Periodization of Training—

Roundtable Discussion: Periodization of Training—

G.Gregory Haff,PhD,CSCS Part 1 Column Editor G.Gregory Haff,PhD,CSCS Human Performance Laboratory,Midwestern State University,Wichita Falls,Texas

summary Macrocycle,Mesocycle,Micro- One is also dramatically challenged by cycle,Transition Phase,Volume, the need for “individualization” based on The concept of periodization is im- Intensity,Restoration,Frequen- physiological status and predisposition portant for strength and condition- cy,Peaking,Overtraining,and and individual training goals to meet Overreaching? sport demands (3, 4). So, although the ing professionals. This roundtable answers to these questions will have Kraemer: First, one must realize that many different permutations and seem- covers several aspects of periodiza- with the progress in the study and use of ingly differences in various opinions, the tion strategies. periodization of resistance training since basis for periodization is the need for our last roundtable program variation in 1986, the opera- and programmed he concept of periodization of tional definitions rest to keep the stim- training has been a topic of discus- have been pushed in ulus effective as one T sion and debate amongst athletes, many directions of works toward his or coaches, and sport scientists for many which one can argue her genetic predis- decades. Large volumes of research have and debate, but this position for a given been done on the concept and its rela- provides the intel- physiological or per- tionship to peak performance of athletes. lectual perspectives formance variable. In 1986, the National Strength and Con- to work with when ditioning Association (NSCA) brought using this concept. I Many of the terms together a group of strength and condi- have had the oppor- used are from the tioning professionals to discuss the con- tunity to hear so former Soviet Union cept of periodization from a practical many different ver- and Eastern Euro- and scientific perspective in the pages of sions and work with pean countries in the NSCA Journal. The purpose of this a host of different periodization models origin, as I remember reading about current roundtable discussion is to revis- from practice to laboratory; I am amazed them in 1973 from blue mimeographed it the topic of periodization with some of at how far it has all come. The concept of sheets sent out by Carl Miller with U.S. the original participants and add some of periodization is what is most fascinating Weightlifting at the time (22, 23). Over the latest scientific and practical applica- to me, and so many fine coaches and time, American lifters, coaches, and sci- tions of this training method. sport scientists are making headway into entists adapted the concepts and the its understanding. Ultimately, periodiza- terms so that many “hybrids” of the pe- Question 1: How Would you de- tion of training is mediated by the need riodization concept and terms exist and ﬁne the Concept of Periodization, for variation in the training stimuli (22). continue to evolve today (3). This shows

50 February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal the level of utility and creative use of this cally about 2 weeks in duration, and this achieved with frequency of lifting, lower important concept of training theory. allows for variation to be carefully cus- volumes of exercise, absolute rest, active So, it is important that each program tomized. My laboratory definition of in- rest, and strict attention to restoration carefully define what is meant by each of tensity has been related to the resistance techniques when needed (e.g., sleep, the terms so that better communication used for the exercise of which some call massage, hydrotherapy, etc). Frequency can be achieved when speaking about “load”. We prescribe this typically in is the number of times per week that we periodized training programs, as it is not training repetition maximum (RM) lift. Peaking is related to a composite ag- a single entity anymore. ranges for most exercises (e.g., 3 to gregation of all conditioning stimuli and 5RM, 8 to 10RM) where the athlete sports practice that result in optimal or Despite the many different versions of does not have to go necessarily to failure record performance in the sport for the periodization we have used, we essen- on every set because of compression athlete at a specific point in time. The tially have “periodization” as a concept stress, but he or she should not be able to peaking phase in a resistance-training that can be defined by programmed volitionally lift more repetitions in a set program is the contributing factor to variation in the training stimuli with the than the training range prescribed or total conditioning for optimizing a per- use of planned rest periods to augment then must alter the resistance on the formance at a specific point in time. recovery and restoration of an athlete’s next set up or down based on percep- Overreaching (OR) is where one in- potential (16). Again, the key factor to tion. Historically we have found that creases the training stimuli in order to optimal gains going toward one’s genetic athletes can easily understand and pick create a decrease in performance but one potential is “variation” in the exercise the resistance to achieve this 3-repeti- that has a “supercompensation” re- stimulus with systematic rest pro- tion range resistance goal by trail and sponse or a rebound with increased per- grammed into the equation. How that error. This approach reduces the need formance at some point in time after the variation is achieved and used is the for multiple 1RM testing in every lift, OR phase is completed (16, 25). Typi- topic of a wide variety of different train- which is administratively impossible. cally this would occur in the following 1 ing goals and must also be individual- For structural lifts (e.g., cleans, hang to 2 weeks. In our recent work, we have ized for each athlete and sport to achieve cleans, etc) we use a combination of per- discovered that a training rebound pro- optimal success in his or her sport. Even centages of their 1RM for a given num- gram was possible after a high-volume in the model I used in a later question, ber of repetitions in a set. This is espe- phase (25). In this study, before initia- the basic form is just the template from cially important for certain resistances tion of the 4-week OR program, each which to work. We have tried to stick used for power training but even when participant underwent 4 weeks of base with the classic terms and have limited we are associating percentage and load resistance training. This ensured that excessive term creation, as the need has failure in whole body lifts such as a each subject began the study in a trained not been there for our applications in power clean. On power training, with state. Base training consisted of 5 exer- sport and in the laboratory. So, in classic emerging research data in our laboratory cises per workout (squat, bench press, terms of periodization theory, the and along with those of Robert U. New- lat pull-down, leg press, and shoulder macrocyle is the longest duration of the ton’s laboratory, we have found that press) for 3 sets of 8 to 10 repetitions training cycle; typically a year is used for power exercises need to focus on “quali- with 1 to 3 minutes of rest in between most situations, but some international ty” of each repetition for maximal power sets performed for 2 days per week. See programs have used a 4-year duration to or velocity of movement, and with the Table 1 for the OR protocol used in the coincide with peaking for the Olympic use of more sophisticated monitoring study. Multiple-set, periodized resis- Games. The mesocycle is the next cycle instrumentation and equipment we tance training was performed on 4 con- duration further defining the amount of have found that this occurs in sets no secutive days with a total-body program. variation during the macrocycle. Prior longer than 6 repetitions, and that many Because of time limitation constraints work has shown that more mesocycles of the repetitions do not hit critical cut- with the subjects, the OR program uti- allow for greater training gains in physi- off levels needed for the quality training lized training each muscle group on con- ological adaptation and performance, (unpublished data, 18, 24). Therefore, secutive days, thereby limiting recovery. and thus many have used a 3-month many athletes are not ready for high- The first 2 weeks consisted of a higher mesocycle allowing 4 to be cycled in a quality power training because of many volume, moderate intensity of resistance year. The microcycle is the next and factors related to the fatigue state of the exercise, whereas the last 2 weeks con- probably most important phase of train- athlete (e.g., sport practice demands, sisted of a higher intensity with a lower ing where changes in the acute program other supplemental training, order volume of resistance exercise. All sets variables are prescribed to define each problems in a workout design). Restora- were performed with RM loads such mesocycle and provide change and vari- tion is related to the need for rest and re- that all sets were performed either to or ation over time. The microcycle is typi- covery over a training cycle. This is near muscular exhaustion. When each

February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 51 Table 1 Resistance Overreaching Training Program Used in Study (26)

Week 1

Monday,Wednesday Tuesday,Thursday Friday Back squat 3 × 10–12* Leg press 3 × 10–12* 1RM squat Bench press 3 × 10–12* Incline bench press 3 × 10–12* 1RM bench press Lat pull-down 3 × 10–12** Bent-over row 3 × 10–12** Lunge 3 × 10–12** Stiff-leg deadlift 3 × 10–12** Seated shoulder press 3 × 10–12** Upright row 3 × 10–12** Dumbbell curl 3 × 10–12** Barbell curl 3 × 10–12** Lying triceps extension 3 × 10–12** Dips 3 × 10–12** Leg raise 3 × 20*** Sit-ups 3 × 20***

Week 2 Monday,Wednesday Tuesday,Thursday Friday Back squat 3 × 8–10* Leg press 3 × 8–10* 1RM squat Bench press 3 × 8–10* Incline bench press 3 × 8–10* 1RM bench press Lat pull-down 3 × 8–10** Bent-over row 3 × 8–10** Jump squats Lunge 3 × 8–10** Stiff-leg deadlift 3 × 8–10** Ballistic bench press Seated shoulder press 3 × 8–10** Upright row 3 × 8–10** Dumbbell curl 3 × 8–10** Barbell curl 3 × 8–10** Lying triceps extension 3 × 8–10** Dips 3 × 8–10** Leg raise 3 × 20*** Sit-ups 3 × 20***

Week 3 Monday,Wednesday Tuesday,Thursday Friday Back squat 5 × 5* Leg press 5 × 5* 1RM squat Bench press 5 × 5* Incline bench press 5 × 5* 1RM bench press Deadlift 5 × 5** High pull 5 × 5** Lat pull-down 5 × 5** Bent-over row 5 × 5** Seated shoulder press 5 × 5** Close-grip bench press 5 × 5**

Week 4 Monday,Wednesday Tuesday,Thursday Friday Back squat 5 × 3* Leg press 5 × 3* 1RM squat Bench press 5 × 3* Incline bench press 5 × 3* 1RM bench press Deadlift 5 × 3** High pull 5 × 3** Jump squats Lat pull-down 5 × 3** Bent-over row 5 × 3** Ballistic bench press Seated shoulder press 5 × 3** Close-grip bench press 5 × 3**

Note:* indicates 3 minutes of rest between sets;**,2 minutes of rest between sets;***,1 minute of rest between sets;RM,repetition maximum.

subject was able to complete the desired each participant underwent a 2-week re- Our conclusion was that the initial number of repetitions with the current duced-volume and -frequency resis- high-volume, moderate-intensity phase load, weight was added to subsequent tance-training phase. The program used of OR followed by a higher intensity, sets or during the next workout. All during this phase was identical to the moderate-volume phase appears to be workouts were supervised by a certified base resistance-training program used very effective for enhancing a rebound strength and conditioning specialist before initiation of the 4-week OR pro- in muscle strength in resistance-trained who also monitored the training loads. tocol (i.e., 5 exercises per workout, 8 to men (25). In addition, branch chain After the 4-week experimental period, 10 repetitions, and 2 days per week). amino acids were also helpful in alleviat-

52 February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal ing performance decrements in the ational level before preparation of cy, timing, and duration of peaking alarm phase as well. Thus, training can the next competitive cycle. Others to optimize overall performance. be composited in different cycles to cre- (6) have also used this phase (termed • OT, in general, may be defined as a ate the needed effect for a specific point first transition) to link very high- plateauing or a decrease in perfor- in time and periodized training in which volume, low-intensity training to mance resulting from the inability to cycles used for OR are a natural part of very high-intensity, low-volume tolerate or adapt to the training load. this training concept and technology. training. More specifically, there can be OT This might be thought of as true OR be- • Volume is the total work performed from “monotonous training pro- cause of its positive performance out- (per exercise, session, week, month, grams” caused by consistent, unvary- come. Acute overtraining (OT) might etc). Weight-training volume can be ing use of the same type of training be defined by the lack of this rebound estimated per exercise by volume load exercise. Another cause of OT is training effect. Real OT is a chronic syn- (repetitions multiplied by weight). “chronic overload,” or when over- drome not easily observed and often Because of the cumulative effect, vol- work is sustained too long or repeat- confused with acute OT where perfor- ume of training can be a potent pre- ed too frequently and the athlete can mance is not restored within a few weeks cursor to physiological stress. no longer adapt in a positive way. Re- of recovery. Thus, true OT is a long- • Intensity is the quality of effort dur- covery from this type of OT can re- term chronic decrease in performance ing training or power output (force quire several weeks if not months (3). capabilities that is a threat to an athlete’s multiplied by velocity). A qualitative • OR is a type of periodization where career. measure of weight training can be es- short-term (1 to 2 weeks) increases timated by the average weight being in volume or intensity are followed O’Bryant: used and can be expressed as absolute by a return to normal training. This • Periodization may be defined as a (amount of weight lifted) or relative brief phase can result in a delayed cyclical approach to training where (percentage of maximum for an exer- performance increase approximately periodic changes in training parame- cise). Speed of movement can be a de- 2 to 5 weeks after return to normal ters (volume, intensity, loading, ex- termining factor when similar training (2, 5). ercise selection, etc) are planned in weights and repetitions are com- order for the athlete to achieve opti- pared. Pendlay: mal performance at the appropriate • Restoration is necessary because the • Macrocycle is a training period con- time. physiological and psychological taining at least 1 preparatory, 1 com- • Macrocycle is generally thought to stress of training can lower work ca- petitive, and 1 transition mesocycle. be a yearlong program typically be- pacity. Proper rest and recuperation It can be as short as 2 or 3 months ginning with high-volume, low-in- can renew the athlete’s abilities to but is not usually longer than 1 year. tensity exercise of the preparatory train. This can occur acutely (set-to- • Mesocycle is a period within a phase and ending with low-volume, set) or over time (work session-to- macrocycle where a specific goal is high-intensity exercise of the peak- session). Structured restoration can pursued. It usually lasts 1 or 2 ing phase. However, some Olympic provide for training-induced recov- months but can be shorter or longer. athletes are known to make use of ery and supercompensation for in- • Microcycle is a division of the meso- more long-range planning character- creased rates of improvement in per- cycle, which usually lasts 1 week. Di- ized by a 4- to 8-year cycle with a formance and higher levels of viding the mesocycle into several mi- peak in performance during a specif- functional capacity. crocycles formalizes the process of ic Olympic year. • Frequency is the number of training varying the training stress within the • Mesocycles are shorter cyclical divi- sessions per day, week, etc. mesocycle. sions within a macrocycle usually • Peaking is maximizing performance • Transition phase is a period where lasting only a few months. at the appropriate time. In most the athlete recuperates after stressful • Microcycles are usually very short, sports (football, basketball, track, competition or training to be able to lasting only a few weeks with slight etc), a “true” peak is generally re- respond optimally to further train- to moderate variations in training on served for end-of-season champi- ing. This phase is most often a weekly or daily basis. onships and may last only about 3 thought of as a period of active rest • Transition phase, sometimes termed weeks. Smaller peaks with shorter after competition and before a subse- “active rest,” provides a shift in train- durations can also be planned for se- quent preparatory period. ing emphasis. Some have used this to lective in-season competitions. The • Volume is the amount of work done recover from end-of-season stress design of periodized training pro- within a time period such as 1 train- where the athlete trains at a recre- grams should consider the frequen- ing day, a microcycle, or a mesocycle.

February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 53 • Intensity is the difficulty of the and application of therapeutic and of Hungary in the 1940s and 1950s. Ap- training done relative to the maxi- regenerative techniques by a sports parently, Nadori was a large part of mum that the athlete is capable of. medicine professional. Hungary’s success in sports during the • Restoration is the process of returning • Peaking is one of the basic goals of 1950s and early 1960s (personal com- to normal or elevated functional ca- periodized training: to exploit communication, I. Balyi and J. Tihanyi). pacity after training-induced fatigue. plementary training effects and min- Later, Yakolev, Matveyev, Verkoshansky, • Frequency is how often a training imize fatigue at optimal times. This Bondurchuk, Tchiene, Haare, and many stimulus is applied. is usually achieved by systematically other sports scientists worked to refine • Peaking is attempting to achieve reducing volume loads at the end of the concept. To my knowledge, it was maximum performance at a specific a mesocycle through tactics such as not until the 1960s and 1970s that time, usually a major competition. restitution microcycles or other “ta- Americans began to seriously consider • OT is an imbalance between the pering” methods. This term is often periodization as a concept, much of it training means and the recuperative used as a verb as well (e.g., to de- was discussed in Track News and Track ability of the athlete, resulting in a scribe these strategies). Technique in articles written or edited by significant and long-term decrease in • OR is an advanced training strategy Fred Wilt and Vern Gambetta. During performance. where volume loads are increased for the late 1970s, my colleagues and I • OR is an imbalance between the train- 2 to 3 weeks and then reduced to began a series of studies, which have ing means and the recuperative abili- normal levels to enhance adaptation continued until today. These studies pri- ties of the athlete, resulting in a short- and performance 2 to 5 weeks later marily have dealt with the use of the pe- term decrease in performance, lasting by virtue of a “rebound” (supercom- riodization concept in a strength-power from 2 to 3 days to 2 to 3 weeks. pensation) effect. It requires careful training paradigm. Harold O’Bryant is a planning and understanding of cu- pioneer in these early strength-power Plisk: mulative and delayed training ef- studies, and his dissertation should be a • Periodization is the planned distrib- fects. OT is a maladaptation syn- must read for anyone interested in the ution or variation in training means drome resulting when OR-type concept. Although the concept of peri- (content) and methods (load) on a workloads are applied inappropri- odization has a long history, the basic cyclic basis. Macro-, meso-, and mi- ately, for example, over prolonged focus in the development of the concept crocycles are the long-, intermedi- periods or without adequate recov- has been achieving appropriate varia- ate-, and short-term units, respec- ery or regard for the additive effects tion, which includes alterations in train- tively, that periodized training of other stressors. Long-term perfor- ing variables as well as “built in” recov- programs are structured into. mance decrements and fatigue seem ery and restoration. Thus, conceptually, • Volume refers to training quantity, to be the universal indicators of OT periodization is directly concerned with usually expressed in terms of repeti- and may or may not be accompanied the “training process.” Today, periodiza- tions and sets performed. by other symptoms. tion can be defined as a logical phasic • Intensity refers to training quality, method of varying training volume, in- usually expressed in terms of impulse Stone: Periodization as a term was ap- tensity factors, and exercises in order to or power output during task execu- parently coined around the turn of the optimize training progress. Thus, peri- tion. In practice, because of the fluc- 20th century and referred to the photo odization is a nonlinear method for tuating emphasis on these factors (vol- periods of the sun; several coaches and planning the training process. ume and intensity), the concept of sports scientists of the day noted that volume-load (mass lifted multiplied athletes usually were able to train and The primary goals of periodization are by repetitions performed) is more use- perform better during the summer (a) the avoidance of OT and (b) per- ful as an indicator of training stress months when days were longer, warmer, forming at peak or optimum levels at the than either one independently. etc. Later, it was also believed that more right time (8). Although the periodiza- • Frequency is an indicator of training fresh vegetables and produce were avail- tion concept is most associated with cli- density over a given period and is able during the summer and early au- mactic sports (i.e., peaking), this plan- therefore associated with other (vol- tumn, and this influenced performance. ning process can be modified and ume) parameters. During the 1920s and 1930s, periodiza- adapted for seasonal sports (14, 15). The • Restoration is a multi-pronged strat- tion became more of a term applied to time frame for periodization can be di- egy to enhance an athlete’s recovery training methods. One of the first sports vided into several different levels—an from—and adaptation to—training. scientists to attempt to systematically important consideration is that each It should include rational program study the concept of periodization in re- level can provide additional variation design, nutritional strategies, sleep, lation to sports training was L. Nadori (14, 15):

54 February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal • Period is the total length of the training plans; for example, it can be a 4-year cycle for Olympic sports. • Macrocycle (long-length cycle) typically the macrocycle lasts about a year. Over this time period, the macrocycle typically provides for initial high-volume training (preparation) moving to high-intensity technique-oriented training. • Mesocycle (middle-length cycle), typically 2 to 3 months, can mimic a macrocycle in terms of volume and intensity alterations, or it can be pri- marily devoted to 1 phase (i.e., general preparation [GP], special preparation [SP], competition). • Microcycle (short length), typically 1 week, can vary from week to week and day to day. Figure 1. Paradigm emphasizing strength gains.VL = volume load. • Summated microcycles are blocks of microcycles (usually 3 to 6 weeks) in which each block presents a specific placed in the first week, followed by for a specific exercise or a group of pattern of volume and intensity decreases in volume load and in- related exercises. loading. The blocks can then be re- creases in exercise intensity (EI) (i.e., (b) EI is the actual power output of an peated throughout a mesocycle such power output) from weeks 2 to 4 al- exercise. EI can be expressed as the that specific stimuli are “re-present- lowing fatigue to dissipate, favors average or peak power output ed” in a cyclical fashion. Generally, a development of power and speed. achieved during a single movement block consists of 4 weeks. A typical • Peaking is a specific phase of a cli- or the average power over a series block, used for enhancing strength, mactic sport usually at the end of a (set) of movements. would be one in which intensity and mesocycle devoted to bring perfor- • OT is a maladaptation to training as a typically volume load (i.e., overload) mance up to maximum levels. This is result of the accumulation of stressors are increased for 3 weeks followed by usually achieved by lowering the vol- (either induced by the additive effect an “unload” week creating a 3/1 ume of training and raising either TI of the physical and emotional stress of block (15, 20); the block can then be or EI in line with the performance the training itself or the additive ef- repeated again offering a similar requirements. fect of accumulative daily stressors). stimulus (Figure 1). In the example • Frequency is how often a specific The maladaptation can manifest itself (Figure 1), sets and repetitions are stimulus is applied (per day, per as a plateau or reduction in perfor- held constant—volume load increas- week, etc). mance potentially accompanied by a es or decreases as a result of loading • Intensity is related to a work rate or number of stress markers (4). OT (training intensity [TI]) alterations. power output. From a coaching may manifest as sympathetic charac- Note in Figure 1 that as the volume standpoint, here are 2 types of inten- teristics (most often occurring among load is increased across the first 3 sity which are important in this con- strength-power athletes) or parasym- weeks that accumulated fatigue can text (14, 15): pathetic characteristics (observed in also increase, thus the need for an (a) TI is equal to the average load (vol- some endurance athletes or as a result unload week (week 4). This type of ume load and repetitions) and is an of exhaustion after prolonged sympa- summated microcycle system is not estimate of the work rate across a thetic manifestation). Sympathetic optimal for power or speed develop- training session. It may be calculat- OT is characterized by chronic fa- ment because of the persistent in- ed as an average daily, weekly, tigue and many other signs and symp- crease in accumulated fatigue across monthly, etc, function. TI may also toms mimicking stimulation of the the first 3 weeks of each block. A be expressed in relation to maxi- sympathetic nervous system. Para- summated microcycle system in mum ability; the relative intensity is sympathetic OT is characterized by which the greatest volume load is expressed as a percentage of a 1RM phlegmatic behavior, the inability to

February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 55 “rise to the occasion,” and other signs Dr Fleck and I have written about this in highest strength and power level possi- and symptoms mimicking parasym- detail (3, 4). The American form or peri- ble in the time allowed for the whole pathetic stimulation. OT is a serious odization most often thought of was es- training cycle and peak strength and condition and requires prolonged re- sentially developed in 1981, when Stone power for a major competition. Time for covery. Associated with OT is monot- and colleagues (28) in the United States the active rest mesocycle is then allowed, onous training (MT) in which perfor- developed a hypothetical model for and the entire macrocycle is repeated. mance may plateau or decline strength and power sports of the more Periodization was originally used to somewhat without fatigue or overt classic periodization program that had peak for 1 major competition a year, OT symptoms. MT may be a result of been used by Eastern European such as the world championships. So, simply making exactly the same weightlifters. The model broke down a each of the mesocycles was 2 to 3 movements repeatedly, resulting in training program into 5 mesocycles. The months long. The greater gains in lack of necessary variation for the ner- resulting periodization program was strength and power are probably related vous system. MT can be easily reme- characterized by initiating the training to the basic concept of periodization in died by making changes in the move- with a high volume of exercise (i.e., that variation in training is needed to ment pattern (i.e., exercise selection). more sets and repetitions) and using low achieve optimal gains, and multiple • OR is a condition produced most intensity (i.e., low resistance) as has training cycles provide more variation in often by sudden increases in training been depicted in many citations over the training. volume. OR may produce some of years (28). During each of the following the signs and symptoms of OT but mesocycles, the volume of exercise is de- O’Bryant: When looking at a peri- not as severe. A reduction in training creased, and the intensity or resistance is odized training program, we can break volume or intensity and return to increased. In this model, the initial down the overall training into 4 compo- normal training can produce an in- phase of training is termed the hypertro- nents: (a) preparation, (b) transition 1, creased performance several weeks phy phase, characterized by high-vol- (c) competition, and (d) transition 2 after the OR. Sometimes a super- ume and low-resistance exercise. The (active rest). compensation effect will occur major goal of this phase is to increase • Preparation. Early preparation be- boosting performance to new levels. toleration to resistance exercise and to gins with an emphasis on general fit- Thus, OR (12) can be planned (care- stimulate initial needed increase muscle ness with high-volume, low-intensi- fully) into the periodized program mass. The major goal of the strength and ty work. Additional preparation (usually 1 to 2 weeks of increased power phases is to bring about increases follows with more high-volume, volume) and may result in a perfor- in maximal strength and power, respec- low-intensity exercise but with mance boost. tively. The goal of the peaking phase is movements that have somewhat to peak strength and power for a partic- higher specificity to the sport. The Question 2:What are the Various ular competition. The decrease in vol- goal of this phase is to stimulate pos- Phases of a Periodized Training ume helps compensate for the increas- itive body composition changes (in- Program? In Your Explanation, ingly heavier resistances (increased crease in lean body mass, etc) and Please Deﬁne the Goals of intensity), which must be used to pro- improve short-term endurance and the Individual Phases of a mote maximal strength and power in- work capacity. Periodized Training Program. creases. The active rest phase consists of • Transition 1. This provides a shift to either low-volume, low-intensity resis- lower volume exercise while intensi- Kraemer: This is a complex question tance training or some other light physi- ty progressively increases with both and one that is highly related to the type cal activity. The goal of this phase is to resistive (weight) and temporal of periodized model that you use. We allow the body to recover from the previ- (speed) loading. Exercise selection have written about this at length (3, 4, ous training, both physically and psy- becomes even more biomechanically 16). In general, one talks about a num- chologically. In fact, this aspect of peri- specific to the sport with an empha- ber of phases, from the GP phase (where odized training may be the most sis on development of strength and the athlete builds the necessary general important, as highly motivated athletes power in response to decreasing fitness needed to move to a periodized will many times not want to take the workloads. training program) to the transition needed rest that their bodies require for • Competition. The objective here is phases (for the training needed before optimal adaptations. By not planning to stabilize or improve technique another cycle) or the recovery phases for periods of rest and recovery within a while improving performance vari- (where rest is the most important factor training program, the possibility of stal- ables specific to the sport. Power and in preventing OT, both from a psycho- eness or OT is increased. The goal of the strength can be brought to a peak by logical and physiological perspective). entire training cycle is to achieve the more volume reductions coupled

56 February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal with increases in intensity. Power of a different means than the main sport and microcyclic variables (e.g., the de- athletes need more emphasis on training and of a lower volume and in- gree of workload contrast between speed of movement, reactive training tensity. mesocycles, microcycles, or individual (plyometrics), and technique work. training sessions as well as within ses- A maintenance program can also be Plisk: The “phase” approach to peri- sions). Summated microcycles are one associated with this phase and is es- odization is just one of at least three such strategy (refer to Figure 1). They sential for sports with prolonged strategies. In my opinion and experi- usually involve 4-week mesocycles with competitive seasons. The mainte- ence, it is most applicable for novice an extensive to intensive workload pro- nance of reasonable levels of physio- athletes. I should qualify that by stating gression and a brief restitution period. logical conditioning requires suffi- that such strategies may be the most Training-method distribution is the key cient volume, intensity, and valuable of all because of their broad ap- difference from the basic approach de- frequency. This total work, in com- plicability. There are many more novice scribed above. Specifically, a microcycle bination with sport skill practice, athletes in the early stages of develop- rather than mesocycle is allocated for should be carefully balanced to avoid ment (for whom advanced tactics are in- strength endurance, strength and power, overwork and subsequent decre- appropriate) than there are elite athletes peaking, and recovery. This pattern of ments in performance. in later stages. loading, where 3 weeks of increasing • Transition 2 (active rest). If hard volume or intensity is followed by an training is attempted immediately The phases associated with steplike unloading week and the progression is after peaking or prolonged season, Western periodization models are usual- then repeated at higher intensities, al- long-term progress will be dimin- ly referred to as strength endurance, lows complementary stimuli to be rein- ished. Active rest is characterized by strength and power, peaking (mainte- troduced in a regular cyclic fashion such low workloads and intensities and nance), and active recovery (transition). that their effects do not decay signifi- may involve recreational activity Note that the term “strength endurance” cantly. Discretion should be used with with complementary movement pat- is chosen instead of “hypertrophy,” be- this approach because the greatest work- terns and motor skills. cause it more accurately reflects the loads occur in week 3, by which time cu- • Note that the duration of each phase main objective of this period: increased mulative fatigue may hinder speed- is dependant upon the athlete’s ma- work capacity. Body-composition strength expression, hence the need for turity, level of conditioning, sport, changes, though important, are sec- unloading in week 4 to reduce OT po- and timing relative to season. ondary. This strategy can be viable for tential and promote adaptation. novice athletes who are learning new Pendlay: There are 3 main phases of a movement techniques or are unaccus- A summated microcycles strategy seems periodized training program: preparato- tomed to high intensities. It is potential- to have dual benefits: As a form of in- ry, competitive, and transition. The ly problematic, however, when relatively tramesocycle variation, they increase the goals of the preparatory phase should be flat workloads are prescribed over a peri- probability of converging training ef- to establish higher levels of basic physi- od of several weeks. Consecutive weeks fects while minimizing the likelihood of cal capacities such as strength and speed spent within such narrow workload overstress or accommodation and invo- and to improve any weak points that ranges can effectively amount to less lution problems. Furthermore, they add were apparent during the last competi- than 1 week of novel stimulus followed an aspect of intermesocycle contrast that tion. The goal of the competitive phase by 2 to 3 weeks of monotonic stress, in- can be advantageous as an adaptive stim- should be to obtain maximum perfor- creasing the likelihood of accommoda- ulus. Other strategies (e.g., planned mance at the planned competition. To tion and stagnation problems. These OR) may be more effective for advanced this end, training in the competition shortcomings may be prevented by athletes. phase is generally more specific to the using zig-zag progressions where volume practiced sport, more intense, and of loads are varied within reasonable Advanced periodization strategies are lesser volume than in the preparatory ranges. characterized by extensive, systematic period. The goal of the transition phase variation in both content and workload is to maintain as much of the general Intermediate periodization strategies are at multiple levels of the program (i.e., conditioning as possible while allowing characterized by greater levels of varia- between and within respective micro-, the athlete to rest; to recuperate from tion within—as well as between—re- meso-, and macrocycles). “Conjugate se- the previous competitive period, both spective cycles. Although a beginner’s quence” training is one such system. It is physically and mentally; and to become program may consist of simple progres- an intermesocycle variation strategy that ready to withstand the subsequent sion on a macrocyclic basis, tactical de- involves periods of accumulation or in- preparatory period. Training is usually cisions are now directed toward meso- tentional OR followed by restitution

February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 57 integrating responses. These can be structured in at least two different ways: as a mesocycle to be subdivided into multiple microcycles and objectives (for basic and intermediate applications) or as a “block” with essentially 1 objective arranged as part of a series (for advanced applications).

In terms of long-term developmental objectives, here are some common analogies that seem to be useful: • Beginner or novice: “train to train”; emphasis on GP. • Intermediate: “train to compete”; balance of GP and SP. Figure 2. Model I (1977).CL = concentrated loading;T = testosterone;T:C = testos- • Advanced: “train to win”; emphasis terone:cortisol ratio. on SP.

during which supernormal responses can qualities over successive mesocycles such Stone: When considering a periodized be exploited (refer to Figures 2 and 3). that one potentiates another while mini- training model, the typical phases would This is achieved through a series of “con- mizing residual fatigue and compatibili- be: centrated blocks” that are usually 4 ty problems). Proponents of this strategy weeks in duration. During the first cite several advantages: First, it provides • GP: This phase occurs when a high block, the athlete performs high-volume the potent training stressors needed to volume of less specialized work is loads of work with one primary emphasis bring advanced athletes to a new func- performed. It typically lasts 1 to 3 (e.g., strength and power) and minimal- tional state that otherwise cannot be months but may be repeated during volume loads—presumably maintenance achieved through traditional methods. a macrocycle; the purpose is to raise type—allocated to other abilities. The Second, it circumvents the cumulative the levels of “fitness” specific to a objective is to saturate the system with fatigue problems associated with parallel sport. Often the GP or part of the one type of stress over a period of several or concurrent training of multiple quali- GP is used as a unidirectional con- weeks, during which temporary decre- ties. Third, it allows long-term work vol- centrated loading block. It should be ments in certain performance capabili- umes to be reduced. This comes with a noted that the GP phase is not neces- ties can be expected because of residual price over the short term, however. Dur- sarily general (i.e., exercises speci- fatigue. Emphasis is essentially reversed ing each accumulation block, athletes ficity) but rather less specific. during the subsequent restitution block: must be able to tolerate high-volume • SP: This is a relatively high-volume Strength-training volume load is loads for several consecutive weeks. This phase in which the exercises selec- markedly reduced, whereas the volume can be particularly problematic without tion becomes more specific to the load of work allocated to another quality the systematic application of restorative sport performance. As with the GP, (e.g., speed and technique) is increased and regenerative measures. this phase can be used to aid the ath- moderately. If implemented skillfully, lete in raising work capacity but in a the athlete’s performance capabilities re- In all cases, convergence of training ef- more specific manner. bound by virtue of a delayed training-effects, management of fatigue, and pre- • Competition: This is a lower volume, fect phenomenon, allowing new levels of vention of stagnation or OT should be higher intensity phase associated with movement speed and technical execution the bottom-line goals of periodized very specific exercise selections. The to be achieved. The athlete can then pro- training. Simply put, the respective athlete can stabilize or improve tech- ceed to the next sequence of blocks with phases should potentiate the effects of nique while improving performance progressively stronger stimuli. others, in much the same way that sport variables specific to the sport, for ex- coaches use a play or scheme to “set up” ample, raising strength or power lev- In contrast to the concurrent approach another. The consensus arising from the els for sprinting or basketball. A spe- used in many basic and intermediate literature is to organize training pro- cial aspect of the competition phase is programs, sequenced training is a signifi- grams into 4-week periods, which seem peaking (for climatic sports), during cant departure (i.e., developing various to be an optimal biological window for which a taper allows sports perfor-

58 February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal mance attributes to increase to peak levels (likely as a result of fitness versus fatigue phenomena).

The length of time spent in each phase depends upon the (a) level and age of the athlete, (b) previous training history, (c) type of sport, and (d) length of the period. It is important to understand that these phases can be manipulated in a manner to fit most sports situations, including seasonal sports.

Using these basic concepts, my colleagues and I developed several models Figure 3. Model 3 (1995).* = 4 week concentrated loading phase;** = 1 week over- for periodization programs dealing with reaching phase;T = testosterone;T:C = testosterone:cortisol ratio. strength-power training. The first of these models was developed and used with athletes in late 1977 and early 1978 markedly. This phase is largely uni- by Harold O’Bryant, who describes this directional (mostly resistance train- Thus, this model starts with a high vol- model (and others) in his doctoral dis- ing is performed) and is usually part ume and moves to a lower volume in a sertation, and a first paper was subse- of a GP. stepwise fashion (not linear) offsetting quently published (13) describing the • Basic strength phase. This phase increases in TI. Although day-to-day very rudiments of this model on a meso- usually lasts 4 to 8 weeks and is of variation is not as necessary with ab- cycle level (several weeks). This model moderate volume typically charac- solute beginners, the use of this model was based on several factors, including terized by repetitions of 3 to 5 per with athletes has always included heavy arguments made by Tchinene, Haare, set. The primary purpose of this and light days, thus volume load “undu- Matveyev, and Verkoshansky. Essential- phase was to raise maximum lates” across a week and throughout the ly (on a mesocycle level) there are 4 strength levels, particularly in com- entire mesocycle (7). It is still my opin- phases involved (Figure 2): plex multi-joint movements. ion that this model is the superior train- • Strength-power phase. This phase ing method for novice strength-power • Concentrated loading (strength-en- usually lasts 4 weeks. Volume is low- athletes. We used this basic model in the durance) phase. This phase usually ered and is typically characterized by development of several national and in- lasts 4 weeks. Originally we termed 1 to 3 repetitions per set. The types ternational level athletes, including Joe this a hypertrophy phase; however, of exercises can become more Majacyzk (20-m + shotput) and Mike the purpose as described then and power–speed oriented if power and Davis (silver-medal winner in the 1983 now was to make positive alterations speed are a primary goal. If the Pan Games, Olympic Games 1984, 100- in body composition and, more im- mesocycle ended just before an im- kg weightlifting). Kyle Pierce (U.S. portantly, to alter the athlete’s high- portant contest, then a peaking Weightlifting Development Center, intensity exercise endurance—essen- phase or taper was added in which Louisiana State University, Shreveport) tially, to get the athlete into shape. the volume was lowered and either still uses this basic model in the develop- We observed (as did Verkoshansky) the TI or the EI was raised in accor- ment of young weightlifters. Shortly that this phase resulted in the im- dance with the demands of the sport. after this model was developed (1977 provement of certain attributes (i.e., In theory, the peaking phase takes and 1978), it became quite apparent to body composition and strength en- advantages of the fatigue-fitness re- us that greater variation in training was durance). However, maximum lationship (see question 3). necessary for advanced athletes, particu- strength, particularly power and • Active rest. This phase usually lasts 1 larly strength-power athletes. speed, did not always improve and week and allows the athlete to recov- often decreased among power ath- er physiologically and psychological- Between 1995 and 1997, we developed a letes. We further noted that after a ly. This can be low-volume, moder- model of training that we still use with few weeks of normal training, both ate-intensity resistance training; advanced athletes today. This model maximum strength and particularly some other activity or a combina- uses the concepts of concentrated load- power and speed often increased tion. ing and planned OR (Figure 3). Briefly,

February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 59 planned OR deals with sudden and marked increases in loading. Typically this loading lasts one week and may be termed concentrated loading. Power and speed are often decreased significantly during periods of concentrated loading. However, after a few weeks of normal training performance can significantly rebound. If a taper is added to the end of the mesocycle, then performance may increase even further. This model is di- vided into several 4-week blocks (summated microcycles). The first block be- gins with a concentrated load (sets of 10), again to ensure the athlete is in shape to train. The athlete then returns to normal training (4 weeks) with a strength-emphasis block. In the next 2 blocks, a planned OR paradigm is used. The concept is to periodically try to boost performance through supercompensation (stimulus, fatigue, recovery, adaptation) through the use of the OR Figure 4. The classic model for periodization using concepts of the Selye’s General phase and return to normal training and Adaptation Syndrome applied to training technology and theory.The exer- a taper (12). In consideration of the type cise stress is introduced and is followed by an alarm reaction,a period of of sport, exercise selection can vary adaptation,a performance plateau,and then a need for rest before the next through each block depending upon the cycle of training starting at a higher level of function. parameters of the sport (i.e., strength emphasis or power emphasis). We have his theory have shown that stress is not been termed the alarm reaction. If the used variations of this method in the general but very specific in its pattern organism survives, a period of adapta- training of several national and interna- and responses. These new findings fur- tion to the stimulus follows for a dura- tional sprinters, jumpers, throwers, and ther support the training principle of tion, leading to a plateau effect. One has weightlifters, both in the United States specificity, indicating that stimuli are a limited time on this plateau of adapta- and Great Britain. For example, Meg not a general phenomenon either. Nev- tion to the timulus if it is above the pres- Stone used a variation of this method in ertheless, Selye’s GAS provided a theo- timuli level. Then, if the stimulus is not developing the strength-power training retical framework for the need of varia- removed or reduced dramatically, a dra- program for Jonathan Edwards (gold- tion in training and, more importantly, matic fall-off can occur, caused by the medal winner, triple jump) leading up to the need for the withdrawal of the stres- organism’s inability to continue to toler- the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. sor at some point in time to allow the or- ate the level of stress experienced. In ganism to survive. This was an impor- human terms, this means that if the Question 3:What is the Physio- tant concept in the evolution of the stress of training is not altered or re- logical Basis Behind the Con- training principle of “progressive over- duced, or if active rest is not allowed, cept of Periodization? load” developed in part by the work of then the athlete can become sick, in- Thomas DeLorme (who just recently jured, experience acute OT, or worse. Kraemer: In general, the physiological passed away at age of 85) during the This was based on the potential biologi- basis for periodization historically ap- post–World War II years, focusing on cal backdrop for the concept of peri- pears to be based on the classic findings the physical rehabilitation of wounded odization in that there is an alarm phase of Hans Selye, a Canadian endocrinolo- soldiers (2). Thus, GAS has been written followed by an adaptation to a stimulus, gist who studied various types of biolog- about extensively and is in almost every followed by a plateau of performance ical stressors to organisms and coined textbook on resistance training. It starts and then staleness or sickness if rest is the concept of the “general adaptation with the introduction of the stimulus not provided. The programmed rest syndrome” (GAS; see Figure 4) (26, 27). that is novel, and this results in a reduc- phase then allows one to recover and get Ultimately, subsequent studies testing tion in performance during what has ready to undertake a new cycle of train-

60 February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal ing but from a higher level of adaptation than in the previous cycle. A new cycle is started, and the same series of events un- fold, but ultimately higher and higher plateaus of performance and adaptation are achieved leading up to one’s genetic potential for a particular variable. Key to this principle were again a number of factors, including a certain period of adaptation (e.g., 6 to 8 weeks), a plateau (e.g., 1 to 2 weeks), and exhaustion or death of the organism if the stimulus was not removed because of the inability to continue to adapt to the stress. Thus, the withdrawal of the stimulus was needed and to provide relief. The concept of planned cycles with rest and variation in the exercise-training stimulus are key to the concept of periodization (29, 31).

In addition, we have found that the extension of “size principle” of motor-unit recruitment is also important to under- Figure 5. A generic total spectrum is represented in this graphic representation of a standing the biology of periodization theoretical motor unit that has a full array of motor units.RM=repetition maximum. (4). The basis of this is related to the variation of loading resulting in different recruitment patterns of muscle. Not patterns of motor units may mediate at all; thus, speed and power activities all motor units are used for every “set, high-power outputs that require both are accomplished by some level of use of rep, resistance” in a workout. The varia- force and velocity adjustments. There higher threshold type 1 motor units. tion in the recruitment of motor units is are even cases of exception to size princi- vital for providing variation in the stim- ple to augment the speed of recruitment In other words, each motor unit has a ulus to the muscle-mass recruitment. of the high-threshold motor units by in- given number of muscle fibers associat- Thus, on a light day, one will not be re- hibition of the lower threshold motor ed with it. This ranges from slow motor cruiting the same motor units as on a units. Variation in the resistances used, units with low thresholds and few fibers heavy day, thereby allowing such higher the volume of exercise, and the metabol- at the lower end of a spectrum to high- motor units active recovery. Although ic demands will create different patterns threshold motor units with many large this relates to the physiological disposi- of motor unit recruitment supporting type 2 fibers at the upper end of the tion of the individual, the concept ap- the concept of variation in training. spectrum and mixes in between. These plies. In Figure 5 you can see a graphic Higher motor units do not like to be re- fibers contain either type 1 or type 2 representation of the size principle as peatedly activated, leading to various muscle fibers and are of various sizes and applied to recruitment of motor units. types of motor unit recruitment patterns recruitment thresholds. Recruitment Each circle represents a group of muscle in lower threshold motor units (e.g., starts with the lower motor units and fibers recruited by a motor neuron. On asynchronous recruitment patterns). goes to higher and higher electrochemi- the basis of size principle, many sizing Not all motor units have all the ranges of cal threshold as motor units are recruit- factors can come into play: the size of capability, as this total spectrum unit ed to meet the demands. Not all individ- the electrical threshold, the size of the portrayed in Figure 5. For example, uals have the same number of motor motor unit, the size of the fibers, etc. In higher threshold motor units may be units, owing to the differences in force general, motor units are small and large, lost with aging. With some athletes such and power production capabilities we and as one ramps up to maximal force as cross-country runners, more type 1 see in different muscles and human be- production, more and more motor units motor units may exist in a locomotion ings. With periodization, the goals of are recruited to meet the demands of the muscle, and only a very small percentage using different motor unit recruitment external load. In addition, specialized of type 2 motor units would be present if patterns is vital, as muscle-mass recruit-

February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 61 ed and total work done has dramatic im- periods of training that promote grams as well. It can be easy to get into plications on a host of physiological power followed by periods of train- a specificity trap with elite athletes by support systems and adaptations that ing that emphasize speed of move- excluding many viable GP methods. In take place outside the muscle tissue it- ment will tend to increase the poten- principle, it is true that such methods self. Such recruitment patterns dictate tial for improvements in speed. play a limited role for qualified ath- cardiovascular stress, endocrine respons- letes. In practice, however, we run the es, immune responses and repair, and Pendlay: Hans Selye described the GAS risk of monotony and stagnation prob- connective tissue responses, to mention as consisting of an alarm stage, a resis- lems if we do not prescribe enough a few major systems. Remember, all tance-development stage, and an ex- stimulus variation. In my experience, physiological responses to resistance haustion stage (5). If the same training this is where training tactics based on training start with the workout resis- stimulus is presented again and again, it “acute after-effect” phenomena (e.g., tances and muscle mass used to perform will eventually either fail to elicit an postactivation potentiation) are most the exercises (16). This leads to a very alarm or will lead to exhaustion. In a pe- useful. Examples of these include com- specific pattern of physiological re- riodized program, training stress is var- bination and hybrid exercises, complex sponse to a workout and training pro- ied over time to continue to reach the re- training, wave loading, and so on, gram. Variation is a key to the progres- sistance-development stage but not to where one type of stimulus is used to sion of resistance training. reach the exhaustion stage. enhance impulse or power output in another. In this way, movements that Finally, periodization is the needed con- Plisk: Selye’s GAS concept seems to be are not mechanically specific to an ath- cept, as it relates to the principle of train- the prevailing theory upon which peri- lete’s sport can still be used to augment ing variation and further defines the prin- odization is based. The fitness-fatigue the effects of those that are. ciple and method of progressive overload model is another important theory with with long-term training (13, 16). important implications for program Stone: There are several underlying planning and management. I will limit mechanistic concepts and theories that O’Bryant: my comments to some practical consid- can be discussed in this context. • Physiological fatigue can act as a erations, as I am not as qualified to ad- stimulus. When this stimulus is fol- dress these issues as are Drs Kraemer, • Selye’s GAS. Although GAS was not lowed by adequate recovery, physio- O’Bryant, and Stone. originally created to deal directly logical adaptations occur (biochemi- with sports, many of its tenants do cal, cellular structure, etc) which From a chronic programming stand- help explain some of the observed may include increases in muscle hy- point, we should appreciate that the phenomena associated with physical pertrophy, energy reserves, and other GAS becomes more of a specific adapta- training. Although we know now changes, both muscular and neuro- tion syndrome as each athlete’s develop- that the GAS does not explain all re- logical. Repeated over time, the cu- ment advances (in keeping with the said actions to stress (reactions to stress mulative effect can lead to enhanced principle). In novices, however, basic or are not necessarily that general), physical performance. However, in- nonspecific training methods can yield GAS can serve as a model to help un- adequate recovery leads to accumu- relatively broad improvements in per- derstand the need for variation in lated fatigue and can be counterpro- formance. This has important ramifica- sports training. This concept basical- ductive. Periodized training is tions when interpreting the research be- ly deals with the idea that stress (in designed to properly manage fatigue cause many studies involve previously small amounts) can cause beneficial and recovery to maximize the benefi- untrained athletes, and thus results can- adaptation but can also become ac- cial effects of supercompensation not be generalized to advanced popula- cumulative, and that if total stressors while reducing the potential for OT. tions (fortunately, the body of evidence become too great the normal adap- • Sequenced training can lead to im- examining intermediate and advanced tive systems no longer operate effi- proved physical performance. Pro- subjects is steadily growing). It also ciently and breakdown eventually gression from one type of training means that training methods used by ad- occurs. Thus, to survive and adapt, may enhance the benefits obtained vanced athletes are not necessarily the an organism needs periodic breaks from subsequent training of a differ- best way for beginners to become ad- for stressors. The breakdown process ent type. Training protocols that vanced. Some coaches and athletes do for athletes is believed to progress promote basic strength followed by not believe or understand that. through various stages such as accu- protocols that focus more on power mulative fatigue, OR, and OT, with will tend to increase the potential for This issue has important implications each stage having more serious con- improvements in power. Likewise, when planning advanced training pro- sequences and taking longer for re-

62 February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal covery. Thus, relief (i.e., variation) tigue model proposes that they riods that are vital for recovery and from constant or overwhelming have opposing and antagonistic ef- restoration of physiological mechanisms stress is paramount. Garhammer (5) fects. This has an important impli- and body structures (e.g., muscle has presented an excellent descrip- cation: Performance is optimized fibers). Another key is the variation in tion of the adaptation of GAS to resulting from a training process loading and intensity over time. We sports training. that minimizes the fatigue respons- have found that if you provide complete • Stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adap- es to training and exercise stimuli days of rest even with very heavy lifting tation. This mechanistic theory while maximizing the fitness re- (multiple 1RMs) or even high-volume deals with the concept of supercom- sponses. It should also be noted training, OT can be avoided (6). Others pensation, which is basically an that this theory is the basis of a may have their impressions, but it is as adaptation to an appropriate stimu- taper effect. simple to me as rest at the right time of lus. Basically, an organism is exposed • Sequenced potentiation. Associated the training cycle. one have written ex- to a stimulus that, while causing fa- with the concentrated loading theo- tensively on how one can make mistakes tigue, sets in motion underlying ry is the concept of sequenced train- in program design by allowing the rate physiological mechanisms (i.e., bio- ing and one training phase potenti- of progression to move up too quickly in chemical, hormonal), which, during ating the subsequent phase. For its stress level (19). Beyond making dra- the recovery process, cause adapta- example, Wilson et al. (19) demon- matic mistakes in designing the workout tions allowing the organisms to “per- strated that among heavy weight- protocol, rest is the key. form” at a higher level. These poten- trained subjects with reasonable tial supercompensations could maximum strength levels, switching Again, operationally one can recover include increases in energy stores, to high-power training (squats) im- from acute OT that may not show a re- hypertrophy, neuromuscular adapta- proved a variety of performance vari- bound in performance and might be tions, or hormonal alterations. ables beyond those of continued termed staleness. But such staleness These physiological adaptations heavy weight training. Similar obser- may well be the precursor to chronic would then lead to enhanced perfor- vations have been made among elite OT if not addressed. The key is to pro- mance. This concept is not limited weightlifters (9) and American colle- vide rest and the removal of the OT to a single exercise-stimulus response giate football players (6). This sug- stimuli in the workout program. Be- but may be viewed on a longer basis gests that for increasing power and cause OT has many different faces relat- producing training adaptations. For speed, a training and periodized/ ed to its etiology, the coach must care- example, Verkoshansky (17, 18) variation sequence emphasizing fully view the athlete on holistic terms. noted that a concentrated load of strength, power, and speed may pro- In addition, we often focus so much on strength or strength-endurance duce superior results. the weight room that we forget to real- training for several weeks could re- ize that the sport coach can do more sult in a diminished speed-strength Question 4:Periodization is damage to quality workouts and create (power) capability among track-and- Often Suggested to Allow for OT in arising from their practice de- field athletes. Upon returning to the Avoidance of OT.What is the mands and supplemental training. normal training, increased power Mechanism Within the Peri- Thus, in the case of true OT the key is performance can often be observed, odized Training Model That Al- to start a rest and restoration phase in sometimes beyond baseline values. lows for the Avoidance of OT? your training cycle while you further Similar results have been observed How Should Training Variables analyze the situation and plan the pro- among young weight-lifters after a be Altered in the Event that OT gression back to a baseline of expected planned high-volume OR phase (3, Does Occur? improvement or maintenance. Sport 12) and may be linked to alterations practice and demands play a big role in in anabolic and catabolic hormones. Kraemer: With one of the contribu- the total stress on an athlete. Although • Fitness-fatigue relationship. Ac- tors to this roundtable and a former beyond the scope of this roundtable, cording to this theory, sport pre- member of my laboratory group, An- psychological factors, coping skills, paredness is defined as the summa- drew Fry and I have done many studies school learning skills, and nutrition also tion of 2 after-effects of training on acute OT in my laboratory over the affect the total OT phenomenon. stress: fatigue and fitness (20). In years, and the key factor in these studies contrast to the supercompensation has been the use of complete rest to O’Bryant: theory based on a cause-and-effect eliminate or reduce the impact of a per- Within an appropriately planned train- relationship between these factors formance decrement being observed ing cycle, small day-to-day adjustments (i.e., adaptation), the fitness-fa- (5–10, 19). Periodization plans rest pe- can be made to carefully manage fatigue

February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 63 and recovery, maximizing the beneficial mediate rest for several weeks followed the program. As scientists, we have care- effects (see response to previous ques- by slowly moving back to normal train- fully tried to quantify this in both spe- tion 3) while reducing the potential for ing is a necessity (all done using careful cific and general models as being more OT. monitoring for the signs and symp- optimal than other forms of training toms of OT). progressions. We have tried to get be- A more prolonged intervention is usu- yond the level of opinion and provide ally necessary when “true” OT has oc- Question 5:There is a lot of De- some data to work with. This is key to curred (see response to question 1). A bate in the Current Literature my approach in training-program de- drastic reduction in training volume about Nonlinear and Linear velopment. Such data seem to support or intensity, if not total rest for several Periodization.Can you Com- the use of very dramatically different training sessions (up to several weeks ment About These Suggested training days, ranging from a base of 3 if not months), can be required. This Permutations of Periodization different training days, for example, to should be followed with a gradual in- and How They May be Utilized many more with completely different crease in training volume or intensity in the Preparation of Athletes? target goals for that training session and over several training sessions before very little cross-over of another style of normal training levels can be re- Kraemer: My laboratory group and training during that session to allow sumed. collaborators over the years have used motor units to be very selectively re- this concept out of necessity because of cruited. Thus, when we are training on Pendlay: The variation of training its suitability for academic sports train- a heavy day, for example, with a 3 to stress and the variation of training ing situations and ease in administra- 5RM zone for our exercises, there are means present within a periodized tion in multi-competition sports with not a lot of light repetitions performed program should help avoid OT. A long seasons (4, 12, 17, 20). The termi- except for needed warm-up. On light good coach should also be mindful of nology and support that the idea that days, one never gets into the resting how the athlete responded to the last we are periodizing the training program heavy and power recruitment patterns, training period. For example, if the are vital, but the so-called nonlinear ap- thus providing a very different physio- preparatory period before the last proach is just a way that appears to be logical experience for the workout that competition was successful, a coach more dramatic in its temporal variation day. might plan a slightly higher volume during a microcycle than are the stan- for the present preparatory period. Or, dard classical methods. We have had Here is an example of a nonlinear peri- if a coach has an athlete coming out of much success here at the University of odized training program that has been a preparatory period who is showing Connecticut over the past couple of developed to maintain variation in the signs of impending OT, he or she years in our research and with sport training stimulus. The nonlinear pro- might lower the volume of this com- teams using this general approach. Our gram allows for variation in the intensi- petitive period as compared with the strength coach, Andrea Hudy, has used ty and volume within each week over last one to allow for regeneration and the undulating format design of train- the course of the training program plan a longer than usual transition pe- ing with our women’s basketball pro- mesocycle (e.g., 16 weeks). The change riod after the competition. In the gram and has had a great deal of success in the intensity and volume of training event of OT, volume and intensity that we hope to quantify in the near fu- will vary within the 7- to 14-day rota- should be lowered, and the means of ture in research and journal articles. I tion periods. An example of a nonlinear training should be changed. The goal like to think that this type of periodiza- periodized training program over a 16- of training should be the same as a tion model evolved in the academic cal- week mesocycle would be: transition period: to preserve general endars with student athletes and sports conditioning while allowing rest and that were not a so-called single-compe- Monday recuperation. tition peaking sport. Nevertheless, the 4 sets of 12 to 15RM variation in the 7- to 10-day cycle is ei- Stone: See the answers to question 3. ther planned or can be reactive to the Wednesday Training variables are altered in a man- changing terrain of the athlete’s health, 4 sets of 8 to 10RM ner consistent with the cycle level (i.e., schedule, practice demands, etc. For ex- macro, meso, etc)—the primary por- ample, if the coach has a hard practice, a Friday tion of a periodized training scheme, planned power day may not be optimal, 3 to 4 sets of 4 to 6RM which minimizes the OT potential, is so one can switch in the session to a at the microcycle level (i.e., day-to-day light day for local muscular endurance. Monday variation). If true OT does occur, im- This gives a great deal of flexibility to 4 to 5 sets of 1 to 3RM

64 February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal This protocol uses a 4-day rotation with 1 day of rest between workouts. Table 2 Example Training Day Continuum for Strength and Power Loadings for The variation in training is much greater a Nonlinear Periodized Training Program.Any 3-Repetition Range Can within the week. One can easily see that Be Used and is Speciﬁc to the Type of Exercise and Equipment Being Used in a Training Program intensity spans over a maximum of a 14RM range (possible 1RM sets versus Training zone (RM) Intensity of training day 15RM sets in the week cycle). This span in training variation appears to be as ef- 1–3 Very, very heavy to very heavy fective as linear programs. One can also 4–6 Very heavy to heavy add a “power” training day where loads 7–9 Heavy to moderate may be from 30 to 45% of 1RM and re- 10–12 Moderate to light lease of the mass is allowed if no deceler- 13–15 Light to very light ation exists with the movement of the >15 Very light to very,very light joint or joints. In fact, we have a whole continuum of choice for the nonlinear Power Day Training Day: Plyo’s,medicine ball exercises,high velocity,and light workout possibilities that can be cycled percentage using 3–6 repetition limits for attaining peak velocities and maximum though over a 14-day microcycle, de- accelerations in the workout.RM indicates repetition maximum. pending upon the goals of the athlete (Table 2). form it on Wednesday and continue and intensity that occur within a mi- Different from the linear programs is with the rotation sequence. In this way, crocycle—also represented by microcy- the practice that one trains the different no workout stimulus is missed in the cles in a mesocycle and mesocycles in a components of muscle size and strength training program. One can also say that macrocycle—exhibit a nonlinear pat- within the same week. Different from a mesocycle will be completed when a tern. Therefore, all periodization is the linear methods, nonlinear programs certain number of workouts are com- characterized by periods of high inten- attempt to train different adaptational pleted (e.g., 48) and do not use training sity or volume alternating with periods aspects of the neuromuscular system weeks to set the program length. of lower intensity or volume to facili- within the same microcycle. Thus, one tate recovery and to maximize perfor- is working at different physiological Again, the primary exercises are typical- mance (6). adaptations together within the same 7- ly periodized, but one can also use a 2- to 14-day period of the 16-week mesocycle program to vary the small-muscle Pendlay: Periodization is, by nature, cycle. A rest or restoration cycle then group exercises. For example, in the “tri- nonlinear. A particular periodized follows this training cycle. This appears ceps push-down” one could rotate be- training program appears linear only if possible and may be more conducive to tween the moderate (8 to 10RM) and it is viewed in too small a timeframe. many individuals’ schedules, especially the heavy (4 to 6RM) cycle intensities. Periodized programs can have vastly when competitions, travel or other This would provide the hypertrophy different frequencies of undulation: schedule conflicts, practice demands, needed for such isolated muscles of a One may appear nonlinear when sickness, etc, can make the traditional joint but also provide the strength need- viewed for only a month, whereas an- linear method structures difficult to ad- ed to support heavier workouts of the other may appear linear unless viewed here to and train large groups of ath- large-muscle groups. for more than a year. For example, letes. Chandler (2) noted that the program O’Bryant: Some have described linear presented by Stone (6) had been de- In this program, one just rotates periodization as variation of the TI over scribed as linear but would appear through the different protocols. The several weeks of training with nonlin- nonlinear if one were to view repetitive workout rotates between very heavy, ear periodization as variation of the TI applications of the program. Poloquin heavy, moderate, and light training ses- and volume over a week with differ- (4) asserts that linear overloading is sions. If one misses the Monday work- ences from day to day (1). However, by hardly advisable for the athlete and of- out, the rotation order is pushed for- definition, any periodization should be fers an undulating approach, yet his ward, meaning one performs the rotated considered nonlinear. Although the program could be termed linear if workout scheduled. For example, if the general loading process (with respect to viewed for only 4 weeks. Although light 12 to 15 workout was scheduled initial training levels) overtime may be there are data that show periodized for Monday and you miss it, you per- considered linear, variations in volume programs, which both undulate (3)

February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 65 and do not undulate (7) within the ex- Stone: By definition, linear periodiza- manipulated (i.e., macro, meso, micro, perimental time frame, are superior to tion is not possible. Therefore, linear pe- daily, summated microcycles). nonperiodized programs, the optimal riodization cannot be used in any popu- • The degree of undulation depends frequency of undulation for a peri- lation because it is not possible to upon the type of sport (i.e., seasonal, cli- odized program is likely to be specific achieve (16). Part of the confusion as to matic, etc). to the athlete. terminology stems from 2 common er- • The degree of undulation depends rors: upon the level of athlete with the degree Plisk: The term linear periodization of undulation increasing with the ad- has been used to describe training cy- The first is equating volume of training vancement of the athlete. ♦ cles involving gradual, progressive in- with repetitions. Although repetitions creases in intensity and was originally do influence volume, repetitions are not References adopted by Baker et al. (1) from a dis- a reasonable measure of training vol- Kraemer cussion of problems with linear intensi- ume. The volume of strength training is 1. Campos G.E., T.J. Luecke, H.K. Wen- fication strategies by Poliquin (2). This more accurately estimated using volume deln, K. Toma, F.C. Hagerman, T.F. term is simplistic and misleading. It load (repetitions multiplied by mass lift- Murray, K.E. Ragg, N.A. Ratamess, would be more appropriate to refer to ed). The volume load can be associated W.J. Kraemer, and R.S. Staron. Mus- traditional or nontraditional periodiza- with energy expenditure and perfor- cular adaptations in response to three tion models because, by definition, pe- mance outcomes; repetitions usually different resistance-training regimens: riodization involves nonlinear varia- cannot be associated with these vari- Specificity of repetition maximum tions in training parameters. This issue ables. Although, simplistically, using training zones. Eur. J. Appl. Physio. is addressed in more detail in letters to repetitions to describe a periodization 88(1–2):50–60. 2002. the editor by Stone and O’Bryant (3) model as linear appears to fit (i.e., 10 to 2. DeLorme, T.L., and A.L. Watkins. and Stone and Wathen (4). 5 to 3 repetitions), closer inspection of Techniques of progressive resistance the volume load and TI (average load) exercise. Arch. Phys. Med. 29:263–273. Responses to question 2 offer some and EI (power output) typically shows 1948. ideas on permutations and their appli- considerable variation (7). 3. Fleck, S.J., and W.J. Kraemer. Peri- cation. I would add a few general guide- odization Breakthrough. Ronkonkoma, lines: The second error, and perhaps more se- NY: Advanced Research Press, 1996. rious, is that the term linear is often 4. Fleck, S.J., and W.J. Kraemer. Design- • As mentioned above, all athletes misconstrued to encompass long-term ing Resistance Training Programs (3rd should begin at a basic level and periodization rather then the mesocy- ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics then progress through an intermedi- cle-length model for which the term Publishers, 2004. pp. 209–239. ate developmental process, whereas was originally (and erroneously) ap- 5. Fry, A.C., and W.J. Kraemer. Resis- few achieve what would be consid- plied. Even considering repetitions tance exercise overtraining and over- ered the “sport mastery” stage by in- alone, if one repeated the model for an- reaching, Sports Med. 23(2):106–129. ternational standards. It is a serious other mesocycle, undulation would be 1997. mistake to perceive the first 2 ap- apparent over a long term. 6. Fry, A.C., W.J. Kraemer, J.M. Lynch, proaches as being inferior or in- N.T. Triplett, and L.P. Koziris. Does significant and to attempt advanced There is little doubt that variation is a short-term near maximal intensity ma- tactics too early in an athlete’s long- key training principle and is a basic tent chine resistance training induce over- term preparation. of periodization; if one considers undu- training? J. Strength Cond. Res. •Stressors should be applied strategi- lation to be a function of variation in 8(3):188–191. 1994. cally, regarding integration rather volume, intensity factors, and exercise 7. Fry, A.C., W.J. Kraemer, M.H. Stone, than isolation of responses to stimuli. selection, then: B.J. Warren, S.J. Fleck, J.T. Kearney, •A periodized plan should reflect an and S.E. Gordon. Endocrine responses increasing level of micromanagement •All periodized models undulate; to over-reaching before and after 1 year as the athlete’s development pro- otherwise, the definition of periodiza- of weightlifting training. Can. J. Appl. gresses. This does not mean that all tion must be altered. Physiol. 19(4):400–410. 1994. decisions should be deferred to the • The degree of undulation depends 8. Fry, A.C., W.J. Kraemer, F. van Borse- coach; instead, more sophisticated upon how these training variables are len, J.M. Lynch, J.L. Marsit, E.P. Roy, variation should be applied on multi- manipulated over time. N.T. Triplett, and H.G. Knuttgen. ple fronts (i.e., training methods and • The degree of undulation depends Performance decrements with high- means, within and between cycles). upon how many time levels are being intensity resistance exercise overtrain-

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William J. Kraemer, PhD, is currently a full professor in the Human Performance Laboratory in Department of Kinesiology with a joint appointment as a full professor in the Department of Physiology and Neurobiology at the University of Con- necticut,Storrs,CT.

Harold O’Bryant, PhD, is currently the Exercise Science Program Director and also directs the Biomechanics Laboratory at Appalachian State University, Boone, NC.

Glenn Pendlay, MS, is the head coach for the Wichita Falls Weightlifting Team based in Wichita Falls,TX.

Steven Plisk, MS, CSCS, *D, is the Sports Performance Director at Velocity Sports Performance in Norwalk,CT.

Michael H. Stone, PhD, is currently the Head of Sports Physiology for the USOC. Previously he was Chair of Sport at Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, Scotland.

February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 69