic

Church.

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Table 19. Delayed Religious Behavior Change in the Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1) and Learning the History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2)

2nd Phase 3rd Phase t n M (SD) n M (SD) Delayed Religious Behavior 213 5.23 (1.10) 213 5.39 (1.10) 3.34** Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1) Delayed Religious Behavior 209 4.44 (1.38) 209 4.46 (1.43) .20 Learning the History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2) Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

The Effects of Demographic Variables

RQ3: Which demographic groups are more influenced by religious drama exposure?

Younger (β = -.21, p < .01) and more educated Catholics (β = .20, p < .01) learned more

from their religious drama use immediately after exposure. Age and education of the participants affected the immediate religious knowledge, explaining 13% of the variance in the knowledge scores (see Table 19). In the model of the delayed religious behavior, Catholics with higher family incomes positively changed their religious behavior (β = .17, p < .05). However, the demographic variables were not significant predictors of delayed religious knowledge, immediate and delayed religious attitude, or immediate and delayed religious behavioral intention. Therefore, in general, demographic variables were not good predictors of the religious outcomes in the models seen in Table 20.

When religious behavioral change was divided into the two factors, family income was found to be a significant predictor of the practicing Christian value-related behaviors (β = .19, p

< .05). However, the demographic variables were very limited in predicting either Factor 1 or

Factor 2 of the delayed religious behavior (see Table 21).

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Table 20. Regression Models of Demographic Variables

Immediate Delayed Immediate Delayed Immediate Delayed Religious Religious Religious Religious Religious Religious Knowledge Knowledge Attitude Attitude Behavioral Behavior Intention Age -.21** .15* .06 -.02 .08 -.02 Gender -.06 .00 -.10 .12 .00 .02 Education .20** -.05 .06 -.10 .07 -.08 Income .07 .04 .02 .10 .04 .17* Adj. R2 .13 .00 .00 00 -.02 .00 Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Table 21. Demographic Predictors of the Delayed in Religious Behaviors of the Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1) and Learning the History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2)

Practice of Christian Values Learning of the History of the Korean Catholic Church Age .01 -.03 Gender .05 .04 Education -.02 -.12 Income .19* .15 Adj. R2 .01 .00 Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

The Effects of Faith Variables

RQ4: Do passive Catholics and active Catholics employ different information processing strategies in their religious drama exposure?

Passive Catholics were more likely to select the peripheral information processing and

active Catholics were more likely to select the central information processing (χ2 = 8.54, p < .01).

Table 22 shows that the peripheral information processing was the more preferred strategy of

passive Catholics than the central processing. The central processing was the more preferred

processing of active Catholics than the peripheral processing. Catholics’ previous active

participation in various church activities may trigger to employ the more elaborative information 77

Table 22. Activity Participation and Information Processing Route

Peripheral Route (n = 109) Central Route (n = 125) Passive Catholics (n = 105) 60 (57.1%) 45 (42.9%) Active Catholics (n = 129) 49 (38.0%) 80 (62.0%)

processing in religious media exposure.

RQ5: Do passive Catholics and active Catholics show different outcomes from their religious drama exposure?

There was a moderate difference between active Catholics and passive Catholics in their religious behaviors related to learning the history of the Korean Catholic Church within three

weeks after exposure (t = 2.64, p < .01). Table 23 shows that within three weeks after exposure passive Catholic did not practice what they have intended, but active Catholics practiced their behavioral intention. Active Catholics used religious media about the history of the Korean

Catholic Church (t = 2.24, p < .01) and prayed for the beatification and canonization of unknown martyrs (t = 2.56, p < .01).

RQ6: Do novice Catholics and experienced Catholics show different outcomes from their religious drama exposure?

Novice Catholics were more likely to gain religious knowledge from the religious drama exposure in a short term (t = -2.28, p < .05). Table 24 shows that whereas the score of novice

Catholics’ total religious knowledge was increased by about 3.4 points out of 7, the one of experienced Catholics was increased by about 2.8 points. But, other than immediate religious knowledge gain, there were no differences between novice Catholics and experienced Catholics in the other outcomes, such as delayed religious knowledge, immediate and delayed attitude, and immediate and delayed behavioral intention change. 78

Table 23. Comparison between Passive and Active Catholics

Passive Catholics Active Catholics t n M (SD) n M (SD) Immediate Religious Knowledge 101 2.93 (1.84) 127 2.91 (1.72) .07 (possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Knowledge 99 .01 (1.47) 128 .13 (1.26) .63 (possible range: -7 to 7) Immediate Religious Attitude 91 .22 (.83) 122 .25 (.89) .29 (possible range: -3 to 3) Delayed Religious Attitude 91 .15 (.77) 121 .09 (.76) -.59 (possible range: -3 to 3) Immediate Religious Behavioral Intention 71 .56 (.79) 96 .34 (.75) -1.84 (possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Behavior 84 .00 (.76) 108 .20 (.69) 1.92 (possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Behavior 91 .14 (.75) 117 .19 (.68) .52 Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1; possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Behavior 90 -.20 (1.05) 115 .17 (.97) 2.64** Learning the History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2; possible range: -7 to 7) Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Table 24. Comparison between Novice and Experienced Catholics

Novice Catholics Experienced Catholics t n M (SD) n M (SD) Immediate Religious Knowledge 46 3.43 (1.80) 185 2.76 (1.79) -2.28* (possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Knowledge 45 -.04 (1.33) 185 .11 (1.37) .68 (possible range: -7 to 7) Immediate Religious Attitude 38 .18 (.80) 176 .24 (.88) .39 (possible range: -3 to 3) Delayed Religious Attitude 39 .21 (.92) 175 .10 (.73) -.75 (possible range: -3 to 3) Immediate Religious Behavioral 26 .37 (.84) 141 .44 (.77) .39 Intention (possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Behavior 31 .08 (.91) 163 .12 (.68) .31 (possible range: -7 to 7) Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

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RQ7: Do Catholics with low faith motivation and Catholics with high faith motivation show different outcomes from their religious drama exposure?

Catholics with low faith motivation gained religious knowledge from the drama immediately after exposure (t = -3.27, p < .01). Table 25 shows that whereas the score of total religious knowledge of Catholics with low faith motivation was increased by about 3.2 points out of 7, the one of Catholics with high faith motivation was increased by about 2.5 points. In terms of immediate religious attitude, there was a moderate difference between Catholics with low faith motivation and those with high faith motivation (t = -2.17, p < .05). In addition, Catholics with low faith motivation practiced what they have intended about learning the history of the

Korean Catholic Church within three weeks after exposure. However, Catholics with high faith motivation did not practice their behavioral intention (t = -2.05, p < .05).

Testing Effect Models of Religious Drama Exposure

H1a: Individuals with high faith motivation are more likely to engage in the central processing strategy than those with low faith motivation in religious drama exposure.

The H1a was supported. Although the result of a chi-square test revealed the difference was not statistically significant (χ2 = 2.08, p = n.s.). Table 26 shows audience members with high faith motivation were more likely to employ the central information processing strategy.

The difference between Catholics with low faith motivation (n = 109, M = 1.50, SD = .50) and those with high faith motivation (n = 108, M = 1.60, SD = .49) was small.

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Table 25. Comparison between Low and High Faith Motivation

Low Faith High Faith t Motivation Motivation n M (SD) n M (SD) Immediate Religious Knowledge 108 3.24 (1.71) 103 2.46 (1.77) -3.27** (possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Knowledge 108 .00 (1.34) 103 .18 (1.41) .97 (possible range: -7 to 7) Immediate Religious Attitude 104 .36 (.91) 96 .09 (.80) -2.17* a (possible range: -3 to 3) Delayed Religious Attitude 101 .09 (.85) 97 .16 (.66) .70 (possible range: -3 to 3) Immediate Religious Behavioral Intention 87 .41 (.75) 69 .31 (.75) -.84 (possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Behavior 97 .19 (.68) 81 -.01 (.78) -1.88 (possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Behavior 103 .23 (.75) 90 .10 (.70) -1.19 Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1; possible range: -7 to 7) Delayed Religious Behavior 99 .14 (.89) 91 -.17 (1.14) -2.05* Learning the History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2; possible range: -7 to 7) Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001, a Equal variances not assumed

Table 26. Correlation between Faith Motivation and Information Processing Route

Peripheral Route (n = 97) Central Route (n = 120) Low Faith Motivation (n = 109) 54 (49.5%) 55 (50.5%) High Faith Motivation (n = 108) 43 (39.8%) 65 (60.2%)

H1b: Individuals with low faith motivation are more likely to engage in the peripheral processing strategy than those with high faith motivation in religious drama exposure.

The H1b was not supported (χ2 = 2.08, p = n.s.). Table 26 shows that the difference between the employment of the peripheral processing strategy and the one of the central 81

processing strategy among audience members with low faith motivation was not statistically significant in the chi-square test. A nearly equal percent of Catholics with low faith motivation used both the peripheral processing strategy and the central processing strategy.

H2a: Novice Catholics are more likely to engage in the peripheral processing strategy than

the central processing strategy.

The H2a was supported (χ2 = 6.35, p < .05). As Table 27 shows, novice Catholics were more likely to employ the peripheral information processing strategy. There was a difference between novice Catholics (n = 46, M = 1.37, SD = .49) and experienced Catholics (n = 191, M =

1.58, SD = .50).

H2b: Experienced Catholics are more likely to engage in the central processing strategy than the peripheral processing strategy.

The H2b was supported (χ2=6.35, p < .05). Table 27 shows experienced Catholics were more likely to employ the central information processing route.

H3a: Individuals who are exposed to rational appeal content are more likely to employ the central processing strategy.

The H3a was supported. As seen in Table 28, audience members who were exposed to rational appeal were more likely to employ the central processing strategy than the peripheral processing strategy (χ2=7.20, p < .01).

H3b: Individuals who are exposed to emotional appeal content are more likely to employ the peripheral processing strategy.

The H3b was supported. As shown in Table 28, audience members who were exposed to an emotional appeal were more likely to employ the peripheral processing strategy than the central processing strategy (χ2 = 7.20, p < .01). 82

Table 27. Correlation between Faith Experience and Information Processing Route

Peripheral Route (n = 110) Central Route (n = 127) Novice Catholics (n = 46) 29 (63.0%) 17 (37.0%) Experienced Catholics (n = 191) 81 (42.4%) 110 (57.6%)

Table 28. Appeal Type and Information Processing Strategies

Peripheral Route (n = 112) Central Route (n = 128) Rational Appeal (n = 110) 41 (37.3%) 69 (62.7%) Emotional Appeal (n = 130) 71 (54.6%) 59 (45.4%)

The results reveal that the variables which affected the selection of the information processing strategy were audience members’ activeness in practicing faith, their experience in religious organization, and appeal type. Regarding faith motivation, highly motivated audience members were more likely to choose the central processing strategy.

H4a: Central processing of religious media content, as opposed to the peripheral processing, will generate greater knowledge increase on the subject.

H4a was not supported. As Table 29 shows, there was no statistically significant difference between the employment of the peripheral processing strategy and the central processing strategy in the immediate religious knowledge change (t = 1.42, p = n.s) and in the delayed religious knowledge change (t = .06, p = n.s).

H4b: Central processing of religious media content, as opposed to peripheral processing, will generate greater persistent attitude change on subjects.

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Table 29. Comparison between Information Processing Strategies in Religious Knowledge

Peripheral Route Central Route t n M (SD) n M (SD) Immediate Religious Knowledge 111 2.73 (1.91) 123 3.06 (1.68) 1.4 3 Delayed Religious Knowledge 111 .05 (1.45) 123 .07 (1.29) .06 Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Table 30. Comparison between Information Processing Strategies in Religious Attitude

Peripheral Route Central Route t n M (SD) n M (SD) Immediate Religious Attitude 99 .25 (.82) 117 .21 (.89) -.33 (possible range: -3 to 3) Delayed Religious Attitude 101 .16 (.86) 115 .08 (.66) -.69 (possible range: -3 to 3) Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

H4b was not supported. As Table 30 shows, there was no statistically significant difference between the employment of the peripheral processing strategy and the central processing strategy in the immediate religious attitude change (t = -.33, p = n.s) and in the

delayed religious attitude change (t = -.69, p = n.s).

H4c: Central processing of religious content, as opposed to peripheral processing, will

generate greater behavioral intention change on subjects.

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Table 31. Comparison between Information Processing Strategies in Religious Behavioral Intention and Behavior

Peripheral Route Central Route t n M (SD) n M (SD) Religious Behavioral Intention 76 .29 (.69) 92 .53 (.84) 2.02* Religious Behavior 94 .19 (.71) 102 .05 (.72) -1.34 Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

The H4c was supported. Audience members’ information processing strategy affected their religious behavioral intention. As Table 31 shows, audience members who employed the central processing strategy increased their religious behavioral intention after exposure (t = 2.02, p < .05), but did not change their behavior (t = -1.34, p = n.s). In particular, audience members who employed the central processing strategy increased their behaviors related to learning the history of the Korean Catholic Church immediately (t = 2.18, p < .05), but not the practice of

Christian value-related behavior (t = 1.15, p = n.s.) (see Table 32).

The results indicate that although the employment of the information processing strategy did not affect audience members’ religious knowledge and attitude, the employment of the central processing route facilitated their religious behavioral intention.

Testing Mediating Models of Religious Drama Exposure

H5a: The relationship between faith motivation and knowledge will be mediated by the processing strategy.

Participants’ faith motivation influenced their immediate religious knowledge.

Unexpectedly, participants with low faith motivation were more likely to gain religious knowledge from religious drama exposure (t = -3.27, p < .01).

85

Table 32. Comparison between Information Processing Strategies in Religious Behavioral Intentions Related to the Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1) and Learning the History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2)

Peripheral Route Central Route t n M (SD) n M (SD) Religious Behavioral Intentions 95 .16 (.74) 109 .29 (.91) 1.15 Practice of Christian Values (Factor 1) Religious Behavioral Intentions 80 .44 (1.02) 99 .79 (1.12) 2.18* Learning the History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2) Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Despite of the direct effect, the mediating role of the information processing on the relationship between faith motivation and religious knowledge could not be found. Whereas participants with high faith motivation were more likely to employ the central processing strategy, those with low faith motivation employed both information processing strategies (see

Table 26). In addition, information processing strategy did not affect the immediate religious knowledge (t = 1.43, p = n.s.) or the delayed religious knowledge (t = .06, p = n.s.) (see Table

29). Figure 7 shows that there was a direct effect of faith motivation on religious knowledge, instead of the mediating effect of information processing.

To test the predicting powers of demographic variables, religion-related variables, and media use variables on the variance of religious knowledge, four regression models were developed. In the immediate effect models, while some demographic variables have predicting power on the dependent variable, the religion-related variables and media use variables had no statistically significant predicting power. In addition, the product of experience, activeness, and faith motivation indicated that there was an interaction effect in the delayed effect models (β = -.17, p

< .05) (see Table 33). 86

Table 33. Predictors of Religious Knowledge

Immediate Effect (n = 201) Delayed Effect (n = 201) Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Block 1 Age -.18* .81 -.11 .72 .15 .81 .14 .72 Gender -.04 .97 -.07 .92 .00 .98 .00 .93 Education .22** .80 .21** .78 -.05 .80 -.04 .78 Income .05 .77 .06 .75 .05 .77 .02 .75 Block 2 Experience -.14 .84 .02 .85 Activeness -.02 .91 .09 .91 Faith Motivation -.04 .67 -.08 .66 Route .05 .91 .00 .92 Likability -.15 .71 .21* .70 Exp*Act*FM .05 .93 -.17* .93 Adj. R2 .12 .15 .01 .04 Note: *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Figure 7. Moderating Model of Religious Knowledge

87

Figure 8 indicated that there was an interaction effect in the models. Whereas less

motivated novice Catholics maintained the religious knowledge increased by religious drama

exposure, more motivated novice Catholics more easily forgot their increased religious

knowledge. On the other hand, while less motivated experienced Catholics maintained the religious knowledge increased by the religious drama exposure, more motivated experienced

Catholics increased religious knowledge even more. Therefore, while high faith motivation in the group of experienced Catholics helped participants maintain their religious knowledge, high faith motivation in the group of novice Catholics negatively affected religious knowledge.

Figure 8. Delayed Religious Knowledge Change: Interaction between Experience and Faith Motivation 88

Even though H5a posited that the relationship between faith motivation and religious

knowledge is mediated by the employment of information processing strategy, Figure 7 suggests

that audience members’ faith motivation, which was correlated to audience members’ activeness

and experience, directly affected their religious knowledge, rather than indirectly affecting via

the information processing strategy. Therefore, H5a was not supported.

H5b: The relationship between faith motivation and attitude will be mediated by the processing strategy.

Participants’ faith motivation influenced their immediate religious attitude. Unexpectedly,

participants with low faith motivation were more likely to positively change religious attitude

after religious drama exposure (t = -2.17, p < .05). Therefore, there was a direct effect of faith

motivation on immediate religious attitude (see Table 25). However, faith motivation did not

affect participants’ delayed religious attitude change (t = .70, p = n.s.).

Despite of the direct effect, the mediating role of the information processing on the

relationship between faith motivation and religious attitude could not be found. Whereas

participants with high faith motivation were more likely to employ the central processing

strategy, those with low faith motivation employed both information processing strategies (see

Table 26). In addition, information processing strategy did not affect the immediate religious

attitude (t = -.33, p = n.s.) or the delayed religious attitude (t = -.69, p = n.s.) (see Table 30).

Figure 9 shows that there was a direct effect of faith motivation on religious attitude, instead of

the mediating effect of information processing.

To test the predicting powers of demographic variables, religion-related variables, and

media use variables on the variance of religious attitude, four regression models were developed.

In the immediate effect model, faith motivation was the only statistically significant predictor of 89

the variance of religious attitude (β = -.17, p < .05) (see Table 34). To investigate the reason why

the predicting power of these models is very weak, the interaction plots were drawn.

The delayed religious attitude plot shows that whereas the employment of information

processing less affected the delayed religious attitude change among participants with high faith motivation than among those with low faith motivation, in the group of those with low faith motivation it played a significant role. In other words, more motivated participants who employed both information processing strategies maintained their increased religious attitude.

Figure 9. Moderating Model of Religious Attitude

90

Table 34. Predictors of Religious Attitude

Immediate Effect (n = 192) Delayed Effect (n = 191) Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Block 1 Age .06 .79 .10 .71 -.02 .79 -.07 .70 Gender -.10 .96 -.10 .91 .12 .96 .12 .92 Education .06 .80 .05 .78 -.10 .80 -.09 .78 Income .02 .77 .01 .76 .10 .77 .10 .76 Block 2 Experience -.05 .86 .12 .88 Activeness .02 .92 -.02 .93 Faith Motivation -.17* .89 .06 .90 Route -.03 .92 -.04 .93 Exp*Act*FM .10 .92 -.07 .93 Adj. R2 -.01 .01 .00 .00 Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

However, whereas participants who employed the peripheral processing in the low faith

motivation group increased their attitude even more after the exposure, those who employed the

central processing maintained their attitude. This different role of faith motivation on the

employment of information processing may make the predicting model less powerful (see Figure

10).

H5c: The relationship between faith motivation and behavior will be mediated by the processing strategy.

Participants’ faith motivation influenced their delayed religious behavior related to

learning the history of the Korean Catholic Church (t = -2.05, p < .05). Unexpectedly, while

participants with low faith motivation practiced their religious behavioral intention, those with

high faith motivation did not practice their intention. Therefore, there was a direct effect of faith

motivation on delayed religious behavior related to learning the history of the Korean Catholic

Church (see Table 25). However, faith motivation did not affect participants’ immediate 91

religious behavioral intention change (t = -.84, p = n.s.).

Unlike the cases of religious knowledge and religious attitude, participants’ information processing strategy affected their religious behavioral intention. Participants who employed the

central processing strategy increased their religious behavioral intention after exposure (t = 2.02,

p < .05). Table 32 shows that participants who employed the central processing strategy

increased their religious behavioral intention related to learning the history of the Korean

Catholic Church after exposure (t = 2.18, p < .05).

Figure 10. Delayed Religious Attitude Change: Interaction between Faith Motivation and Information Processing

This finding indicated that intellectual engagement with media content may influence

audience members’ behavioral intention. However, three weeks after exposure, the effect of the 92

employment of the information processing disappeared (t = -1.34, p = n.s).

Although in the mediating model of religious behavioral intention, participants’ information processing affected the dependent variable, the mediating model of information processing on the relationship between faith motivation and religious behavioral intention was not fully supported because the effect of faith motivation on information processing was partially supported. Whereas participants with high faith motivation were more likely to employ the central processing strategy, those with low faith motivation employed both information processing strategies (see Table 26). Figure 11 shows that the mediating effect of information processing (H5c) was not fully supported.

This finding indicated that intellectual engagement with media content may influence audience members’ behavioral intention. However, three weeks after exposure, the effect of the employment of the information processing disappeared (t = -1.34, p = n.s).

Although in the mediating model of religious behavioral intention, participants’ information processing affected the dependent variable, the mediating model of information processing on the relationship between faith motivation and religious behavioral intention was not fully supported because the effect of faith motivation on information processing was partially supported. Whereas participants with high faith motivation were more likely to employ the central processing strategy, those with low faith motivation employed both information processing strategies (see Table 26). Figure 11 shows that the mediating effect of information processing (H5c) was not fully supported.

To test the predicting powers of demographic variables, religion-related variables, and media use variables on the variance of religious behavior, four regression models were developed. In the delayed effect model, participants’ activeness in practicing faith was a 93

statistically significant positive predictor of the variance of religious behavior (β = .18, p < .05).

Table 35 indicates that Catholics previous active participation in religious activities affect their

practice of their behavioral intention after religious drama exposure.

To test the interaction among religion-related variables, the interaction plot between

participants’ experience and information processing was drawn. In terms of immediate religious

behavioral intention change, novice Catholics who employed the peripheral processing strategy

more strongly changed their behavioral intention than novice Catholics who employed the central processing strategy.

Figure 11. Moderating Model of Religious Behavioral Intention

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Table 35. Predictors of Religious Behavior

Immediate Effect (n = 150) Delayed Effect (n = 170) Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Block 1 Age .08 .85 .07 .79 -.03 .80 -.06 .72 Gender .00 .99 .00 .95 .04 .98 .05 .93 Education .07 .83 .02 .78 -.05 .77 -.03 .75 Income .04 .84 .04 .83 .15 .77 .13 .76 Block 2 Experience .06 .90 .13 .86 Activeness -.14 .93 .18* .89 Faith Motivation -.08 .87 -.12 . 90 Route .15 .90 -.15 .92 Exp*Act*FM -.01 .93 -.13 .92 Adj. R2 -.02 -.01 .00 .05 Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

However, experienced Catholics who employed the central processing strategy significantly

changed their behavioral intention more than the experienced Catholics who employed the

peripheral processing strategy. Figure 12 indicates that audience members’ experience had

interacted with information processing and this interaction affected their religious behavioral

intention change.

The regression models of religious behavior related to the practice of Christian Values

(Factor 1) and the learning of the history of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2) shows that

active participants changed their religious behavior related to learning the history of the Korean

Catholic Church (β = .24, p < .01). The behaviors in Factor 2, such as praying for the

beatification and canonization of unknown martyrs and using additional religious media, were

closely related to the direct messages of the drama. The active Catholics were more likely to

practice their behavioral intention than passive Catholics. In addition, participants who

employed the peripheral strategy positively changed their religious behaviors related to learning 95

the history the Korean Catholic Church (β = -.17, p < .05) (see Table 36 and Table 37).

The general results did not support the proposed model of mediating effect of information processing strategies on the relationship between faith motivation and religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavioral intention. Three figures describing the relationships among variables (Figure 7, Figure 9, and Figure 11) show that moderating relationships explained the effect models of religious drama exposure better than mediating relationships.

However, hypotheses about the employment of the information processing strategy by difference types of Catholics and about content appeals of the religious drama were all supported. The results of hypotheses testing were summarized in Table 38.

Figure 12. Immediate Religious Behavioral Intention Change: Interaction between Experience and Processing Strategy

96

Table 36. Predictors of Religious Behavior related to the Practicing Christian Values (Factor 1)

Immediate Effect (n = 183) Delayed Effect (n = 185) Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Block 1 Age .06 .80 .09 .73 -.01 .79 -.05 .71 Gender -.11 .97 -.10 .93 .04 .98 .06 .94 Education .03 .80 .00 .77 .01 .79 .01 .76 Income .14 .78 .13 .78 .16 .78 .15 .77 Block 2 Experience -.01 .88 .13 .87 Activeness -.08 .93 .05 .93 Faith Motivation -.13 .91 -.04 .91 Route .07 .93 -.08 .94 Exp*Act*FM .03 .94 -.13 .95 Adj. R2 .01 .01 .01 .02 Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

Table 37. Predictors of Religious Behavior related to Learning History of the Korean Catholic Church (Factor 2)

Immediate Effect (n = 158) Delayed Effect (n = 182) Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Coeff. Tol. Block 1 Age .03 .84 .00 .78 -.04 .79 -.04 .72 Gender .07 .98 .09 .93 .05 .96 .07 .91 Education .09 .83 .05 .78 -.09 .79 -.06 .76 Income -.02 .82 -.02 .82 .14 .76 .10 .74 Block 2 Experience .09 .90 .09 .87 Activeness -.14 .92 .24** .88 Faith Motivation -.03 .86 -.13 .89 Route .17 .89 -.17* .91 Exp*Act*FM -.05 .94 -.12 .91 Adj. R2 -.01 .01 .00 .07 Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

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Table 38. Summary Results of Hypotheses Testing

Hypotheses Results H1a High Faith Motivation and the Central Processing Strategy Employment Supported. H1b Low Faith Motivation and the Peripheral Processing Strategy Not supported. Employment H2a Novice Catholics and the Peripheral Processing Strategy Employment Supported. H2b The Experienced Catholics and the Central Processing Strategy Supported. Employment H3a Rational Appeal and the Central Processing Strategy Employment Supported. H3b Emotional Appeal and the Peripheral Processing Strategy Employment Supported. H4a Central Processing Strategy and Religious Knowledge Not supported. H4b Central Processing Strategy and Religious Attitude Not supported. H4c Central Processing Strategy and Religious Behavioral Intention Supported. H5a The Indirect Effect on Religious Knowledge Not supported. H5b The Indirect Effect on Religious Attitude Not supported. H5c The Indirect Effect on Religious Behavior Not supported. 98

CHAPTER VI: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The effect of religious media is one of the under-studied areas in media research despite

of their substantial existence in the media industry and the influence on their faithful audience members. It also has been a controversial topic between religious media practitioners and ministers in religious communities. The publics surrounding religious media have argued that religious media are a powerful instrument of evangelization or a convenient substitute of church attendance. This dissertation inquired whether religious drama, an atypical format for religious programming, has an effect on audience members. The results of this study showed that religious drama exposure is effective in increasing audience members’ religious knowledge, changing or reinforcing their religious attitude, and changing their religious behavioral intention and behavior. In addition, exposure to religious drama influences various members of religious communities differently depending on their demographics, activeness in practicing faith, duration of practicing faith, motivation to learn via religious media, and information processing strategies.

Effects of Religious Drama Exposure

Religious drama exposure increased audience members’ religious knowledge. They learned historical facts from the religious drama and broaden their understanding of the general practice of Catholic faith in the past. For instance, participants learned simple historical facts, such as why and where the protagonist passed away. At the same time, from the background shown in the stimulus, participants learned that the language used in Mass in the past was different from the language used today. In the drama, while the protagonist was celebrating

Mass with a group of people, Peter, a butcher in the slave class, visited the site to join the community. Although the main theme of the scene was the equality of all church members, 99

audience members also learned that Mass was celebrated in Latin in the past. They also learned

that the condition of most members of the Church in the past was different from today in terms

of church members’ literacy from the background of another scene. Although the main theme of

the scene was the practice of church teachings, audience members learned the condition of the

19th century Church when the protagonist taught Catholics both Korean letters and catechism

using a traditional melody. The finding that the exposure increased participants’ religious

knowledge reveals that even though the program does not employ a lecture or religious service

format, a religious drama can be effective in educating church members. A lecture or religious

service format has been the common formats used in religious media to mainly teach religious

knowledge and to persuade/reinforce audience members’ religious attitude. This study confirms the result of Brown, Keeler, and Lindvall (2007) which reported that a religious film or drama can be both entertaining and educational to its audience. This study not only confirms the finding of the previous study but also reveals religious knowledge learned from religious drama does not decay rapidly. Data show audience members’ increased religious knowledge lasts at least for three weeks after exposure.

In addition to the effect on their religious knowledge, religious drama also strengthens/reinforces audience members’ religious attitude. After watching a religious drama,

audience members accept the core messages of the drama and/or reinforce their pre-existing

positive religious attitude. These attitudes were they should give thanks to God not only in good

times but also in bad times; every member in a church is equal in God; if they do not practice

what they have learned from the Church, the teaching would be of no use; what they do to people

in need is what they do to God; and when they meet fellow Catholics in a church, they need to

treat them as brothers and sisters in Christ. The changed or reinforced attitudes of audience 100

members are in line with the emphases of the drama. The drama stressed equality among fellow

Catholics. It also encouraged audience members to put into practice the church teachings about

forgiveness and love. This result reveals religious drama is influential to both audience

members’ religious knowledge and their religious attitude. This finding provides counter-

evidence to some church leaders’ criticism of the employment of atypical programming formats

of religious media. These leaders have argued that the employment of atypical formats waters

down the core messages of the Gospel (Kennedy, 1995). This study shows religious drama does

not weaken the core messages of the Gospel. Instead, it helps audience members embrace the

Church’s teaching in an entertaining way.

This study not only examined immediate change in audience members’ religious attitude,

it also investigated delayed changes in their attitude three weeks after exposure to the experimental stimulus. Three different patterns in audience members’ religious attitude change were identified. The first type of religious attitude change builds slowly over time because while attitude based on general beliefs were not immediately changed, they gradually formed in the three weeks after exposure. These attitudes were related to general religious beliefs: Participants

in this category type believe God is always with them; attending Mass is a very important part of

their lives; forgiving neighbors’ faults not seven times but seventy of seven times is one of the

most important virtues of Christians; and whenever they ask for God’s help, God will always

help them, especially at difficult moments. The second type of religious attitude change was

immediate and also persistent. It occurred when audience members’ religious attitude was

immediately changed after exposure, and the change remained in three weeks. The attitudes

were directly related to the specific messages of the drama: When participants in this category

meet fellow Catholics in a church, they need to treat them as brothers and sisters in Christ; what 101

they do to people in need is what they do to God; every member in a church is equal in God; and

if they do not practice what they have learned from the Church, the teaching would be of no use.

The third type of religious attitude change was immediate and more strengthened in three weeks

after exposure. Participants with this attitude change believed that they should give thanks to

God not only in good times but also in bad times and that the Gospel of Jesus Christ is the source of their true happiness. These three different attitude change patterns reveal that direct messages of a religious drama influence audience members’ religious attitude immediately, but are slowly

weakened as time passes. However, indirect messages of a religious drama about general

religious attitude are built slowly and stay with the audience members.

Religious drama exposure also strengthens audience members’ religious behavioral

intentions. Although this study could not measure participants’ behavioral changes by direct

observation and in the long term since it employed self-administered surveys to measure immediate and delayed changes in audience members’ behavior, they showed stronger religious behavioral intention after exposure to the stimulus than before they watched the drama. It is remarkable that after exposure to the religious drama, audience members’ interest in the subject was evoked and they wanted to recommend to their friends and neighbors to use the drama to learn the history of the Korean Catholic Church. In addition, they indicated a desire to use religious media to find out more information about the history of the Korean Catholic Church.

These strengthened behavioral intentions are similar to the non-financial support for religious media found in Korpi and Kim’s (1986) study. In that study, audience members’ non-financial support, such as to “talk positively with others about a religious program” and to “encourage others to watch or listen” (p. 412), was explained by audience members’ pre-existing religiousness and religious media exposure. The current study provides further explanation for 102

this relationship. Data from the present study showed two different general tendencies regarding

audience members’ religiousness variables on their non-financial support. Whereas audience

members’ activeness in practicing their faith was positively related to non-financial support, their motivation to deepen their faith via religious media was negatively related to non-financial support. This contrasting role of two religion-related variables indicates that non-financial support for religious media is caused by audience members’ behavioral consistency in practicing their faith, but not by their mental motivation to actively use the religious drama.

After watching a religious persecution story, audience members felt stronger confidence in their religious lives and a closer connection to Catholics in the past and the present. For instance, they responded that they would overcome difficulties in their lives by meditating on the suffering and death of Christ; they would pray for the beatification and canonization of Korean martyrs and unknown Saints; they would pray to Korean Saints, asking for their intercession; and they wanted to treat their fellow Catholics as brothers and sisters in Christ. Therefore, the result provides counter-evidence to the belief that religious media foster individualization of religious practice. At least in audience members’ perceptions, religious media connect individual audience members to the larger religious communities, in the past and in the present.

In addition to the immediate religious behavioral intention change of audience members, the delayed responses of audience members revealed that the processes of religious behavior change vary. Three different patterns in audience members’ religious behavioral intention and behavior changes over time were revealed. The first pattern of religious behavioral intention change is gradual. Subjects did not change their behavioral intention immediately after exposure, but did change their behavior three weeks after exposure. The behavioral intentions were about the direct messages of the drama: Participants in this category believe they serve God in serving 103

people in need and they should forgive their friends and neighbors even when they harm them.

The second pattern of religious behavioral intention change is immediate but temporary.

Participants in this category immediately changed their behavioral intention after exposure, but

they did not retain those behavioral intentions for long. This behavioral intention pattern was

also related to the direct messages of the drama: Participants wanted to overcome difficulties in

their lives by meditating on the suffering and death of Christ; they wanted to actively participate

in church groups; they wanted to treat their fellow Catholics as brothers and sisters in Christ;

they wanted to talk about the lives of Korean Saints with their friends and neighbors; they

wanted to pray for the beatification and canonization of Korean martyrs and unknown Saints;

they wanted to pray to Korean Saints, asking for their intercession; and they wanted to

recommend to their friends and neighbors to learn the history of the Korean Catholic Church

through religious media. The last pattern of religious behavior change is immediate and

persistent. Participants immediately changed their behavioral intention after exposure and

maintained the change over a period of time. The behavioral change is that they reported they

often use religious media about the history of the Korean Catholic Church after exposure. Even

though the first and second patterns of behavioral intention are closely related to the direct

messages of the drama, the difference between the two patterns is in how difficult these tasks

were perceived by audience members. Behavioral intention with low efficacy developed immediately after exposure but became reduced within three weeks. However, behavioral intentions with high efficacy were roused gradually, but the effects persisted. Another important finding from these three patterns, especially to religious media practitioners, is that the audience members in the immediate and persistent behavioral intention category wanted to use additional religious drama to learn the history of the Church. Memorable watching experience of a 104

religious drama may increase audience members’ general intention to use similar religious dramas in the future. Therefore, a successful religious drama may open new possibilities for the success of future dramas. This idea supports the most basic strategy of programming: Place similar shows after a popular show or after a popular series.

The strong effects of religious drama use on audience members’ knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention suggest that, as religious media practitioners contend, religious media can complement audience members’ church participation, rather than substituting physical church activities with religious media use. In a review of previous literature, no empirical and scientific effect studies focusing on preaching and revival formats of religious media were found, making it impossible to directly compare the effects of religious drama to those of traditional religious media formats. However, this study clearly demonstrates the effects of religious drama on audience’s religious knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention. In addition, as discussed in the introduction of this research, this atypical format is more likely to enhance audience members’ church participation and less likely to substitute church attendance than typical religious programming. The results of the current study reveal that religious drama use neither increased nor decreased Mass attendance or church organization participation of the audience members in six weeks. At the same time, it is evident that religious drama exposure enhances their willingness to participate in their religious community and perceptually connects them to other religious community members in the present and even in the past.

Different Effects of Religious Media on Audience Members

The effects of religious drama exposure are not identical among audience members. In terms of the demographic variables, education and household income affected the outcomes of religious drama exposure. More educated audience members gained more religious knowledge 105

from religious drama exposure than less educated members. Participants with higher family

incomes strengthened their religious behavioral intention more than those with lower family

incomes. In the regression models of religious behavior, household income explained audience

members’ religious behavior. A possible explanation is that wealthier participants may think they

can change their religious behavior because they can divert time and financial resources from other activities to religious practices more easily. Even the producers of Sesame Street intended to provide educational opportunities to children from lower income households and to fill the gap between children from lower income households and higher income households in terms of children’s pre-school knowledge, the show actually broadened the gap (Coates, Pusser, &

Goodman, 1976; Mandal, 2006). A concern that develops from the results of the current study is that religious drama exposure may also broaden the inequality among audience members in religious communities depending on their education attainment and household income, just as

Sesame Street Street unintentionally did.

Although religious drama use may broaden the gap between more educated and less educated members in religious communities in terms of their religious knowledge and although its use may increase the gap between richer members and poorer members in religious communities in terms of religious behavior, exposure to religious drama does have a positive

element in lessening another gap in religious communities. Religious drama exposure is more

effective to audience members with less experience in terms of religious knowledge increase.

Audience members with less religious experience learn more from religious drama than those

with more experience. In a practical sense, the finding suggests that religious media in an

entertaining format can be used effectively educate new members in religious communities. 106

The Roles of Audience Members’ Religious Experience and Faith Motivation

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) would predict that Catholics with more experience learn more from religious drama exposure because their previous knowledge and experience help them elaborate presented information via the central processing strategy.

However, this study showed that newer Catholics actually learn more from religious drama exposure. A possible explanation is that novice Catholics might be more motivated to learn.

However, the data shows that they were less motivated to learn at the first survey. Another possible explanation is that audience members with more experience have already high religious knowledge, and thus may not be able to improve upon their existing knowledge (a ceiling effect).

However, even though there was a significant difference between novice Catholics and experienced Catholics in terms of their religious knowledge during the study’s pre-existing religious knowledge test, the mean score of the experienced Catholics’ religious knowledge, 2.53 out of 7, was relatively low. The third possible explanation is the perceived ceiling effect. Even though experienced Catholics have still low religious knowledge, they may perceive they well know about the subject. Therefore, they may not elaborate presented information with their intellectual ability. However, actually more experienced Catholics employed the central processing strategy than the peripheral strategy. The last potential explanation is that the format of religious drama is more appropriate to catch and keep the attention of novice Catholics.

Preaching or liturgy format may be less appropriate to novice Catholics who do not have previous information and religious experience. These formats can be too strong, too overwhelming, or even too boring. In addition, rich information embedded in an engaging narrative may accelerate the knowledge acquisition process of novice Catholics because they learn from something they already consider entertaining. 107

Another unexpected outcome of this study was the effects on faith motivation. In the

uses and gratifications (U&G) perspective, audience members’ gratifications sought (GS) from a

certain type of media will correspond to gratifications obtained (GO) because of their active media consumption. However, the data revealed that there is a general tendency for the immediate effects of religious drama exposure to be negatively related to faith motivation and for the delayed effects of the exposure to be positively related to the motivation. Less motivated audience members statistically significantly learned more religious knowledge and strengthened religious attitude.

The change in the role of faith motivation over time in audience members’ religious knowledge and attitude can be discussed with the information processing strategy employment.

The data here shows that, whereas there was no difference in the employment of the information processing strategy in the low faith motivation audience group, high faith motivation audience members were more likely to employ the central processing strategy. When audience members employ the central processing strategy, they are more critical to presented information before accepting the message. Therefore, the change may be gradual. When more motivated audience members employ the central strategy, even though they may not change their attitude immediately after exposure they may slowly form a new attitude. Therefore, the delayed effects of religious drama exposure in highly motivated audience member group may reveal this gradual process of the central processing strategy. However, one weakness of this explanation is that the employment of information processing strategy was only statistically significantly related to religious behavioral intention change, and not to religious knowledge and religious attitude.

No significant change in religious attitude is probably due to a ceiling effect. In the

ELM, audience members scrutinize presented information to decide whether they will 108

change/reinforce their attitude or refuse to change/reinforce. A possible explanation for the

findings of this study is that audience members’ religious attitude was already highly positive before they were exposed to religious drama. Ceiling effects occur when participants mark high points in each item in an index, meaning scores for the index cannot become much more positive.

In this study, 61.8% participants had more than 6.1 points out of seven on the religious attitude index. Therefore, participants may go through the process of reinforcement of their existing positive attitude, rather than the process of changing their attitude to be higher. In future research, a more precise index should be developed to detect these changes.

The Roles of Audience Members’ Activeness and Information Processing Strategies

Audience members’ activeness in practicing their faith affected the outcomes of religious drama exposure, but only for delayed religious behavior related to the learning the history of the

Korean Catholic Church. In particular, more active audience members used religious media about the history of the Korean Catholic Church more frequently and prayed more often for the beatification and canonization of Korean martyrs and unknown Saints than did less active audience members. The data shows that even though active audience members have a similar level of faith motivation to their passive counterparts, they have significantly higher religious knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention. These pre-existing conditions may help them elaborate presented information via the central processing strategy. In fact, active audience members are more likely to employ the central processing strategy than are passive members.

This process might contribute to their religious behavior change. However, despite the positive behavior change among active participants in the study, audience members’ activeness in practicing their faith does not affect their immediate and delayed religious knowledge, immediate and delayed religious attitude, or immediate behavioral intention in general. Even though more 109

active members are more likely to elaborate presented information based on their pre-existing

knowledge and attitude, they do not learn more religious knowledge or change their religious attitude significantly more often than do the less active Catholics. This result can be explained by the ceiling effect of religious knowledge and attitude. An alternative explanation is that the religious drama exposure may directly influence active audience members’ religious behavior.

Since they are active in practicing their faith, they may more easily accept the messages of

religious drama than passive Catholics and thus seek out more religious media to use and pray

for Catholics who had died to witness Jesus Christ.

Employment of the central information processing strategy affects audience members’

religious behavioral intention. The data showed that audience members who employed the central processing strategy increased their religious behavioral intention to learn the history of the Korean Catholic Church. Since audience members who employed the central route are more likely to be experienced, highly motivated Catholics, or Catholics who are exposed to rational appeal, they are more likely to elaborate presented information. Therefore, this process may contribute to their behavioral intention change. However, the employment of the strategy did not affect audience members’ immediate and delayed religious knowledge and attitude. A possible explanation of this absence is the ceiling effect.

Implications of the Study

Theoretical Implications

This study partially confirms the premise of the ELM because the data support elements of the theory regarding the selection of the information processing strategy, but do not support the proposed effect of the employment of the strategy. Active Catholics were more likely to employ the central information processing route and passive Catholics were more likely to 110

employ the peripheral route. Since active Catholics were more willing to use their intellectual ability, they may elaborate the information presented in religious drama via the central route.

However, passive Catholics employed the peripheral route because they are less willing or

unable to spend their intellectual resources in processing religious media content. In addition,

when audience members were exposed to a rational appeal, they were more likely to employ the

central processing strategy. On the other hand, when they were exposed to an emotional appeal,

they were more likely to employ the peripheral processing strategy. The rich information in

rational appeals may provide audience members more content that they can scrutinize using the

central route, while the emotional elements in emotional appeal may stimulate them to process

the content via the peripheral route. Even though this study did not find differences in the

employment of the peripheral and central processing strategies in less motivated audience

members, highly motivated audience members were more likely to employ the central processing

strategy. These findings confirm the explanation of the ELM and show the explanation is

applicable in religious drama consumption.

However, this study could only identify the effect of the employment of the processing

strategy in immediate religious behavioral intention change. Even though audience members

who use the central processing strategy are more likely to gain more religious knowledge from

the exposure to religious drama, the knowledge they gain from the drama is similar to the

audience members who employ the peripheral strategy. Also, there is no statistically significant

difference between audience members who employ the central processing strategy and those who

employ the peripheral strategy, in terms of their religious attitude. One possible explanation

about the absence of the effects of the information processing strategy employment in audience

members’ religious knowledge and religious attitude is the length of stimuli. In most previous 111

ELM literature, the stimuli used in the experiments were very concise. For example, they are

usually a few written paragraphs, a few pictures, or a few websites. However, the stimuli in this

study were both about an hour long. Even though the one-hour drama is closer to audience

members’ real TV viewing experience and enhances the external validity of this study, the length

increases the possibility for participants to employ multiple processing strategies in different

moments of the exposure. Therefore, data analysis may not fully identify the effects of

information processing. However, it is remarkable that the employment of the central processing

strategy affects audience members’ religious behavioral intention. This finding contributes to the

expansion of the ELM that the employment of the processing strategy affects not only audience

members’ attitude but also their behavioral intention in the context of religious drama use.

In addition to expanding the explanation of the ELM, this study also contributes to the

U&G theory. It identifies the role of faith motivation may have in changing religious knowledge

and attitude. Whereas less motivated audience members learn more religious knowledge and

strengthen their religious attitude immediately after exposure, delayed response data show that

the faith motivation tends to be positively related to religious knowledge and religious attitude.

This finding shows that the role of faith motivation is cumulative and gradual. The ELM

provides a possible explanation for this gradual process. The powerful effect of this religious

drama was not just because the content of the drama, the persecution story of the Korean

Catholic Church in the 19th century, is stimulating. Novice Catholicss’ lack of experience, as well as the rich emotional elements in the emotional appeal, also stimulates them to employ the peripheral processing strategy. In the open-ended question in the second survey some subjects

indicated that they felt their emotional arousal in watching the drama, such as they regretted their

past practice of their faith, wept, or felt their hearts broken. Even though the data more strongly 112

support the direct effects of religious drama on audience members’ religious knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention than the indirect effects via the information processing strategy, the

ELM enriches the U&G perspective by explaining how faith motivation affects audience members’ religious media use and information processing.

Practical Implications

The findings of this study offer valuable practical tips for religious media practitioners.

As previously discussed, religious drama provides not only entertaining elements to audience members, but also an opportunity for them to gain religious knowledge. As the results of this study show, audience members learned a lot of religious information from background shots in the drama in addition to learning from the main messages of the drama. For instance, although the main theme of one scene was equality among religious community members, audience members also learned historical facts from the scene, such as that celebrating Mass was prohibited in the 19th century in Korea and that the language used in Mass was different from the one used now. Therefore, when practitioners produce even a simple background shot, they should carefully design each shot because even a background shot can significantly increase their audience members’ religious knowledge.

Also, the results show that whereas religious drama affects less motivated audience in an immediate term, it affects more motivated audiences in a delayed term. Therefore, producers need to identify their target audience in the pre-production process depending on their production intention. In the production period, they should customize media content and themes to achieve their goals. In the post-production process, they must appropriately market the drama to specific audience groups. Because one of the most persistent effects on religious behavioral intention is audience members’ intention to watch religious shows in the same category, the producers should 113

do their best, remembering the best promotion of a show is the show that airs before it. In addition, since the effects of religious drama in the less motivated audience groups were reduced compared to the highly motivated groups, producers should plan how to reinforce the strengthened religious attitude and behavioral intention in these audience groups in the long term.

In a religious community, one of pastoral concerns of church leaders is to provide an educational opportunity to passive or less experienced members and to reduce the gap among the members of communities in terms of religious knowledge and beliefs. The result of the current study show that religious dramas can be a useful option for this task because the dramas can be enjoyed by community members who have less previous knowledge and church experience.

Consequently, religious drama may contribute to lessen these gaps within a religious community.

Religious dramas also present an economical education format. If a religious drama is effectively produced and aired, it will be a cost-efficient teaching tool because producing a drama for thousands of Catholics costs less than to providing separate classes in many different parishes.

In addition, from the perspective of management, religious drama is an answer to religious media practitioners who are developing more religious programs that can appeal to broader audience groups than just current audience members. The development of these programs is critical to religious media institutions which cannot solely rely on the financial support of audience members in their religious traditions. In addition, as the history of the U.S. religious media indicated, religious media content produced in the mainstream formats may have higher possibility to be aired via commercial media outlets than those produced in typical religious formats. The sales of religious programs to various media channels will help religious media practitioners meet their balance. This programming strategy may also assist religious 114

media organizations’ general missions: Proclaiming the Gospel and spreading Christian values to the general audience. As the successful story of The Passion of the Christ suggests, the drama or film format can draw a broad audience. The result of this study shows that the format can draw more attention and deeper engagement of audience members who have less previous knowledge and experience who are less motivated.

Limitations and Suggestions

Even though this study reveals the strong effects of religious drama and the applicability of the U&G and the ELM in the research field of religious media, there are some limitations. In the process of participants’ recruitment, more religious Catholics participated in this study than less religious ones. Since this study depended on voluntary participation and required a lot of time and energy from participant to complete the study, the researcher could not recruit participant groups that were more evenly distributed in terms of their religiousness. As the major findings of this study come from the comparison between less religious participants and more religious participants, a more balanced recruitment would allow the researcher to more accurately investigate the effects of religious drama, especially in regards to changes in religious attitude. Future studies should focus on recruiting more less religious Catholics to supplement the results of this study.

Another limitation occurred during the preparation of the stimuli and manipulation check methods used in this study. Even though the content of rational appeal stimulus included rich information about the early Korean Catholic Church, such as the number of Catholics and missions, and even though the emotional appeal stimulus contained many moving scenes, such as the cry of Father Choi’s mother in a prison for her dying baby, the manipulation failed because audience perceived both emotional and rational appeals in the movie. In other words, the two 115

stimuli were too similar for participants to identify significant differences between the experimental groups. This unsuccessful manipulation prevents the researcher from finding the effect of appeal type. A possible cause of this issue may be in the manipulation check questions.

Approximately 75% of participants assigned six or seven point to both seven-point Likert scale manipulation check questions. Because the historical background of the stimulus involved persecution, participants might rate the rational content as emotional. On the other hand, those participants exposed to the emotional appeal treatment might feel it was very informational because the protagonist was the second Korean priest who was lesser known to Catholics than the first Korean priest. Consequently, they might feel the emotional content was very rational just because the information of the content was new to them. Therefore, future study needs to develop more precise stimulus and manipulation check methods especially for one hour-long TV drama stimulus. It may not have been clear to participants what type of appeal they experienced and it was thus possible for the drama to be considered as both rationally and emotionally appealing. Although this limitation rendered further examination of the appeal type effect unnecessary, one can still draw conclusions from the data collected before and after exposure to both stimuli. In other words, while the study was designed to be more complete, the findings of the study are still significant, valid, and important.

To conclude, the religious drama had more direct effects on audience members’ religious knowledge, religious attitude, and religious behavioral intention than indirect effects via the information processing strategy. More educated Catholics and those with higher family incomes were more likely to benefit from religious drama exposure than the less educated or those with lower family incomes. Also, novice Catholics or less motivated Catholics were more likely to benefit in terms of their religious knowledge increase and religious attitude change from the 116

exposure than experienced Catholics or more motivated Catholics. The role of faith motivation of audience members changed over time. Whereas less motivated Catholics gained more religious knowledge and changed their religious attitude and behavioral intention in the short term, the more motivated Catholics benefitted from the religious drama in the delayed term. In terms of the information processing strategy, more experienced Catholics, more active or motivated Catholics, or Catholics who were exposed to the rational appeal were more likely to employ the central processing strategy. Novice Catholics, less active or motivated Catholics, or

Catholics who were exposed to the emotional appeal were more likely to employ the peripheral processing strategy. As these results show, religious drama is an effective format to educate members of religious communities in an entertainment format. 117

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APPENDIX A: RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRES USED IN EXPERIMENT

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Survey of Catholic Media Use (1)

Name: Your name will be converted to numbers in the data analysis, so your name will not be appeared on my dissertation. There is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly.

Q1. How often do you watch PBC Cable TV last month? Please, circle the answer. 1. Never 2. Once a month 3. Once in two weeks 4. Once a week 5. 2 to 4 days a week 6. (Almost) Everyday

Q2. Have you watched Father Choi Yang Up, a PBC drama? 1. Yes 2. No

Q3. How much do you agree to these statements? Please, mark the box. “0” means you have no opinion on the statement. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I expect watching Catholic TV programs will deepen my faith. Because religion is important in my life, I will watch Catholic TV programs. Because Catholic TV programs are helpful to my salvation, I will watch them. Because I feel I am close to God when I watch Catholic TV programs, I will watch them. I expect watching Catholic TV programs will increase my religious knowledge as a Catholic. I expect watching Catholic TV programs will be helpful to find answers for my religious questions.

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I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I expect watching Catholic TV programs will help me find peace in my mind.

Q4. How much do you agree to this statement? There is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I like PBC TV.

Q5. How much do you agree to these statements? I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Catholic faith is important in my life. Catholic faith influences my life.

Q6. Suppose you face a very difficult situation in your life, such as the death of a loving one in your family, how do you feel God is close to you and supports you? There is no right or wrong answer. “0” indicates you have no opinion. “1” means God is very close to you and “7” means God is very far from God. I do not Very Very Far know. close 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q7. Suppose you have a son and/or a daughter who are about to marry, how important will be the religion of the spouse of your son and/or daughter? There is no right or wrong answer. “0” indicates you have no opinion. “1” means it is not important at all and “7” means it is most important. I do not Not Most know. Important Important At All 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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We would like to ask you about the Korean Catholic Church. Please, circle the answer. Q8. How did Father Choi Yang Up return to Korea after completing his study abroad? 1. By a boat 2. Walking 3. By flight 4. By riding a horse 5. I do not know.

Q9. In which language had Mass been celebrated in the early Korean Catholic Church? 1. Korean 2. French 3. Latin 4. English 5. I do not know.

Q10. From what reason did Fr. Choi Yang Up die? 1. Decapitation 2. Torture 3. Accident 4. Illness and overwork 5. I do not know.

Q11. Where did Fr. Choi Yang Up die? 1. Mun Kyung 2. Un Yang 3. Seoul 4. Bae Ron 5. I do not know.

Please circle whether the following statements are true or false. Q12. When Fr. Choi Yang Up returned to Korea, he was the only Korean priest. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q13. The early Korean Catholic Church had been persecuted because the kings and officers had prohibited Catholic faith. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q14. The early Korean Catholic Church had only accepted Yang Ban and scholars as its members. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know. 133

Q15. In order to receive the Communion, Catholics in the early Korean Church required memorizing catechism. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q16. Fr. Choi Yang Up regularly used Latin to teach Catholics catechism. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q17. Fr. Choi Yang Up had traveled a lot to missions to celebrate Sacraments. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q18. The baptismal name of Cardinal Kim Soo Hwan is Stephano. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Please, circle the answer. Q19. Where is the hometown of Cardinal Kim Soo Hwan? 1. Masan 2. Seoul 3. Busan 4. Daegu 5. I do not know.

Q20. Who had appointed Bishop Kim Soo Hwan as a cardinal? 1. Pope Pius 6 2. Pope John 23 3. Pope John Paul 2 4. Pope Benedict 16 5. I do not know.

Q21. How well you know Fr. Choi Yang-Up? 1. I do not know him. 2. I have heard about him but I do not know him well. 3. I know him well.

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Q22. If you have heard about him at least, from where have you heard about him? You may circle more than one answer. 1. Media (e.g., book, TV, and/or radio) 2. People (e.g., priest, sister, and/or fellow Catholic) 3. Pilgrim to shrines 4. Religious retreat 5. Other (specify: ) 6. I do not know.

Q23. Please indicate how much you agree to these statements. There is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I should give thanksgiving to God not only in good times but also in bad times. Every member in the Church is equal in God. Whenever I ask God’s help, God always helps me, especially at difficult moments. Attending Mass is a very important part of my life. I believe that God is always with me. If I do not practice what I have learned from the Church, the teaching would be of no use. What I do to people in need is what I do to God. Forgiving neighbors’ faults seventy of seven times is one of the most important virtues of Christians. When I meet fellow Catholics in a church, I need to treat them as brothers and sisters in Christ. The Gospel of Jesus Christ is the source of my true happiness.

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Q24. How much do you agree to these statements? Remember there is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I talk about the lives of Korean Saints with my friends and neighbors. I pray to Korean Saints, asking their intercession. I pray for the beatification and canonization of Korean martyrs and unknown Saints. I recommend to my friends and neighbors to learn the history of the Korean Catholic Church through religious media. I often use religious media about the history of the Korean Catholic Church. I forgive my friends and neighbors even when they harm me. I serve God in serving people in need. I frequently attend Mass. I actively participate in church groups. I overcome difficulties in my life, meditating on the suffering and death of Christ. I treat my fellow Catholics as brothers and sisters in Christ.

We would like to know a few things about you. Q25. What is your gender? 1. Female 2. Male

Q26. What is your age? ( ) years old

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Q27. What is your education level? 1. High School or less 2. 1 to 3 years of college or technical school 3. College graduation 4. Attended graduate school 5. Completed graduate school

Q28. What was your total household income before taxes for last month? 1. Under 1,000,000 Won 2. 1,000,000 – 1,990,000 Won 3. 2,000,000 – 2,990,000 Won 4. 3,000,000 – 3,990,000 Won 5. 4,000,000 – 4,990,000 Won 6. 5,000,000 – 5,990,000 Won 7. 6,000,000 – 6,990,000 Won 8. Over 7,000,000 Won

Q29. How long have you practiced your Catholic faith? ( ) years

Q30. How often do you attend Mass last month? 1. Never 2. A few Sundays 3. Every Sunday 4. Every Sunday and a few daily Masses 5. (Almost) Everyday

Q31. What kind of religious group do you participate in? Please, list those groups. e.g., Regio Mariae, Bible study class, parish pastoral counsel, Sunday school teachers’ group, etc.

Thank you for your participation.

Please share your comment.

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천주교 미디어 이용에 대한 연구 (1)

성함: 성함은 데이타를 분석할 때 숫자로 전환되기 때문에, 여러분의 이름은 제 논문에 나타나지 않을 것입니다. 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 부디 솔직히 응답해 주십시오.

문제1. 지난 달 얼마나 자주 평화방송 TV를 보셨습니까? 대답에 0 표해 주십시오. 1. 전혀 보지 않았다. 2. 한달에 한번 3. 두 주에 한번 4. 한 주에 한번 5. 한주에 이틀에서 나흘 6. (거의) 매일

문제2. 평화방송 드라마인 <탁덕 최양업>을 이전에 보신 적이 있습니까? 1. 예 2. 아니오

문제3. 아래 진술들에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 칸에 √표시해 주십시오. “0”은 아래 진술에 대해 아무 의견이 없음을 의미합니다. 모름 전혀 중간 전적으로 동의하지 동의함 않음 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 나는 가톨릭 TV 프로그램 시청이 나의 신앙을 깊게 해 줄 것이라 기대한다. 종교는 내 인생에서 중요하기에 나는 가톨릭 TV 프로그램을 시청하겠다. 가톨릭 TV 프로그램 시청은 내 구원에 도움이 되기에 나는 프로그램들을 시청하겠다. 나는 가톨릭 TV 프로그램을 시청할 때, 하느님과 가깝게 느껴지기에 나는 프로그램들을 시청하겠다. 나는 가톨릭 TV 프로그램 시청이 천주교 신자로서 나의 종교적 지식을 증가시켜 줄 것이라고 기대한다. 나는 가톨릭 TV 프로그램 시청이 나의 종교적 의문들에 대한 답을 찾는데 도움이 될 것이라고 기대한다. 나는 가톨릭 TV 프로그램 시청이 내 마음에 평화를 찾는데 도움이 될 것이라고 기대한다. 138

문제4. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 동의하지 중간 전적으로 않음 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 나는 평화방송 TV를 좋아한다.

문제5. 아래 진술들에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 모름 전혀 동의하지 중간 전적으로 않음 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 가톨릭 신앙은 내 삶에서 중요하다. 가톨릭 신앙은 내 삶에 영향을 미친다.

문제6. 만약 여러분에게는 결혼할 아들과/또는 딸이 있다고 가정할 때, 그들과 결혼할 배우자의 종교는 얼마나 중요합니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. “0”은 아무 의견이 없음을 표시합니다. “1”은 전혀 중요하지 않다는 의미이고 “7”은 가장 중요하다는 의미입니다. 모름 전혀 중간 가장 중요하지 중요함 않음 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

문제7. 만약 여러분께서 삶에서 매우 어려운 상황 (예, 가족 중 사랑하는 사람의 죽음)에 직면해 있다고 가정할 때, 하느님께서는 얼마나 여러분에게서 가까이 계시며 여러분을 지원해 주고 계시다고 생각하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. “0”은 아무 의견이 없음을 표시합니다. “1”은 하느님께서 여러분에게서 매우 가까이 계시다는 의미이고 “7”은 하느님께서 여러분에게서 매우 멀리 계시다는 의미입니다. 모름 매우 중간 매우 가까이에 멀리 계심 계심 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

한국천주교회에 대해 몇 가지 여쭈어 보겠습니다. 대답에 0 표해 주십시오 문제8. 해외에서 공부를 마친 후, 최양업 신부는 어떻게 한국으로 돌아왔습니까? 1. 배를 이용해서 2. 걸어서 3. 비행기로 4. 말을 타고 5. 모른다. 139

문제9. 초대 한국 천주교회에서는 어떤 언어로 미사를 봉헌하였습니까? 1. 한국어 2. 프랑스어 3. 라틴어 4. 영어 5. 모른다.

문제10. 어떻게 해서 최양업 신부는 죽게 되었습니까? 1. 참수 (목이 베어서) 2. 고문 3. 사고 4. 질병과 과로 5. 모른다.

문제11. 어디서 최양업 신부는 죽게 되었습니까? 1. 문경 2. 언양 3. 서울 4. 배론 5. 모른다.

아래의 진술들이 참인지 거짓인지 0 표해 주십시오. 문제12. 최양업 신부가 한국으로 돌아왔을때, 그는 유일한 한국인 신부였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모른다.

문제13. 임금들과 관리들이 천주교 신앙을 금지하였기 때문에 초대 한국천주교회는 박해를 받았었다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모른다.

문제14. 초대 한국 천주교회는 오직 양반과 학자들만을 구성원으로 받아들였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모른다.

문제15. 영성체를 하기위해 초대 한국교회의 신자들을 교리를 외워야 했다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모른다.

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문제16. 최양업 신부는 대체로 천주교 신자들에게 교리를 가르치기 위해 라틴어를 사용하였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모른다.

문제17. 최양업 신부는 성사들을 집전하기 위해 공소들을 많이 여행하였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모른다.

문제18. 김수환 추기경의 세례명은 스테파노이다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모른다.

대답에 0 표해 주십시오. 문제19. 김수환 추기경의 고향은 어디입니까? 1. 마산 2. 서울 3. 부산 4. 대구 5. 모른다.

문제20. 김수환 주교를 추기경으로 지명한 사람은 누구입니까? 1. 비오6세 교황 2. 요한 23세 교황 3. 요한 바오로 2세 교황 4. 베네딕토 16세 교황 5. 모른다.

문제21. 최양업 신부를 얼마나 잘 알고 계십니까? 1. 전혀 모른다. 2. 최양업 신부에 대해 들어본 적은 있으나 잘 알지는 못한다. 3. 최양업 신부를 잘 안다.

문제22. 만약 적어도 그 신부에 대해 들어본 적이 있다면 어디에서 그 신부에 대해 들어 보셨습니까? 하나 보다 많은 대답을 선택할 수 있습니다. 1.미디어 (예, 책, TV, 또는 라디오) 2. 사람 (예, 신부님, 수녀님, 또는 주위 천주교 신자) 3. 성지 순례 4. 피정 5. 기타 (구체적으로: ) 6. 모름

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문제23. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 중간 전적으로 동의하지 동의함 않음 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 나는 좋을 때뿐만 아니라 나쁠 때에도 하느님께 감사해야 한다. 교회 안의 모든 구성원들은 하느님 안에 평등하다. 내가 하느님의 도움을 청할 때마다 특히 어려운 순간에 하느님께서 나를 도와 주신다. 미사 참례는 내 삶에서 매우 중요한 한 부분이다. 나는 하느님께서 늘 나와 함께 계신다는 것을 믿는다. 만약 내가 교회에서 배운 것을 실천하지 않는다면 내가 배운 것은 쓸모없다. 내가 도움이 필요한 이에게 한 것이 바로 하느님께 한 것이다. 이웃의 잘못을 일곱번씩 일흔번이라도 용서하는 것은 가장 중요한 그리스도인의 덕목 가운데 하나이다. 교회에서 동료 천주교 신자들을 만날났을 때, 나는 그들을 그리스도 안의 형제 자매로 대해야 한다. 예수 그리스도의 복음은 내 참된 행복의 근원이다.

문제24. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오.

모름 전혀 중간 전적으로 동의하지 동의함 않음 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 나는 내 친구들과 이웃들에게 한국 성인들의 삶에 대해 이야기 한다. 나는 한국 성인들의 전구를 구하며 그들에게 기도한다. 나는 한국 순교자들과 무명의 성인들의 시복과 시성을 위해 기도한다.

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모름 전혀 중간 전적으로 동의하지 동의함 않음 나는 내 친구들과 이웃들이 종교 미디어를 통해 한국 천주교회의 역사에 대해 배우기를 추천한다. 나는 한국 천주교회의 역사에 관한 종교 미디어를 자주 이용한다. 나는 내 친구들과 이웃들이 나에게 해를 끼칠 때에도 그들을 용서한다. 나는 도움이 필요한 사람을 섬김을 통해 하느님을 섬긴다. 나는 자주 미사에 참여한다. 나는 교회 모임에 적극적으로 참여한다. 나는 그리스도의 고통과 죽음을 묵상하며 내 삶의 어려움을 극복한다. 나는 동료 천주교 신자들을 그리스도 안에 형제와 자매로 대한다.

여러분에 관해 몇 가지 사항을 여쭈어 보겠습니다. 문제25. 성별은 무엇입니까? 1. 여성 2. 남성

문제26. 연세는 얼마입니까? ( ) 세

문제27. 여러분의 교육 수준은 무엇입니까? 1. 고등학교 졸업이나 그 미만 2. 1- 3 년 대학 또는 직업 학교 3. 대학 졸업 4. 대학원 재학 5. 대학원 졸업

문제28. 지난 달 세금을 내기 전 가구 총소득은 얼마입니까? 1.100만원 미만 2.100만원 – 199만원 3. 200만원 – 299만원 4. 300만원 – 399만원 5. 400만원 – 499만원 6. 500만원 – 599만원 7. 600만원 – 699만원 8. 700만원 이상 143

문제29. 가톨릭 신앙 생활은 얼마나 오래 하셨습니까? ( ) 년

문제30. 지난 달 미사는 얼마나 자주 참례하셨습니까? 1. 참례하지 않았음 2. 일요일 미사에 1-3번 3. 모든 일요일 미사 4. 모든 일요일 미사와 평일 미사 1-3번 5. (거의) 매일

문제31. 어떤 종교 단체에 참여하십니까? 참여하고 계신 단체들을 나열해 주십시오.예) 레지오 마리애, 성서 공부 수업, 사목협의회, 주일학교 교사회 등

참여해 주셔서 고맙습니다. 아래 빈 란에 이 설문지나 연구에 대한 여러분의 의견을 적어 주십시오.

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Survey of Catholic Media Use (2)

Name: Your name will be converted to numbers in the data analysis, so your name will not be appeared on my dissertation. There is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. Q1. Did you search online or offline the information about the early Korean Catholic Church history last month? Please, circle the answer. 1. Yes 2. No

Q2. How often do you watch PBC Cable TV last month? 1. Never 2. Once a month 3. Once in two weeks 4. Once a week 5. 2 to 4 days a week 6. (Almost) Everyday

Q3. How much do you agree to this statement? Please, mark the box. There is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The participation in this study will affect me and others significantly.

Q4. How much do you agree to this statement? I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The drama consists of a lot of facts and information.

Q5. How much do you agree to this statement? There is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The drama deeply appeals to my emotions and feelings.

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Q6. How much do you agree to these statements? I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Catholic faith is important in my life. Catholic faith influences my life.

Q7. Suppose you have a son and/or a daughter who are about to marry, how important will be the religion of the spouse of your son and/or daughter? There is no right or wrong answer. “0” indicates you have no opinion. “1” means it is not important at all and “7” means it is most important. I do not Not Most know. Important Important At All 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q8. Suppose you face a very difficult situation in your life, such as the death of a loving one in your family, how do you feel how God is close to you and supports you? There is no right or wrong answer. “0” indicates you have no opinion. “1” means God is very close to you and “7” means God is very far from God. I do not Very Very Far know. Close 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Q9. We are interested in what you were thinking during watching the drama. Please write down any element or detail of the drama you remember within 3 minutes. Thoughts

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We would like to ask you about the Korean Catholic Church. Please circle whether the following statements are true or false. Q10. The hometown of Cardinal Kim Soo Hwan is Masan. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q11. Because the kings and officers had prohibited Catholic faith, the early Korean Catholic Church had been persecuted. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q12. Fr. Choi Yang-Up wrote Korean songs to teach illiterate Catholics catechism. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q13. Fr. Choi Yang-Up had traveled a lot to missions to celebrate Sacraments. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q14. Catholics in the early Korean Church had to memorize catechism to receive the Communion. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q15. Only Yang Ban and scholars had been accepted as its members by the early Korean Catholic Church. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q16. Pope Pius 6 had appointed Bishop Kim Soo Hwan as a cardinal. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

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Please, circle the answer. Q17. How many Korean priests were in the Korean Catholic Church when Fr. Choi Yang-Up returned to Korea after completing his study abroad, including Fr. Choi Yang-Up? 1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 5. I do not know.

Q18. From what reason did Fr. Choi Yang-Up die? 1. Illness and overwork 2. Torture 3. Decapitation 4. Accident 5. I do not know.

Q19. Where did Fr. Choi Yang-Up pass away? 1. Seoul 2. Bae Ron 3. Mun Kyung 4. Un Yang 5. I do not know.

Q20. In which language had Catholics celebrated Mass in the early Korean Church? 1. English 2. Latin 3. Korean 4. French 5. I do not know.

Q21. After the completion of his study, how did Father Choi Yang-Up return to Korea? 1. By flight 2. By a boat 3. By riding a horse 4. Walking 5. I do not know.

Q22. What is the baptismal name of Cardinal Kim Soo Hwan? 1. Gabriel 2. Stephano 3. John 4. Paul 5. I do not know.

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Q23. We are interested in how you think of Fr. Choi Yang-Up. Please indicate how much you agree to these statements. I do Strongly Strongly not Disagree Agree know. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fr. Choi Yang Up makes me feel comfortable, as if I am with a friend. I am very fond of Fr. Choi Yang Up. If Fr. Choi Yang Up appeared on other media, I would use the media. I feel sorry for Fr. Choi Yang Up when he experiences difficulties. I look forward to meet Fr. Choi Yang Up through religious media. When Fr. Choi Yang Up talks, he seems to understand the kinds of things I want to know. If there were a story about Fr. Choi Yang Up in a newspaper or magazine, I would read it

Q24. How much do you agree to these statements? Please, mark the box. There is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Whenever I ask God’s help, God always helps me, especially at difficult moments. I believe that God is always with me. I should give thanksgiving to God not only in good times but also in bad times. Attending Mass is a very important thing in my life. Every member in the Church is equal in God. When I meet fellow Catholics in a church, I need to treat them as brothers and sisters in Christ.

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I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 What I do to people in need is what I do to God. If I do not practice what I have learned from the Church, the teaching would be of no use. The Gospel of Jesus Christ is the source of my true happiness. Forgiving neighbors’ faults even seventy of seven times is one of the most important virtues of Christians.

Q25. How much do you agree to these statements? Remember there is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I recommend to my friends and neighbors to learn the history of the Korean Catholic Church through religious media. I pray for the beatification and canonization of Korean martyrs and unknown Saints. I serve God in serving people in need. I talk about the lives of Korean Saints with my friends and neighbors. I often use religious media about the history of the Korean Catholic Church. I forgive my friends and neighbors even when they harm me. I pray to Korean Saints, asking their intercession. I more frequently attend Mass. I more actively participate in church groups. I treat my fellow Catholics as brothers and sisters in Christ.

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I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I overcome difficulties in my life, meditating the suffering and death of Christ.

Q26. How much does this drama influence you? Remember there is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Not Most know. Influential Influential At All 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q27. How much does this drama influence others? Please respond honestly. I do not Not Most know. Influential Influential At All 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Thank you for your participation. Please share your comment.

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천주교 미디어 이용에 대한 연구 (2) 성함: 성함은 데이타를 분석할 때 숫자로 전환되기 때문에, 여러분의 이름은 제 논문에 나타나지 않을 것입니다. 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 부디 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 문제1. 지난 달 한국천주교회 역사에 대한 정보를 온라인이나 오프라인에서 검색을 하 였습니까? 대답에 0 표해 주십시오. 1. 예 2. 아니오

문제2. 지난 달 미사는 얼마나 자주 참례하셨습니까? 1. 참례하지 않았음 2. 일요일 미사에 1-3번 3. 모든 일요일 미사 4. 모든 일요일 미사와 평일 미사 1-3번 5. (거의) 매일

문제3. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 칸에 √표시해 주십시오. 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 동의하 중 전적으로 지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 나의 이 연구참여는 나와 다른이들에 게 매우 영향을 미칠 것이다.

문제4. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 모름 전혀 동의하 중 전적으로 지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 이 드라마는 많은 사실과 정보로 이 루어져 있다.

문제5. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 동의하 중 전적으로 지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 이 드라마는 나의 감성과 느낌에 깊 이 호소한다.

문제6. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 모름 전혀 동의하 중 전적으로 지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 가톨릭 신앙은 나의 삶에 중요하다. 가톨릭 신앙은 나의 삶에 영향을 미 친다. 153

문제7. 만약 여러분께서 삶에서 매우 어려운 상황 (예, 가족 중 사랑하는 사람의 죽음)에 직면해 있다고 가정할 때, 하느님께서는 얼마나 여러분에게서 가까이 계시며 여러 분을 지원해 주고 계시다고 생각하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. “0”은 아무 의견이 없음을 표시합니다. “1”은 하느님께서 여러분에 게서 매우 가까이 계시다는 의미이고 “7”은 하느님께서 여러분에게서 매우 멀리 계시다는 의미입 니다. 모름 매우 가까 중간 매우 멀 이에 계심 리 계심 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

문제8. 만약 여러분에게는 결혼할 아들과/또는 딸이 있다고 가정할 때, 그들과 결혼할 배우자의 종교는 얼마나 중요합니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. “0”은 아무 의견이 없음을 표시합니다. “1”은 전혀 중요하지 않다는 의미이고 “7”은 가장 중요하다는 의미입니다. 모름 전혀 중요 중간 가장 중 하지 않음 요함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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문제9. 저희는 여러분께서 드라마를 시청하시는 동안 무엇을 생각하셨는지 궁금합니다. 부디 3분 안에 여러분께서 기억하시는 드라마의 요소나 세부 사항을 적어 주십시 오. 생각하셨던 내용

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한국천주교회에 대해 몇 가지 여쭈어 보겠습니다. 아래의 진술들이 참인지 거짓인지 0 표해 주십시오. 문제10. 김수환 추기경의 고향은 마산이다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제11. 왕들과 관리들이 천주교 신앙을 금지하였기에 초대 한국천주교회는 박해를 받 았다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제12. 최양업 신부는 글을 모르는 천주교 신자들에게 교리문답을 가르치기 위해 한국 어 가사를 지었다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제13. 최양업 신부는 성사들을 집전하기 위해 공소들을 많이 여행하였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제14. 영성체를 하기위해 초대 한국교회의 신자들을 교리를 외워야 했다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제15. 초대 한국 천주교회는 오직 양반과 학자들만을 구성원으로 받아들였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제16. 교황 비오 6세는 김수환 주교를 추기경으로 임명하였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

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대답에 0 표해 주십시오 문제17. 최양업 신부가 해외에서 공부를 마치고 한국으로 돌아왔을 때, 한국천주교회에 는 최양업 신부를 포함해서 얼마나 많은 한국인 신부가 있었습니까? 1. 1명 2. 2명 3. 3명 4. 4명 5. 모름

문제18. 최양업 신부는 어떤 이유로 죽게 되었습니까? 1. 질병과 과로 2. 고문 3. 참수 (목이 베어서) 4. 사고 5. 모름

문제19. 어디에서 최양업 신부는 죽었습니까? 1. 서울 2. 배론 3. 문경 4. 언양 5. 모름

문제20. 초대한국교회에서 천주교 신자들은 어떤 언어로 미사를 봉헌하였습니까? 1. 영어 2. 라틴어 3. 한국어 4. 프랑스어 5. 모름

문제21. 최양업 신부는 공부를 마친 후, 어떻게 한국으로 돌아왔습니까? 1. 비행기로 2. 배로 3. 말을 타고 4. 걸어서 5. 모름

문제22. 김수환 추기경의 세례명은 무엇입니까? 1. 가브리엘 2. 스테파노 3. 요한 4. 바오로 5. 모름

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Q23. 저희는 여러분께서 최양업 신부를 어떻게 생각하시는지 궁금합니다. 부디 아래 진 술들에 얼마나 동의하시는지 표시해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 동의하 중 전적으로 지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 최양업 신부는 내가 마치 친구와 함 께 있는 것처럼 나를 편안히 느끼게 한다. 나는 최양업 신부를 매우 좋아한다. 만약 최양업 신부가 다른 미디어 나 왔다면, 나는 그 미디어를 이용했을 것이다. 최양업 신부가 어려움을 겪을 때 나 는 안타까움을 느낀다. 나는 종교 미디어를 통해 최양업 신 부를 만나기를 추구한다. 최양업 신부가 말할 때, 그는 내가 어 떤 종류의 것을 알기를 원하는지 알 고 있는 것 같다. 만약 신문이나 잡지에 최양업 신부에 관한 이야기가 있었다면, 나는 그것 을 읽었을 것이다.

문제24. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 동의하 중 전적으로 지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 내가 하느님께 도움을 청할 때마다 특히 어려운 순간에 하느님께서 나를 도와 주신다.

나는 하느님께서 늘 나와 함께 계신 다는 것을 믿는다. 나는 좋을 때뿐만 아니라 나쁠 때에 도 하느님께 감사해야 한다. 미사 참례는 내 삶에서 매우 중요한 한 부분이다. 교회 안의 모든 구성원들은 하느님 안에 평등하다. 나는 교회에서 동료 천주교 신자들을 만났을 때, 그들을 그리스도 안의 형 제 자매로 대해야 한다. 내가 도움이 필요한 이에게 한 것이 바로 하느님께 한 것이다. 만약 내가 교회에서 배운 것을 실천 하지 않는다면 내가 배운 것은 쓸모 없다. 158

모름 전혀 동의하 중 전적으로 지 않음 간 동의함 예수 그리스도의 복음은 내 참된 행 복의 근원이다. 이웃의 잘못을 일곱번씩 일흔번이라 도 용서하는 것은 가장 중요한 그리 스도인의 덕목 가운데 하나이다.

문제25. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 동의하 중 전적으로 지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 나는 내 친구들과 이웃들이 종교 미 디어를 통해 한국 천주교회의 역사에 대해 배우기를 추천한다. 나는 한국 순교자들과 무명의 성인들 의 시복과 시성을 위해 기도한다. 나는 도움이 필요한 사람을 섬김을 통해 하느님을 섬긴다. 나는 내 친구들과 이웃들에게 한국 성인들의 삶에 대해 이야기 한다. 나는 한국 천주교회의 역사에 관한 종교 미디어를 자주 이용한다. 나는 내 친구들과 이웃들이 나에게 해를 끼칠 때에도 그들을 용서한다. 나는 한국 성인들의 전구를 구하며 그들에게 기도한다. 나는 자주 미사에 참여한다. 나는 교회 모임에 적극적으로 참여한 다. 나는 동료 천주교 신자들을 그리스도 안에 형제와 자매로 대한다. 나는 그리스도의 고통과 죽음을 묵상 하며 내 삶의 어려움을 극복한다.

문제26. 이 드라마는 여러분에게 얼마나 영향을 미칩니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 영향을 보통 가장 영향을 미치치 않음 많이 미침 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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문제27. 이 드라마는 다른이에게 얼마나 영향을 미칩니까? 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 영향력 가장 영향력 이 없음 이 있음 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

참여해 주셔서 고맙습니다. 아래 빈 란에 이 설문지나 연구에 대한 여러분의 의견을 적 어 주십시오.

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Survey of Catholic Media Use (3) Name: Your name will be converted to numbers in the data analysis, so your name will not be appeared on my dissertation. Please respond honestly. There is no right or wrong answer.

Q1. How often do you attend Mass last month? Please, circle the answer. 1. Never 2. A few Sundays 3. Every Sunday 4. Every Sunday and a few daily Masses 5. (Almost) Everyday

Q2. What kind of religious group do you participate in? Please, list those groups. e.g., Regio Mariae, Bible study class, parish pastoral counsel, Sunday school teachers’ meeting, etc.

Q3. Did you search online or offline the information about the early Korean Catholic Church history last month? 1. Yes 2. No

Q4. How often do you watch PBC Cable TV last month? 1. Never 2. Once a month 3. Once in two weeks 4. Once a week 5. 2 to 4 days a week 6. (Almost) Everyday

Q5. How much do you agree to these statements? Please respond honestly. There is no right or wrong answer. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Catholic faith is important in my life. Catholic faith influences my life. 161

Q6. Suppose you face a very difficult situation in your life, such as the death of a loving one in your family, how do you feel how God is close to you and supports you? There is no right or wrong answer. “0” indicates you have no opinion. “1” means God is very close to you and “7” means God is very far from God. I do not Very Very Far know. Close 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q7. Suppose you have a son and/or a daughter who are about to marry, how important is the religion of the potential spouse of your son and/or daughter? There is no right or wrong answer. “0” indicates you have no opinion. “1” means it is not important at all and “7” means it is most important. I do not Not Most know. Important Important At All 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q8. How much do you agree to these statements? I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I rarely spent much time thinking the drama. I recalled the drama later and thought about it. I realized the story has broader meaning than I had thought. I tied together stories to thoughts I have had before. I interpreted stories in a way that I have had before. I elaborated what I remember from the drama with my previous thoughts.

We would like to ask you about the Korean Catholic Church. Please circle whether the following statements are true or false. Q9. Fr. Choi Yang Up was beheaded. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

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Q10. Fr. Choi Yang Up passed away near Mun Kyung. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q11. The early Korean Catholic Church had celebrated Mass in English. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q12. After studying abroad, Father Choi Yang Up had returned to Korea by walk. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q13. Because the kings had prohibited Catholic faith, the early Korean Catholic Church had been persecuted. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q14. In order to receive the Communion, Catholics in the early Korean Church were required to memorize catechism. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q15. When Fr. Choi Yang-Up returned to Korea, there were French missionaries in Korea. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Q16. The early Korean Catholic Church had accepted people from all classes as its members. 1. True 2. False 3. I do not know.

Please, circle the answer. Q17. What is the baptismal name of Cardinal Kim Soo Hwan? 1. Michael 2. Paul 3. Francisco 4. Stephano 5. I do not know.

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Q18. Which language had Fr. Choi Yang Up regularly used to teach Catholics catechism? 1. Korean 2. Latin 3. Spanish 4. Chinese 5. I do not know.

Q19. How long had Fr. Choi Yang Up traveled to missions to celebrate Sacraments? 1. Less than 1 year 2. About 3 years 3. About 7 years 4. About 12 years 5. I do not know.

Q20. Who had appointed Bishop Kim Soo Hwan as a cardinal? 1. Pope Pius 6 2. Pope John 23 3. Pope John Paul 2 4. Pope Benedict 16 5. I do not know.

Q21. Where is the hometown of Cardinal Kim Soo Hwan? 1. Masan 2. Daegu 3. Seoul 4. Busan 5. I do not know.

Q22. We are interested in how you think of Fr. Choi Yang-Up. Please indicate how much you agree to these statements. Please respond honestly. There is no right or wrong answer. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I am very fond of Fr. Choi Yang-Up. If Fr. Choi Yang-Up appeared on other media, I would use the media. When Fr. Choi Yang-Up talks, he seems to understand the kinds of things I want to know. If there were a story about Fr. Choi Yang-Up in a newspaper or magazine, I would read it.

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I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I look forward to meet Fr. Choi Yang-Up through religious media. Fr. Choi Yang-Up makes me feel comfortable, as if I am with a friend. I feel sorry for Fr. Choi Yang- Up when he experiences difficulties.

Q23. How much do you agree to these statements? Please, mark the box. There is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The Gospel of Jesus Christ is the source of my true happiness. If I do not practice what I have learned from the Church, the teaching would be of no use. Whenever I ask God’s help, God always helps me, especially at difficult moments. I should give thanks to God not only in good times but also in bad times. Every member in the Church is equal in God. What I do to people in need is what I do to God. I believe that God is always with me. Forgiving neighbors’ faults even seventy of seven times is one of the most important virtues of Christians. When I meet fellow Catholics in a church, I need to treat them as brothers and sisters in Christ. Attending Mass is a very important thing in my life.

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Q24. How much do you agree to these statements? There is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Strongly Strongly know. Disagree Agree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I pray for the beatification and canonization of Korean martyrs and unknown Saints. I pray to Korean Saints, asking their intercession. I often use media about the history of the Korean Catholic Church. I recommend to my friends and neighbors to learn the history of the Korean Catholic Church through religious media. I talk about the lives of Korean Saints with my friends and neighbors. I treat my fellow Catholics as brothers and sisters in Christ. I frequently attend Mass. I serve God in serving people in need. I overcome difficulties in my life meditating on the suffering and death of Christ. I actively participate in church groups. I forgive my friends and neighbors even when they harm me.

Q25. How much does this drama influence you? There is no right or wrong answer. Please respond honestly. I do not Not Most know. Influential Influential At All 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Q26. How much does this drama influence others? Please respond honestly. I do not Not Most know. Influential Influential At All 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Thank you very much for your participation. Please share your comment.

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천주교 미디어 이용에 대한 연구 (3)

성함: 성함은 데이타를 분석할 때 숫자로 전환되기 때문에, 여러분의 이름은 제 논문에 나타나지 않을 것입니다. 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 부디 솔직히 응답해 주십시오.

문제1. 지난 달 미사는 얼마나 자주 참례하셨습니까? 1. 참례하지 않았음 2. 일요일 미사에 1-3번 3. 모든 일요일 미사 4. 모든 일요일 미사와 평일 미사 1-3번 5. (거의) 매일

문제2. 어떤 종교 단체에 참여하십니까? 참여하고 있는 단체들을 나열해 주십시오. 예) 레지오 마리애, 성서 공부 수업, 사목협의회, 주일학교 교사회 등

문제3. 지난 달 한국천주교회 역사에 대한 정보를 온라인이나 오프라인에서 검색하였습 니까? 대답에 0 표해 주십시오. 1. 예 2. 아니오

문제4. 지난 달 얼마나 자주 평화방송 TV를 보셨습니까? 대답에 0 표해 주십시오. 1. 전혀 보지 않았다. 2. 한달에 한번 3. 두 주에 한번 4. 한 주에 한번 5. 한주에 이틀에서 나흘 6. (거의) 매일

문제5. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 동의하 중 전적으로 지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 가톨릭 신앙은 나의 삶에 중요하다. 가톨릭 신앙은 나의 삶에 영향을 미 친다. 168

문제6. 만약 여러분에게는 결혼할 아들과/또는 딸이 있다고 가정할 때, 그들과 결혼할 배우자의 종교는 얼마나 중요합니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. “0”은 아무 의견이 없음을 표시합니다. “1”은 전혀 중요하지 않다는 의미이고 “7”은 가장 중요하다는 의미입니다. 모름 전혀 중요 보통 가장 중 하지 않음 요함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

문제7. 만약 여러분께서 삶에서 매우 어려운 상황 (예, 가족 중 사랑하는 사람의 죽음)에 직면해 있다고 가정할 때, 하느님께서는 얼마나 여러분에게서 가까이 계시며 여러 분을 지원해 주고 계시다고 생각하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. “0”은 아무 의견이 없음을 표시합니다. “1”은 하느님께서 여러분에 게서 매우 가까이 계시다는 의미이고 “7”은 하느님께서 여러분에게서 매우 멀리 계시다는 의미입 니다. 모름 매우 가까 보통 매우 멀 이에 계심 리 계심 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

문제8. 아래 진술들에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 모름 전혀 동의하 중 전적으로 지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 나는 <탁덕 최양업>을 생각하는데 거의 많은 시간을 쓰지 않았다. 나는 시청 이후에 <탁덕 최양업>을 회상했고 그 드라마에 대해 생각했 다. 나는 <탁덕 최양업>의 이야기가 내 가 생각했던 것보다 더 넓은 의미가 있다는 것을 깨달았다. 나는 <탁덕 최양업>의 이야기들을 이전에 했던 생각들에 연결시켰다. 나는 <탁덕 최양업>의 이야기들을 내가 이전에 해왔던 방식으로 해석했 다. 나는 <탁덕 최양업>에서 내가 기억 하는 것을 나의 이전 생각들에 비추 어 숙고했다.

한국천주교회에 대해 몇 가지 여쭈어 보겠습니다. 아래의 진술들이 참인지 거짓인지 0 표해 주십시오. 문제9. 최양업 신부는 참수되어 임종하였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름 169

문제10. 최양업 신부는 문경 부근에서 임종하였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제11. 초대 한국천주교회는 영어로 미사를 봉헌하였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제12. 최양업 신부는 공부를 마친 후, 걸어서 한국으로 돌아왔다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제13. 왕들과 관리들이 천주교 신앙을 금지하였기에 초대 한국천주교회는 박해를 받 았다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제14. 영성체를 하기위해 초대 한국교회의 신자들을 교리를 외워야 했다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제15. 최양업 신부가 해외에서 공부를 마치고 한국으로 돌아왔을 때, 그는 유일한 한 국인 신부이었다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제16. 초대한국천주교회는 오직 양반과 학자들만을 구성원으로 받아들였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제17. 최양업 신부는 성사를 집전하기 위해 공소들을 많이 여행하였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

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문제18. 최양업 신부는 가톨릭 신자들에게 교리를 가르치기 위해 주로 라틴어를 사용하 였다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

문제19. 김수환 추기경의 세례명은 스테파노이다. 1. 참 2. 거짓 3. 모름

대답에 0 표해 주십시오 문제20. 누가 김수환 주교를 추기경으로 임명하였습니까? 1. 비오 6세 교황 2. 요한 23세 교황 3. 요한 바오로 2세 교황 4. 베네딕도 16세 교황 5. 모른다.

문제21. 김수환 추기경의 고향은 어디입니까? 1. 마산 2. 대구 3. 서울 4. 부산 5. 모름

Q22. 저희는 여러분께서 최양업 신부를 어떻게 생각하시는지 궁금합니다. 아래 진술들 에 얼마나 동의하시는지 표시해 주십시오. 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모 전혀 동의 중 전적으로 름 하지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 나는 최양업 신부를 매우 좋아한다. 최양업 신부가 말할 때, 그는 내가 어 떤 종류의 것을 알기를 원하는지 알고 있는 것 같다. 만약 최양업 신부가 다른 미디어 나왔 다면, 나는 그 미디어를 이용했을 것이 다. 만약 신문이나 잡지에 최양업 신부에 관한 이야기가 있었다면, 나는 그것을 읽었을 것이다. 나는 종교 미디어를 통해 최양업 신부 를 만나기를 추구한다. 최양업 신부는 내가 마치 친구와 함께 있는 것처럼 나를 편안히 느끼게 한다. 171

모 전혀 동의 중 전적으로 름 하지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 최양업 신부가 어려움을 겪을 때 나는 안타까움을 느낀다.

문제23. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 동의 중 전적으로 하지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 예수 그리스도의 복음은 내 참된 행 복의 근원이다. 만약 내가 교회에서 배운 것을 실천 하지 않는다면 내가 배운 것은 쓸모 없다. 내가 하느님께 도움을 청할 때마다 특히 어려운 순간에 하느님께서 나를 도와 주신다. 나는 좋을 때뿐만 아니라 나쁠 때에 도 하느님께 감사해야 한다. 교회 안의 모든 구성원들은 하느님 안에 평등하다. 내가 도움이 필요한 이에게 한 것이 바로 하느님께 한 것이다. 나는 하느님께서 늘 나와 함께 계신 다는 것을 믿는다. 이웃의 잘못을 일곱번씩 일흔번이라 도 용서하는 것은 가장 중요한 그리 스도인의 덕목 가운데 하나이다. 나는 교회에서 동료 천주교 신자들을 만났을 때, 그들을 그리스도 안의 형 제 자매로 대해야 한다. 미사 참례는 내 삶에서 매우 중요한 한 부분이다.

문제24. 아래 진술에 얼마나 동의하십니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 동의 중 전적으로 하지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 나는 한국 순교자들과 무명의 성인들 의 시복과 시성을 위해 기도한다. 나는 한국 성인들의 전구를 구하며 그들에게 기도한다. 나는 한국 천주교회의 역사에 관한 종교 미디어를 자주 이용한다.

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모름 전혀 동의 중 전적으로 하지 않음 간 동의함 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 나는 내 친구들과 이웃들이 종교 미 디어를 통해 한국 천주교회의 역사에 대해 배우기를 추천한다. 나는 내 친구들과 이웃들에게 한국 성인들의 삶에 대해 이야기 한다. 나는 동료 천주교 신자들을 그리스도 안에 형제와 자매로 대한다. 나는 자주 미사에 참여한다. 나는 도움이 필요한 사람을 섬김을 통해 하느님을 섬긴다. 나는 그리스도의 고통과 죽음을 묵상 하며 내 삶의 어려움을 극복한다. 나는 교회 모임에 적극적으로 참여한 다. 나는 내 친구들과 이웃들이 나에게 해를 끼칠 때에도 그들을 용서한다.

문제25. 이 드라마는 여러분에게 얼마나 영향을 미칩니까? 옳거나 틀린 대답은 없습니다. 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 영향을 보통 가장 영향을 미치치 않음 많이 미침 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

문제26. 이 드라마는 다른이에게 얼마나 영향을 미칩니까? 솔직히 응답해 주십시오. 모름 전혀 영향력 보통 가장 영향력 이 없음 이 있음 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

참여해 주셔서 고맙습니다. 아래 빈 란에 이 설문지나 연구에 대한 여러분의 의견을 적 어 주십시오.

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APPENDIX B: CONTENT OF RATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL APPEALS 174

Contents of Rational and Emotional Appeals Rational Emotional S. 1 Fr. Choi – Kissing on the ground Fr. Choi – Kissing on the ground Opening credit Opening credit Rest with the guide Rest with the guide Playback – Fr. Maubant picked 3 candidates to become seminarians & sent them to China. S. 2 Talk of Catholics (Arrival of Fr. Choi) Playback – Bishop Ferreol (Save your life.) A noble’s oppression to Peter Talk of Peter with his son Rest with the guide S. 3 Running boys Running boys Fr. Choi & Catholics01 (catechism Q&A) Making hosts Mass (Equality of all classes) Mass (Equality of all classes) Fr. Choi & Catholics02 (catechism Q&A) S. 4 Catechism (Teaching catechism song) Catechism (Teaching catechism song) The singing of Peter’s family The singing of Peter’s family A noble – Searching an evidence in Peter’s A noble – Searching an evidence in Peter’s house house Arrest of Peter Arrest of Peter Torture of Peter01 Talk of the guide to Fr. Choi 11th Letter to Fr. Legregeois A noble - Attempt to rape Peter’s wife A noble - Killing Peter’s wife Fr. Choi – waking up S. 5 Greetings of Fr. Choi’s 2 brothers & 2 sister- in-laws Playback – Arrest of Catholics Playback – Torture of Fr. Choi’s father & mother Playback – Starving baby & his mother in prison Torture of Catholics & betrayal of their faith Death of Fr. Choi’s father Betrayal of Fr. Choi’s mother

S. 6 Fr. Choi’s brother’s narration (Betrayal of his mother) Playback – Mother & children at table Wedding of Fr. Choi’s 2 brothers Playback – Meeting of Fr. Choi’s mother & little brothers at prison Decapitation of Fr. Choi’s mother Fr. Choi - Thanksgiving to God Fr. Choi – Waking up Fr. Choi - Waking up S. 7 Visit of Jang (Report of death of Peter’s Visit of Jang (Report of death of Peter’s wife wife & son) & son) Peter’s harassment Peter’s harassment Fr. Choi - Visit to Peter’s home01 Report of Catholics to Fr. Choi Report of Catholics to Fr. Choi

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S. 8 Arrest of Jang Arrest of Jang Peter – Passing a noble’s hose Fr. Choi stopped Catholics’ attempt to Fr. Choi stopped Catholics’ attempt to punish punish Peter Peter Fr. Choi - Visit to Peter’s home02 Arrest of Peter Arrest of Peter Playback – Gift of Fr. Choi to Peter’s son S. 9 Walk of Fr. Choi 13th Letter to Fr. Legregeois 17th Letter to Fr. Legregeois Walk in the mountain Fire on a house Public announcement Kyung Shin Persecution S. 10 Mass Mass Attack of police officers Attack of police officers Talk with Agatha (Fr. Choi should save his life.) Rest of Fr. Choi Playback – Bishop Ferreol Stay in Juck Lime Cave 19th Letter to Fr. Libois & Fr. Legregeois Finding Agatha in mountain

S. 11 Death of Agatha in a cave Walk in rain 19th Letter Falling down of Fr. Choi Baptism of patients Baptism of patients S. 12 Finding of Fr. Choi Finding of Fr. Choi Prayer of Fr. Choi Death of Fr. Choi Death of Fr. Choi Narration of Fr. Choi Ending credits Ending credits

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APPENDIX C: HSRB APPROVAL

Office of Research Compliance 309A University Hall Bowling Green, OH 43403-0183 Phone: (419) 372-7716 E-mail: [email protected]

HSRB MEMBERSHIP 2010‐2011 January 21, 2011 Amy Morgan, HSRB Chair Kinesiology [email protected] TO: Kisung Yoon

Mary Hare, HSRB Vice Chair COMS Psychology [email protected] FROM: Hillary Harms, Ph.D. HSRB Administrator D. Wayne Bell, M.D. Wood Health Corp. 353‐6225 RE: Continuing HSRB Review for Project H10O182GE7 [email protected] TITLE: The Influence of Religious TV Use Cheryl Conley Alzheimer’s Assn., NW Ohio This is to inform you that your research study indicated above has [email protected] received continuing Human Subjects Review Board (HSRB) review and approval. This approval is effective January 20, 2011 for a period of 12 L. Fleming Fallon, Jr., M.D. Public & Allied Health months and will expire on January 19, 2012. You may continue with the [email protected] project.

Rodney Gabel Please communicate any proposed changes in your project procedures Comm. Sciences & Disorders or activities involving human subjects, including consent form changes [email protected] or increases in the number of participants, to the HSRB via this office. Please notify me, at 372‐7716 or [email protected], upon completion of Hillary Harms your project. Office of Research Compliance [email protected] Good luck with your work. Let me know if this office or the HSRB Lesa Lockford can be of assistance as your project proceeds. Theatre & Film [email protected] Comments:

Montana Miller C: Dr. Ha Popular Culture [email protected]

Jeanne Novak Intervention Services [email protected]

Erin Smith Psychology [email protected]

Ashutosh Sohoni Family and Consumer Sciences [email protected]

Marie Tisak Psychology [email protected]