OPINION ARTICLE published: 16 December 2014 PSYCHIATRY doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00183

Involuntary autobiographical chains: implications for organization

John H. Mace* Department of Psychology, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL, USA *Correspondence: [email protected] Edited by: David G. Pearson, University of Aberdeen, UK

Reviewed by: Deryn Strange, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, USA

Keywords: involuntary memory chains, autobiographical memory, autobiographical memory organization, involuntary memory, episodic

Sometimes when we unintentionally or are either too weak or irrelevant to one’s Viewing involuntary memory chains intentionally retrieve a memory of a past current cognitive activity. However, when as an automatic retrieval process akin to episode, we experience one or more addi- activations are strong enough, or relevant, spreading activation has led us to assert tional memories, which spring to mind they come into consciousness where they that the products of involuntary memory quickly and uncontrollably. For example, are experienced as chained involuntary chains (i.e., the memories found in a chain) one might involuntarily remember seeing memories. are reflective of the underlying organiza- mummies in the British Museum, and this Although we have no firm evidence that tion of autobiographical memory (7, 8). memory could in turn trigger a memory of involuntary memory chains are spreading Thus, examining their output should prove seeing the Egyptian collection at the natural activations, there are a number of reasons elucidating to the study of autobiographi- history museum in New York City. Known why we should see this as a good, tentative cal memory organization. as an involuntary autobiographical mem- explanation. For one, there is good rea- To date, the output of involuntary ory chaining (1,2), this memory phenom- son to believe that like semantic memories, memory chains has been observed in enon is probably common in everyday life memories in the autobiographical mem- two types of settings, in the laboratory, when we are engaged in controlled, volun- ory system are networked (or connected) where participants reported involuntary tary of the past, and when memories and therefore capable of activating one memory chains, resulting from volun- just come to mind unintentionally [Ref. (1– another. Thus, like , once tary retrievals, and in naturalistic settings, 3); see also (4–6), for reviews of involun- memories are activated in autobiographi- where participants reported involuntary tary remembering]. Involuntary memory cal memory,there is an obligatory spread of memory chains, resulting from involuntary chaining has not been researched as much activations to neighboring, related memo- retrievals (i.e., involuntary memories expe- as singly experienced involuntary memo- ries within a network. Evidence that such rienced in everyday life). In both labora- ries (i.e., the case where an involuntary an architecture exists in autobiographical tory and naturalistic measures, involuntary memory does not result in additional invol- memory can be found in studies memory chains have consistently exhibited untary retrievals), so comparatively little [e.g., Ref. (3, 9, 10)]. For example, Mace (3) two types of associative forms: general- is known about them. However, studies and Mace and Clevinger (8) have shown event associated memories or conceptually that have focused on involuntary memory that activating autobiographical memories associated memories. chains have turned up findings with inter- in voluntary recall task primes the subse- In general-event associations, memories esting implications for theories of auto- quent recall of related memories at some in a chain come from the same general biographical memory organization (7,8). future point. (or extended) event period [i.e., a general In this article, I review how these findings Additionally, there is good reason to memory such as the night at the opera, a have helped develop a theory of autobio- doubt that involuntary memory chains are trip to London; or a summary memory, graphical memory organization that posits driven by some sort of alternative retrieval repeated events such as Sunday walks in that episodic memories are organized as process other than spreading activation. the park, see Ref. (11, 12)]. These memo- conceptual classes of events. For example, the most obvious alterna- ries appear to be connected by the larger I have argued that involuntary mem- tive explanation is that a single retrieval general or summary event, and therefore, ory chains are the products of spreading cue simply triggers more than one mem- are typically temporally proximate (e.g., activation in the autobiographical memory ory, and since both memories cannot come spanning the same day, evening, week, system (2, 6). Thus, when a memory is acti- to mind at once, they are experienced in month, etc.). In contrast, conceptual asso- vated in the autobiographical memory sys- sequence as a chain of memories. If this ciations are associated by their overlap- tem (e.g., as a result of voluntary or invol- view were true, then memories in involun- ping content. For example, they commonly untary retrieval), this activation spreads to tary memories chains should almost always involve the same people, objects, activities, other memories in its associative network. be related to the retrieval cue that trigger or other common themes (such as work or Normally, these types of activations do the first memory,however,just the opposite school). Conceptually associated memories not come into consciousness because they is true [see Discussion in Ref. (2)]. can span any time period, and therefore,

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temporality does not appear to be their consolidate together (as a general-event REFERENCES main organizing principle. network of the wedding), as well as with 1. Mace JH. Episodic remembering creates access to involuntary conscious memory: demonstrat- Analyses of the relative proportions of memories of other weddings (joining the ing involuntary recall on a voluntary recall conceptually associated and general-event existing conceptual network for wedding task. Memory (2006) 14:917–24. doi:10.1080/ associated involuntary memory chains memories). However, as time passes, some 09658210600759766 have highlighted the importance and dom- or all of the episodes from that memory are 2. Mace JH. Does involuntary remembering occur inance of conceptually associations. In forgotten, leaving the connections to other during voluntary remembering? In: Mace JH, edi- tor. Involuntary Memory. Malden, MA: Blackwell both laboratory and naturalistic mea- wedding memories. 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(8), involuntary memory In sum, then, these various finings nization? Memory (2010) 18:845–54. doi:10.1080/ chains were divided into three retention showing the dominance of conceptual 09658211.2010.514271 intervals,chains with memories up to a year associations have led us to assert that 8. Mace JH, Clevinger AM, Bernas RS. Involuntary old, 1–9 years old, and over 9 years. Analy- autobiographical memories are organized memory chains: what do they tell us about autobi- ses of conceptually and general-event asso- primarily, or fundamentally, along concep- ographical memory organization? Memory (2013) 21:324–35. doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.726359 ciations showed the two categories were tual lines. While temporal associations are 9. Ball CT, Hennessey J. Subliminal priming equal when memories were up to a year clearly a part of autobiographical memo- of autobiographical memories. Memory (2009) old (53% conceptual, 47% general event), ries organization [see Ref. 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Conway MA. Memory and the self. J Mem Lang above because they show that conceptual experiential type concepts, such as people, (2005) 53:594–628. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2005.08.005 associations do not just simply outnumber places, locations, activities, and so forth. general-event associations because there Thus, events coalescence according to their Conflict of Interest Statement: The author declares are more of the former type of experiences, many and varied experiential similarities that the research was conducted in the absence of any but because the basic architecture funda- [see data in Ref. (8)]. commercial or financial relationships that could be mentally favors forming and maintaining In closing, the study of involuntary construed as a potential conflict of interest. conceptual consolidations. memory chains has been informative to the For example, let us consider this propo- study of autobiographical memory organi- Received: 12 November 2014; accepted: 04 December sition with memories of being at a wed- zation. While I have presented some inter- 2014; published online: 16 December 2014. Citation: Mace JH (2014) Involuntary autobiograph- ding. When one remembers an episode pretations of the findings, clearly there are ical memory chains: implications for autobiographi- from a wedding they had recently attended more, and more work is certainly needed to cal memory organization. Front. Psychiatry 5:183. doi: (e.g., within the last few weeks or months), fully flesh them out. I have also argued (here 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00183 this memory has a 50% chance of trigger- and elsewhere) that involuntary memory This article was submitted to Affective Disorders and Psy- ing others episodes from that same event, chains are spreading activations that are chosomatic Research, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychiatry. and a 50% chance of triggering memories normally unconscious, but for some reason Copyright © 2014 Mace. This is an open-access article of having attended other weddings. How- they become conscious. This idea is inter- distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons ever, when one recalls that same episode esting in its own right, and research that Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or some time later (e.g., 2 years later), it now could elucidate why such activations some- reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the has an 80% chance of triggering memories times surface into consciousness is likely to original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance of other weddings. According to the con- be informative to understanding involun- with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or ceptual organization account, this happens tary retrievals and other areas of cognitive reproduction is permitted which does not comply with because memories of the wedding initially science and mental experience. these terms.

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