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The Relationship Between Involvement in Unstructured Unsupervised Leisure and Substance Use in a Cohort of Adolescent Male Skateboarders

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INVOLVEMENT IN UNSTRUCTURED UNSUPERVISED LEISURE AND SUBSTANCE USE IN A COHORT OF ADOLESCENT MALE SKATEBOARDERS A dissertation submitted to the Kent State University College and Graduate School of Education, Health, and Human Services in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Judith A. Johns December 2011 © Copyright, 2011 by Judith A. Johns All Rights Reserved ii A dissertation written by Judith A. Johns B.S., Slippery Rock University, 1990 M.Ed., University of Georgia, 1994 Ph.D., Kent State University, 2011 Approved by _________________________, Co-director, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Cynthia W. Symons _________________________, Co-director, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Kele Ding _________________________, Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Christine Balan Accepted by _________________________, Director, School of Health Sciences Lynn Rowan _________________________, Dean, College and Graduate School of Education, Daniel F. Mahony Health, and Human Services iii JOHNS, JUDITH A., Ph.D., December 2011 HEALTH SCIENCES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INVOLVEMENT IN UNSTRUCTURED UNSUPERVISED LEISURE AND SUBSTANCE USE IN A COHORT OF ADOLESCENT MALE SKATEBOARDERS (289 pp.) Co-Directors of Dissertation: Cynthia W. Symons, D.Ed. Kele Ding, Ph.D. The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between skateboarding and substance use among a cohort of adolescent male skateboarders residing in two metropolitan regions in the Eastern United States. The tenets of the individual level routine activity theory (Osgood, Wilson, O‘Malley, Bachman, & Johnston, 1996), provided the theoretical foundation for this study. The routine activity theory suggests activities that combine: (a) socializing with peers, (b) freedom from adult supervision, and (c) a lack of structure provide an environment uniquely conducive for problem behavior including substance use. Using a location-based intercept protocol, a purposive sample of 124 male skateboarders in grades 9–12 was recruited from 14 skate parks and street skating spots. Skateboarding involvement and substance use data were collected using a self-administered, 45-item instrument. Objective measures of skateboarding included time spent skating, primary skating location, and skating with peers. Subjective measures assessed leisure identity and enduring involvement with skateboarding. Current (within the previous 30 days) alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use data were analyzed as dichotomous variables (has used/has not used) in chi square tests and Generalized Linear Modeling (SPSS). Findings revealed no statistically significant relationship between involvement in skateboarding and current alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use among this sample of skateboarders. Spending more or less time skating was not found to significantly interact with the relationship between skateboarding involvement and substance use. These findings did not support the supposition that involvement in skateboarding was associated with substance use, as the theoretical and evidentiary literature suggests. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is with great humility that I express my sincerest appreciation to the individuals who gave to me their support, guidance and encouragement throughout my studies at Kent State. I am certain that without your support, pursuing this long-standing dream of mine would not have been possible. I would like to thank Dr. Cynthia Symons for so artfully balancing the roles of mentor, teacher, critic and ally. To say that you have been instrumental in my development as a health educator and a scholar would be sorely inadequate. Throughout the dissertation process, your careful consideration and feedback on draft after draft after draft was indispensable and truly appreciated, even if I was not always very gracious about receiving it. I must also thank you for the opportunity to share in what must certainly be one of the oddest of legacies in academia at Kent State—the annual Fishing Rodeo. What a wonderful thing that simple afternoon of fishing, gardening, and Boggle in the company of good friends has become. I want to express my gratitude to the other members of my committee. Thank you, Dr. Ding. As a co-advisor, your patient guidance in instrument design and statistical analysis helped me create a sound and logical research design. Thank you, Dr. Balan. In addition to the insightful feedback you provided at my proposal, your connection to the skate community in Kent played an integral role in facilitating the pilot testing of the data collection instrument and sampling protocol used in this study. I want to express my appreciation to Jackson Tankersley for providing technical assistance with the pilot study and for sharing his knowledge of skateboarding from a skater‘s point of view. More importantly, I want express my admiration for Mr. Tankersley as he exemplifies the valuable contribution that participating in the sport of skateboarding can make to positive youth development. iv I want to express my deepest gratitude to Sandy and the rest of my family for their unconditional love and encouragement while I was away at school. As a family, we have been through a lot over the past six years. I am not sure I could have muddled through school without knowing I had your support. Thank you. Finally, I would like to dedicate this dissertation in loving memory of my mother, who also went by the name of Judy (or Big Judy, as around our house I was relegated to Little Judy). She was convinced that I could do anything I set my mind to doing. I wish she could see me now. I know she would be very proud of me—but not the least bit surprised. I miss you, mom. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................x CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................... 16 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 17 Research Questions ............................................................................................... 17 Definition of Terms .............................................................................................. 18 Limitations of the Study ....................................................................................... 20 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 22 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 22 Adolescent Leisure ............................................................................................... 22 Adolescents and Spare Time ......................................................................... 22 The Developmental Elements of Leisure ...................................................... 26 Leisure and Identity Formation ..................................................................... 38 The Confluence of Adolescent Leisure and Problem Behavior ........................... 43 Free Time in the Absence of Adult Supervision ........................................... 43 Adolescent Problem Behavior ...................................................................... 44 The Theoretical Association Between Leisure and Problem Behavior ................ 49 Individual-Level Routine Activity Theory ................................................... 50 Empirical Evidence Supporting the Routine Activity Theory ...................... 53 Out-of-School Programs to Reduce Problem Behavior ....................................... 59 Overview of ECAs and Problem Behavior ................................................... 60 Athletics and Problem Behavior ................................................................... 64 Limitations of the Extant Research ............................................................... 74 Alternative Sports ................................................................................................. 77 Lifestyle Sports ..................................................................................................... 82 Skateboarding ....................................................................................................... 83 Participation Data.......................................................................................... 83 An Abridged History of Skateboarding ........................................................ 84 Exploring the Reasons Why Youth Enjoy Skateboarding ............................ 93 Skateboarding as a Context for Positive Youth Development ............................. 96 Skateboarding as a Context for Problem Behavior ............................................ 110 The Contentious Search for a Place to Skate .............................................. 110 Skateboarding as a Crime ........................................................................... 116 A Routine Activity‘s Approach to Skateboarding .............................................. 122 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 124 vi III.
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