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Japan and the IWC: Investigating Japan's Whaling Policy Objectives

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Japan and the IWC: Investigating Japan's Whaling Policy Objectives Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 2008-2009 Japan and the IWC: Investigating Japan’s Whaling Policy Objectives Master’s Dissertation for obtaining the degree MASTER IN LANGUAGE AND REGIONAL STUDIES: JAPANOLOGY Judith Wouters Promoter: Dr. Michael Schiltz TABLE OF CONTENTS Japanese Table of Contents ( 目次) iv Japanese Abstract ( 要旨) vi Acknowledgements vii Acronyms and Abbreviations viii List of Figures x List of Tables xi Introduction 1 1 The International Whaling Commission in Short 5 1.1 Background 5 1.2 Coming into existence of the ICRW and IWC 6 1.3 Functioning of the IWC 7 1.4 IWC regulations 9 1.4.1 Blue Whale Unit 10 1.4.2 New Management Procedure 11 1.4.3 Moratorium on commercial whaling 12 1.4.4 Revised Management Procedure and Revised Management Scheme 15 1.4.5 Sanctuaries 16 1.5 Important Discussions in the IWC 17 1.5.1 Science and the Precautionary Prinicple 17 1.5.2 Preservation and Conservation 18 1.5.3 Local whaling cultures, Aboriginal subsistence whaling and commercial whaling 18 2 The History of Japanese Whaling until 1951 23 2.1 Ancient whaling 24 2.2 From passive to active whaling 25 2.3 American-Style whaling 30 2.4 Norwegian-Style whaling 31 2.5 From coastal to pelagic whaling 35 3 The IWC and Japans Whaling History since 1951 41 3.1 1949-1959: The whaling nations club 41 3.2 1960-1971: The whaling modernization era 44 3.3 1972-1981: The new management procedure era 46 3.4 1982-1996: Peak of anti-whaling power stage 48 3.5 1997-2005: Dysfunctionality stage 52 3.6 2006-2009: Intention of normalization stage 55 ii 4 The Japanese Pro- and Anti-Whaling Movement 64 4.1 The Anti-whaling movement 64 4.1.1 Actors 64 NGOs 64 Opinion Polls 66 Media 67 4.1.2 Issues 69 Involvement in pirate whaling 69 Infractions 70 Contaminated whale meat 72 Vote-buying through ODA 73 Whale meat embezzlement scandal 75 4.2 The Pro-whaling movement 77 4.2.1 Actors 77 Governmental bodies: MAFF, FA and MOFA 77 Parliamentarians and Political Parties 78 Government-affiliated organizations: ICR and Geishoku Labo 78 Media 80 NGOs 81 Opinion Polls 82 4.2.2 Issues 83 Science, sustainable whaling and normalization of the IWC 83 Whaling and the food crisis 84 Moratorium as a threat to natural resource regimes 85 Cultural relationship with whales 86 Japan bashing and cultural imperialism 88 4.3 Empirical research: questionnaire 89 4.3.1 National questionnaire 89 4.3.2 International questionnaire 94 5 Japan’s Whaling Policy Objectives Investigated 103 5.1 Economical arguments 103 5.2 Cultural arguments 109 5.2.1 The ‘dietary culture’ argument 109 5.2.2 The ‘whaling culture’ argument 111 5.2.3 Plurality of Japanese man-whale relationships 112 5.2.4 Cultural arguments as a political construct 113 5.3 Sovereignty and food security arguments 114 5.4 Political arguments 116 Conclusion 120 Appendices 125 Japanese Summary of the Chapters (各章抄訳) 152 Bibliography 168 iii 目次 日本語での要旨 v 謝辞 vi 頭字語と省略 vii 図表のリスト viii 表のリスト ix 序論 1 1 国際捕鯨委員会 IWC の紹介 5 1.1 背景 5 1.2 国際捕鯨取締条約と国際捕鯨委員会の誕生 6 1.3 IWC の 機能 7 1.4 IWC の規則 9 1.4.1 シロナガスクジラ単位 10 1.4.2 新管理方式 11 1.4.3 商業捕鯨モラトリアム 12 1.4.4 改定管理方式と改定管理制度 15 1.4.5 サンクチュアリ 16 1.5 IWC での重要な議題 17 1.5.1 科学と予防原則 17 1.5.2 保存と持続可能な利用 18 1.5.3 地域的捕鯨文化、先住民による捕鯨、商業捕鯨 18 2 1951 年までの日本の捕鯨史 23 2.1 古代の捕鯨 24 2.2 受身的捕鯨から活動的捕鯨まで 25 2.3 アメリカ風の捕鯨 30 2.4 ノルウェー風の捕鯨 31 2.5 沿岸捕鯨から遠洋捕鯨まで 35 3 IWC ととと 1951 年からの日本の捕鯨史 41 3.1 1949-1959: 捕鯨国のサロン 41 3.2 1960-1971: 捕鯨の正常化時代 44 3.3 1972-1981: 新管理方式時代 46 3.4 1982-1996: 反捕鯨勢力全盛期 48 3.5 1997-2005: 機能不全期 52 3.6 2006-2009: 正常化志向期 55 iv 4 日本の反捕鯨運動と捕鯨支持運動 64 4.1 反捕鯨運動 64 4.1.1 主な担い手 64 NGO 64 世論調査 66 メディア 67 4.1.2 重要な話題 69 海賊捕鯨への日本の関与 69 日本による違反 70 汚染された鯨肉 72 日本政府開発援助での票の買収 73 鯨肉の横領事件 75 4.2 捕鯨支持運動 77 4.2.1 主な担い手 77 行政体: MAFF, FA 、MOFA 77 国会議員と政党 78 政府関係機関: ICR と鯨食ラボ 78 メディア 80 NGO 81 世論調査 82 4.2.2 重要な話題 83 科学、持続可能な捕鯨, IWC の正常化 83 捕鯨と食料危機 84 商業捕鯨モラトリアムの天然資源への懸念 85 鯨との文化的関係 86 ジャパンバッシングと文化帝国主義 88 4.3 実証的研究: アンケート 89 4.3.1 国内のアンケート 89 4.3.2 国外のアンケート 94 5 日本の捕鯨推進を研究する 103 5.1 経済的な理由 103 5.2 文化的な理由 109 5.2.1 鯨食文化の論議 109 5.2.2 捕鯨文化の論議 111 5.2.3 日本人と鯨の複数個の関係 112 5.3 日本の主権と食糧安全保障の理由 114 5.4 政治的な理由 116 結論 120 付録 125 日本語での要約 152 参考文献 168 v 要旨 １９６０年代以来、クジラは環境保護運動の象徴になっていった。その頃までに、多数の鯨類が絶滅 の瀬戸際に立たされていた。多くの人々にクジラが他の動物より頭がよく、優しい動物だから、鯨資 源の大きさにも拘らず、絶滅を避けるべきだと思われている。その西洋のクジラへの立場のため、ほ とんどの欧米諸国が商業的捕鯨作業に猛烈に反対している。国際捕鯨委員会もこの欧米諸国の観点を 支持している。１９８６年から２００６年まで捕鯨支持国が反対捕鯨国を超え、過半数を獲得したこ とがなかった。その間日本が毎回提出した提案が否決された。国際捕鯨取締条約の第八条の下、現代 日本が南極海と北西太平洋で調査捕鯨を行っている。この作業も国際捕鯨委員会(IWC)及び非政府組 織(NGO)によって「他の名の下での商業捕鯨」として痛烈に批判されている。 本稿は、「捕鯨問題の発端と解決法は何か」という質問を幾つかの他の質問に答えることにより明ら かにすることを目的としている。この質問は、まず「日本はどの論議で捕鯨の継続を正当化するか」、 そして「日本の内外でどのように日本の IWC での立場と日本の捕鯨作業は反応するか」、最後に 「実は日本政府がどうして、経済に対する利益がなく国際的に摩擦を生じる作業に固執しているか」 である。 国際捕鯨委員会の背景、日本捕鯨の歴史、「日本はどうして捕鯨をあきらめたくないか」に関するさ まざまな文献を参照した。さらに「日本国内外の反応」に関しては NGO を対象にアンケート調査を 行った。日本の NGO へのアンケートは日本語で、国外の NGO へのアンケートは英語で行った。 本稿では、過去と現在の日本の捕鯨政策目標の根拠を明らかにしてみた。第一章では、鯨に関する決 定が行われる国際政治団体の IWC について説明した。第二章では、1951 年までの日本の捕鯨史の歴 史的概観を述べた。捕鯨業はさまざまな段階を経て発達したことが分かった。しかしながら、捕鯨が 全国的な産業になったのは第二次世界大戦後である。第三章では、1951 年から 2009 までの IWC と日 本の相互作用について説明した。1986 年に商業捕鯨のモラトリアムが採用されたのに、日本はとめど なく捕鯨作業を続けた。商業捕鯨を止める代わりに、1987 年から ICRW の第八条の基で調査捕鯨を始 めた。その年から、日本は調査捕鯨プログラムを海域でも鯨種でも今、大体工業規模で捕鯨している 程度まで拡充した。第四章では、国内の反捕鯨運動と捕鯨支持運動の主な担い手と話題の概観を述べ た。本章は、日本の捕鯨支持運動の担い手のより多くが、2008 の鯨肉横領事件があってから、日本の 捕鯨作業に対しての批判の声は強くなっていることを示した。 最後に、第五章では、経済的利益も国家的伝統文化を失う恐れも日本の捕鯨政策目標の根拠ではない ことを仮説として取り上げた。それよりも、食糧安全保障、日本の主権、FA の政治力は大事な役割 を果たす。日本は強く海洋資源に頼っているので、日本の人口を養うために鯨やイルカなどの共有的 資源を使うのは国権だと思っている。 しかし、特に官職・予算・権威、つまり政治力を失う FA での 捕鯨部の心配が日本の捕鯨政策を決定する。それ故に、私は、FA の捕鯨部に非致死的な鯨とイルカ の使用に関して官職・予算・政治力を保持できるように代替の権威を与えると、捕鯨問題に解決策を 与えられると考える。 vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to express my thanks to a number of people who have helped me through the process of writing this dissertation. First of all, I would like to thank the Belgian delegation for letting me be part of their team at the 61 st IWC plenary meeting in Madeira. Thank you Alexandre de Lichtervelde, for reading my draft chapters and sharing with me your opinions on the content of the dissertation and the whaling issue as a whole; thank you Fabian Ritter, for the interesting conversations we have had on whale population estimates and Japanese whaling. It is important to note, however, that despite having attended the 2009 IWC meeting as a member of the Belgian delegation, the views expressed in this dissertation are entirely my own and do not represent the Belgian position. In Madeira I have also benefited from conversations about the contents of this dissertation with US delegate Bob Brownell and NGO officials John Frizell (Greenpeace), Junichi Sato (Greenpeace Japan), Naoko Funahashi (IFAW Japan), Nanami Kurasawa (IKAN), and Paul Watson (Sea Shepherd). Further, I would like to thank all NGOs that were so kind to take their time to fill out the national and international questionnaire on the NGO stance on Japanese whaling. Thank you Masami Watanabe for helping me correct the Japanese questions for the domestic questionnaire. Thanks also go to the IWC Secretariat for providing me with a list and contact details of NGOs that attend IWC meetings. Special thanks go to Sidney Holt for giving me valuable information and reading my draft chapters. I am very grateful for your efforts. Erwin Van den Enden, thank you for (despite a busy schedule) taking the time to read my draft chapters. On a more personal note I want to show my gratification to my boyfriend Ken Van den Enden for supporting me through the process of writing this dissertation. Thank you for reminding me that whaling is in important topic that deserves effort at times I needed that extra push. Of course I am also grateful for the support of my parents throughout my academic career and who have supported me with my choice of study. Finally, it would not be a fair acknowledgement without recognizing the input of my promoter Michael Schiltz and the help of my teacher Japanese Naoko Sakurai for correcting my Japanese abstract and summary. Thank you! vii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS BWU Blue Whale Unit CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species DPJ Democratic Party of Japan EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EIA Environmental Investigation Agency FA Fisheries Agency FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GJ Greenpeace Japan GOJ Government of Japan HSI Humane Society International ICR Institute for Cetacean Research ICRW International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling IDCR International Decade for Cetacean Research IFAW International Fund for Animal Welfare IKAN Dolphin and Whale Action Network IMO International Maritime Organization INGO International Non Governmental Organization IWC International Whaling Commission IWMC International Wildlife Management Consortium JARPA Japan’s Special Permit Research on Minke Whales in the Antarctic JARPN Japan’s Special Permit Research in the North Pacific JCP Japan Communist Party JSTWA Japan Small Type Whaling Association JWA Japan Whaling Association LDP Liberal Democratic Party LTCW Large Type Coastal Whaling MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries MEXT Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology MOFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs MSY Maximum Sustainable Yield NAMMCO North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission NGO Non Governmental Organization NKP New K ōmeito Party NMP New Management Procedure NPO Non Profit Organization ODA Official Developmental Assistance OFCF Overseas Fisheries Cooperation Foundation PP Precautionary Principle RMP Revised Management Procedure RMS Revised Management Scheme SC Scientific Committee SOWER Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research SOS Southern Ocean Sancutary STCW Small
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