REVISION GUIDE Making Of Modern Britain, 1951-2007 1 BRITAIN IN 1951 POLITICS Three key turning points during this period 1951 election > start of 13 years Conservative rule 1979 election > start of Thatcher dominance lasting 11 years 1997 election > start of New Labour dominance (so far 13 years) 1951 saw end of Labour and Attlee in government – had achieved all promises outlined in 1945 election manifesto and legacy remains for (arguably) twenty years. Impact on society and politics until mid 1970’s despite Conservative dominance, and Welfare State and NHS continue to date. 1951-1997 – Conservatives ‘natural party of government’ for 35 of the 46 years. Labour Party showed a mentality of an opposition party rather than governing party (even when in power) until Blair arrived. Two party electoral system 1951 onwards: Labour and Conservatives enjoy near total dominance of politics. Due in part to the FPTP electoral system effects as well as the insignificance of Liberals, lack of parliamentary support for nationalists, and negligible impact of other smaller parties. Rise of consensus politics – political gulf between major parties narrower than ever before. Labour moderate and patriotic (not extreme socialism as expected) and key policy makers in Conservatives were ‘One Nation Tories’ (reformist) keen to build on national cooperation to maintain an essential post war consensus. ECONOMY Contradictions: a curious mixture of difficulties and decline versus optimism and growth Huge difficulties – damaged infrastructure, saddled with massive debts, pre-war markets lost, old staple industries in decline, Britain reliant on US to begin economic recovery, key industries (coal, steel, rail) had been nationalised by Attlee (hopes of faster modernisation), many consumer goods scarce and expensive, rationing only just coming to an end. Britain sliding down the league tables of the world economy 1951-2007 – economic growth slower than competitors, successive attempts by British governments for economic modernisation (improve productivity, competitiveness) were never fully realised. Optimism – still one of leading economic powers in world, British companies still at forefront of key sectors (oil. Chemicals, shipping), British firms major manufacturers and exporters, other European competitors had suffered more during the war. Living standards were rising, people better dressed, owned more consumer goods. By 2007 ‘poverty’ very different from version in 1951. SOCIETY Most towns and cities dominated by heavy industry, female employment restricted to mainly single women, and shortages of consumer goods. Sense of national unity fostered by war years, however class divisions remained clear cut. NORTH-SOUTH divide easy to recognise with Establishment dominating public life property owning middle class lived in the suburbs voting Conservative areas of heavy industry (e.g. north, West Midlands) saw working classes living in urban areas close to factories, loyal to TU’s, generally voting Labour. Social mobility had been increased by some extent by impact of war but Britain remained very class conscious and deferential society – class system had to break down. FOREIGN POLICY Deceptive position in the world Outwardly: still a world power: part of the Grand Alliance that had won the war, possession of a great empire, pride of war victory amongst public, 1 of 5 permanent members of the UN Security Council, key ally to US in Cold War (e.g. Korea), vast stretch of Navy, independent nuclear power, British expectation to remain at the ‘top table’ of international affairs 2 Reality: emerged from war weakened and impoverished, role as colonial power declining since WW1 (1947 withdrawal from India symbolised inability to maintain former imperial status), militarily and economically overstretched and could not compete with US/USSR. Idea of Britain as a great power built mainly on illusions which took a long time to die 1951 was a missed opportunity, should have been making a fundamental reassessment of position in the world by scaling down military commitments and accepting the days of imperial grandeur were over missed EEC 1950-1 formation as eyes were fixed on the world beyond Europe, on the ‘special relationship’ with the US, on the Empire and Commonwealth. Two momentous decisions: Britain’s decision to go ahead with independent nuclear deterrent Decision to stand aside from the process that led to the formation of the EEC (1956 Suez Crisis shattered British illusions but by then door to Europe was slammed shut by De Gaulle) Led to next half century of British foreign policy continuing to revolve around the consequences of these decisions THE POST WAR CONSENSUS, 1951-1964 POLITICS 1951: not obvious that 13 years of Conservative dominance were about to begin. Churchill looked tired and the Conservatives unlikely to be able to deal with Britain’s economic troubles. However, there came a succession of 3 Conservative PM’s – Churchill, Eden, and Macmillan. Not a landmark victory as Labour almost won re-election – Labour vote actually totalled more than the Conservative vote (biggest achieved by Labour) and could have won more had Attlee held off the election until the economy had begun to pick up. ATTLEE LEGACY: MAIN ACHIEVEMENTS WELFARE STATE – using the recommendations of the Beveridge Report, Labour implemented a system of National Insurance, National Assistance, Industrial Injuries, and a National Health Service. This provided for a system of social care for each citizen from the ‘cradle to the grave’ NATIONALISATION – Enacted the principle that the government had the right to direct the key aspects of the economy in order to create social justice and efficiency. Government ownership of coal and the Bank of England (1946), road transport and electricity (1947), gas (1948), iron and steel (1949) INDIAN INDEPENDENCE 1947 – Britain accepted that is possession and retention of colonies involved unbearable burdens. India was to be divided into two distinct states: India and Pakistan in 1947. NATO – GB played a key role in the formation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) in 1949. A defensive alliance consisting of 10 Western European countries as a safeguard against Soviet expansion. The USE eagerly accepted the invitation to join. NUCEAR POWER – started the programme which turned Britain into a nuclear power. In 1947 the Labour government initiated research that led to the detonation of a British atom bomb in 1952 and Hydrogen bomb in 1957. HOUSING – initiated a major housing programme, resulting in a million new homes being built. PROBLEMS/WHY WERE THEY DEFEATED IN 1951? Attlee’s government was worn down – heavy economic and financial difficulties coupled with serious divisions between the right and left of the party over introduction of prescription costs and nuclear weapons. Economic problems included: wartime debts, balance of payments crisis, declining exports, dollar gap, defence expenditure and heavy demands on fuel and power supplies. Labour’s response to these problems > image of a party of rationing and high taxation - it had rationed essential items, introduced financial controls, introduced wage freezes and devalued the £. Industrial concerns – Trade Union resentment at Labour’s policies. Angry at Labour’s slowness to respond to worker’s demands. 3 Entry into the 1950 Korean War – angered the left within the Labour Party. Left argued that the party should be independent in foreign affairs and act with the UN and this event showed that Britain was becoming too pro-American (sheepishly following the US in a Cold War engagement), especially as it was dependent on the US financially (Marshall Aid). Right fought back saying that without US $’s Britain and Europe would not be sustained. Bevanite Rebellion 1951 – forced by financial difficulties to make savings in public expenditure, Attlee imposed charges on dental treatment, spectacles and prescriptions. Bevan (constructed NHS) led number of ministers into resigning from the Cabinet > ‘death knell’ of Attlee’s government. Conservative recovery of morale - Labour divisions stimulated the Conservatives into action and sharpened their attacks. They reorganized the party under Lord Woolton and younger Tory MP’s such as Butler began to bring new ideas and confidence to the party, especially after the 1950 election. The nationalisation issue (especially of iron and steel) gave them a cause round which they could rally and on which they could attack the government (strong platform for opposition attacks). CONCLUSIONS The explanation of Attlee’s losing office in 1951 is not so much Labour decline as Conservative recovery. While Labour had gained an added 2 million votes between 1945 and 1951, the Conservatives had added nearly 4 million. Yet, they only just squeezed into power. What benefited them was the Liberal Party’s decision to put up only 109 candidates, a drop of 366 compared with 1950. The nearly 2 million ex-Liberal votes that became available went largely to the Conservatives. KEY QUESTION: How could Labour lose the October 1951 election, yet win more of the popular vote? Ratio of votes: Labour 47, 283 : 1 Conservatives 42, 733 : 1 1951 election saw Labour gain the highest aggregate vote ever achieved by any party up to that point. Yet, in British electoral politics it is still possible for a party to poll more votes than its opponents yet still be defeated as shown when Labour gained nearly 1% more of the vote than the Tories > due to ‘First Past the Post’ electoral system used by Britain: Means that to become an MP, all a candidate has to do is to gain more votes than any rival in that constituency. There is no requirement for a candidate to win a majority of the votes cast, which is the case in some electoral system LABOUR’S LEGACY While there may be some legitimate criticisms of the Labour government regarding some policies there is a broader significance to this period. In governing during that period, Labour laid down the policies that were to be followed in all essentials by successive Labour and Conservative governments during the next 35 years.