Fuel Cells, Hydrogen and Battery Hybrid Vehicles

energies

Article China Progress on Renewable Energy Vehicles: Fuel Cells, Hydrogen and Battery Hybrid Vehicles

Zhixiang Liu 1,2,3,*, Kevin Kendall 4 and Xieqiang Yan 1,2,3

1 Guangdong Key Lab for Hydrogen Energy Technologies, Foshan University, Foshan 528000, China; [email protected] 2 Foshan (Yunfu) Research Institute for Hydrogen Energy & New Material Development, Yunfu 527300, China 3 Guangdong Nation-Synergy Hydrogen Power Technologies Co. Ltd., Yunfu 527300, China 4 School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-766-8931-687

Received: 13 November 2018; Accepted: 18 December 2018; Published: 25 December 2018

Abstract: Clean, renewable energy for Chinese cities is a priority in air quality improvement. This paper describes the recent Chinese advances in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery vehicles, including buses and trucks. Following the 2016 Chinese government plan for new energy vehicles, bus production in Foshan has now overtaken that in the EU, USA and Japan combined. Hydrogen infrastructure requires much advance to catch up but numbers of filling stations are now increasing rapidly in the large cities. A particular benefit in China is the large number of battery manufacturing companies which fit well into the energy storage plan for hybrid fuel cell buses. The first city to manufacture thousands of PEM-battery hybrid buses is Foshan where the Feichi (Allenbus) company has built a new factory next to a novel fuel cell production line capable of producing 500 MW of fuel cell units per year. Hundreds of these buses are running on local Foshan routes this year, while production of city delivery trucks has also been substantial. Results for energy consumption of these vehicles are presented and fitted to the Coulomb theory previously delineated.

Keywords: hydrogen energy; hybrid-fuel-cell-battery-buses; zero-emission; energy consumption versus weight

1. Introduction Chinese cities are increasingly polluted with vehicle emissions which may be ameliorated by introduction of zero emission cars, trucks and buses. Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) have been heavily supported by government over the last 5 years but the present driving range of pure BEVs is inadequate to compete with diesel buses which require at least 300 km range, driving for 18 hours on city routes. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Battery hybrids described in this paper can achieve that specification. Although several small bus projects have demonstrated prototypes satisfying these demands, there has been no large city project to prove the concept until now. Fuel cell bus fleets have been demonstrated in Europe and Australia from 2001 to 2006 in 11 cities with 3 buses each, under projects Clean Urban Transport for Europe (CUTE) [1], Ecological City Transport System (ECTOS) [2] and Sustainable Transport Energy for Perth (STEP) [3]. In Japan, 8 FCHV-BUSes carried one million visitors and traveled about 130,000 km during 6 months of Expo 2005 Aichi and Toyota plans to introduce over 100 FC buses ahead of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games in Tokyo [4]. In North America, a fleet of 20 fuel cell buses were demonstrated in Whistler town of Canada from the 2010 Winter Olympics and halted in 2015 [5]. And 21 fuel cell

Energies 2019, 12, 54; doi:10.3390/en12010054 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11 Energies 2019, 12, 54 2 of 10 months of Expo 2005 Aichi and Toyota plans to introduce over 100 FC buses ahead of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games in Tokyo [4]. In North America, a fleet of 20 fuel cell buses were transitdemonst busesrated are in in Whistler service intown 7 cities of Canada of US under from the fuel 2010 cell electricWinter busOlympics evaluation and halted projects in supported2015 [5]. byAnd U.S. 21 Department fuel cell transit of Transportation buses are in service (DOT) in [6 ].7 Incities China, of US fuel under cell busesfuel cell have electric been demonstratedbus evaluation in Beijingprojects and supported Shanghai by during U.S. Department 2008 Beijing of Olympics Transportation and Expo (DOT 2010) [6]. Shanghai. In China, fuel cell buses have beenThis demonstrated paper describes in Beijing the present and Shanghai status induring May 20182008 ofBeijing the largest Olympics scale and hydrogen Expo 2010 fuel Shanghai. cell battery bus projectThis paper in the describes world, located the present at Yunfu status Industry in May site 2018 close of the to Foshan largest inscale Guangdong hydrogen Province fuel cell battery of South China.bus project Since in 2016, the whenworld, the located Chinese at Yunfu Government Industry published site close itsto planFoshan for in future Guangdong development Province of thisof zero-emission-technologySouth China. Since 2016, when [7], the the company Chinese originallyGovernment named published Guangdong its plan Nation for future Synergy development Hydrogen Powerof this Technology zero-emission Co and-technology now renamed [7], the Guangdong company originally SinoSynergy named Hydrogen Guangdong Power Nation Development Synergy Co (hereafterHydrogen Synergy), Power Technology has been investing Co and heavily now renamed in new Guangdong factories on theSinoSynergy Yunfu site Hydrogen and, with Power several partners,Development has now Co made(hereafter more Synergy), than 300 has hydrogen been investing powered heavily fuel cell-battery in new factories hybrid on buses the Yunfu which site will carryand, passengerswith several in partners, all 5 Districts has now of made Foshan more in 2019,than 300 where hydrogen more thanpowered 10 hydrogen fuel cell-battery stations hybrid are in constructionbuses which and will will carry be passengers put into operation in all 5 Districts soon. of Foshan in 2019, where more than 10 hydrogen stationsA key are issue in construction is the zero-emission and will be capability put into operation and the energy soon. consumption of these new vehicles. Previously,A key it issue has notis the been zero clear-emission how the capability energy consumptionand the energy of consumption such hybrid vehiclesof these new competes vehicles. with fossilPreviously, fuel designs. it has not The been main clear aim how of this the paper energy is consumption to show that theof such new hybrid vehicles vehicles tested competes show a good with fit tofossil the Coulomb fuel designs. theory The previously main aim of defined this paper [8]. Recentis to show test that results the new are reported vehicles andtested fitted show to a the good theory, fit showingto the Coulomb that the theory city can previously save more defined than 50%[8]. Recent of its bus test energyresults are budget reported through and fitted investment to the theory, in these hybrids.showing A that typical the city 11m can bus save tested more is shownthan 50% in Figureof its bus1. Eleven energy of budget these through were first investment tested empty, in these then withhybrids. sandbags A typical in 2017 11m to bus simulate tested passengers,is shown in thenFigure with 1. Eleven real passengers of these were from first June tested of 2017. empty, then withIn sandbags 2015, there in 2017 were to no simulate hydrogen passengers, refueling then stations with in real the passengers region. The from first June station of 2017. opened in 2016 in YunfuIn 201 Industrial5, there were Park no to hydrogen support the refueling bus line. stations Now, in four the region. stations The are first in operationstation opened to service in 2016 six in Yunfu Industrial Park to support the bus line. Now, four stations are in operation to service six bus bus routes and there is a plan to install many more around Foshan in the next two years. At present, routes and there is a plan to install many more around Foshan in the next two years. At present, renewable hydrogen is not being used but the potential for producing hydrogen from hydro, solar or renewable hydrogen is not being used but the potential for producing hydrogen from hydro, solar or nuclear electricity is being investigated. nuclear electricity is being investigated.

FigureFigure 1. 1.Production Production lineline ofof 300300 hydrogenhydrogen fuel cell battery 8.5 8.5 m m buses buses in in the the new new Feichi Feichi factory factory Yunfu Yunfu inin November November 2017. 2017.

SectionSection2 describes2 describes the the bus bus project, project, including including hydrogenhydrogen refuelingrefueling infrastructure. Section Section 3 shows energyenergy consumption consumption results results and and ﬁnally,finally, Section Section4 4draws draws conclusions. conclusions.

2.2. Fuel Fuel Cell Cell Bus Bus Fleet Fleet inin FoshanFoshan andand YunfuYunfu

2.1.2.1. Introduction Introduction to to Synergy Synergy FuelFuel CellCell ProjectProject TheThe Yunfu Yunfu project project started started with with aa visitvisit byby ChineseChinese scientists to to London London to to observe observe the the eight eight buses buses runningrunning near near the the river river Thames Thames onon thethe EUEU CHICCHIC project [ 9]. These These vehicles vehicles were were based based on on the the Ballard Ballard PEMPEM fuel fuel cell cell stack stack which which was was proven proven over over a six-year a six-year period period to run to run for 18for hour 18 hour shifts shifts on London on London routes covering 300 km with 98% availability and few maintenance problems. The main drawback in the CHIC project was the capital cost of each bus, more than 600,000 euro for prototypes made in such Energies 2019, 12, 54 3 of 10 small numbers. Wrightbus had manufactured these prototypes but other companies in Italy, Austria, Germany and Norway had also tested similar designs in the The Clean Hydrogen in European Cities project (CHIC) project, so it was clear that Feichi in Foshan could build equivalent buses providing Ballard stacks were available. Consequently, in 2015, the new company Synergy signed an agreement with Ballard in Vancouver to assemble 30 kW, 60 kW and 90 kW fuel cell modules in Yunfu Industrial Park licensed by Ballard. Then in 2016, after several months’ negotiation, an agreement was signed to manufacture the 9SSL fuel cell stack, which is the latest version of fuel cell stack product for automotive application, in a joint venture of Synergy and Ballard located in Yunfu Industrial Park. Construction started in 2016 on the Yunfu site to build a substantial complex of factories including a new Feichi bus manufacturing facility capable of building 5000 vehicles per year, a fuel cell stack production line using Membrane Electrode Assemblies (MEAs) from Ballard made in Canada, a fuel cell module assembling line with fuel cell stacks produced by the Synergy-Ballard JV, a Research Institute and a hydrogen refueling station. All these were completed in 12 months, with the fuel cell stack and module production line opened on July 1st of 2017, allowing 8 m bus production to begin seriously in September 2017. Several of these 8 m buses are shown on the production line in the new Feichi factory in late 2017 (Figure1). By end of May 2018, the 300 planned 8.5 m buses were built and were beginning to run without passengers.

2.2. Fuel Cell Bus Fleet in Foshan and Yunfu From the beginning of the Yunfu Industrial Park being constructed, steps of developing hydrogen energy industry were confirmed. The first step was to assemble fuel cell modules and manufacture fuel cell buses in the industrial park; the second step was to operate fuel cell bus fleets and investigate technical and economic feasibility of applying fuel cell buses in large scale; and the third step was to build production capacity of key components and products of hydrogen vehicles in the industrial park. In September of 2016, assembling and testing of the first batch of 11m fuel cell buses was finished in the Feichi Bus facility and the fuel cell bus demonstration line was open on September. 28th in Sanshui District of Foshan City [10]. Twelve buses were put in trial operation without passengers. Then on November 18th, the second demonstration line was open in Yuncheng District of Yunfu City from the Industrial Park to Downtown of Yunfu with another twelve buses in trial operation. From June of 2017, the two demonstration lines went into commercial operation with 6 fuel cell buses in Sanshui and 5 in Yunfu [11,12]. The accumulated mileages of all the fuel cell buses till September of 2018 are shown in Table1.

Table 1. Accumulated mileage of the fuel cell buses.

Sanshui Buses Yunfu Buses Plate number Bus ID Mileage Plate number Bus ID Mileage W02995 FCG15012 4914 km E06600F FCG15008 53,400 km W00979 FCG15014 4909 km E02121F FCG15009 79,650 km W10836 FCG16007 42,703 km E08668F FCG15010 41,760 km W05236 FCG16009 42,703 km E07766F FCG15011 48,780 km W10830 FCG16013 45,677 km E07700F FCG16001 57,210 km E06606F FCG16002 46,245 km

2.3. Fuel Cell Buses The 11m bus is shown in Figure2 and the specifications of the bus are shown in Table2. Specifications of the fuel cell module are shown in Table3. Eight composite cylinders contained 27.2 kg of the 350 bar hydrogen in the roof space and could be refilled in less than ten minutes. An HD7 fuel cell module together with the air delivery unit and coolant recirculation unit were installed in the engine bay in the back of the bus and the heat radiators were installed on the roof behind the hydrogen cylinders. The HD7 fuel cell module, assembled by Synergy licensed by Ballard, could provide 85 kW Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 11

2.3. Fuel Cell Buses The 11m bus is shown in Figure 2 and the specifications of the bus are shown in Table 2. Specifications of the fuel cell module are shown in Table 3. Eight composite cylinders contained 27.2 kg of the 350 bar hydrogen in the roof space and could be refilled in less than ten minutes. An HD7 Energies 2019, 12, 54 4 of 10 fuel cell module together with the air delivery unit and coolant recirculation unit were installed in the engine bay in the back of the bus and the heat radiators were installed on the roof behind the hydrogen cylinders. The HD7 fuel cell module, assembled by Synergy licensed by Ballard, could net power for the electric motor on the chassis to drive the bus, hybridized together with the 36 kWh provide 85 kW net power for the electric motor on the chassis to drive the bus, hybridized together Li-ion battery which provided the main accelerating power. with the 36 kWh Li-ion battery which provided the main accelerating power.

FigureFigure 2. The 2. The 11 m11 Hydrogenm Hydrogen fuel fuel cell cell battery battery hybrid bus bus built built by by Feichi Feichi (Allenbus) (Allenbus) in the in ne thew newYunfu Yunfu factory. 11 of these were tested to provide the results given here. factory. 11 of these were tested to provide the results given here.

TableTable 2. 2.Speciﬁcations Specifications of the 11m 11m fuel fuel cell cell bus. bus. Parameter Value Parameter Value Parameter Value Parameter Value Vehicle type 100% low floor city bus Mileage at refueling (km) ≥300 VehicleDimensions type (mm) 100% low10960 ﬂoor × 2490 city bus× 3500 Mileage atPower refueling of FC (kW) (km) ≥85300 DimensionsNet weight /Max (mm) weight (kg) 10960 × 249012700/18000× 3500 PowerCapacity of FCof battery (kW) (kWh) 8536 Net weight/MaxPassengers weight (kg) 12700/1800080 CapacityHydrogen of battery stored (kWh) (kg) 27.2 36 PassengersLimited speed (km/h) 8069 HydrogenNumber stored of H2 (kg)cylinders 27.28 Limited speed (km/h) 69 Number of H2 cylinders 8 Table 3. Specifications of the fuel cell system.

No. Table 3. SpeciﬁcationsParameters of theUnit fuel cell system.Value 1 Number of cells 480 No. Parameters Unit Value 2 Voltage V 320~440 13 NumberCurrent of cells A 0~320 480 24 VoltageNet power kW V85 320~440 35 Air Current pressure bar A1.0 0~320 46 Hydrogen Net power pressure barkW 8~10 85 5 Air pressure bar 1.0 6 Hydrogen pressure bar 8~10

The topological structure of the power system is shown in Figure 3. The fuel cell output was connected to the DC cable with a DC/DC converter, hybridized with the battery pack to drive the DC/AC inverter of the traction motor connected to the DC bus. A vehicle control unit (VCU) sends a message to the fuel cell converter to determine how much power can be drawn from the fuel cell to fulfill the power requirement of the traction inverter and the auxiliary inverter. Power of the fuel cell is controlled to follow power requirement of the bus according to its dynamic capability. Because the dynamic response of the fuel cell system is slower than that of the battery pack, the battery pack is Energies 2019, 12, 54 5 of 10 used as a power buffer to fulfill the dynamic power requirement. The state of charge (SOC) of the battery is set to change between 50% to 80%. The fuel cell system will not be switched until the SOC drops to aa valuevalue smallersmaller thanthan 60%60% during during start-up. start-up. This This control control strategy strategy is is helpful helpful to to extend extend the the life life of ofthe the fuel fuel cell cell system. system. Because these buses give zero emissions, the smog level around Foshan will be lowered by replacing existing diesel buses. In In addition, addition, the the energy energy expenditure expenditure of of the the fuel fuel cell cell hydrogen hydrogen battery battery hybrids is is shown shown later later to to be be about about half half that that used used by by fossil fossil fuel fuel buses buses so so that that the the city city energy energy budget budget is reduced.is reduced.

Figure 3. 3. TheThe topological topological structure structure of the of thepower power system system of the of 11 the m 11hydrogen m hydrogen fuel cell fuel battery cell batteryhybrid bus.hybrid bus. 2.4. Refueling Stations 2.4. Refueling Stations A serious problem in Foshan & Yunfu was the lack of any hydrogen infrastructure to 2015. A serious problem in Foshan & Yunfu was the lack of any hydrogen infrastructure to 2015. Therefore, a plan had to be devised for building the first working refueling station in Foshan and Therefore, a plan had to be devised for building the first working refueling station in Foshan and Yunfu, then building ten more around the city as the bus fleets came into service. The first station Yunfu, then building ten more around the city as the bus fleets came into service. The first station (Figure4) was built close to the bus factory, near the new Hydrogen Hotel and buses began to be filled (Figure 4) was built close to the bus factory, near the new Hydrogen Hotel and buses began to be for the Yunfu bus route from September of 2016. For the Sanshui fuel cell bus route, a temporary filled for the Yunfu bus route from September of 2016. For the Sanshui fuel cell bus route, a temporary refueling station with hydrogen compressor and tube trailer was built for hydrogen filling of the buses. refuelingEnergies 2018 station, 11, x FOR with PEER hydrogen REVIEW compressor and tube trailer was built for hydrogen filling of6 ofthe 11 buses.

Figure 4. The first ﬁrst hydrogen refuelingrefueling station running in YunfuYunfu inin 2016.2016.

ThisThis station was modest in capacity and stored 165 kg of hydrogen at 450 bar, sufﬁcientsufficient to ﬁllfill 6 busesbuses from empty. But, because the Yunfu route waswas short,short, only 118 km compared to 300 km for a standardstandard route,route, thethe dailydaily hydrogenhydrogen usageusage waswas typicallytypically 1010 kgkg perper busbus soso that 11 buses could easily be handled. Delivery of gaseous hydrogen was from a chemical plant using tube trailers, so the process was expensive. Improvements are needed in future, especially by moving to renewable electricity and on-site electrolysis with grid balancing. By May 2018, three more hydrogen stations had been installed in Foshan to service the 5 routes running with the newly constructed 8.5 m buses. As shown in Figure 5, the rate of increase of Foshan buses and stations is remarkable, with plans for 10 operating stations by 2019, thus overtaking the UK which has ten operating stations at present. The EU is operating almost 100 hydrogen-fuel-cell- battery buses in 2018, so it is clear that Foshan city overtook EU in 2017 and will have ten times more capacity by 2019. From zero buses and stations in 2016, Foshan has planned and delivered a substantial bus and hydrogen station deployment with the objective of reducing both emissions and energy usage. The number of hydrogen stations operating in the EU is around 50 in 2018 but these are currently underutilized because the vehicle companies have not manufactured sufficient vehicles to fill with hydrogen. It is clear that planning both vehicles and fuel provision is coordinated better in China than EU. To date, there are already 20 hydrogen stations operating in China, including standard stations, container stations and temporary stations, Table 4 gives a summary of these stations. Also there are about 30 stations in construction. To the end of 2019, 50 hydrogen stations are planned for service in China.

Figure 5. Deployment of Foshan hydrogen stations (o); also, hydrogen fuel cell battery buses (x) in Foshan compared to EU.

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11

Energies 2019, 12, 54 6 of 10 handled. Delivery of gaseous hydrogen was from a chemical plant using tube trailers, so the process was expensive. ImprovementsFigure are 4. The needed first hydrogen in future, refueling especially station running by in movingYunfu in 201 to6. renewable electricity and on-site electrolysisThis with station grid was balancing.modest in capacity and stored 165 kg of hydrogen at 450 bar, sufficient to fill 6 By Maybuses 2018, from three empty. more But, hydrogen because the Yunfu stations route had was beenshort, only installed 118 km incompared Foshan to to300 servicekm for a the 5 routes standard route, the daily hydrogen usage was typically 10 kg per bus so that 11 buses could easily be running withhandled. the newly Delivery constructed of gaseous hydrogen 8.5 m buses. was from As a chemical shown plant in Figure using tube5, the trailers, rate so of the increase process of Foshan buses and stationswas expensive. is remarkable, Improvements with are plans needed for in 10future, operating especially stations by moving by to 2019,renewable thus electricity overtaking the UK which has tenand operating on-site electrolysis stations with at grid present. balancing. The EU is operating almost 100 hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery By May 2018, three more hydrogen stations had been installed in Foshan to service the 5 routes buses in 2018,running so it is with clear the newly that Foshanconstructed city 8.5 overtookm buses. As EUshown in in 2017 Figure and 5, the will rate have of increase ten timesof Foshan more capacity by 2019. Frombuses zero and buses stations and is remarkable, stations with in 2016, plans for Foshan 10 operating has plannedstations by and2019, deliveredthus overtaking a substantial the bus and hydrogenUK station which has deployment ten operating stations with theat present. objective The EU of is reducingoperating almost both 100 emissions hydrogen-fuel and-cell energy- usage. battery buses in 2018, so it is clear that Foshan city overtook EU in 2017 and will have ten times more The numbercapacity of hydrogen by 2019.stations From zero operating buses and stations in the inEU 2016, is around Foshan has 50 planned in 2018 and but delivered these area currently underutilizedsubstantial because bus the and vehicle hydrogen companies station deployment have with not the manufactured objective of reducing sufﬁcient both emissions vehicles and to ﬁll with hydrogen. Itenergy is clear usage. that The planning number of hydrogen both vehicles stations operating and fuel in provisionthe EU is around is coordinated 50 in 2018 but these better in China are currently underutilized because the vehicle companies have not manufactured sufficient vehicles than EU. to fill with hydrogen. It is clear that planning both vehicles and fuel provision is coordinated better To date,in there China are than already EU. 20 hydrogen stations operating in China, including standard stations, container stationsTo anddate, temporarythere are already stations, 20 hydrogen Table stations4 gives operating a summary in China, including of these standard stations. stations, Also there are container stations and temporary stations, Table 4 gives a summary of these stations. Also there are about 30 stationsabout 30 in stations construction. in construction. To theTo the end end ofof 2019, 2019, 50 50hydrogen hydrogen stations stations are planned are for plannedservice in for service in China. China.

Figure 5. DeploymentFigure 5. Deployment of Foshan of Foshan hydrogen hydrogen stations stations (o); also, also, hydrogen hydrogen fuel cell fuel battery cell buses battery (x) in buses (x) in Foshan compared to EU. Foshan compared to EU.

Table 4. Hydrogen refueling stations in China.

H2 storage Finish Filling No. City Name Category Capacity and Filling Capacity State Year Pressure Pressure 1 Beijing Yongfeng Stationary 2006 165 kg, 45 MPa 200 kg/day 35 MPa In use 2 Shanghai Anting Stationary 2007 165 kg, 45 MPa 200 kg/day 35 MPa In use 3 Zhengzhou Yutong Stationary 2015 165 kg, 45 MPa 250 + 1000 kg/day 35 MPa In use 4 Yunfu Synergy Stationary 2016 165 kg, 45 MPa 300 kg/day 35 MPa In use 5 Dalian Tongji-Sunrise Stationary 2016 90 MPa 20 kg/day 70 MPa In use 6 Foshan Nanhai Ruihui Stationary 2017 234 kg, 45 MPa 350 kg/day 35 MPa In use Shanghai 7 Shanghai Container 2017 165 kg, 45 MPa 500 kg/day 35 MPa In use Edrive 8 Zhongshan Broadocean Container 2017 500 kg/day 35 MPa In use 9 Changshu Toyota Stationary 2017 90 MPa 70 MPa In use 10 Nantong Bing Energy Temporary 2017 150 kg, 45 MPa 60 kg/day 35 MPa In use 11 Shanghai Godpower Temporary 2017 35 MPa In use 12 Jiaxing Aideman Temporary 2017 35 MPa In use 13 Foshan Sanshui Temporary 2017 100 kg/day 35 MPa In use 14 Shiyan Dongfeng Container 2018 500 kg/day 35 MPa In use 15 Chengdu Jinxing Container 2018 234 kg, 45 MPa 500 kg/day 35 MPa In use 16 Shanghai Jiangqiao Container 2018 464 kg, 45 MPa 750 kg/day 35 MPa In use 17 Wuhan Zhongji Stationary 2018 200 kg/day 35 MPa In use 18 Xinbin Muhai Container 2018 450 kg/day 35 MPa In use 19 Zhangjiakou Haiboer Stationary 2018 1350 kg/day 35 MPa In use 20 Yunfu Luoding Stationary 2018 500 kg/day 35 MPa In use Energies 2019, 12, 54 7 of 10

3. Hydrogen Energy Consumption Results The beneﬁt of this huge investment in hydrogen vehicles and infrastructure is that better data on the energy consumption of these improved vehicles can be ﬁtted to the Coulomb theory presented previously [13]. Figure6 shows the results comparing gasoline vehicles with hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery cars (HFCB cars) which have been investigated over the past twenty years and are now being manufactured at low volume, around 2000 per year for sale or lease in areas where hydrogen stations are operational.Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 11

FigureFigure 6. The 6. The energy energy consumption consumption in in MJ/km MJ/km of 3800 of 3800types typesof gasoline of gasoline combustion combustion car in China car against in China againstvehicle vehicle weight weight in kN in showing kN showing the Coulomb the Coulomb friction frictionlaw fit, for law comparison ﬁt, for comparison with 4 HFCB with cars 4 in HFCB pre- cars in pre-production.production.

FromFrom Figure Figure6 it is 6 clear it is that clear HFCB that HFCB cars use cars less use than less half than the half energy the energy required required by gasoline by gasoline vehicles vehicles but the weight is most important, with a linear increase in energy required as car weight but the weight is most important, with a linear increase in energy required as car weight rises. Previous rises. Previous papers [13,14] have studied the reason for this graph, which resembles Coulomb’s papersfriction [13,14 law] have but must studied be more the reasoncomplex for because this graph, a typical which car is resemblesa complex system Coulomb’s with thousands friction law of but mustcomponents be more complex giving many because mechanisms a typical of energy car is dissipation a complex including system withcab heating, thousands tire friction, of components brake givingfriction, many airmechanisms resistance, oflubricant energy viscosity, dissipation electrical including resistance cab heating, losses and tire so friction, forth. The brake theoretical friction, air resistance,postulate lubricant was that viscosity, the total energy electrical consumption resistance of losses the car and was so the forth. sum of The several theoretical loss mechanisms. postulate was that theEach total mechanism energy consumption is a different function of the car of wasweight the but sum when of several many random loss mechanisms. functions are Each added, mechanism the is a differentresultant function is a straight of weightline as shown but when in Figure many 6. randomTests on the functions Microcab are HFCB added, city the car resultant showed that is a this straight line asmodel shown gave in Figurereasonable6. Tests fit to on experimental the Microcab results, HFCB where city cutting car showed the loss that in thiseach model vehicle gave component reasonable ﬁt to experimentalimproved the gradient results, of where the Coulomb cutting theline. loss in each vehicle component improved the gradient of Of course, critics will say that the pure battery electric vehicle (BEV) is better. Such a statement the Coulomb line. is partly true because the line plotted for a number of BEVs falls a few per cent below the HFCB line Ofin course,Figure 6, critics mainly will because say that the the battery pure battery electrode electric catalysts vehicle are slightly (BEV) is better better. than Such thea fuel statement cell is partlycatalysts. true because However, the linewhile plotted BEVs have for abeen number enhanced of BEVs immensely falls a since few per2010, cent the belowlithium the batteries HFCB are line in Figurestill6, mainlystoring 50 because times less the energy battery per electrode kg than gasoline. catalysts Range are slightly is therefore better limited than and the charging fuel cell times catalysts. However,remain while high, BEVs even havewhen beenexpensive enhanced high-power immensely chargers since are 2010,installed. the lithiumChina is batteriesnow leading are on still BEV storing 50 timesmanufacture less energy with per a million kg than such gasoline. cars sold Range in 2018, is therefore around 5% limited of total and China charging car sales. times China remain also high, evenleads when on expensive battery buses high-power with many chargers thousands are sold installed. each year. China However, is now only leading hydrogen on fuel BEV cell manufacture battery with a(HFCB) million buses such can cars compete sold inwith 2018, existing around diesel 5% buses of total at the China present car time. sales. China also leads on battery buses withConsider many thousandsthe BYD battery sold bus each Type year. KD9 However, which has only been hydrogen selling 6000 fuel units cell per battery annum (HFCB) at a price buses near $400,000. This contains a 3 tons lithium battery storing 324 kWh of electrical energy, about one can compete with existing diesel buses at the present time. third of the energy stored in the HFCB buses shown in Figures 1 and 2. This can work on short route of 100 km but cannot compete with the diesel bus or the fuel cell bus. Also, it takes 5 hours to recharge its large battery using expensive 60 kW power supplies. At present the fuel cell bus price is twice that of the battery bus but it goes almost three times further and if the Feichi bus is made in 5000/a numbers, then both buses will have a similar price. The conclusion is that the HFCB bus can compete on range and refilling with the diesel bus, with mass production as the main remaining barrier to sales, providing hydrogen infrastructure is installed by local governments.

Energies 2019, 12, 54 8 of 10

Consider the BYD battery bus Type KD9 which has been selling 6000 units per annum at a price near $400,000. This contains a 3 tons lithium battery storing 324 kWh of electrical energy, about one third of the energy stored in the HFCB buses shown in Figures1 and2. This can work on short route of 100 km but cannot compete with the diesel bus or the fuel cell bus. Also, it takes 5 hours to recharge its large battery using expensive 60 kW power supplies. At present the fuel cell bus price is twice that of the battery bus but it goes almost three times further and if the Feichi bus is made in 5000/a numbers, then both buses will have a similar price. The conclusion is that the HFCB bus can compete on range and reﬁlling with the diesel bus, with mass production as the main remaining barrier to sales, providing hydrogen infrastructure is installed by local governments. Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 11 The objective of this paper is to populate Figure6 with more results based on the several HFCB vehicles madeThe objective and tested of this in paper Foshan. is to The populate new resultsFigure 6 are with shown more asresults crosses based in on Figure the several7 which HFCB extends the weightvehicles axis made to and 180 tested kN and in Foshan. the energy The new consumption results are shown axis to as 15 crosses M J/km in Figure so that 7 which the new extends Chinese fuel cellthe weight hydrogen axis vehiclesto 180 kN can and be the inserted. energy consumption The two right-hand axis to 15 M points J/km so relate that tothe the new 11 Chinese m buses fuel shown in Figurecell hydrogen2. These vehicles were tested can be emptyinserted. on The the two Yunfu right- routehand points at different relate to times the 11 with m buses different shown drivers. in AfterFigure averaging 2. These over were two tested months empty the on hydrogenthe Yunfu route used at was different measured times with to be different 7.0 kg/100 drivers. km After and this averageaveraging was constant, over two monthmonths to the month, hydrogen though used individualwas measured trips to gavebe 7.0 up kg/100 to 8.5 km kg/100 and this km average and as low was constant, month to month, though individual trips gave up to 8.5 kg/100 km and as low as 5.8 as 5.8 kg/100 km, showing the variations due to driver changes and route conditions. These results kg/100 km, showing the variations due to driver changes and route conditions. These results compare compare with 9 kg/100 km for the London buses. with 9 kg/100 km for the London buses.

FigureFigure 7. Plot 7. Plot of Chineseof Chinese hydrogen hydrogen vehiclevehicle energy consumption consumption (x) (x) versus versus vehicle vehicle weight. weight.

TheThe left-hand left-hand x points x points relate relate to to two two 3030 kWkW Ballard fuel fuel cell cell engine engine powered powered vehicles, vehicles, the 8.5 the m 8.5 m bus andbus theand deliverythe delivery truck. truck. These These are are both both hybridhybrid hydrogen hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery-fuel-cell-battery (HFCB) (HFCB) vehic vehiclesles which which satisfysatisfy the Chinesethe Chinese requirement requirement of of 30 30 kW kW fuel fuel cell to to qualify qualify for for the the Government Government subsidy. subsidy. More More results results are requiredare required to obtain to obtain data data on on the the truck truck with with goodsgoods and the the bus bus with with passengers. passengers. The Thetruck truck is capable is capable of carryingof carrying 30 kN 30 ofkN goods of goods which which has has a substantiala substantial effect effect onon hydrogen usage. usage. The The 8.5 8.5 m mbus, bus, which which is the mostis the popular most popular size of size city of bus city running bus running through through the narrowthe narrow streets streets ofurban of urban China, China, can can carry carry almost almost 60 passengers and hydrogen consumption rises sharply for the full bus. 60 passengers and hydrogen consumption rises sharply for the full bus. 500 of the delivery trucks have been built by Synergy partners [15] and these are illustrated in 500Figure of 8 the, This delivery market is trucks likely haveto exceed been the built bus demand by Synergy as web partners-based city [15 deliveries] and these increase are illustrated rapidly in Figureover8, This the next market decade, is likely to exceed the bus demand as web-based city deliveries increase rapidly over the nextThe full decade, line is that for the 3800 petrol types of car in China from 2000 to 2010, shown in more detail in Figure 6. This solid line is F= 0.156(W + 4) with F in MJ/km, W in kN. The broken line is F = 0.065(W + 5). On the left are the four triangles representing production models of HFCB cars ranging from the Microcab which was tested at Birmingham [12–14], to the Hyundai launched in 2014 and the Honda and Toyota launched in 2015/2016.

Energies 2019, 12, 54 9 of 10

The full line is that for the 3800 petrol types of car in China from 2000 to 2010, shown in more detail in Figure6. This solid line is F = 0.156(W + 4) with F in MJ/km, W in kN. The broken line is F = 0.065(W + 5). On the left are the four triangles representing production models of HFCB cars ranging from the Microcab which was tested at Birmingham [12–14], to the Hyundai launched in 2014 and the Honda and Toyota launched in 2015/2016. Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 11

Figure 8.8. HydrogenHydrogen-Fuel-Fuel Cell-batteryCell-battery deliverydelivery truckstrucks builtbuilt inin ChinaChina inin 20172017 toto 20182018 withwith 3030kW kW Ballard engines manufactured in Yunfu [[15].15].

4. Conclusions The largest hydrogen-fuel-cell-batteryhydrogen-fuel-cell-battery hybrid bus project is progressing in Foshan, Guangdong province of Southern Southern China. Three Three hundred hundred 8.5 8.5 m buses have been manufactured by Feichi bus company (Allenbus) in the new Yunfu factory,factory, usingusing 3030 kWkW BallardBallard enginesengines made in the adjoining Synergy production facility. In 2017, this Yunfu project overtook the EU hydrogen bus program, the former leading HFCB demonstration withwith aboutabout 100100 buses.buses. The firstfirst hydrogen station in Foshan was running in 2016, allowing test runs of the buses on the Yunfu route.route. Now fivefive more bus routes are beginning to run as new hydrogen stations are opened across Foshan. The bus range can compete with existing diesel and methane buses, while filling filling time is less than ten minutes per bus. Battery Battery busesbuses cannotcannot achieveachieve thesethese targets.targets. OfOf course,course, the hybrid bus uses a lithium battery to provide braking energy storage and high-powerhigh-power acceleration but the HFCB vehicle energy storage is supplied by the hydrogen fuel cell keepingkeeping the batteries charged up continuously. TheThe FoshanFoshan HFCBHFCB busbus lithiumlithium batterybattery isis typicallytypically tenten timestimes smallersmaller thanthan thethe 33ton ton unit required forfor a typical battery bus like the BYD battery bus KD9. But this this smaller smaller Li battery battery is is sufficient sufficient to provide provide power power for for good good acceleration, acceleration, high high speed speed running running and also and electromagnetic also electromagnetic braking braking storage. Hencestorage. the Hence HFCB the bus HFCB separates bus theseparates power the demand power for demand the bus forfrom the the bus energy from storage the energy requirement. storage Therequirement. battery gives The pulsebattery power gives whilepulse thepower fuel while cell gives the fuel continuous cell gives energy. continuous energy. By 2020, it is anticipated that 20 stations will be installed in Foshan, with more than 1000 buses running to reduce emissions and lower the city energy budget. Although the original Vancouver hydrogen bus program was terminated due to high costs [16], reviews show that the hydrogen bus worldwide is being investigated at an increasing scale [17]. The energy consumption results indicate that these heavy vehicles fit on the Coulomb curve originally defined for hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery cars. More data are needed to populate this plot, indicating how the system losses can be further lowered to enhance performance.

Author Contributions: Investigation, ZX Liu and XQ Yan; Methodology, K. Kendall.

Energies 2019, 12, 54 10 of 10

By 2020, it is anticipated that 20 stations will be installed in Foshan, with more than 1000 buses running to reduce emissions and lower the city energy budget. Although the original Vancouver hydrogen bus program was terminated due to high costs [16], reviews show that the hydrogen bus worldwide is being investigated at an increasing scale [17]. The energy consumption results indicate that these heavy vehicles ﬁt on the Coulomb curve originally deﬁned for hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery cars. More data are needed to populate this plot, indicating how the system losses can be further lowered to enhance performance.

Author Contributions: Investigation, ZX Liu and XQ Yan; Methodology, K. Kendall. Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Fundation of China (NSFC) grant number 51677157. Acknowledgments: Administrative support from Foshan (Yunfu) Industrial Transfer Park and technical support from Feichi Bus are acknowledged. Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.

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