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APPENDIX I

Treaty between the Indians and the English at Casco Bay, 1727

The Submission and Agreement of the Delegates of the Eastern Indians Whereas the several Tribes of the Eastern Indians Viz. The Penobscot, Nerridgawock, St. Johns, Cape Sables, and other Tribes Inhabiting within His Majesties Territories of and , who have been engaged in the present War, from whom we, Saguaarum alias Loron, Arexis, Francois Xavier, & Meganumbee, are Delegated and fully Impowered to enter into Articles of Pacification with His Majesties Governments of the -Bay, New-Hampshire and Nova Scotia, have contrary to the several Treaties they have Solemnly entred into with the said Governments, made an Open Rupture, and have continued some Years in Acts of Hostility against the Subjects of His Majesty King GEORGE within the said Govern• ments. They being now sensible of the Miseries and Troubles they have involved themselves in, and being desirous to be restored to His Majesties Grace and Favour, and to Live in Peace with all His Majesties Subjects of the said Three Governments, and the Province of New York and Colonies of Connecticut and Rhode Island and that all former Acts of Injury be forgotten, have Concluded to make, and we do by these Presents in the Name and Behalf of the said Tribes, make Our Submission unto His most Excellent Majesty GEORGE by the Grace of GOD of Great Britain, France and Ireland, KING Defender of the Faith, &c. in as Full and Ample Manner, as any of our Predecessors have heretofore done.

"Indian Treaties," Collections 0/ the Historical Society (1856), 4:118-84.

186 TREATY BETWEEN THE ABENAKI INDIANS AND THE ENGLISH, 1727 187

And we do hereby promise and engage with the Honourable WILLIAM DUMMER Esq; as he is Lieutenant Governour and Commander in Chief of His Majesties Province of the Massachusetts Bay and with the Governours or Commanders in Chief of the said Province for the Time being, That is to say. We the said Delegates for and in behalf of the several Tribes abovesaid, Do Promise and Engage, that at all times for Ever, from and after the Date of these Presents, We and They will Cease and Forbear all Acts of Hostility, Injuries and Discords towards all the Subjects of the Crown of Great Britain, and not offer the least Hurt, Violence or Molestation to them or any of them in their Persons or Estates, But will hence forward hold and maintain a firm and constant Amity and Friendship with all the English, and will never confederate or combine with any other Nation to their Prejudice. That all the Captives taken in this present War, shall at or before, the Time of the further Ratification of this Treaty be restored without any Ransom or Payment to be made by them or any of them. That His Majesty's Subjects the English shall and may peaceably and quietly enter upon, improve and for ever enjoy all and singular their Rights of Land and former Settlements, Properties and Possessions within the Eastern parts of the said Province of the Massachusetts Bay, together with all Islands, Isletts, Shoars, Beaches and Fishery within the same, without any Molestation or Claims by us or any other Indians, and be in no ways Molested, Interrupted or Disturbed therein. Saving unto the Penobscot, Ner• ridgawock, and other Tribes within His Majesties Province aforesaid, and their Natural Decendants repectively, all their Lands, Liberties and Proper• ties not by them conveyed or Sold to or Possessed by any of the English Subjects as aforesaid, as also the Priviledge of Fishing, Hunting, and Fowl• ing as formerly. That all Trade and Commerce which hereafter may be Allowed betwixt the English and Indians, shall be under such Management and Regulation as the Government of the Massachusetts Province shall Direct. If any Controversie or Difference at any time hereafter happen to arise between any of the English and Indians for any real or supposed Wrong or Injury done on either side, no Private Revenge shall be taken for the same but proper Application shall be made to His Majesties Government upon the place for Remedy or Redress thereof in a due course of Justice. We Submitting Our selves to be Ruled and Governed by His Majesty's Laws, and desiring to have the Benefit of the same. We also the said Delegates, in Behalf of the Tribes of Indians, inhabiting within the French Territories, who have Assisted us in this War, for whom we are fully Impowered to Act in this present Treaty, Do hereby Promise and Engage, that they and every of them shall henceforth Cease and Forbear 188 TREATY BETWEEN THE ABENAKI INDIANS AND THE ENGLISH, 1727 all Acts of Hostility Force and Violence towards all and every the Subjects of His Majesty the King of Great Britain. We do further in Behalf of the Tribe of the Penobscot Indians, promise and engage, that if any of the other Tribes intended to be Included in this Treaty, shall notwithstanding refuse to Confirm and Ratifie this present Treaty entred into on their Behalf and continue or Renew Acts of Hostility against the English, in such case the said Penobscot Tribe shall joine their Young Men with the English in reducing them to Reason. In the next place we the aforenamed Delegates Do promise and engage with the Honourable John Wentworth Esq; as He is Lieut. Governour and Commander in Chief of His Majesties Province of New Hampshire, and with the Governours and Commader in Chief of the said Province for the time being, that we and the Tribes we are deputed from will henceforth cease and forbear all Acts of Hostility, Injuries & Discords towards all the Subjects of His Majesty King GEORGE within the said Province. And we do understand and take it that the said Government of New Hampshire is also included and comprehended in all and every the Articles aforegoing excepting that re• specting the regulating the Trade with us. And further we the aforenamed Delegates do Promise and Engage with the Honourable Lawrance Armstrong Esq; Lieutenant Governour and Com• mander in Chief of His Majesties Province of Nova Scotia or L'Acadie to live in peace with His Majesties Good Subjects and their Dependants in that Government according to the Articles agreed on with Major Paul Mascarene commissioned for that purpose, and further to be Ratified as mentioned in the said Articles. That this present Treaty shall be Accepted Ratified and Confirmed in a Publick and Solemn manner by the Chiefs of the several Eastern Tribes of Indians included therein at Falmouth in Casco Bay some time in the Month of May next. In Testimony whereof we have Signed these Presents, and Affixed Our Seals. Dated at the Council Chamber in in New England, this Fifteenth Day of December, Anno Domini, One Thousand Seven Hun• dred and Twenty-five, Annoque Regni Regis GEORGI], Magnre Britannire, &c. Duodecimo. Sig.

Sauguaarum ~ ali"Lomn TREATY BETWEEN THE ABENAKI INDIANS AND THE ENGLISH. 1727 189

Sig. Arexrus ~ Sig . Francois .a- Xavier Sig.

Alaganumlee ~~in~~~~t

Done in the presence of the Great and General Court or Assembly of the Province of the Massachusetts Bay aforesaid. being first Read distinctly. and Interpreted by Capt. John Gyles, Capt. Samueljordan, and Capt. Joseph Bane, Sworn Interpreters. Attest]. Willard. Secr. APPENDIX II

Treaty with the Delawares, 1778

Articles of agreement and confederation, made and entered into by Andrew and Thomas Lewis, Esquires, Commissioners for, and in Behalf of the of North-America of the one Part, and Capt. , Capt. John Killbuck, Junior, and Capt. Pipe, Deputies and Chief Men of the Delaware Nation of the other Part.

Article I That all offences or acts of hostilities by one, or either of the contracting parties against the other, be mutually forgiven, and buried in the depth of oblivion, never more to be had in remembrance.

Article II That a perpetual peace and friendship shall from henceforth take place, and subsist b~tween the contracting parties aforesaid, through all succeeding generations: and if either of the parties are engaged in a just and necessary war with any other nation or nations, that then each shall assist the other in due proportion to their abilities, till their enemies are brought to reason• able terms of accommodation: and that if either of them shall discover any hostile designs forming against the other, they shall give the earliest notice thereof. that timeous measures may be taken to prevent their ill effect.

Article III And whereas the United States are engaged in a just and necessary war, in defence and support of life, liberty and independence, against the King of

Charles J. Kappler, ed, Indian Treaties, 1778-1883 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904).

190 TREATY WITH THE DELAWARES, 1778 191

England and his adherents, and as said King is yet possessed of several posts and forts on the lakes and other places, the reduction of which is of great importance to the peace and security of the contracting parties, and as the most practicable way for the troops of the United States to some of the posts and forts is by passing through the country of the Delaware nation, the aforesaid deputies, on behalf of themselves and their nation, do hereby stipulate and agree to give a free passage through their country to the troops aforesaid, and the same to conduct by the nearest and best ways to the posts, forts or towns of the enemies of the United States, affording to said troops such supplies of corn, meat, horses, or whatever may be in their power for the accommodation of such troops, on the commanding officer's, &c. paying, or engageing to pay, the full value of whatever they can supply them with. And the said deputies, on the behalf of their nation, engage to join the troops of the United States aforesaid, with such a number of their best and most expert warriors as they can spare, consistent with their own safety, and act in concert with them; and for the better security of the old men, women and children of the aforesaid nation, whilst their warriors are engaged against the common enemy, it is agreed on the part of the United States, that a fort of sufficient strength and capacity be built at the expense of the said States, with such assistance as it may be in the power of the said Delaware Nation to give, in the most convenient place, and advantageous situation, as shall be agreed on by the commanding officer of the troops aforesaid, with the advice and concurrence of the deputies of the aforesaid Delaware Nation, which fort shall be garrisoned by such a number of the troops of the United States, as the commanding officer can spare for the present, and hereafter by such numbers, as the wise men of the United States in council, shall think most conducive to the common good.

Article IV For the better security of the peace and friendship now entered into by the contracting parties, against all infractions of the same by the citizens of either party, to the prejudice of the other, neither party shall proceed to the infliction of punishments on the citizens of the other, otherwise than by securing the offender or offenders by imprisonment, or any other competent means, till a fair and impartial trial can be had by judges or juries of both parties, as near as can be to the laws, customs and usages of the contracting parties and natural justice: The mode of such trials to be hereafter fixed by the wise men of the United States in Congress assembled, with the assistance of such deputies of the Delaware ~ation, as may be appointed to act in concert with them in adjusting this matter to their mutual liking. And it is 192 TREATY WITH THE DELAWARES, 1778 further agreed between the parties aforesaid, that neither shall entertain or give countenance to the enemies of the other, or protect in their respective states, criminal fugitives, servants or slaves, but the same to apprehend, and secure and deliver to the State or States, to which such enemies, criminals, servants or slaves respectively belong.

Article V Whereas the confederation entered into by the Delaware nation and the United States, renders the first dependent on the latter for all the articles of clothing, utensils and implements of war, and it is judged not only reason• able, but indispensably necessary, that the aforesaid Nation be supplied with such articles from time to time, as far as the United States may have it in their power, by a well-regulated trade, under the conduct of an intelligent, candid agent, with an adequate salary, one more influenced by the love of his country, and a constant attention to the duties of his department by promoting the common interest, than the sinister purposes of converting and binding all the duties of his office to his private emolument: Convinced of the necessity of such measures, the Commissioners of the United States, at the earnest solicitation of the deputies aforesaid, have engaged in behalf of the United States, that such a trade shall be afforded said nation, conducted on such principles of mutual interest as the wisdom of the United States in Congress assembled shall think most conducive to adopt for their mutual convenience.

Article VI Whereas the enemies of the United States have endeavored, by every artifice in their power, to possess the Indians in general with an opinion, that it is the design of the States aforesaid, to extirpate the Indians and take posses• sion of their country: to obviate such false suggestion, the United States do engage to guarantee to the aforesaid nation of Delawares, and their heirs, all their territorial rights in the fullest and most ample manner, as it hath been bounded by former treaties, as long as they the said Delaware nation shall abide by, and hold fast the chain of friendship now entered into. And it is further agreed on between the contracting parties should it for the future be found conducive for the mutual interest of both parties to invite any other tribes who have been friends to the interest of the United States, to join the present confederation, and to form a state whereof the Delaware nation shall be the head, and have a representation in Congress: Provided, nothing contained in this article to be considered as conclusive until it meets with the TREATY WITH THE DELAWARES, 1778 193 approbation of Congress. And it is also the intent and meaning of this article, that no protection or countenance shall be afforded to any who are at present our enemies, by which they might escape the punishment they deserve. In witness whereof, the parties have hereunto interchangeably set their hands and seals, at , September seventeenth, anno Domini one thousand seven hundred and seventy-eight. Andrew Lewis, Thomas Lewis, White Eyes, his x mark, The Pipe, his x mark, Johnkill Buck, his x mark, In presence of- Lach'n McIntosh, brigadier-general, commander the Western Department. Daniel Brodhead, colonel Eighth Pennsylvania Regiment, W. Crawford, colonel, John Campbell, John Stephenson, John Gibson, colonel Thirteenth Virginia Regiment, A. Graham, brigade major, Lach. McIntosh, jr., major brigade, Benjamin Mills, Joseph 1. Finley, captain Eighth Pennsylvania Regiment, John Finley, captain Eighth Pennsylvania Regiment. Questions for Consideration

1. What value do Native American speeches, letters, and opinions have for better understanding (a) American Indian history and (b) United States history in general? 2. What problems and limitations might the following kinds of records contain for understanding Native American history? a. documents written about Indians by Europeans b. speeches by Indians c. Indian treaties d. oral traditions 3. How did Europeans and Native Americans differ in their appreciation for and use of spoken and written words, and how did this affect their relations? 4. The invasion of America has been described as creating a "new world" for Native American peoples. What was this new world like? What factors produced it? What do the documents tell us about Indian responses to the invasion and the changes? 5. Why and with what results did Indian people participate in the Euro• pean fur and deerskin trades? What appear to have been the feelings of Indian people toward European traders and the products they brought into Indian villages? 6. Europeans claimed that their religion and "civilization" were inherently superior to those of the Indians. Government agents, teachers, and mission• aries devoted tremendous efforts to convert Indians to their way of thinking, living, and worshiping. How do Indian people appear to have responded to these claims and these efforts? What criticisms did they in turn level against Euro-American society? 7. Land was a basic source of contention between Indians and colonists. How did they differ in their attitudes toward land? Why did competition for land so often lead to war?

194 QUESTIONS FOR CONSIDERATION 195

8. What roles did Indians play in the ""? How did they regard their services and experiences? What were the results of their involvement? 9. Why and with what consequences did Indian people fight in the Ameri• can Revolution? 10. How did the creation of the American Republic affect American Indi• ans? What strategies did Indian peoples adopt in dealing with the United States? 11. What subjects do the Indian voices in this volume not mention? What might be the reasons for their silence? 12. Select one document and find out as much as possible about it and the circumstances in which it was created. What was the historical context of the document: What events led up to it and occurred in its aftermath? Who were the individuals involved and what were their goals? Is there any reason to suspect the authenticity of all or part of the document? Selected Bibliography

PRINTED PRIMARY SOURCES American Indians appear in documents recorded by travelers, traders, sol• diers, missionaries, captives, Indian agents, and the governments of Britain, France, Spain, Holland, the United States, and the various colonies. Relevant manuscripts are scattered throughout Europe, the United States, and . The following are some of the most useful collections of printed documents.

Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 1750- 1754 and Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 1754-1765. Edited by William L. McDowell, Jr. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1958, 1970. Dawnland Encounters: Indians and Europeans in Northern New England. Edited by Colin G. Calloway. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1991. Early American Indian Documents: Treaties and Laws, 1607-1789. 20 vols. projected. General editor Alden T. Vaughan. Frederick, Md.: University Publi• cations of America, 1979-. The Indian Peoples of Eastern America: A Documentary History of the Sexes. Edited by James Axtell. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in , 1610-1791. 71 vols. Edited by Reuben G. Thwaites. Cleveland, 1896-1901. Native American Testimony: A Chronicle of Indian- White Relations from Proph• ecy to the Present, 1492-1992. Edited by Peter Nabokov. New York: Viking, 1991. Native Writings in Massachusett. 2 vols. Edited and translated by Ives Goddard and Kathleen]. Bragdon. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1988. The Papers of Sir William Johnson. 14 vols. Edited by James Sullivan et al. Albany, 1921-65. Spirit of the New England Tribes: Indian History and Folklore, 1620-1984. Edited by William S. Simmons. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1986.

196 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 197

SECONDARY SOURCES Books and articles about American Indians before 1800 have proliferated in the last quarter century. The following represents a portion of this growing literature.

Axtell, James. After Columbus: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. ---. Beyond 1492: Encounters in Colonial North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. --. The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. ---. The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North Amer• ica. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Bourne, Russell. The Red King's Rebellion: Racial Politics in New England, 1675-1678. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Calloway, Colin G. The Western of Vermont, 1600-1800: War, Migra• tion, and the Survival of an Indian People. Nonnan: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990. Cronon, William. Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the &ology ofNew England. New York: Hill and Wang, 1983. Dowd, Gregory Evans. A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Strug• gle for Unity, 1745-1815. : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. Graymont, Barbara. The in the . Syracuse: Syra• cuse University Press, 1972. Hatley, Tom. The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Jennings, Francis. The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies. New York: W. W. Norton, 1984. ---. Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America. New York: W. W. Norton, 1988. ---. The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Con• quest. New York: W. W. Norton, 1976. ---, William N. Fenton, and Mary A. Druke, eds. The History and Cul• ture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1985. Martin, Calvin. Keepers of the Game: Indian-Animal Relationships and the . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. 198 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Merrell, James H. The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Murray, David. Forked Tongues: SPeech, Writing, and Representation in North American Indian Texts. Bloomington: University Press, 1991. Richter, Daniel K. The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization. Chapel Hill: University Jf North Carolina Press, 1992. Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas's People: The Indians of Virginia through Four Centuries. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990. ---. The Powhatan Indians of Virginia. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. Salisbury, Neal. Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500-1643. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. Szasz, Margaret Connell. Indian Education in the American Colonies, 1607- 1783. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988. Tanner, Helen H., ed. Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. Thornton, Russell. American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population His• tory since 1492. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. Trigger, Bruce G., ed. Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15, Northeast. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. Trigger, Bruce G. Natives and Newcomers: Canada's "Heroic Age" Reconsidered. Kingston and : McGill-Queens University Press, 1985. Washburn, Wilcomb E., ed. Handbook ofNorth American Indians. Vol. 4, History of Indian- White Relations. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1988. White, Richard. The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ---. The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983. Wood, Peter, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley, eds. Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 199

(Continued from p. ii) "Agreement between Muttaak and his Councillors, 1681," "Petition from the Native Proprie• tors of Gay Head, 1749," and "The Will of Naomi Omaush, 1749." Native Writings in Massa• chusetts, edited by Ives Goddard and Kathleen]. Bragdon. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1988. Reprinted by permission of the translator. "The Iroquois Reject Wheelock's 'Benevolence,' 1772," and "Three Letters from One Nar• ragansett Family, 1767, 1769, and 1771." The Letters of Eleazar Wheelock's Indians, edited by James Dow McCallum. Hanover, N.H.: Dartmouth College Publications, 1932. Reprinted with permission. "The Chickasaw's Appeal for Help, 1756." Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 1754-1765, edited by William L. McDowell, Jr. Columbia: Univer• sity of South Carolina Press, 1970. Reprinted with permission. "The Creation of the World." The journal of Major john Norton, 1816, edited by Carl F. Klinck and James]. Talman. Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1970, pp. 88-91. Reprinted by permission of the Champlain Society. "Speech of Powhatan to Captain ." Reprinted from The ComPlete Works ofjohn Smith, edited by Philip Barbour. Published for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, Virginia. Copyright © 1986 by the University of North Carolina Press.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1. Map of Indian peoples adapted from James Axtell, Beyond 1492: Encounters in Colonial America, copyright 1992. Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press. Figures 2, 11, 12. Maps of European invasions, Colonial and Indian boundaries, and the French and Indian Wars adapted from Carl Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian, copyright 1985. Figure 3. Indian Orator. Courtesy of the Rare Books and Manuscriptision, the New York Public Library; Astor, Lennox, and Tilden Foundations. Figure 4. Hiawatha Wampum Belt. Courtesy of the Onondaga Nation and the New York State Museum. Figure 5. Map of the Iroquois homeland adapted from Barbara Graymont, The Iroquois, copyright 1988. Reprinted by permission of the artist, Gary Tonge. Figure 6. Detail from Willem Verelst's painting Oglethorpe presenting Tomochichi and the Indians to the Lords Trustees of the Colony of Georgia. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution National Anthropological Archives, Bureau of American Ethnology Collection. Figure 7. Portrait of the Reverend Samson Occam. Courtesy of the Bowdoin College Museum of Art. Figure 8. Founding of Dartmouth College. Wood engraving by Samuel E. Brown, 1839. Courtesy of Dartmouth College. Figure 9. Portrait of EtoU' Oh Koam or Nicholas. Courtesy of the National Archives of Canada/C92421. Figure 10. Portrait of LapoU'insa, by Gustavus Hesselius. Courtesy of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Figure 13. Iroquois pictograms. Courtesy of the Archives Nationales, Paris; CllA. Figure 14. English copy of a Chickasaw Map, 1723. Courtesy of the British Public Record Office. French copy of a Chickasaw Map, 1737. Courtesy of the Archives Nationales, Paris; Cl3A122. Figure 15. Detail from Benjamin West's painting, The Death of General Wolfe. Courtesy of the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa. Figure 16. Outacite, Chief of the Cherokees, 1762. Engraving from an unknown source. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution National Anthropological Archives, Bureau of Ameri• can Ethnology Collection. Figure 17. joseph Brant by Joshua Reynolds, 1776. Courtesy of the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa. Index

Abenaki Indians, 2 Apess, William, 20 absence of land owned by, 185 Appalachian mountains, as 1763 as French allies, 130 Proclamation boundary, 110 Casco Bay treaty text, 186-89 Appapaye (Choctaw chief), 144 defy English, 126-28 Arrows, in Creek myth, 31 encounter with Verrazzano, 21 Ashpo, Robert, petition by, 177, 178 migration of, 7 Assaragoa, Brother, 103, 104 Phineas Stevens sent to, 126-27 Atiwaneto (Abenaki chief), speech to refuse to cede more lands, 130 Stevens, 127-30 treaty with, 91 Awashoosse,83 warnings to English by , 8 Act of Submission, Narragansett, 81-83 Barnstable County, Mashpees in, 105, Adoption, Indian custom of, 75 106 Affluent Americans, Indians as original, 5 Bible, Christian Indian description of, Africans, Indian intermarriage with, 44 48-49 Alabamas, as third oldest in Creek myth, Bird, in Creek myth, 29-30 29 Blue Jacket, leader, 181 Alcohol. See also Rum Boston, treaty negotiations in, 93-94 as destabilizing factor in culture, 79 Boundaries, of 1763,112 (map) effects on Indians of, 5 Brant, Joseph (Thayendanegea) Indian complaints against, 79 address to Lord Germain, 150-52 reliance on, 54 as Iroquois leader, 179 Alger, Andrew and Arthur, deed to, 85-86 as man of two worlds, 179 American expansion, 174 career, 150 American militia, 146-47 expresses loyalty to Britain, 152 American Revolution message to Gov. Haldimand from, 166, as devastating experience for Indians, 167-69 146 on contrasting civilizations, 179-80 as disaster for Delawares, 160 portrait of, 151 generational splits among Indians in, travels, 179 147 Brebeu~Jean de, 43 impact on Indians of, 157-60 British Indians and the, 146-49 aggressive behavior of at Jamestown, 38 Animal skins, 28, 38 commissioners at Oswego Council, 158 Apalachee Indians, Christian, 6 Indian support for in American Apalachicola Indians, in Creek history, 31 Revolution, 146, 153

200 INDEX 201

Brown, Samuel E., engraving by, 67 as British allies, 130-32, 162 Burnet, William, 88, 90 as second oldest tribe in Creek myth, 29 Busk, Creek annual, 29 control over , 162 deerskin maps of, 130, 131 hardships of war told by, 129-32 Canada, Indian aid to British in conquest message of chiefs to Congress, 163, of, 167-68 164-66 Canasatego Natchez flee to, 90 advice to colonists by, 100, 101-04 post·Revolution as new era for, 163 at Treaty of Lancaster, 24, 100, 101-04 poverty of, 129-32 gift of furs from, 88 Revolution effects on, 162-63 on Delawares, 99 speech of headmen to S.C. governor, response to Delawares, 95, 98-99 129-32 reviews history of contact, 100 Chickasaw Nation, map of, 130 Canonicus, signs Act of Submission, 82 Chiefs, lose status, 6 Captain Pipe (Hopocan), 190, 193 Choctaw Indians, 2 at Fort Pitt treaty council, 160 allies with French, 139 expresses support for French, 160 French gifts to, 140 joins British, 155 meet John Stuart, 140 Captive, Indian, as, 71-77 pleas and flight of, 139-40 Cartier, Jacques, 21 Christian Indians, 43-44 Casco Bay, Maine, 91, 92-94 Christianity, 6 Casco Bay, Treaty of, 92-94, 186-89 first Indian converted to, 43 Catawba Indians Indian rejection of, 44 Cayuga depictions of, 124, 125-26 Mohegan conversion to, 54 existence threatened, 106 Christians, 6, 45 peaceable nature of, 124 Clark, Gen. George Rogers, 165 support Americans, 147 Client chiefs, 6-7 Catholics, conversion competition of, 45 Cod, Micmac comments on French desires Caughnawaga, 27, 127 for, 51 Cayuga Indians, 24 Colden, Cadwallader, 11, 12 Champlain, Samuel de, 120, 129 Colleges Charles I (king of England), Narragansett founding of Indian, 62. See also submission to, 80, 81 Dartmouth College Cheda Indian students at colonial, 10 asks why others not at war, 123 Colonial America, Indians in, 8-11 on French treachery, 124 Colonial armies, behavior toward Indians, 7 on Iroquois losses, 122 Colonial expansion, Abenaki resistance to, promises Iroquois support for British, 127, 130 120, 122-24 Colonial lifestyle, Indians and, 10 Chekilli (Creek head chief), 27-32 Colonial wars, Indian entanglements in, Cherokee Indians, 2 115 and , 7 Conflict resolution, between Catawbas and Gachadow on, 125-26 British, 106-07 headmen on writing, 14 Connecticut State Assembly, Mohegan lose Southern lands, 17l petition to, 177, 178 speech, 12 Conversions, religious, 6 tum down request for land, 153, 154-55 difficulty of, 43, 44 westward movement of, 8 Indians of other Indians, 47-49 young men lead war for, 153 of Narragansetts, 62 Cherokee Nation, divides in American of Occom, 57 Revolution, 147 of Oneidas, 68 Cherry Valley "massacre," 147 Onondaga council on, 69 70 Chickasaw Indians, 2 Cooke, Robert, witness to deed, 86 American threats to, 162 Coosa, in Creek myth. 30 202 INDEX

Com, as rent paid by Indians, 90 story of first meeting with Dutch, 34, Cornstalk (Shawnee leader), 146 35-38 Com Tassel (Old Tassel), 154-55, 170 treaty of 1778, 190-93 Covenant Chain, renewing of, 88 U.S. military alliance with, 155 Cowetas, in Creek history, 31 DePeyster, Col. Arent Schuyler, speech of Cranes, in Creek history, 30 Captain Pipe to, 160, 161-62 Crawford, Col. William, caphrre and De Soto, Hernando, 20, 22 of, 155 Dictionary, Eliot's Indian, 45 Creation myth, 21-27, 28 Diplomacy, 78 Creek Confederacy, 28-32 Diseases, 2, 4 Creek Indians, 2 Dongan, Gov. Thomas, buys Martha's and Shawnees, 7 Vineyard land, 86 come to their homeland, 27-28 Dragging Canoe, continues fight in matrilineal inheritance of, 171 Revolution, 153 McGillivray and foreign policy of, 171 Dummer, Lt. Gov. William, 187 Creek War, 185 du Pratz, Antoine Simon Le Page, 90, 91 Cresap, Michael, 15 Dutch Cruzat, Spanish Gov., 170 Canasatego on, 101-02 Cultural conflict, 43-77 first encounter with Indians by, 34, Cultural myopia, 21 35-38 Cultural relativism, 44 war against Indians, 22

Dartmouth College attitudes of Indian students sent to, 66 Eagle, in Creek myth, 29-30 first graduate of, 62 Eastern Woodlands, Indians of, 3 (map) founding of, 62, 67, (illus.) Ecosystem, Indian demands on the, 5 Debts, European use of trade, 78 Ehennekouit, John, 92-93 Declaration of Independence, implications Eliot, John about Indians in, 148 account of Indian dialogues by, 46-49 Deeds dictionary, 45 dubious nature of, 83 mission work by, 45 Indian witnesses to signing of, 87 "praying towns" of, 45-46 motives behind use of, 83 Epidemics, death of in, 39. See reserving rights in, 83 als 0 Diseases to land in Maine, 83-86 Ethnohistorians, on oral traditions, 17 Deer, winter kill of, 160 Etow Oh Koam, portrait of, 89 Deganawidah, and league of peace, 24 European capitals, Indian visitors to, 10 Dekanissore (Decanesora), on trade goods, European invasions 79 and changes in Indian society, 1-2 Delancey, James, 14 of Indian North America, 9 (map) Delaware Indians, 2, 10, 95 Europeans accuse Europeans of using warfare to as agents of change, 2 distract Indians, 133-34 attitudes toward America by, 20 American Revolution as disaster for, 160 cultural myopia of, 21 and , 155 entering Indian world, 10 complain of "Walking Purchase," 97-98 Indian allies, 10 Council of Coochocking, 156 Indian objections to treaty writing by, deed to Penn by, 95 14-15 germ warfare used against, 4 Indians at time of arrival of, 2 letter to George Morgan, 156 perceptions of Native Americans by, 21 missionary translations for, 70, 71 views of Indian life, 5 movement west of, 7-8 Expansion murder of pacifist, 147 Indian review of white, 181-83 position of in American Revolution, 155 resistance to European and American, 8 INDEX 203

Fallen Timbers, Battle of, 184 Gifts Farmers, Indians as, 5 as part of Indian diplomacy, 88, 134 Film, Indian images in Hollywood, 12 British attitudes toward, 140 Fire, in Creek creation myth, 29 French to Choctaws, 140 Firearms, trade in, 79. See also Guns Minavavana asks English for, 136-37 Five Nations, 104, 117-18, 177 Glaize general council, 183 Food, 50-52, 50, 76 Gnadenhutten, 147, 155, 160 Forgeries, deed, 83 God, Catawba chief on, 109 Fort Finney, Shawnee meeting at, 174 Good, Peter (Oneida chief), 12 Fort McIntosh, treaty of, 174 Gorton, Samuel, as Narragansett friend, 82 Fort Niagara, 159 Great Awakening, 54, 62 Fort Number Four Green Com festival. See Busk, Creek Fort Patrick Henry, treaty talks at, 153 annual Fort Pitt, 155, 156, 160 Greenville, treaty of, 184 Fort Stanwix Guale Indians, missionaries and, 6 battle of Oriskany near, 157, 159 Guardians, 105-06 treaty of, 110, 174 Guardian system, Indian land, 104-06 Four Guns, on white people's writing, 17 Guns French Chickasaw headmen on, 131 Abenakis as allies of, 128 Iroquois thank British for, 124 Catawba chief on war against, 109 Mingo Emmitta on, 142 Cheda on deceit and treachery of, 124 Pontiac on, 138 Chickasaws view as enemy, 129-32 defeat of in North America, 134 defeat of in 1763, 116 Haldimand, Gov. Frederick, message of first sighting of ship by natives, 33-34 Joseph Brant to, 166, 167-69 Micmac questions on civilization of, Hanover, N.H., 62 49-52 Harley, Brian, on Indians as "victims of Minavavana on defeat of, 136 maps," 130 French and Indian War, 116, 117 (map), Hatchet, burial at Cadarackui of, 120 132 Heckewelder, John, 10 Frontenac, Gov., 20 records Captain Pipe's speech, 160 Furs, 51, 88 records first Dutch-Indian encounter, 34, 35-38 Henry, Alexander, 134, 136-37 Gachadow Herbs, in Creek creation myth, 29 depicts Catawbas, 124, 125-26 Hesselius, Gustavus, portrait of Lapowinsa, on Europeans taking land, 126 96 speech at treaty of Lancaster, 124-26 Hiawatha, league of peace and, 24 Gambling casinos, Pequot-owned, 185 Hiawatha wampum belt, 24 (illus.) Garangula (Otreouti), 118 History on reason Indians went to war, 119-20 Indian roles in, 8 ridicules governor, 118 sources of Indian, 11-18 speech to Gov. La Barre, 118-20 views of native oral tradition in, 17 Gay Head Indians, 86, 87 Hood, Robin (Rawmegin), 84, 85 George II (king of England), Indian Horses, Catawbas on theft of, 108 recognition disclaimed of, 93 Hossueit, Zachary, named in Indian will, 53 George III (king of England), meaning of Hostilities, beginning of, 21 replacing to Indians, 146 Houlden, Randall, as friend of Georgia, 164, 173 Narragansetts, 82 Germain, Lord, address of Joseph Brant to, Houses, Micmac critique of European, 50 150-52 Indians, smallpox and, 2 German Flats council, Jemison observes Hunters, Indians as, 5 return from, 157 Hunting, 155, 178 204 INDEX

Huron Indians, as trade rivals of Iroquois, Jefferson, Thomas 7 advocates extending civilization to Hymns, teaching of to Indians, 59 Indians, 170 on Logan, 15 Illepotapo (medal chief), 142-43 urges war of extermination against Indian Charity School, Moor's, 62 Shawnees, 147 Indian chief, message of southeastern, 20 Jemison, Mary Indian cities, Cahokia, 2 as Indian captive, 72, 73-77 Indian civilization, Joseph Brant on, career of, 71-72, 157 179-80 narrative of life of, 73-77 Indian orators, 11, 12, 13 (illus.) views on American Revolution, 157-60 Indian Removal Act, results of, 185 Jeremy, Josiah, on first sighting of Indians European ships, 33-34 and Europeans, 21-22 Johnson, Sir William, 14 European views of, 16 as Indian friend, 168 population in 1990 of, 185 Joseph Brant as protege of, 150, 152 roles in history, 8 on Fort Stanwix treaty, 110 stories of before European arrival, 20-21 Josselyn, John, on Indian speakers, 12 survival strategies of, 8 unity among, 185 Kasihtas, 28, 29, 30, 31 war of resistance by, 22 Kemp, Abigail, as Christian woman, 44 Indian sources, 11 Keniteta, makes peace with Virginians, 148 Indian state, American suggestions for Kentucky militia, bums Shawnee villages, creating, 155 147 Indian Trade and Non-Intercourse Act, 78 Kidnapping, Catawba reply as to joke, 108 Intermarriage, Indian-white, 44 Killbuck, Capt. John, 190, 193 Interpreters, among Indian languages, 11 on colonist encroachments over Stanwix Intoxication, of natives on Dutch rum, line, 110-13 36-37. See also Alcohol; Rum speech to governors of Penn. and Va., Iroquois Confederacy 110-13 neutrality of, 116 King George's War, 116 splits in by American Revolution, 147, King Hagler (Catawba chief), 106, 107-09 148 King Philip's War, 8, 22, 62 vs. Huron Confederacy, 7 King William's War, ll6 Iroquois Indians, 2 Kiowa, 12 assertion of dominance of, 95 Kirkland, Samuel, 12, 148 attacked by Champlain, 120 Knox, Henry, advocates extending continuing conflicts of. 185 civilization to Indians, 170 creation story, 21-27 drawings by war party, 121 (illus.) La Barre, Joseph Antoine Lefebre de homeland, 27 (map) expedition against Iroquois, ll8 losses of, 122 Garangula speech to, 118-20 loyalty of, 120 governor of New France, ll8 migration west, 8 recalled, 118 neutrality, 14, 122 Lancaster, Treaty of, 99-100 population declines of, 122 Canasatego speech on, 101-04 resent carrying heavy war burden, 120 results of, 100 response to Delaware complaints against speech of Gachadow at, 124, 125-26 the "Walking Purchase," 98-99 Land speech, 12 American selling off of Indian, 170 towns destroyed during American cessions to Carolina and Georgia, 172 Revolution, 147 Cherokees refuse to give up to N.C., 153, 154-55 Jamestown, Virginia, 38 conflicts over, 78 Jane of Scarborough, deed from, 85-86 Congress Act on, 78 INDEX 205

conveyancing disputed by Mashpees, Mashpee Indians, 105-06, 185 106 Massachusetts dispossessing Indians of, 15 Casco Bay treaty terms of, 186 Eastern Woodland claims to, 5 Christian Indian communities in, 104 encroachments on Indian, 173 governor sends Stevens as emissary to European changes in, 5-6 Abenakis, 126 European devices to obtain, 78 Massachusetts General Court, petition of Fort Stanwix cessions of, 174 Mashpees to, 105-06 given to Dutch by Indians, 38 Mayhew, Thomas, Jr., 45 McGillivray protests loss of Indian land, McClure, David, translations for, 70 172 McGillivray, Alexander, 171, 172-74 Mohawk concerns over lost, 152 Medal chiefs, 140 payment to Indians for, 173 Mercenaries, English view of Indians as, proposal to maintain Indian, 182-83 134 sale of Indian in treaty of Fort Stanwix, Merrell, James, and "New World," 2 111 , message, 20 settlers and Indian, 5 Metaphors and symbolism, Indian, Land ownership, Indian views of, 86, 87 11-12 Land tenure, concepts of, 83 Metis, 44 Land transfers, Oconastota on, 5 Miami Rapids, general council at, 181 Language, Jemison on speaking of English, Miantonomi, 79-80 75 Michilimackinac, Chippewa capture fort at, Language education, Indian, 16 134 Lankford, George E., 1 Micmacs, 49-52 Lapowinsa, portrait of, 96 Migounambe, 94 Lawson, John, on accuracy of Indian maps, Minavavana (Grand Sauteur), 134 130 asks for gifts, 136-37 League of the Five Nations, 24 meets Alexander Henry, 134 League of the Six Nations, 24 on capture of Canada, 136 LeClerq, Chrestien, dictionary by, 49 speech to Henry, 136-37 Lewis, Thomas and Andrew, 190, 193 Mingo Emmitta (Choctaw chief), 140, Lion, in Creek myth, 30 141-42 Literacy, power recognized, 105 Mingoes, war and, 15 Little Turtle, as confederacy leader, 181 Mingo Houma (Chickasaw chief), 162, 163, Logan (Mingo chief), 15 164-66 Lord Dumore's War, 15 Minutemen, Indian enlistment as, 147 Lumbees, seek tribal recognition, 185 Missionaries attitude toward Indians of, 6 Madison, James, advocates extending English, 45-46 civilization to Indians, 170 Indians as, 58-71 Mahican Indians salary paid to, 61 chief, 89 (illus.) training manual for, 46 first encounter with whites, 41 treatment of Indians, 6 lose lands at Stockbridge, 148 Mississippi River, Chickasaw control of, origins and early migrations of, 40-41 162 reply to William Burnet, 88, 90 Mittark, Joseph, 43, 86, 87 Maine, land deeds in, 83-86 Mixan, signer of Act of Succession, 82 Manhattan Island, 34, 35-38 Mobile, Alabama, Stuart·Choctaw Maps, 3, 9, 27, 112, 117 conference at, 140, 141-44 accuracy of Indian, 130 Mohawk Indians, 14, 24, 150 Chickasaw deerskin, 130, 131 (illus.) Mohegan Indians Martha's Vineyard, 43, 86 lifestyle recounted, 55-61 Maryland, 6, 101-04 loss of Connecticut lands, 54 Mashantucket Pequot, gambling casinos petition to Connecticut State Assembly, owned by, 185 177, 178 206 INDEX

Mohegan Indians (cont.) Onas, "Brother," 102, 104 speaking to Connecticut Assembly Oneida Indians, 24 (1789), 1 declare neutrality, 148 war with Narragansetts, 80 express concern about American Momaday, M. Scott, 12 Revolution, 149 Montagnais, on first seeing European lose lands, 171 ships, 33-34 reply of council to Wheelock, 66-69 Montauk Indians, Miantonomi warning to, speech to Gov. Trumbull, 149-50 80 Wheelock sends emissary to, 66 Moravian ambassador, Delaware response O'Neill, Gov. Arturo, letter of McGillivray to, 133-34 to, 171, 172-74 Moravians, Delawares as converted, 147, Onondaga Council House, 168 160 Onondaga Indians, 24 Morgan, George (Taimenend), 155 comments by , 6 attitude toward Indians, 7 Sadekanaktie message, 20 Delaware letter to, 156 speech of council, 69-70 denounces U.S.-Delaware treaty, 155 Oral traditions, European ships in Indian, Moterelo mountain, in Creek myth, 31 32 Oriskany, battle of, 157, 159 Names, Indians with Spanish, English, Oswego Council, 157, 158 French, 44 Otreouti (Garangula), 118-20 Nanuddemance, deed to Parker, 83 Ouma, Chief, 143-44 Narragansett Indians Outacite, portrait of, 139 Act of Submission, 81-83 Overkill Cherokees, in American and the English, 79, 80 Revolution, 153 conversion of, 62 devastated, 62 Pacifists, murder of Indian, 147 war with , 80 Panaouamskeyen. See Sauguaarum, Loron Natchez Indians, 90-92 Parker, John, deed from Nanuddemance, Neolin (Delaware prophet), preachings of, 83,84-85 137 Passamaquoddies, successful lawsuits by, Neutrality, 155, 157-58 185 New York, 102, 103 Payamataha (Chickasaw chief), 162, 163, Nicholson, Gov. Francis, deerskin map for, 164-66 130, (illus.) Peace of Paris, 148, 166, 172 North Carolina, 109, 153, 154-55 Peace pipe, Indian speakers and, 14 Norton, John, 12, 22 Pendleton, Bryan, witness to deed, 86 Penn, Thomas, and "Walking Purchase," Occom, Rev. Samson 95, 97 career, 54 Penn, William, deed from Delaware Indians learns to read, 57 to, 95 living standard of, 60 Penobscot Indians, 147, 185 narrative of life of, 55-61 Pensacola, treaty meeting at, 172, 173 portrait of, 56 Pepee,Joseph, 70, 71 seeks teaching jobs, 57-58 Pequot Indians, 20, 79-80 Oconastota (Cherokee chief), 5 , 22 Oglethorpe, Gov. James, 32 (illus.) Pessicus, Narragansett signer of Act of Submission, 82 as boundary in Fort Stanwix treaty, 110, Peters, Richard, at treaty of Lancaster, 100 112 (map) Pilgrims, attitude toward smallpox as Indian-white border, 181 epidemic by, 2-4 as permanent border, 184 Pipe, Captain. See Captain Pipe regarded by Indians as border, 174 Pipe, Chippewa gift of, 137 Omaush, Naomai, will of, 52-54 Piumbukhow, dialogue by, 46-49 INDEX 201

Plains Indians, resistance of, 8 Self-rule, native, 104 Politics, Indian, 6 Seneca Indians, 24, 157-60 Pontiac, 137, 138 Seven Years War, 116 Pontiac's War, 116, 137 Sewing, by Indian women, 76 Populations, Indian, 2 Shawnee Indians, 2, 7 Post, Christian Frederick, 43, 132, 133-34 Jefferson orders extermination of, 147 Poverty, Indian petitions for relief from, migration of, 7 177, 178 refuse to attend Fort McIntosh treaty, Powhatan, Chief, 38, 39-40 174 Powhatan Indians, 38 war and, 15 "Praying towns," 45-46 Shingas (Delaware chief), 132 Prophet (Shawnee), 184 Ships, first European in Native oral Protestants, competition of missionary, 45 traditions, 32, 33-34 Pueblo Indians, revolt of, 115 Simon, Daniel, 62, 65 Puritans, takeover of Indian lands by, 5 Simon, Sarah, 62, 63, 64 Six Nations, promise of neutrality by, 100 Quaquaquid, Henry, petition to Connecticut Skiagunsta, on living apart from State Assembly, 177, 178 Europeans, 79 Queen Anne's War, 116 Smallpox, 2, 4 Quinney, Josiah, speech on Mahican origins Smibert, Nathaniel, portrait of the Rev. by, 39-41 Samson Occom, 56 Smith, Capt. John, 38 Raids, Indian during American Revolution, Snow, noted in Jemison account, 160 147 Sources, Indian, 11 Refugee camps, 7 South Carolina, speech of Chickasaw to Right of conquest, American claim for, 170 governor of, 131-32 Ritual exchanges, Indian use of, 79 Southern Indians, westward movement of, River Indians, 88 8 Romney, George, portrait of Joseph Brant, Spanish 150, 151 (illus.) and Chickasaws after American Royal Proclamation of 1763, 137 Revolution, 163, 164, 166 Rum. See also Alcohol Creek relations with, 171, 172 Catawba complaints about, 108 Indian resistance to, 115 Chief Ouma on evils of, 144 Speaking, Indian public, 12 first drinking of by Indians, 36-37 Speculators, preying on Indian lands, 170 Mahican demand to ban, 88, 90 Speeches, Indian, 11 Mingo Emmitta complains against, 142 Speech-making, Iroquois, 12 Spoken words, compared to written Sadekanaktie, message to Frontenac, 20 treaties, 14 Sagourrab, Laurance. See Sauguaarum, Stanwix line, encroachments on, 110, 112 Loron (map) St. Clair, Gen. Arthur, 181 State legislatures, Indian petitions to, 177 St. George, store at fort, 94 Statesmen, Indian, 10 Sasquahannah () Indians, Stevens, Phineas, 126-27 102,103 Stockbridge, Mass. Sauguaarum, Loron (Panaouamskeyen), ceases as Indian town, 148 92-94 Indians enlist as minutemen at, 147 Savages, Indians regarded as, 184 Mahicans at, 40-41 Scalping, as custom, 74 Stuart, John, 5, 140 Schenectedy, N.Y., Oneidas' refuge, 148 Students, writing styles of, 16-17 Schools, Indian Stung Serpent (Natchez chief), 90, 91 Daniel Simon on studies in, 65 Submission, Indian to colonial powers, Occom seeks work at, 57-58 79-80 procedures at, 58-59 Sullivan, Gen. John, 157, 159 208 INDEX

Taimenend. See Morgan, George Van der Donck, Adriaen, on impact of Tamaqua (Delaware chief), 132 smallpox, 2 Tawanquatuck, describes diseases, 4 Vanishing Americans, Indians as, 184-85 Tawiskaron, in creation myth, 24, 25 Verelst, John, portrait of Etow Oh Koam, Tecumseh, 184 89 Teedyuscung (Delaware chief), 95 Verelst, William, painting by, 32 Teharonghyawago, in creation myth, 24, 25 Verrazzano, Giovanni da, 21 Thanksgiving, 8 "Virginians," as derogatory term by Thomas, Gov. George, at Treaty of Cherokees, 153 Lancaster, 99 Visions, for warriors, 137 Timberlake, Henry, on Cherokee speech, 12 Tomanick, signs Act of Submission, 83 "Walking Purchase," 95 Tomochichi, 32 (illus.) Delaware complaints about, 97-98 Toole, Matthew, meeting with Catawbas, Lapowinsa, signer of, 96 (illus.) 107 response to complaints about, 98-99 Tools, first Indian encounters with Dutch, Indians, 2, 4 37 War Toonahowi, 32 (illus.) as way of life, 7 Trade images of Indians at, 7 as key ingredient for alliances, 79 Indians in international, 7 European competition for, 79 Indian strategies for, 116 European tradition for, 5 intertribal, 124-26 Indian tradition of, 4-5 War parties, 121 (illus.) Trade and Non-Intercourse Act, 78 Warner, John, friend of Narragansetts, 82 Traders Wars of Empire, Indians in, 115-45 and marriage to Indian women, 171 Washington, George, 147 Chief Ouma on need to regulate, 144 Wayne, Gen_ Anthony, 184 IIIepotapo on need to regulate, 143 Weiser, Conrad, 95, 97, 99 "Trail of Tears," 8 West, Benjamin, art by, 13 (illus.), 135 Treaties_ See also by specific name (illus.) absence of verbatim, 15 Wheelock, Eleazar compared to spoken words, 14 founder of Dartmouth, 62 complications in, 91-92 noted in Occom narrative, 56, 58 inaccuracies of records of, 15 sent to Oneida council, 66 Indian objections to, 14 Simon letter to, 62, 64, 65 recorded speeches, 14 teaches Oecom to read, 57 struggles against fraudulent, 78 Thayendanega educated by, 150 United States with Indians, 126 Wheelock, Ralph, sent to Oneida council, Treaty 66 councils, 14 White Eyes, Captain, 146, 155, 156, 190, Delaware-American, 190-93 193 negotiations, 92-93 White skin, Native view of Dutch, 36 with British at Oswego Council, 158 Wickes, John, 82 Tree of Peace, Garangula on, 119, 120 Wigwams, Indian view of superiority of, 50 Tribes, modem, 185 Wills, Indian, 52-54 Trumbull, Gov. John, Oneida speech to, Wind clan, Creek, 171 148,149-50 Wolfe, Gen. James, 134, 135 (illus.) Tuscarora, 24 Women, Indian, 71-77 Tuskau Pautapau (Chickasaw chief), 162, Words, meaning of Indian, 11 163-66 Writing, 14, 17

United Indian Nations, speech at Council, Xavier, Fram;ois, 94 175 Uphannu (Jane of Scarborough), 84, 85 Yuchi legend, 1