Contact 3 HAWK Soziale Arbeit und Gesundheit im Gespräch Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaft und Kunst Hildesheim/Holzminden/Göttingen University of Applied Sciences and Arts | Faculty of Social Work and Health Hohnsen 1 | 31134 Hildesheim | Germany MASTER OF www.hawk-hhg.de/sage

Zeitung: Soziale Arbeit und Gesundheit im Gespräch | Nr. 3/2017 | ISSN 2510-1722 SOCIAL WORK 2025 Redaktion der Zeitung: Dr. Andreas W. Hohmann DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES Editors: Prof. Dr. Uwe Schwarze | BA Lina Jäger Phone: +49/51 21/881-406 | E-Mail: [email protected] IN INTERNATIONAL COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE Report International Workshop 2014 3 Soziale Arbeit und Gesundheit im Gespräch MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK 2025 DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES IN INTERNATIONAL COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE Report International Workshop 2014 I UWE SCHWARZE Introduction: Master of Social Work 2025 – Developments and Challenges in Comparative Perspective ...... 04

II DENISE ELLIS Social Work and Politics in the USA: A Struggle between the Right and the Left ...... 16

III IVÁN RODRÍGUEZ PASCUAL Social Work in Spain ...... 33

IV RASA NAUJANIENE Social Work in Lithuania – Current Issues on Social Services ...... 51

V JONAS CHRISTENSEN Social Work and Social Policy in Sweden – CONTENTS Current Developments and Perspectives ...... 67

VI PETER HENDRIKS Social Work from a Dutch and European Perspective ...... 76

VII NORBERT WOHLFAHRT The Political Economy of Social Work in Germany – A Critical Review...... 88

VIII UWE SCHWARZE UND LINA JÄGER Conclusions: Social Work and Master Programs in Social Work Education – Main Results from an International Workshop ...... 101

IX ABOUT THE EDITORS AND ABOUT THE AUTHORS ...... 106 Uwe Schwarze I

from different local social services participa­ ties.3 German authorities do not collect con­ ted in the international workshop. The idea crete data about the master programs in Uwe Schwarze of the workshop was to give a stimulus for a social work on a national level and we don’t broader and more international perspective have any statistics about the “careers” of INTRODUCTION: MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK 2025 – in discussing social policy and social work the master students on a national level yet. DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES IN INTERNATIONAL on the local level in the region Hildesheim/ There are only minimal data and limited Hannover.2 reports on local levels from a few faculties or AND COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE universities. So, there is a lack in research on “careers” of graduated social workers in 1.1 Master degree in social work in long-time perspective. Especially “panel stu­ Germany – not really institutionalized? dies” about typical careers of master students would be needed in Germany. Furthermore, I would also like to point out the distin­ I would like to point out that there is a crucial guishing features of the master program in need of documenting and reporting the social work education at the HAWK in Hildes­ experiences and the concepts in teaching heim in this introduction. Since 1999 the master students, which were developed and Writing an academic book or editing a report To discuss current developments, especially “Bologna Process” of 29 European countries practiced during the last 10 years. Confe­ about an international workshop in English in social work education on master level, initiated and framed a completely new design rences and a systematic and open discourse unfortunately is not so common for professio­ was the main goal of our international work­ of academic education at universities in Ger­ about the experiences, opportunities and nals in social work education in Germany. shop. The workshop was organized by tea­ many. The master degree was also introdu­ limitations in master programs are seldom. This might be one reason that international chers and also by students from the master ced in social work and the consequence of Members of the academic arena as well as professional and academic debates on theo­ program at the faculty of social work and this European regulation was a completely social workers in the arena of practice (au­ ries, research results, methods and concepts health. Another goal of this kind of self-orga­ restructured curriculum in social work edu­ thorities, voluntary organizations, unions …) and also on future challenges in the field of nized workshop was to give an exemplary cation at nearly all German faculties for so­ didn’t actually realize that a continuous social work are mainly influenced by expe­ opportunity to master students for active cial work. As one of the first faculties in Ger­ collaborative discourse about the master in riences and studies from the Anglo-Saxon participation in planning and organizing a many, the faculty of social work and health social work in Germany would be necessary and also from the Scandinavian perspective conference.1 The master program in social at HAWK started a totally new master pro­ to force the discipline and the profession in on social policy and social work. Neverthe­ work was established in Hildesheim in au­ gram in Hildesheim in 2005. The former aca­ itself – and in different new functions and less professionals in the different fields of tumn 2005, and the results of the two day demic degree “diploma” became replaced roles on a higher level than during the Nine­ social work in Germany as well are interested workshop with colleagues and students by a three year bachelor program with 180 ties. Currently (summer of 2016) there is no in information and research from social poli­ from six universities from different countries ECTS (credits), and additionally a two year nationwide and accepted “platform” for this cy and social work in other countries and in were also used to point out the main expe­ master program with 120 ECTS (credits). kind of debate and discourses on expe­ discourses about social work practice in a riences from teaching and research in mas­ riences, data and curricula from the 50–60 globalized society. This was the main reason ter programs of social work in six countries The new master programs were introduced master programs in social work in Germany. for publishing a report about the results from for the last 10 years in comparative perspec­ quickly at many universities – mostly univer­ Only a few colleagues are trying to build up an international workshop, which was orga­ tive. It was the first international master- sities of applied sciences (Fachhochschu­ this type of background-resources, mainly in nized at the University off Applied Sciences workshop in social work of its kind. In addi­ len). In 2014 there were between 50 and 60 context of the German Association for Social (HAWK) in Hildesheim/Germany, on Novem­ tion to students, teachers and colleagues master programs named or connected with Work (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziale Ar­ ber, the 27th and 28th 2014. from other countries, a few professionals the term “social work” at German universi­ beit DGSA). In result a critical review about

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the “new” master programs in social work is decided that our master program further­ 1.2 Questions and reports from social work are in correspondence with international an outstanding topic, which also leads to a more would have a generalist profile. Current in an international perspective programs in fighting against social problems deficit in articles and reports about master theories and concepts on inclusion and and decentralization in the same time? The­ programs in the journals of social work in diversity became also important issues in The different aspects and developments se might be challenges for social work, too. Germany. One very important goal for the teaching and research on the master level at which I described above had been the back­ next decade is to incorporate this type of the HAWK. In comparison to the former di­ ground to organize an international work­ What are the future resources and basics critical review and research on social work – ploma degree in the 1990s the methods and shop and to publish this report. In this con­ for good social work education, for good especially in perspective on master-pro­ competences in social research for original text another goal of our first international research and social work practice? We can grams and PhD-programs. questions in social work became strengthe­ workshop was to focus on the main issues observe that human rights in general be­ ned in our master curriculum during the last and several important open questions for come more relevant and that social rights Nevertheless, after nearly 10 years of expe­ 10 years as well. In perspective of the next future social work – in general and for mas­ become strengthened, especially for child­ rience in planning and organizing master decade the debate about methods, oppor­ ter programs in detail: ren and handicapped people in several regi­ curricula as well as in teaching on master tunities and limits of “evidence-based social ons of the world. Furthermore, new concepts level, it seems that the master program has work” might be one trend, which is inter­ What are the challenges in professional of participation and democratization might been institutionalized at many universities national on the one hand and which has social work for the next 10 years until 2025 also get more influence in modern social today. However, when we started with the different implications on the local level of in Germany as well as in other welfare states work. Moreover, the concept and idea of program at the HAWK in 2005, we were not social work on the other hand. and in an international perspective? “well being and happiness” seems to be an sure if the program would work well. The alternative and/or additional category in main risk was that the master programs After nearly 10 years of practical experiences What kind of international and local deve­ comparing international data on living con­ wouldn’t be attractive, neither for students and evaluation we can say that master pro­ lopments are influencing the theory and ditions to traditional economic categories nor for local voluntary organizations and grams in social work are not perfect – but practice of social work in perspective of the and values, like the GDP. Might there be authorities in the field of social work. Would they are on a really good path to become next decade? Are there mainly values, other important topics which we have to ex­ social work institutions in Germany really institutionalized as a common standard for regu­ ­lations and methods from western so­ plore as future sources and basics for social need professional social workers with know­ professional social work as a clearly defined cieties, which are – and which also should work? ledge and competences on the master level, academic discipline at universities in Ger­ be – dominant in international social work? in addition to the former diploma and in many. In this sense the master degree is What kind of “non-western” theory and prac­ And finally the comparative dimension on addition to the bachelor-degree? And, would very important, because German social work tice could be innovative for future social social work in different welfare regimes and there also be students, organizations and becomes more comparable with internatio­ work? specific welfare cultures. Can we find similar local authorities with the same interest on nal standards and also comparable with or/and also different challenges and deve­ international and intercultural perspective of social work in other countries. The next step What are the “new risks in modern socie­ lopments in future social work in different social work, which we decided should be will be that it also must be possible for qua­ ties” in perspective on social problems and welfare states? How can we define the rela­ given a special profile in our master program? lified students with master degree to get social work?5 In a worldwide perspective tionship between historic developments access to PhD-programs and that the univer­ migration and the incredible gap between and restructuring welfare states and social The master program in social work at the sities of applied sciences in Germany finally rich and the poor, a trend towards more eco­ work in modern times? One thesis is that HAWK Hildesheim is focusing on internatio­ will get the legal right to offer original pro­ nomization and also clearly trends to varie­ there might be a “path dependency” which nal and intercultural developments of social grams in social work on PhD-level. This is ties of commercialization might exemplify depends on history and culture of specific work. We are part of a small group of univer­ common in the Anglo-Saxon countries and in these new risks and trends. In general, more welfare regimes to establish social work as sities with an explicit international and inter­ the Scandinavian welfare states, but not in globalization on the one hand and even na­ a profession and as an academic discipline cultural perspective.4 At the same time we Germany. tionalism and also racism on the other hand in different welfare regimes.6

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In some of these different levels and multi- chelor degree after only 2 years of education the Spanish government. The family was mainly became developed by practice during complex perspectives country reports from and there are a few master programs which strengthened as the main provider for well­ the last two decades. In comparison to mo­ six countries – published in this book – will add the master’s degree after only one year being. Today social marketing and spon­ dern welfare states like Sweden and Germa­ give an overview on the current situation and of education. In general perspective Denise soring become more and more important ny, Lithuania is a country that never had a future challenges for social work. Ellis concluded that the experiences with a issues in social work and it will be necessary period of social work prosperity. Until today three year bachelor program and a consecu­ to include these topics in social work educa­ there is a lack of qualified professors and The first report was from Denise Ellis and she tive two year master program in social work tion. It might be an open question if recent professional teachers and a lack of research pointed out current developments in social education mostly are positive. In a formal reforms are really reorganizing or destroying and of good literature, too. The bachelor’s work in the USA. Denise was a „key note perspective the master’s degree has led to professional social services in Spain. In con­ and master’s degree became established at speaker” at the workshop and she described higher recognition for social work in the Uni­ clusion we can clearly identify a trend to six universities, but social work furthermore trends in social work education in closer ted States as well as in Scandinavia. Social de-professionalization of social work and has a “vague national identity”. Especially context to the political arena. In perspective Work as an academic discipline and as pro­ Iván Rodríguez Pascual pointed out that the in master programs it would be an impor­- of master programs she showed that the fession is anchored to the universities and political and economic framework are very tant topic to educate students in skills and master’s degree in social work is absolutely has the legal right to educate PhD-students. important topics in social work education, competences which portray a much more common in the Anglo-Saxon regions, espe­ This is the standard, in the United States as too. As well as in Germany the master’s de­ po­sitive and better image of social work in cially in the United States. The master’s well as in Canada, in Australia, New Zealand gree and a very low rate of PhD students in Lithuania as well as in other countries. degree is the standard degree and bachelor and also in Sweden – but not yet in Germany. social work show that social work as an acade­ programs often are just the first and not the mic discipline and as a profession has a very Jonas Christensen from Malmö University in final step to become a professional social Iván Rodríguez Pascual from Spain gave a weak position in the current Spanish society. Sweden showed in his speech, that the worker. Also standards and levels in social detailed overview of the socioeconomic data Scandinavian welfare state and its social work education are mainly defined by curri­ and the consequences for social work after Rasa Naujaniene gave an insight on current work education system might have more cula of master programs. Denise Ellis fur­ the economic crisis from 2008. In his presen­ issues on social services in Lithuania. Like similarities to the liberal US-system than thermore pointed out that differences in tation the historical and cultural context in Iván Rodríguez Pascual for Spain she also expected, if we have a closer look on curri­ standards of social work education between developing social work became more clarified. pointed out the historical perspective, which cular of bachelor and master programs. In the federal states are considerably, but in He pointed out that the numbers of professio­ shows that the starting point for modern so­ Sweden social work became a full institutio­ general the master’s degree and master pro­ nal social workers were increasing in Spain cial work in Lithuania is completely different nalized academic discipline at universities grams of social work are much more insti­ during the 1980s and 1990s. The increasing from historic development of social work in at the beginning of the 1970s. More than tutionalized in the United States than in immigration from the Northern parts of Afri­ western welfare states. Social work is depen­ 300 PhD dissertations have been finished Germany or other European countries. In ca and South America to Spain during the ding on the system of social security, which between 1980 and 2012, and the formal addition, we have to recognize that in the first years of the 21st century was a controver­ was created in Lithuania based on the model master’s degree is well established, espe­ Anglo-Saxon world – also in Australia and sial topic in society which social work had to of western welfare states after independen­ cially in context of research on social policy New Zealand – there are longer experiences deal with. After the financial crises of 2008 cy from the former Sovjetunion in 1990. and social work. In his report Jonas Christen­ with the doubled system of bachelor’s and political reforms led to a “turning point for During the last decade private social service sen furthermore focused on the main driving master’s degree in social work. But, there is social work”. New challenges, like very high providers have already become more rele­ forces behind the rapidly positive develop­ a lack of comparative research on those ex­ rates of youth unemployment, child poverty vant in the “social service market”. One rea­ ment of Swedish social work on different periences. Denise Ellis explained that we and also poverty in old age became the main son is that the Lithuanian welfare state is levels: politically, economically, demogra­ can also find bachelor programs in a few US- challenges in social work. Cut downs in so­ weak in financing NGOs and social services. phically, and also in ideological and cultural federal states with very low standards. In cial protection and also in the numbers of Social work as an academic discipline and dimensions. From the early times of the uni­ these programs students can reach the ba­ professional social workers were adopted by profession is a new arena in Lithuania and it versal Swedish welfare system social work

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was and is mainly financed by taxes. Further­ that values in daily social work must be oriented non-profit organizations in German continuity in “staff mobility programs”, more there is a big social trust in authorities reflected in a critical perspective. Finally he social work, like Caritas and Diakonie. Final­ to introduce “online-lectures” and “inter­ among the Swedish society, which is an examined a first view to his own empirical ly he pointed out a tendency to a so called national summer schools”, but also other important difference in comparative pers­ research which is focusing on values of “managerialism” in social work. The current concepts in international teaching colla­ pective to most other countries. But, al­ young Turkish and Moroccan professional concepts of “social work as a human rights boration. though social work in Sweden basically is social workers (migrant daughters) in Dutch profession” might be seen as a chance to re­garded as a public duty, the image of cities. He pointed out that there might be avoid this trend to further managerialism. In d) The original level of social work research social work often is not really positive. The a risk of negative stereotypes which are his final conclusion Norbert Wohlfahrt em­ and comparing research results. In times of report from Sweden also showed that the influencing­ the daily communication and phasized that he is not optimistic in this globalization and international social pro­ value of the master’s degree in sense of interventions in social work practice without context, because normative concepts are blems, further collaboration in research salary and career opportunities could be any supervision and critical reflection. not interested in analysis of the political eco­ across country borders and globally is abso­ better, and that also in Sweden there is a New phenomena like “super-diversity” in big nomy of capitalistic welfare states. It only lute necessary. Ideas and concepts for colla­ gap between expectations and reality accor­ cities, like Amsterdam, will be an important might be an “affirmative analysis of the wel­ boration in publishing results from the local ding to the acceptance of the master’s topic in future social work education, espe­ fare state”, which would be possible by nor­ and/or national level of social policy and degree in social work. cially in master programs. More and better mative concepts like “justice” and “human social work might be discussed for future international networking and collaboration rights”. So, also the final report, given by master programs in social work. Peter Hendriks from the Netherlands gave an in this area would be as well very interesting Norbert Wohlfahrt revealed that it is neces­ overview of current developments in Dutch as necessary. sary to strengthen contents of history, poli­ The main conclusions and results of the social work. As a member of the board of the tical science and economy in social work workshop will be summarized by Uwe European Association of Schools of Social The final country report was given by Norbert education in general – and especially in fu­ Schwarze and Lina Jäger in chapter 8 of this Work (EASSW) and in this function he em­ Wohlfahrt with a focus on political economy ture master programs. report. If we have a look around the world phasized the high relevance of international­ of social work in Germany. In his critical re­ it is certain that social work will be needed networking in social work in context to much view he identified a changed design in social The main idea of the workshop was to point in the future. High unemployment rates in more globalized social problems in the futu­ service production during the last 15 years. out consequences and recommendations, the southern part of Europe, old age poverty re, like poverty, mass unemployment and New regulations and changed law so called especially for developing master programs coming back as a social problem in Ger­ mass migration. One goal of the EASSW is “market mechanisms” have been institutio­ in social work for the next decade. In this many, the dramatic crises in public budgets to collect data from different European nalized in most areas of social work. But, sense it might be useful to point out recom­ in many countries, violence and riots, for countries about standards, contents and this kind of market mechanisms hardly can mendations on the following four levels: example in Paris and French suburbs in methods in social work education. There support the main features and methods in 2005, in Stockholm/Sweden in May 2014 have been a few studies about bachelor pro­ providing social services. In coalition with a) The level of international theory and “po­ and in Ferguson/St. Louis in the United grams in different European countries, but the concept of an “activating state” espe­ licy learning” in social work methods. States in late summer 2014 include high and there is a lack of European and comparative cially the principle of competition became multi-complex demands on professional data on social work education on the master more and more common between institu­ b) The level of local practice and in catego­ social work. Also new risks of epidemics, level and also in perspective on the PhD tions. There is the tendency to more differen­ ries to identify best (local) practices in diffe­ like Ebola, Tuberculosis and others are back level. Especially in the Eastern countries of tiated, specialized and more detail-defined rent countries and regions. in “modern societies”, and high rates of Europe the EASSW has the important task to social services with increasing degrees of migration and increasing rates of homeless­ support social work education. Peter Hen­ standardization and rationalization. These c) The level of teaching in social work educa­ ness in many western welfare states will be driks furthermore pointed out the high rele­ tendencies are furthermore not compatible tion and teaching methods of social re­ new challenges for social work during the vance of human rights in social work and with the traditional values of mainly religion search. Ideas could be to build up more next years. Also international institutions

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like the United Nations, the WHO, the ILO, The idea and the concept of social work FOOTNOTES pe. Accounts from 16 Countries”. ERIS the World Bank, the OECD and the European as an open and general discipline and pro­ Monographs Volume 1, University of Ostra­ Union, too, become much more important fession might also include risks in complex 1 The editors will warmly say “thank you so va, Albert Publisher, by Peter Erath and actors in the arena of social policy, social modern societies with complex multiple much” to Dr. Gisela Renner (docent), and Brian Littelchild (2010), download: http:// work and education – with new concepts, individual and social problems. What we to the following master students: Teresa eris.osu.eu/index.php?id=9410. comparative data and research and with can observe in different countries is that the Ernst-Omwango, Lisamarie Fritz, Henrike 3 See the official list on website: http:// regulation and specific programs. The “Euro­ former main character of social work – the Goes, Juliane Kaiser, Janine Kapchinus, www.studieren-studium.com/master/ pean Strategy 2020” and the programs of personal dimension in “personal social Elena Kraft, Kathrin Kreimeyer, Martina Sozialarbeit (Download 26.03.2014) and the European Union on supporting the con­ services” – becomes less important in cur­ Latus, Christopher Lodders, Stefanie Oel­ also listed programs in social work on web­ cept of “Social Entrepreneurship” also are rent concepts and programs. The economic ker, Janina Prüfer, Patricia Pytlik, Maylin site: https://www.hochschulkompass.de. important issues for the next years. Finally dimension becomes more relevant in social Sackmann, Elham Sheikhvand, Stephan 4 There are only a few international oriented the new transat­lantic economic concepts of policy as well as in social work education at Soppert, Tomke Tirrel, Bianca Töpperwien, master programs in social work in Germany. TISA (Trade in Service Agreement) and TTIP many universities. This is a trend in Germany and to all speakers and colleagues, too. For example see the “master in European (Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partner­ and the result might be a type of economic The open atmosphere and collaboration social work” at the Katholische Universität ship) will have influences on the conditions framed and regulated social service with a of all participants made our international Eichstädt-Ingolstadt (link: http://www.ku- and arrangements of social services in diffe­ lack in the personal dimension of trust and workshop possible. eichstaett.de/swf/masterstudiengang_ rent welfare states. There might be higher legitimacy. Additionally, in this context the 2 One stimulation for the international soziale_arbeit/) or the international mas­ risks for de-standardization, de-regulation new definition of Social Work by the Inter­ work­shop was given by a project called ter program at the Alice Salomon Hochschu­ and also for less democracy in setting social national Association of Schools of Social „Zukunftsvisionen für die Soziale Arbeit“ le in Berlin called “social work as a human standards in social policy and in professio­ Work (IASSW) and also concepts from the (Future Visions for Social Work), which rights profession” (link: https://www.ash- nal social work and consumer protection. European Association of Schools in Social was realized by Prof. Michael Opielka. In berlin.eu/studienangebot/weiterbildende- Work (EASSW) become more important for context of these project there was a con­ masterstudiengaenge/social-work-as-a- At the same time the clear tendencies in our discussions. So, the introduction shows ference at the Ernst-Abbe-Fachhochschule human-rights-profession-english/. globalization are influencing social work in that there is a wide and interesting area in Jena/Germany on January, the 17th 2014. 5 The term and concept of “new risks” in itself and as a consequence social work to develop future social work – especially on See also the report of this conference by modern welfare states was introduced by must be defined as an open, flexible and the masterlevel and, in perspective, on PhD- Kristin Helbig und Anja Schrodt (2014), Pierson (2001). generalist profession. We can observe ten­ programs, too. download: http://zukunftsvisionen-sw. 6 The theory and analytic concept of „path dencies towards more specialized social cms.eah-jena.de/wp-content/uploads/ dependency“ in the development of social services and towards “clinical social work” – sites/7/2013/07/bericht-fachtag_ policy was mainly introduced by Paul Pier­ especially in Germany, but in the U.S., too. zukunftsvisionen-fuer-die-soziale-arbeit_ son (2000 and 2001). There seem to be parallel tendencies to per­ stand_2014-01-25.pdf. Another interna­ sist social work mainly as a part of local and tional conference about the topic of mas­ also “provincial” arrangements in social ter in social work was held at the Katho­ policy, without international contexts, which lische Universität Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, I described above on the one hand. And the­ October, the 12th till 14th in 2011. The title re are also tendencies to persist social work of the conference was „Transnational Con­ as a strong international and global oriented vergence, Diffusion and Transfer in Social academic discipline and practice oriented Policy and Social Work”. See also the con­ profession. ference report “Social Work Across Euro­

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REFERENCES

Erath, Peter/Littlechild, Brian (Editors, 2010): Social Work Across Europe. Accounts from 16 Countries. ERIS Monographs Volume 1, University of Ostrava, Albert Publisher. Gilbert, Neil/Gilbert, Barbara (1989): The Enabling State. Modern Welfare Capitalism in America, New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press. Healy, Lynne M. (2008): International Social Work. Professional Action in an Interdependent World. Oxford: University Press. Pierson Paul (2000): Words of welcome by the dean of the faculty Prof. Christa Paulini Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics. In: the American Political Science Review, Volume 94. No. 2 (June 2000), Page 251–267. Pierson, Paul (Editors, 2001): The New Politics of the Welfare State. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.

Uwe Schwarze, Peter Hendriks, Denise Ellis, Norbert Wohlfahrt, Rasa Naujaniene, Jonas Christensen

14 15 Denise Ellis II

lancing research with the importance of pa­ role in the preparation of practitioners. She tient centeredness is fundamental to effecti­ stated that the national standardization of Denise Ellis ve social work practice. As mentioned, it might schools is advantageous. All accredited not be easy to unify research and practice but social work programs at colleges and univer­ SOCIAL WORK AND POLITICS IN THE USA: both components are important for the social sities have to provide similar courses with A STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE RIGHT AND THE LEFT work profession centered on its main values. fairly uniform content to students, guarante­ eing a homogeneous education. Exceptions Social work in multi-disciplinary teams is a can occur based on the focus of a program. current development of professional prac­ For example, a program that focuses heavily tice, which provides innovational and entre­ on generalist practice will be inclined to offer preneurial teamwork. A big disadvantage a wide range of courses, including the fol­ however, of these interdisciplinary teams is lowing: generalist social work practice, the loss of social work departments which is social welfare policy, human behavior, occurring in some hospitals. However, wor­ research, psychopathology and several limi­ king in concert with others ironically has its ted electives. In contrast, programs with a 1. INTRODUCTION development is an added consequence for origin in the social work profession. If there clinical social work practice focus tend to social work practice with disastrous impli­ is only one social worker in a team, and all provide an increased number of clinical In her speech Dr. Denise Ellis from Kean Uni­ cations for the poor and vulnerable popula­ other staff mainly comes from other medical courses intervening with specific popula­ versity, New Jersey (USA) critically illustrated­ tion. Added dimensions for professional and mental health disciplines and medical tions. current developments and challenges of the development can be seen at all levels of edu­ departments, it may be more difficult for social work profession as well as the poli­ cation, including bachelor, master and doc­ open discussion based on client centeredness Multi-modal interventions, such as work tical and economic environment in which toral. “Keeping current with what’s going and a holistic view about client’s situation’s with individuals, families, groups and com­ social work operates. She described challen­ on” may be identified as a key value for pro­ to occur. This is not to imply that construc­ munities on the micro, meso and macro ges the profession has to overcome and fessional development in the U.S. and is tive discussion cannot or will not occur. levels, and evidence based practice are two opportunities to achieve change and growth. closely linked to the social work faculties’ Interdisciplinary teamwork has its merits main foci in education. The Council on Social In closing, she provided final recommen­ duty to engage in scholarly activities inclu­ and benefits, but the presence of different Work Education (CSWE) is the primary accre­ dations for the direction in which social work ding making presentations and contributing missions and mandates sometimes can com­ diting body for social work programs in the should develop. to research by publishing papers. The plight promise those of social work. A potential U.S. with responsibility for all federal states. of social work professors of the faculties consequence of multi-disciplinary teamwork The Educational Policy and Accre­ditation continues to be exacerbated as faculty try to in some settings might result in decisions Standards (EPAS) are utilized by CSWE to 2. SOCIAL WORK IN THE U.S. balance teaching, scholarship, service res­ that are contrary to the goals, mission and determine accreditation for social work aca­ ponsibilities and family life. Time is needed mandates of the profession. In those instan- demic programs (CSWE, 2010, p.1, Part 3 & Denise Ellis began by providing an overview to be informed about social, cultural, natio­ ces working against its own values and mul­ 4). EPAS serves as the guide for implemen­ of the present status of the social work pro­ nal, international and geo-political issues, tidisciplinary teamwork misses its target. tation and monitoring of professional stan­ fession worldwide. She noted different vi­ which adds to the legitimization of teaching dards and levels related to, for example, the sions and values in varieties between coun­ and scholarly activities. Additionally, it is Denise Ellis highlighted social work’s current educational process, and prescribed hours tries. In the U.S. the value of helping the critical for faculties to take time to evaluate developments, including credentials, re­ of supervision in the practical part of the poor and “providing services for the needy research outcomes. This activity is also a quirements and the different levels of the academic programs. The EPAS frames and is becoming commoditized.” This economic must for the professions’ legitimization. Ba­ social work education that play an important implements these standards. Bachelor,

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master, doctor and post graduate degrees students work three full days per week in the paid for by the generation of younger wor­ 1) Differences and arguments are useful to are clearly standardized and officially recog­ field with at least one hour of supervision kers who were still employed. A portion of develop and evolve the profession. nized. Specialized trainings in the fields of per week, which has to be documented and employed citizens money is taxed, put into family counseling, psychotherapy, including signed. Denise Ellis states that the provided an insurance pool, and is calculated and 2) A discourse is needed to open new ways work with children and adolescents, and supervision program is “more than just com­ used for people in need in present times. to work together, to profit from all areas and other populations including domestic vio­ pleting the hours”. However, the expected large numbers of contributions. Social work, as a profession in­ lence, substance abuse and immigrants and “baby boomers” currently in the process of tersects with all different kinds of disciplines refugees are also increasingly common. A Recent emphasis has been on work with sol­ retiring and legitimately expecting to access and is therefore reliant on cooperation. master’s degree in social work in the U.S. is diers and veterans in hospitals from the wars money they’ve put into the system has dire considered the terminal degree. Criteria for in the Middle East. The government agency implications, particularly if the money isn’t 3) “Degree Mills” as non-accredited study pro­ obtaining social work licensure require­ charged with providing services to military there. Many seniors do not have pensions grams create a problematic situation in the ments vary between federal states (Social­ personnel has been under fire due to exten­ and rely solely on income from social secu­ education of social work students (Council WorkLicensure.org, p.1). With two years of sive delays veterans’ experience initially rity. However, job shortages mean there are for Higher Education Accreditation, n.d.). documented employment and supervision, accessing and finally obtaining them. The less young people employed. This translates These online programs are typically found in those with a master’s degree become cer­ti­ scandal associated with an apparent incre­ into less tax payers right now and con­ private, for profit colleges and universities, fied by the Academy of Certified Social Wor­ ase in suicide rates among veterans from sequently less money available for social and are not standardized, nor as precise as kers (ACSW). In 2013, there were 500 CSWE- wars in the Middle East, having to wait six to services in the future. Social security is no accredited programs. They may not provide accredited bachelor and 223 master pro­ twelve months for initial service appears to longer guaranteed, even if one has paid into any supervision or placements and may pre­ grams. Programs are reviewed and can be be a driving factor in recent policies de­sign­ the system (Kasperkevic, 2014, p. 3). sent a severe threat to the profession. Num- reaccredited approximately each seven to ed to rectify this situation (Zezima, 2014). bers of applications to these programs are eight years by CSWE. Program assessment These veterans struggle with trau­matic brain Both the economy and social work are being rising and if students pay these programs includes review of courses, their relationship and physical injuries, other medical pro­ impacted by the influx of recent refugees with student loan money which is financed to competencies and practice beha­viors, blems, and mental conditions, including­ and immigrants, escaping war, ethnic and from tax payers’ funds they can keep on grow­ adherence to professional standards, and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Fur­ religious persecution, and mass political ing. To the uninformed person these programs criteria for student achievement and satis­ thermore, a correlation between being a ve­ violence. This is another emerging area of are not listed as non-accredited programs. faction. Thirteen bachelor and fourteen teran and domestic violence can be seen practice for students interested in the field Providing online master certificates after a master programs were in candidacy, which which makes quick access to service even of trauma and crisis work. Domestic vio­ few weeks is a deception and a huge problem. means they applied to CSWE and their accre­ more urgent. Hospice and palliative care is lence, depression and suicide are the main ditation was in process (CSWE, n.d.). another emerging area of practice in social focus in this work. Traditional social work 4) The lack of standardization and accredita­ work, as evidenced by increasing numbers fields such as medical and health care, tion in distance education can create similar The full time master program is a two year of “baby boomers” of students interested in child, family and school work, mental health problems. Online student programs allow study course consisting of 60 credit points. developing skills to work with this populati­ and substance abuse, psychiatry, commu­ students to educate themselves away from The academic year typically consists of fall on. This field is desperately needed. nity work, gerontological work, administra­ campus and can complete assignments at and spring semesters. Theoretical studies tion, policy and research are still present times convenient for them. In some pro­ and field practice have to be successfully An area of practice tied to the economy is the as the primary main interests and fields of grams, all teaching and interaction occurs completed during the course of each semes­ need for social services and elder care ser­ practice (NASW, n.d., Topics). totally virtually, with no need for students to ter. At Kean University the study program vices for senior citizens, hospice and pallia­ ever physically come to campus. This lear­ consists of 15 credit points each semester in tive care. Historically, monthly social secu­ The social work “Five D’S” identifies current ning format is seen as particularly advan­ a two year study course. In the second year, rity payments provided to retirees would be topics on the agenda of the discussion: tageous by many students. There are an in­

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creasing number of accredited social work tion of social work positions and related so­ fertile and contribute to an improved and nable ethics (Olin, 2013, p.6). Neither in programs offering various types of distance cial support services in schools. Children’s sustainable change in society as a whole. This movies nor in television an education on the education and learning formats, ranging emotional issues left untreated in elementa­ must be a critical goal for the profession. mission of social work can be seen, nor is it from hybrid to fully online courses of study. ry intermediate and high school, as well as on apparent that a social worker is consulted on This direction can provide opportunities and college campuses creates growing problems. In another video clip, a student of Denise the making of these TV shows and movies. challenges to faculty to assess personal and The offer of therapeutic services after school Ellis reinforced these points in her discus­ professional development, aptitude and could solve the situation. However, not all sion of the “stigmatization of social work”: The term “social work” is not consistently feedback, which can in some instances children have access to health care, which is This student states “Community stigmatizes restricted to individuals receiving a degree occur without any direct face to face contact. often a consequence of missing or inade­ Social Work through a misconception of the from a licensed, accredited program. Of con­ In these programs, students might also quate health insurance. Positive consequen­ work”. The main matter being described as cern is the reality that many who are hired by receive all supervision virtually. It is possible ce of this therapy would be less disruption “taking children away from their families” is government social services organizations that a student certified by these programs in classroom. Creating a safer environment a widely spread image of the profession freely apply the term to case workers, who has passed all exams but has completed by dealing with children’s issues is an invest­ (NASW, 2004, p.1). An aggravating factor is may not have any formal social work trai­ most, if not all academic study virtually. ment in the future society (Malai, R. 2012). the missing support of social work student’s ning. This policy permits nonprofessionals Social work is a profession which is reliant families due to concerns like low wages in to be hired as social workers. The work of on interpersonal relations and empathy, and the social sector. This stigma and the asso­ these nonprofessionals often referred to as whose professional identity relies on prac­ 3. PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF THE PROFESSION ciated low wages might even be a barrier in case workers infers that the work is equa­ tice and theory. Its foundation may be jeo­ continuing education. lized to the work of professionally trained pardized and errant when only one of the The public perception of social work is main­ social workers. The terms are used inter­ two parts is internalized. ly based on stereotypes which impart quite In the past, the profession overall, did a poor changeably and case workers and social a negative image of the profession. Dealing job in informing the general public about its workers are competing even though case 5) Deteriorating political and economic sys­ with the poor, removing children from their beneficial role. Presenting “social workers workers do not typically have the same for­ tems, increasingly influenced by financial families and working with substance abu­ dragging screaming children away from their mal education, training or awareness of the pressure, and declining economic support sers are the primary associations and mis­ families” did not earn respect in setting a National Association of Social Work Code of from government and private entities means conceptions the public has of what social good example. A survey conducted in 2004 Ethics as social workers. Removing children reduced social services for vulnerable popu­ workers do (Stoelker, 2013). “Social work can’t by Freeman and Valentine presented fin­ from unsafe family environments is often a lations. be all things to all people and resolve all of dings of a 50 year review of movies portra­ physical task assumed by nonprofessional any society’s ills by itself”. Promoting equal ying social workers from 1938 to 1988. The case workers. However, the public incorrect­ These actions contribute to “reduced money access to societal resources and helping researchers observed that 29 of the 44 mo­ ly assumes that the individuals are profes­ being placed where it needs to be placed” to fulfill human needs cannot be the profes­ vies characterized most of the work of social sionally trained social workers, due in large as Denise Ellis described. Unfortunately, this sions exclusive responsibility, as it is far too workers as relating to child welfare (Olin, part to inaccurate descriptions by the media. is a trend in a globalized, individualized ambitious and global. Educating the society 2013, p.6). Being portrayed as bumbling, The implications of equalizing social and society under conservative and neoliberal about the professions mission and goals, incompetent, having very few ethics, and case work not only in competences, and, influences which have great impacts on the and creating a better understanding of social being depicted as white, middleclass even salary conveys a lack of respect towards profession. Concluding the situation of so­ work will help to correct stereotypes. Main­ women are the main stereotypes reproduced the profession and minimizes the value of cial work in the U.S., Denise Ellis presented taining boundaries between personal and through the movies reviewed. A review of the profession. From the public’s perception a video clip in which one of her students professional roles is also imperative (Rea­ television shows arrived at similar conclu­ there is not much need to maintain a profes­ commentsed on “funding cuts” in the fields mer, n.d.). An additional benefit of these sions. Social workers are presented and sion which separates families or which of the profession. One example is the reduc­ actions will help to make the work more mocked as non-professionals with questio­ mainly does charity work, which is mistaken­

20 21 Denise Ellis Denise Ellis

ly believed that anyone could do. Tax payers children. Even though the money is avail­ left to do the hard work of clearing forests, Denise Ellis also described the social envi­ who do not appear to have much respect for able, helping the poor is not a priority in the farming and building houses and roads. Con­ ronment as being cloaked in a “veil of igno­ the profession or for vulnerable populations U.S.. Many of the 46 million people living in sequently, slaves from Af­rican countries had rance”: The assumption that everyone has appear comfortable when cuts are made in poverty have extremely limited options for to be imported. The United States’ national the same values and thinks the same way is the social services budget, which is financed becoming self-supporting. identity was framed by western European a widely spread myth throughout society. It by taxes. It is imperative that correcting mis­ Caucasian males to reflect their image. How­ is easy to be convinced of a certain national conceptions and educating, not only the Social stratification results in increased ine­ ever, once formed, the U.S. has always been identity when there are no thoughts, ideas, public, but also elected government officials quality when resources and services are dis­ a country of immigrants! values and beliefs “migrating” into society. occurs quickly to combat ignorance and pre­ proportionately withheld and are not ade­ But it is misguided and erroneous to negate judice about social work. The profession quately provided to those in need. In the 21st century immigrants and refugees the existence of values, ideas and beliefs needs to assume responsibility for taking continue to come from Central and South that are different from those traditionally care of its own image! Historically, the United States is a nation America, African countries and from the and commonly held that reflect one’s own. built on violence. The majority of people emi­ Middle East. The so called “Browning of In this context, politics mirroring the new grated from Europe, and the resulting inter­ America”, reflects the migration of ethnical­ differences are needed which means educa­ 4. SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC action culminated in the death and exter­ ly and racially diverse people with non-Euro­ ting people to be tolerant in reaction to peo­ ENVIRONMENT mination of seven million Native Americans pean values, beliefs and attitudes. This cul­ ple migrating into the nation. If this does not who were living here when the European turally diverse diaspora calls into question occur it might have disastrous implications The United States has one of the highest ‘settlers’ arrived. The indigenous popula­ the “national identity of the U.S.”, and is for all sectors of the society. poverty rates worldwide: 46 million people tions were subjugated, worked to death and provoking a conflict between these new live below the poverty line, most of them are massacred. As a result there weren’t enough immigrants and the “native” Americans The U.S. economic environment was basi­ presumed to be of predominantly European cally destabilized by the economic crisis in ancestry. A significant number of politicians 2008 and by the outcomes of the midterm are concerned about this phenomenon as congressional elections in 2014 in favor of it influences and weakens their power over the Republican Party. As in many other coun­ a homogeneous mass becoming more and tries the economy is shaped by an ongoing more heterogeneous. The constitutional process of privatization of former public in­ system is being ethnicized as Denise Ellis stitutions. As an example, an increasing described: “The majority of the people who number of nursing homes and prisons, are doing well are not equally represented which were historically operated by the by the new immigrants. The ‘new’ immi­ public sector, are purchased and managed grants tend to belong to the lower socio eco­ by private corporations now. Obviously, nomic class and it is very difficult for them to corporations may not be mandated to care move up. These ethnic minorities are viewed for the public wellbeing, but they are inte­ as a threat to the existing social and political rested in increasing profits. Acting on the order. Trying to win over this great number of principles of the business performance people for the conservative party would me­ model and providing quantity instead of an a gain of electors and a total majority of quality, the values of these institutions are votes. So there is a real fight going on for not in alignment with the principles of social Figure 1: Cartoon these electors.” work. Social work needs to resist this trend.

22 23 Denise Ellis Denise Ellis

Tax loop holes make it easy to avoid tax pay­ Basically it is the same drug, just in a diffe­ Candidates for the Supreme Court can only popular vote meaning the public vote. No ments for CEOs (chief executive officers). rent form. The amount of all illicit drugs, regard­ be elected by the President (Supreme Court matter what the public vote is, however, the Hiring cooperate lawyers who are experts in less of the form is illegal. However, a wide of the United States, n.d.). These candidates electors of each state do elect the President. finding these loop holes results in the ave­ discrepancy exists in the penalty for being have a lifetime allowance to be members of Trying to gain voter support the electors tra­ rage person paying more taxes proportiona­ stopped for small amounts of cocaine posses­ the Supreme Court. There is no public eviden­ vel on promotional tours through many tely than CEOs. sion versus crack possession. The punish­ ce that any examination of their values and states, including ‘swing states’. “Gerryman­ ment for having small amounts of cocaine ethics or mental health occurs after jus­tices dering” means that the Democrat and the Unfair labor practices are reality for a wider tends to be minor compared to being stop­ are elected to the bench. In addition, they Republican Parties legally redraw the district range of people working in low wage con­ ped with crack which is often followed by can only be removed from office by the Pre­ lines trying to keep their person in office. tracts. There are multiple examples of corpo­ arrest and an incarceration. Crack is much che­ sident. After the most recent economic depres­ rations with questionable work practices. aper than cocaine so seems more affordable sion, the U.S. Supreme Court granted person­ The Political Action Committee (PAC) is a lob­ The largest fast food employers in the U.S. for people with lower economic status. The­ hood status to corporations. They were per­ by which gives monetary support for electo­ include McDonald’s, Burger King, Target and refore, those are the people more likely to be mitted to be treated like individuals with the ral candidates. The PAC can donate a certain Walmart, the major department store chain incarcerated for crack posses­sion. People of implication that corporations were allowed amount of money to certain parties or candi­ (Mulcahy & Johnson, 2013, p.1). Denise Ellis color are over-represented among the lower to donate as much money anonymously as dates. It can be founded by any interest illustrated the unfair and economically un­ socioeconomic levels of society. This charac­ they want to the political elections. This me­ group and even by official persons. Since just hiring practices for low wage workers by teristic has been exploited and has contri­ thod of campaign finance through legally 2010 Super-PACs are legally endowed with some corporate employers which include, buted to drug abuse strongly being ethni­ equating corporations with personhood sta­ the right to donate as much money as they hiring people for 30 or 34.5 hours per week, cized, and the assignment of a certain negative tus is a real problem for a fair electoral pro­ want into the electoral process without any which is just shy of the fulltime minimum of image of this group of people fed to the public. cess. The President is typically elected by reporting. The following quote illustrates the the 35 to 40 hours per week, needed to be electors in the electoral-college. There is a monetary support of Super-PACs: “As of No­ eligible for benefits. The benefit of this type Politics in the U.S. basically is dominated by of practice for large corporate employers, for two rival political parties. The Republicans, example is that they do not have to pay any the “right wing” of society and the Demo­ benefits or health insurance for its ‘part crats, the “left and liberal wing” are the lea­ Conservatives/Republicans Liberals/Democrats time’ employees. Citing multiple article ders of the political debate. Republicans Right of center Left of center sources Denise Ellis stated – directions for have conservative interest. They want mini­ applying for social services and the appli­ mal government in favor of privatization and Minimum government Maximum government cations for food stamps and Medicaid are minimum social services. People in need of Corporation & privatization Pro regulation of welfare services and business handed out. The consequence for U.S. tax­ services are not going to get these services payers is a massive tax burden to cover the under a conservative government. They Limit regulation (Banking, Capital valued over) expense of public assistance subsidies for would need other professions and systems Social protections these employed, but uninsured workers. to advocate for them. The social sector is not prioritized by the Republicans. It is the first Individual good Social good Similar to the economically unjust labor prac­ budget being cut in favor of terrorism and Elections – profit motive tices, the criminal justice system is also cha­ military budgets. The Democrats want to racterized by injustice. Denise Ellis illustra­ restrict the amount of money provided from ”American Dream“ ”American nightmare“ ted this by giving the example of different corporate donations and to make social penalties for possession of cocaine and crack. welfare a basic right for people in need. Figure 2: Politics in the U.S.

24 25 Denise Ellis Denise Ellis

vember 16, 2014, 1,246 groups organized as Republicans and Democrats are also in oppo­ and the voters as members of society have is challenging social work in all fields. With Super PACs have reported total receipts of sition on the topic of energy and environ­ very different ideologies concerning the the same amount of work, but less money $593,822,337 and total independent expen­ ment: The Republicans support fracking, nu­ future of the country. Voter suppression in and fewer resources, professionals are at ditures of $340,716,644 in the 2014 cycle.” clear power and the use of coal. One of the the form of rules and policies appears to be risk of experiencing increasing stress. Dea­ (opensecrets.org, 2014, Table 1). Governmen­ Senators publicly stated that “the global increasing, with the goal of making it more ling with open work hours and many indi­ tal processes are paralyzed by the high warming as the biggest hoax ever perpetua­ difficult for the public to traditionally vote vidual problems is very demanding for pro­ amount of money in the electoral process. ted” (Kilburn, 2014). Congressional represen­ democratic. Gerrymandering as explained fessional caregivers. To reinforce this point, Elections no longer depend on the social tatives who believe and support this position above is one method to reach this goal. Denise Ellis showed another video of one of wellbeing of society and on the candidate’s totally deny the results of scienti­fically based her students who discussed concern about work but on the highest amount of money and research and records that demonstrate that In general, several implications for social the risk of stress and burnout. She encoura­ on the quality of lobby work behind a party. 2014 was the warmest year since records were welfare services have to be expected due to ged social workers to practice good selfcare, being kept. They are also referred to as clima­ governmental changes: the social contract maintain a balanced, and a healthy life style In terms of the U.S. social welfare system, te deniers. The opposi­tion taken over by the once signed between state and society is to be able to deal with the client’s problems. decisions have been influenced by the Repu­ Democrats promotes the reduction of relian­ slowly being eroded. Services, not being pro­ Denise Ellis emphasized that students need blicans party’s gain of votes in the midterm ce on fuel and emissions in general. Renew­ vided to those in need reflect a gross inequa­ to learn to balance and separate personal elections in 2014. The health care reform able resources is their focus and referring to lity. An increase in blaming the victim justi­ life and work: “when it’s time to go home program referred to as “Obama Care” or in emissions and their influence on health and fies further cuts to essential services. “If you you need to go home”. Not taking client’s legal terms “The Affordable Care Act” has the poverty rate of the country they seem to would work well you probably wouldn’t need concerns home is a skill which has to be im­ been vowed by the Republican Party to re­ act more in the way of human rights. The these services” is the main argument to shift proved and which takes time to learn. peal this law if they retake the White House. Republican’s gain of seats in the Senate due the focus from the state as the main provider For a lot of people the Affordable Care Act to elections also has consequences on the of social wellbeing to the individual. Unem­ Denise Ellis suggested that the profession’s has many positive aspects as they can have geo-political and economic climate of the ployment, poverty, food insecurity and lack poor image is due to bad press and an inade­ health insurance e.g. students up to the age U.S.. Calling the global warming “a hoax” of health insurance are only some of the im­ quate job in communicating values and in­ of 26, people with pre-existing conditions there is not much to expect concerning en­vi­ plications of the disenfranchisement and forming the public. Furthermore she conten­ who can’t be denied health insurance, and ronmen­tal protection on the part of the Re­ marginalization of the individuals. The risk ded that this is a challenge social work has other members of vulnerable populations. If publican Party. To the contrary, they are sup­ of social and economic injustice rises in a to face. The average social worker is descri­ this law would be repealed many people will porting fracking as exploitation of fossil fuels. society which is governed by political con­ bed as white, female, and middle class, who lose their health insurance. Unless the flicts over the nature and causes of poverty. is not adequately representative of the diver­ public sees the disastrous implications of The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partner­ Disagreements over how much of a role the sity of clients served. To reflect this image the repeal of the law, and if the Republicans ship (TTIP) is the second key piece of legisla­ government should have in rectifying the and to exemplify the client’s right to have a obtain the majority of votes, the Affordable tion the Republicans are trying to pass along problems even increases this risk. social worker “who looks like them, sounds Care Act would likely be repealed. with the repeal of the Affordable Care Act. like them, and who is more likely to have a similar cultural basis”, students from diver­se Another key piece of legislation is the act on Being fatigued and “over being outraged” by 5. CHALLENGES AND DEVELOPMENTS backgrounds have to be encouraged and immigration which the senate had 512 days some of the problems and scandals that oc­ FOR SOCIAL WORK guided. Client’s ethnic backgrounds have to to decide on without any outcome. The presi­ cur as Denise Ellis described the American’s be taken seriously for an effective practice. dent made an executive decision to change voter apathy, the U.S. political landscape is Some of the challenges social work is facing Beyond this, more students with dual degrees immigration policies which the U.S. Con­ neither transparent nor comprehensible at have already been mentioned: A lack of fun­ in social work and law are needed in elected gress can easily repeal. all. Obviously, the parties and candidates ding and increasing cuts in the social sector positions to be able to advocate, even more

26 27 Denise Ellis Denise Ellis

effectively on a macro level for people in need. related to the social contract (Charles, 2013). with what’s within your reach” as Denise past skills that help to cope, helping clients Economic and political realities are overstrai­ The paradox between trying to integrate Ellis commented means inviting people to maintain as much normalcy as possible, to ning and distracting the public from syste­ clients into society which stigmatizes them is participate without exhausting their own facilitate client function, helping clients deal mic inequality. A student clearly articulated difficult for both, clients and professionals. resources. Cooperating for survival in solida­ with emotions, and respecting client self- this concern in another video: She described On the other hand it is social work’s respon­ rity creates a more tolerant environment. determination. the connection between local and global sibility to educate the public to be more open politics by stressing how to be informed and and tolerant and to build a society on equal Adapting to academic realities is a duty As a profession which has to provide in­ actively participating in local politics. This is rights. Social work in its multiple roles as ad­ and a challenge for traditional social work formation to the public and to the media, credited with increasing her awareness of vocate, broker, counselor and initiator has to education. The internet as primary source of it is indispensable to be able to deal with global political issues. Voting in a more in­ assist those who need support. information on one hand still is a very new technology and social media. Changing the formed and responsible manner is the out­ medium in many classrooms, but on the media’s perception, social work needs a come of relating local to global topics. other hand is part of everyday life in the 21st “makeover” and professional help to impro­ 6. RECOMMENDATIONS century. The potential danger of only consu­ ve its image in the world. Social workers have to continue efforts to ming and not practicing the knowledge and achieve social change and to inform society Concluding her speech Denise Ellis pointed information taken from the internet has to be Radical social work was introduced by De­ on their rights as part of the efforts to promo­ out several recommendations concerning understood and embraced by educating nise Ellis as a more direct way to promote te social and economic justice. Reducing stig­ the profession’s way to promote change. In people how to use social networks responsib­ social change. This approach on radical so­ ma and increasing the publics’ conscious­ terms of societal recommendations, ly. Incorporating technology into the class­ cial work is usually achieved when groups of ness about discrimination and its implica­ room is an important step in creating this activist social workers organize actions that tions and consequences are fundamental social work needs to improve a cultural responsibility and creating a benefit from it. dismantle oppressive policies and practices principles of the social work profession. They dialogue and to create safe zones in which Not running from the internet but finding the fostered by institutions and systems that reflect the professions core values and ethics, this dialogue can occur and is free from balance between face to face contexts and promote injustice. and have to be actualized in society. As an being penalized for discussion and promo­ social media is the duty of social work teachers example, one of Denise Ellis’ students who is tion of diverse ideas. However, Denise Ellis and professors to stay current with all issues Self-organized intergenerational, multira­ working in a prison reentry program illustra­ is aware that this is becoming increasingly and to adapt change (NASW, 2004, Adapting cial groups also provide “out of the box” ted the ethical dilemma social workers often difficult in light of growing conservative atti­ to changes section). As another of Denise social work and try to provide alternative have to deal with. Another student reinforced tudes toward improving the well- being of Ellis’ students’ pointed out, “change is inevi­ sources of information to a public, fed up this point by describing common experiences members of vulnerable populations. table”. It may be positive or negative, but in with news and scandals. of single mother households, which illustra­tes every case it is provoking emotions such as the role of politics, which tend to blame the in­ Civic education and engagement is nee­ stress or anxiety for example about how to use Last but not least, consistently engaging dividual, while distracting members of socie­ ded to inform the public about current technology, and how to utilize social media in ‘self- care’ is a critical strategy for social ty from the politics of inequality. Greatly af­ issues, and their role, for example, under­ competently and ethically, in both dimen­ workers to reduce and shield themselves fected by a future law these mothers and their standing the importance of voting, not only sions, professional practice and personally. from the stress associated with our work children are forced to survive on inadequate in presidential elections. (NASW, 2004, Self- care section). income, healthcare, affordable housing and Social workers in their function as “agents food insecurity. These families are living in Making the public aware of the inequality of change” have to empower clients with co­ Denise Ellis ended her speech with a quote poverty, unable to care for their children and in society, and encouraging support of, and ping skills which are needed to work through by Jerry Garcia. “Somebody has to do some­ are blamed for systemic conditions indicative participation in social movements creates and achieve changes. Several examples may thing, and it’s just incredibly pitiful that it of a failure of government to meet obligations solidarity among people. “Do what you can be: identifying support systems, recalling has to be us.”

28 29 Denise Ellis Denise Ellis

REFERENCES Kilburn, J. (2014): Retrieved from may_29_2013/news/outgoing_ Mid-term fallout: Top GOP climate https://www.nationalpriorities.org/ dean_speaks_92059.asp Charles, R. (2013): change denier to chair senate committee budget-basics/federal-budget-101/ Supreme Court of the United Children’s Defense Fund. Child poverty on environment. Report. spending/ States (n.d.): remains at record high levels. Report. Retrieved from http://aattp.org/ Oklahomahorizontv (2013): Frequently asked questions. Retrieved from mid-term-fallout-top-gop-climate- Jim Inofe – Global warming debate. Retrieved from http://www.childrensdefense.org/ change-denier-to-chair-senate- Retrieved from http://www.supremecourt.gov/faq.aspx newsroom/cdf-in-the-news/ committee-on-environment/ https://www.youtube.com/ University of New England (n.d.): press-releases/2013/child-poverty- Malai, R. (2012): watch?v=kHJmhIHVyZk Top five issues that modern social remains.html Social Workers face new challenges. Olin, J. (2013): workers face: Five challenges of Council for Higher Education NASW News. The public and the professions modern social work. Accreditation (n.d.): Retrieved from perception of social work. Retrieved from Degree mills: An old problem and https://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/ Retrieved from http://socialwork.une.edu/resources/ a new threat. news/2012/02/recession-social- http://cswr.columbia.edu/wp-content/ news/top-five-issues-that-modern- Retrieved from workers2.asp?back=yes uploads/2013/04/Oln.-The-public- social-workers-face/ http://www.chea.org/degreemills/ Mulcahy, R./Johnson, B (2013): and-the-professions-perception-of- Zezima, K. (2014): frmPaper.htm Client Alert. Big box retailers and major soial-work.pdf Everything you need to know about the Council on Social Work Education (2010): fast food chains targeted by unions Opensecrets.org (n.d.): VA- And the scandals engulfing it. Educational policy and accreditation and NLRB. Retrieved from The Washington Post. standards. Retrieved from https://www.opensecrets.org/pacs/ Retrieved from Retrieved from http://www.michaelbest.com/files/ superpacs.php https://www.washingtonpost.com/ http://www.cswe.org/File.aspx?id= PDFs/201509230611129286458abc.pdf Reamer, F. (n.d.): news/the-fix/wp/2014/05/21/a-guide- 13780 National Association of Social Balancing our professional and to-the-va-and-the-scandals- Council on Social Work Education Work (2004): personal lives. Social Work Today. engulfing-it/ (CSWE) (n.d.): Perceptions of the profession are Vol. 9, No. 3, p. 8. Online and distance education offerings analyzed. NASW. Socialworklicensure.org (n.d): by accredited programs. CSWE. Retrieved from A state by state licensure guide. Retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/ Retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/cms/39516.aspx news/2004/09/perceptions. http://www.socialworklicensure.org/ Kasperkevic (2014): asp?back=yes types-of-social-workers/types-of- Boomers aren’t to blame: National Association of Social social-workers.html#context/api/ Social security and Medicare suffer due Work (n.d.): listings/prefilter to low wages. The Guardian. Practice and Topics. Stoelker, T. (2013): Retrieved from Retrieved from Inside Fordham University. http://www.theguardian.com/money/ http://www.naswdc.org/practice/ Outgoing dean speaks to challenges us-money-blog/2014/jul/29/boomers- default.asp facing social workers. arent-to-blame-social-security-and- National Priorities Project (n.d.): Retrieved from medicare-suffering-because-of- Federal spending: http://legacy.fordham.edu/campus_ lower-wages Where does all the money go resources/enewsroom/inside_fordham/

30 31 Impressions III

Iván Rodríguez Pascual SOCIAL WORK IN SPAIN

1. INTRODUCTION In the 1980s and 1990s the social service system developed and expanded at different The late 20th and early 21st century have territorial and administrative levels. Social been the key for the consoli­dation of services organized on a local, county, re­ Spanish social work. Since 1978 the con­ gional and national level partially led to an Denise Ellis (United States) stitution has been in force, making the overlapping of services offered. The govern­ Spanish democracy a very young one. The ment recently cut off funding using the argu­ Spanish constitution also provides the basis ment that there were too many providers for the modern Spanish welfare state and offering the same service. From a general for modern public social services. 90 % of administrative point of view this might be today’s social workers are operating in the true, but eliminating services in times of social service system which is conceived as greater demand is not fair for people who are a dual system, consisting of general and in need of support. specific services.

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Social Protection 19,70 20,00 20,30 20,30 20,30 20,50 20,80

Health – – 7,90 7,98 8,03 8,09 8,18

Education 4,24 4,25 4,28 4,25 4,23 4,26 4,34

Figure 1: Key indicators: expenditures in health, education, and social protection 2000–2007 Iván Rodríguez Pascual (Spain) in Spain (% of GDP) (Eurostat)

32 33 Iván Rodríguez Pascual Iván Rodríguez Pascual

In this time of consolidation from the 1980’s destination for different groups of migrants. same effort as the rest of the EU. Spain Spain used to be a country with a young po­ to the 1990s a growing number of social Social work had to conceptualize an answer did spend money on so­cial protection but pulation, e.g. in comparison to Germany, but workers were employed at these different for the needs of these new people. the difference between the amounts of it is not anymore. Nowadays Spain is aging levels. Their first social identification was money spent on the social system by Spain really fast. The first public care services were that of the social worker as an agent of con­ was not enough to reach the average of developed under the “dependency law” 7. trol, whose basic occupation was “removing 2. SOCIAL POLICY AS A CONTEXT: spending in the EU context. Even though The “dependency law” was the first legisla­ children out of their families”. A widely THE SPANISH CASE Spain was growing, it was not growing en­ tive act recognizing that care must be sup­ spread negative image of the profession was ough. The demands and needs of 6 million ported by the state and not by private agen­ a big problem for social workers. The profes­ The early 21st century – a period of chal­lenge new people had to be taken care of. The time cies. Aging and a great number of elderly sionals had to fight against this image on all for the profession because of new demands to grow was actually also a time of under­ people are new challenges in the Spanish levels. During the late 1990s growing de­ of people – was a time of economic growth development of social protection in Spain. society. The first “dependency law” was a mands on the social service system led to a for the whole EU. The expenditures in health, The gap in expenditures on social protection very shy movement on supporting families professional diversification in the fields of education, and social protection increased, per inha­bitant reached a high level between by the establishment of specific services. healthcare and educational services, socio­ which meant that also social work was grow­ 2000 and 2006, when Spain is compared From 2004 to 2011 the socialist government cultural intervention and family mediation. ing. Europe was growing however the Spa­ to the EU. under Prime Minister Zapatero gave moneta­ nish expenditures in this sector were nearly ry or professional support to families taking The first years of the twenty-first century stagnant. Although the level of social security was care of elderly family members who had to were a period of high migration to Spain: moderate, several processes and factors be recognized as dependents. more than 6 million people – mainly from Spain faced a consolidation of social servi­ promoted and influenced growth in the Spa­ North Africa, East Europe and South Ameri­ ces as a modern social welfare state in a nish social sector at the beginning of the The migration of about 6 million people to ca – came to Spain searching for work and period of just 10 to 15 years. This did not 21st century. Spain increased the number of professionals better living conditions. Spain was growing mean that Spain was doing it right; it did very fast due to the economic boost provided not mean that Spain was growing on the

by the construction industry. Spain had to same level as all other EU member states 2.900 face a turning point: suddenly it became a and it did not mean that Spain made the 2.700

2.500

25.000 2.300 2256 2243 2197 2208 2161 20.000 2138 2129 2115 2.100 1988 2026 15.000 1904 1.900

10.000 1789 1.700

5.000 1.500 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 0 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Figure 3: The gap between EU-15 and Spain in expenditures in social protection per inhabitant – PPA Figure 2: Number of Professionals, 1992 – 2007 Consolidation of Social Services in Spain (Eurostat) Units: 1995–2006. Underdevelopment of Social Protection in the EU context? (Spanish Social Obser­ (Number of Workers [Health and social Work] 1992–2007 [x1000]) | EU-27, EU-25, EU-15, Spain vatory) ( Déficit de Espana con el promedio de la UE-15)

34 35 Iván Rodríguez Pascual Iván Rodríguez Pascual

in the system. As a result of these new influence on the Spanish educational sys­ Employment rate by sex in % 2013 (Eurostat) demands, more specific tasks challenged tem. A double system, consisting of short- professionals in the field. Social work was term and long-term study programs was losing relevance and also parts of its compe­ typical before the reforms. The discriminato­ tencies to other sectors. Nurses took over ry social implication of “rich” students being typical social worker’s tasks in the health able to do the long-term study program and care system. Nursing and social work were “poor” students having to do short-term stu­ arranged in competing structures. dy programs had a high impact on the social work profession, which originally was only a The family as a provider of social well-being short-term study program. The “Bologna Pro­ is very important for the Spanish welfare sys­ cess” changed this. Now both bachelor stu­ tem. But the government did not see the dies and degrees with entrance to master necessity in spending money to support studies are equal for all students. families. When the Spanish consolidated system and social policy were established, To sum up, rethinking the profession in the social work profession was rethinking Spain has been mainly led by two questions: itself. The introduction of new topics, like “Who are we?” and “Who do we want to be?” user participation, appropriate treatment of clients, and the importance of research for social work led to new ways of thinking and 3. CRISIS: A TURNING POINT FOR internal conflicts with previous theories and SOCIAL WORK practice. During these former times there had been nearly no specific research for the The “professional revolution” was inter­ social work profession. Research in other rupted by a global catastrophe. After 2008 professions like psychology and sociology the financial crisis suddenly put Spain in the prevented social work from becoming a the­ focus of the international media. It forced oretically independent profession. the protection system to change entirely. Social marketing, corporate social respon­ The use of new technologies (also in social sibility, and poverty were declared to be “old 50.3–63.2 63.2–65.5 65.5–71.1 marketing) and the role of social workers fashioned” problems without priority. After 71.1–76.5 76.5–82.8 Not available in the development of a corporate social the crisis there were more poor people. Also responsibility became more important. there were more poor people in complex Minimum value: 50.3 | Maximum value: 82.8 The development of new services in private situations who had never been users of so­ organizations, such as family mediation – cial services before. The image of people Figure 4: Employment rate by sex 2013 (Eurostat) done by lawyers – paved the way for a new digging in trash bins completely changed role of social workers. the image of the country.

Education in social work deserves a specific A consequence of the financial crisis was the mention. The Bologna Reforms had a high rise in global unemployment, which from a

36 37 Iván Rodríguez Pascual Iván Rodríguez Pascual

Youth unemployment rate -% of active population in the same age group (2013) At-risk-of-poverty rate of households with at least one dependent child by work intensity (source: SILC)

%-2013 Very low work intensity [0–0.2]

7.9–16.8 16.8–21.9 21.9–26.8

26.8–38.9 38.9–58.3 Not available 30.1–55.3 55.3–67.8 67.8–71.5 Minimum value: 7.9 | Maximum value: 58.3 71.5–75.8 75.8–89.5 Not available

Figure 5: Youth unemployment rate 2013 (Eurostat) Minimum value: 30.1 | Maximum value: 89.5 | eu15: 62.0

Figure 6: At-risk-of-poverty rate of households with at least one dependent child by work intensity 2013 (Eurostat)

38 39 Iván Rodríguez Pascual Iván Rodríguez Pascual

31.4 labor point of view totally ruined several (which is very high) whereas a budget for Chile 22.8 countries. There are more than 700,000 families and children is nearly non-existent. Poland 22.4 households without any kind of income in If families and children are the most signi­ 14.5 19.2 Spain today. Dependent on the help of other ficant factors influencing the future of a Australia 13.0 families, on elderly people’s pensions as country, this very low monetary support ap­ Slovakia 16.7 their only income, they hardly can survive. pears paradox. 11.1 19.5 The unemployment rate in Spain is very high: Switzerland 14.7 5 million people of 45 million inhabitants are Of every 100 € spent on social protection in Norway 9.6 unemployed and looking for a job. The youth Spain, only 5 € are spent on family services 5.3 16.9 unemployment rate is about 50 % (Eurostat: (Eurostat: 2014a). Social work in this sector Republic of Korea 13.4 2014b). Apparently, there is no future for suffers from underfunding. A great number Finland 12.0 these young people. They have to develop of students wish to work with families in the 9.8 33.0 the society but do not have any kind of labor future, which emphasizes that these ser­ Turkey 30.2 perspectives. Most of the qualified people vices are a main competence of the pro­ Japan 21.7 are going abroad to work, e. g. to Germany fession. But families are unprotected in the 19.0 23.2 and Latin America. A country’s economy system and even social work is not able to Canada 20.8 without young and qualified people has work with them. When it is made so difficult Romania 32.9 nothing to offer – and this is one of the main to survive, it is the strong solidarity between 30.6 17.2 problems in Spain today. family members which saves them from ex­ Belgium 16.4 clusion. However this is definitely not the Sweden 12.9 In the 1990s lots of Latin Americans were idea of a modern public welfare state. 12.1 14.9 coming to Spain, but today many Spanish Austria 14.2 people emigrate to Brazil, Argentina and A former positive development of the pro­ New Zealand 18.8 Ecuador – countries which economies are fession and a period of economic growth at 18.4 13.2 growing at the moment. The Spanish society the beginning of the 21st century turned into Czech Republic 12.9 is in a critical situation: employment and increasing poverty rates. One consequence Germany 15.2 work as important factors of social integra­ was an increased de-professionalization of 15.0 35.1 tion in society are no longer working well. social work after the crisis. Poverty as well as Israel 35.6 differentiated and very complex cases are Bulgaria 25.5 Figure 5 shows a number of selected coun­ demanding a lot from a profession out of 26.1 20.4 tries where a lot of young people live iso­ means. Child poverty in Spain is growing as Malta 21.0 lated from education, work, and society. well (UNICEF: 2014); Spain has one of the Netherlands 12.9 Spain, Italy, Greece and Bulgaria occur in highest child poverty rates in the EU. In very 13.9 22.8 this list as the top countries without any per­ few other countries child poverty has risen Portugal 23.8 spective for young people. faster than in Spain. Households with a lot Denmark 9.1 of children suffer most from the crisis and 10.2 24.0 One of the main characteristics of the Spa­ the high unemployment rate. A severe de- United Kingdom 25.6 nish social system in the current situation is pro­fessionalization is taking place when the spending on unemployment payments a main occupation of social work is to gua- 0 10 20 30 40 50

40 41 Iván Rodríguez Pascual Iván Rodríguez Pascual

11.6 Slovenia 13.4 and in the EU-Context. Spain is spending public system of social services. In 2013 the­ more money than ever before on social re were 1.5 million new users in the social United States 30.1 32.2 protection since the crisis began. In reality system – people who never had been in 14.0 Cyprus 16.7 this budget is spent in the context of the social services before. high unemployment rates. The Spanish Hungary 19.7 22.6 unemployment system is not built for a European austerity measures were trans­ 15.6 France 18.6 crisis of this dimension. To finance the un­ lated to the Spanish social security system employment transfer and insurance meant with high impacts on the civil population’s Mexico 29.3 34.3 that the budget for health and education well-being: The reduction of the universal 17.1 Estonia 22.2 had to be cut. This way of redistributing coverage of social protection as a measure money had an impact on the quality of high­ of the conservative government restructured Italy 24.7 30.4 er education just as it had consequences for the right for undocumented migrants to 19.8 Luxembourg 26.3 the profession of social work and for future receive help. Acute diseases like diabetes students. were no longer covered by the public system. Spain 28.2 36.3 Today this means that undocumented mi­ 22.8 Lithuania 31.1 grants in a case of acute need are not allo­ 4. REORGANIZING OR DESTROYING? wed to be treated in a hospital. Economic Ireland 19.0 28.6 THE RECENT REFORMS OF PUBLIC SOCIAL calculations have shown that the govern­ 15.8 Croatia 27.6 SERVICES IN SPAIN ment is saving nearly nothing through this restrictive program (Asociación Estatal de Latvia 23.6 39.2 The economic crisis dramatically increased Directoras y Gerentes de Servicios Sociales: 23.0 8 Greece 40.5 the demand for financial support to the 2014a) , but denying help for the needy

11.2 Iceland 31.6

0 10 20 30 40 50 35

Figure 7: Change in child poverty between 2008 ( ) and 2012 ( ) (Source: Innocenti report card No 12) 30

25

rantee three meals a day for families. This 2008. After the crisis in 2012 the child pover­ 20

consequence is not acceptable at all for pro­ ty rate decreased only in two countries – 15 fessionals in the protection system and it Sweden and Germany – whereas it increased demands a rethinking of the priorities in so­ in the other four countries. The countries 10

cial work and in the system of social security. with the highest increase of the child pover­ 5 ty rate were Spain with 7.1 % and Lithuania 0 In comparing the child poverty rates of Swe­ with 8.2 %. 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 den, Germany, the Netherlands, the U.S.A., Lithuania, and Spain the last three countries Figure 8 shows the expenditures in health, Figure 8: Expenditures in Health, Education, and Social Protection, Spain and EU-17. 2001–2011 already had a very high child poverty rate in education, and social protection in Spain (% of GDP) (Eurostat) | EU-17 (social protection), Social Protection, Health, Education

42 43 Iván Rodríguez Pascual Iván Rodríguez Pascual

might be seen as a message that would pre­ tion should “promote or provide services a paradox: there are fewer care services, re­ Neoliberal standards found their way into vent more migrants from coming to Spain. which, by using methods of social work, duced expenditures, fewer workers in the the Spanish society when the government The dramatic reduction of expenditures in would contribute to the welfare and develop­ field, while at the same time there is a grow­ reduced the public sector and supported the social sector led to fewer resources for ment of both individuals and groups in the ing demand for them. “charity” and “for-profit” organizations. The social services in 2014 (Asociación Estatal community, and to their adjustment to the privatization of services in the former public de Directoras y Gerentes de Servicios So­ social environment.” Social work and social Furthermore the government placed high sector means entrepreneurship, funding ciales: 2014b). In addition all new develop­ services are not just humility. They are a right priorities on a rationalization of the local small social work enterprises that offer ser­ ments, such as the dependency law, were for every individual. Cutting social services administration: It proposed to close 40 % of vices to be contracted by the local govern­ stopped. The consequence was that new through austerity measures is a fundamental all local social services. Services on the na­ ment. These kinds of privatized social ser­ clients were not recognized as users of the contradiction to European social values, tional and regional levels seem to be over­ vices are doing the same work as what the services anymore. Growing demands, fewer which the Spanish government has declared lapping. But the national services are under­ public sector used to finance. But privatized resources and fewer professionals is a sim­ to promote. developed; they cannot meet the quantity of social services usually receive less money ple equation that leads to overloaded ser­ demands. and more pressure. The result is an impove­ vices and workers. Since the beginning of Figures 10 and 11 give an overview of what rishment of social services as a working the crisis a staff reduction in the Spanish has happened in Spain. The expenditures on How is it possible that people are not objec­ place for professional social workers. social work sector has taken place: 20,000 social services per inhabitant are decreasing ting to this? Social work is not popular in people have been fired, including young (see figure 10). The number of recognized Spain, nor is it visible. People are not con­ people, part time workers and people with new users of the dependency system was cerned about it shutting down. The im­ 5. LEARNING TO BE A SOCIAL WORKER vulnerable contracts in non-public services. growing until 2012. Since then it has begun portance of fighting against cuts in educa­ IN SPAIN Article 14 of the European Social Charter to decrease and there are no more new users tion and health care is generally accepted by says that every country signing this declara­ recognized (see figure 9). The situation is the public because it perceives these ser­ Current developments in Spanish social vices as necessary and close to the people. work are also a part of a changing education Social services, however, are not perceived system in which the field has moved: from as needed or as close to the people. This is marginality to higher education. 800 a further reason for the ongoing cuts in so­ 739 752 754 737 700 cial services. In its first stage before 1981 social work 658 education was established outside of uni­ 600

500 480

400 360 € 354,02 € 300 340 €

229 200 322,76 € 320 € 306,91 € 100 300 €

0 280 € ene-09 jul-09 ene-10 jul-10 ene-11 jul-11 ene-12 jul-12 ene-13 jul-13 ene-14 jul-14 2011 2012 2013

Figure 9: Number of recognized users of care services from January 2009 – January 2014 Figure 10: Expenditures in social services per inhabitant from 2011 – 2013 in Euros

44 45 Iván Rodríguez Pascual Iván Rodríguez Pascual

versities. Social work used to be a private re two lines of doctorate programs in social A future trend in the higher education reform The representative of the Federation of study. From 1981 social work was integrated work and ten indexed scientific journals with is the move to three-year bachelor programs Social Work Association in Spain clearly spo­ in the Spanish higher education system. It a specific focus on social work exist. There and two-year master programs. During the ke against a cut in social services. A solida­ became a short-term study program with a is a higher interest in specific social work “Bologna Process”, Spain decided to in­s­ rity movement called THE ORANGE WAVE lack of research. Furthermore there was no research, and the number of publications titute a four-year bachelor and a one-year [marea naranja]10 is fighting to establish PhD program in social work. The post-Bo­ in this field is increasing. These results master program, which is unusual in Europe universal social services for everyone. It is logna stage established a bachelor and have been stated by the first report about and elsewhere around the world. also trying to prevent the government from master system also with a strong leaning to Spanish social work research (Herrera/ closing the local offices. So far this has not more research. But there is still a very low Herrera Lima, 2013). Less state and less public effort in the edu­ been successful. Many demonstrations have rate of PhDs in social work in Spain. And cational system also means decreased ex­- been organized trying to make social work there is a big gender gap in social work, too. It has to be pointed out that the Spanish ­p­enditures in higher education. Fewer grants and its professionals more visible in society. The vast majority of Social Workers in the higher education system has adapted the for students and a limited access to master The fight against a widely spread negative field are men. rules of the European Higher Education Area. programs mean lower rates of PhDs in so- impression of social work has a long way to Social work today is a consolidated aca­ cial work. This context is determining the go in changing the public’s view of social The current situation of social work studies demic career mainly in the form of the ba­ Spanish future, too. work. and research consists of 39 universities chelor degree after four years. Boosting so­ offering programs in social work on the cial work research, establishing new master “Social corporate responsibility” and “so- bachelor level and 58 master programs. The programs as a bridge to more PhDs in social 6. FINAL CHALLENGES: SOCIAL WORK cial marketing” were influential topics du­ curricula are related to social intervention, work, and eliminating the gender gap in the TODAY AND IN THE FUTURE ring the early years of the 21st century in work with individuals and families, gender, profession are tasks that remain to be done Spanish social work. Now after the crisis, a gerontology, and social development.9 Only in the future. The main scope of Spanish social work today whole new context of societal priorities five of these programs are explicitly named is to preserve a modern system of public and challenges have emerged: How can as social work master programs. Furthermo­ social services to support both the profes­ social intervention be adapted to the scene sionals and the clients. Social work has to of decreasing resources? How can social put this challenge at the center of public work practice become more efficient? Effi­

1,65 % perception. ciency as an economic expression cannot

1,60 % 1,60 %

1,55 % 25

21 21 1,50 % 20 1,48 % 17 16 1,45 % 15

1,41 % 1,40 % 10 10 10 9 7 6 6 1,35 % 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 1,30 % 0 2011 2012 2013 Years (1995–2013)

Figure 11: Expenditures in social services (% GDP) Figure 12: Number of Spanish indexed articles in social work international journals (1995–2013)

46 47 Iván Rodríguez Pascual Iván Rodríguez Pascual

be used in a social work context, but trying All these questions and topics are current FOOTNOTES itarios y Sociales”. online: http://www. to do the same practice with fewer resources and important in Spanish social work today directoressociales.com (retrieved 2 Nov 14) is economization of social work. and in the coming years. The economic and 7 The “dependency law”, as it is known in Asociación estatal de Directoras y financial crisis as a critical context might Spain instead of its complete name – Ley Gerentes de Servicios Sociales (2014b): Is social work able to deal with these new contain more options beyond research. 39/2006, de 14 de diciembre, de Promo­ Índice de desarrollo de los servicios and growing demands? Should targeted ción de la Autonomía Personal y Atención sociales 2014. on-line: http://issuu.com/ groups of clients be prioritized by several a las personas en situación de depen­ directorasgerentes/docs/1.-sintesis_in­ measures? Who comes first: people who are dencia – [39/2006 Law on Personal Auto­ dice_dec_2014 (retrieved 2 Nov 2014) hungry, those who are homeless, or clients nomy and Dependency Care Services] was Eurostat (2014a): Population and Social with mental illnesses? Or should everyone one of the major changes in public policy Conditions Statistics. http://ec.europa. be treated as before? There are many open introduced by the former socialist govern­ eu/eurostat/home?p_auth=82EVNPVl&p questions – in practice, in research, and in ment in March 2006 and formally released _p_id=estatsearchportlet_WAR_ theory, too. in December 2006. It was conceived as a estatsearchportlet&p_p_lifecycle=1&p_ universal service providing care services p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view&_ Developing ways for professionals to look and resources (monetary or not) to caregi­ estatsearchportlet_WAR_estatsearch­ after their own well-being is also an impor­ vers in a family context, but it is currently portlet_action=search&text=Population tant topic in modern social work under the underfinanced and these services are not +and+Social+Conditions+Statistics+201 current conditions. Ways to avoid “burn out” reaching the current demands and needs. 4 (retrieved 14 Nov 2014) and new psychological risks in overloaded 8 The translation of the term is “Managers Eurostat (2014b): Cohesion Indicators. services have to be studied. “Resilience stu­ of Social Services State Association” http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ dies” might be especially useful, taking the 9 Data from the National Conference of home?p_auth=82EVNPVl&p_p_id= pre-crisis challenges and adapting them to Faculties of Social Work [Conferencia de estatsearchportlet_WAR_ the current stressful context. Decanos/as y Directores/as de Trabajo estatsearchportlet&p_p_lifecycle=1&p Social] (http://conferenciatrabajosocial. _p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view& blogspot.com.es/). _estatsearchportlet_WAR_estatsearch­ 10 To follow the activities of this movement portlet_action=search&text=Population of social workers and other professionals +and+Social+Conditions+Statistics+201 12 from social services fighting against 4 (retrieved 14 Nov 2014)

10 Government’s cut off it is useful to visit the Herrera Gómez, M./Herrera Viedma, E./ web of the National Social Work Council Lima Fernández, A. (2013): Análisis 8 [Consejo General del Trabajo Social] (ht­ y Estudio de la Investigación Académica

6 tp://www.cgtrabajosocial.es/portada). en Trabajo Social Español: análisis cuantitativo. Madrid: Consejo General 4 del Trabajo Social-University of La Rioja.

2 REFERENCES UNICEF Office of Research (2014): ‘Children of the Recession: The impact of 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Asociación estatal de Directoras y the economic crisis on child well-being Gerentes de Servicios Sociales (2014a): in rich countries’, Innocenti Report Card Figure 13: Number of PhD-theses in social work (2008–2013) “Una gran Alianza por los Servicios San- 12. Florence: UNICEF

48 49 Impressions IV

Rasa Naujaniene SOCIAL WORK IN LITHUANIA – CURRENT ISSUES ON SOCIAL SERVICES

1. INTRODUCTION 2. SOCIAL WELFARE AND SOCIAL SECURITY IN LITHUANIA The historical dimension of the country is emphasized by Rasa Naujaniene to help to Having regained independence in 1990, Impressions explain and understand past and current Lithuania started to create a new system of developments. In her speech she described social security which forms the basis for the current stage of the Lithuanian social social work today. This section gives a short work profession. Due to many political overview of the structure and features of changes during the last century, social work social policy in a comparative dimension. as a profession is in its beginnings. Up to today the level of education is not sufficient. The low level of the Lithuanian social wel­- a) Lithuanian social welfare development fare and security system produces a high level of poverty, which makes social work Aidukaite et al (2012) maintain that the responsible for securing the basics for the formation of social security took place in people in need. Common fields of Lithua­ two directions after 1990. On the one hand nian social work were described by the the state tried to recreate institutional author in cooperation with one of her master and organizational social security systems students (Gabriele Vaitulionyte), who illus­ which were established before the 1940 trated her work at the Lithuanian Red Cross. Soviet occupation. On the other hand, there were attempts to use institutional and or­ ganizational examples of social security systems from Western countries, even as a Soviet system of social provision was also Rasa Naujaniene (Lithuania) inherited. As noted:

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“In the last century when political systems that this Soviet welfare system can be Paternalism also encouraged the growth of b) The social security system in Lithuania underwent fundamental changes, the econo­ thought of as a form of authoritarian welfare nomenclature and bureaucracy; precondi­ mic and social welfare system in Lithuania state, based on compulsory employment tions were created for corruption, inefficient The present Lithuanian social security sys­ would often find itself in the restart position, with a huge redistributive mechanism. In the decisions, suppression of private economic tem is comprised of social insurance and as well as state institutions and communities social sphere, paternalism demonstrated initiative, black economy, and control of the social assistance. In this system, social in­ that had to adapt and reorganize to be able itself in the nationalization of the social sec­ private lives of the citizens by the state. As su­rance based on work income and partici­ to function in the new conditions.” (Mazei­ tor, direct intrusion of the state into the sphere noted by Mazeikiene et al. (2014: 645): pation in the labour market has the most kiene/Naujaniene/Ruskus 2014: 644) of social services, and exclusion of other important function. After regaining indepen­ potential actors able to solve social problems. “The formation of social policy in the post- dence in 1990, there were attempts to adapt When recreating the elements of the social This is also noted by Mazeikiene et al. (2014: communist countries, and the reform of so­ the Soviet social insurance system to the welfare system from the years before 1940, 645) with reference to Aidukaitė (2004): cial services in considering the attempt to market-based economy (Dunajevas, 2011). the principles developed at that time were overcome paternalism and étatism, leads to taken as a basis. The variety of social welfare­ “The Soviet Union welfare system can best be new principles being developed in order to The goal of the social insurance system is to system actors was encouraged and the role thought of as a form of authoritarian welfare reduce the role of the state. The authors ana­ guarantee income for the insured in cases of of communities and non-governmental orga­ state, based on compulsory employment lyzing the post-communist states‘ social ser­ incapacity for work due to old age, illness, nizations was reinforced. Social services with a huge redistributive mechanism. […] vice reform welfare mix and focusing on the disability, and maternity. The system is ba­ were delivered locally by establishing small discussing the soviet system and possible case of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia and sed on the “pay-as-you-go principle”. Since private charity organizations. In the period implications for social policy, [it is] defined Serbia, state there is a transition in progress 2004 an accrual of supplementary parts in of 1918 to 1940 the social security system in as paternalistic with certain characteristics to a new welfare mix according to the prin­ the social insurance contribution was allo­ Lithuania was comprised of social insu­ of étatism demonstrated in planned econo­ ciples described as the ‘3Ds’ of reform, wed to serve as the basis for a funded pen­ rance. The state was more active in the my, strict regulation of production and re­ namely, deinstitutionalization (the move sion plan. sphere of social insurance and social care source distribution. In the social sphere, away from long-term care in residential in­ was the field of private charity organizations paternalism demonstrated itself in the nati­ stitutions towards community-based servi­ The system of social assistance comprised that were financially supported by the state, onalizing of the social sphere, direct intru­ ces); diversification (the promotion of a re­ of benefits and social services has a smaller though not sufficiently enough (Aidukaitė sion of the state into the sphere of social newed welfare mix of state and non-state role. The social assistance system is carried et al, 2012). services and exclusion of other potential providers including non-governmental orga­ out with support from the state, municipali­ actors able to solve social problems.” nizations (NGOs) and the private sector); ties, and non-governmental institutions. In­ In this period a certain distribution of re­ and decentralization (the transfer of rights, stitutions that are municipality subordinates sponsibility among different social security Social support and some major services duties and responsibilities to local popula­ and non-governmental organizations are the actors existed. Wealthy relatives, village were given by trade unions, medical institu­ tions). As Bošnjak and Stubbs (2007) say, main service providers in Lithuania. Private communities and local parishes provided tions, executive committees, and later by the ‘diversification’ of service provision is service providers are just beginning to enter informal social care. The national govern­ social departments of major institutions connected with ‘deétatisation’, empower­ the social service market. In this context Ma­ ment also established part of the shelters (Bagdonas, 2001). During the Soviet Union, ment of service users and the mobilization of zeikiene et al. (2014: 645–646) point out: for children and for the elderly and the producers were not interested in satisfying their families, communities, civil society and disabled. the needs of consumers. Paternalism en­tren­ the private sector, which is also treated as “Historical and political conditions deter­ ched strong service institutionalization the subsidiary principle.” mine that social services do not cover an in­ In former times, when Lithuania became a part when creating big state foster institutions fluential part in the social security system. of the Soviet Union, a specific welfare sys­ like homes for children and homes for the Poor and uneven financing of NGOs leaves tem was created. Aidukaitė (2004) maintains disabled. the delivered social services in uncertainty.

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The reconstruction of the major institutions del using major care institutions inherited system (Naujanienė/Ivanauskienė, 2008). while in Lithuania it increased from 2001 to inherited from the Soviet Union is a slow pro­ from the Soviet times. Poor financing of NGOs Statistical data demonstrate that Lithuania, 2009 but then decreased quite rapidly. cess, and services in these institutions are leaves the delivered social services in un­ when compared with Western European given a significant share of financing thus certainty. The reconstruction of the major countries is not willing to allocate adequate Figure 2 illustrates the very low expenditure leaving present and potential new actors institutions inherited from the Soviet Union financial resources to the social welfare on social protection in Lithuania. To point out (community-based services) behind. It is re­ is a slow process and services in these in­ system. some examples, the Netherlands, Germany, lated to etatism coming from the Soviet times stitutions are given a significant share of and Sweden have expenditure rates above when major institutions and not services financing thus leaving present and potential While Sweden, Germany and the Nether­ the European average, while Spain has an were financed (Žalimienė & Lazutka, 2009). new actors behind. lands have maintained an almost stable ex­ expenditure rate a little lower than the Euro­ Since 2006 the situation has been changing penditure on social protection of about 30 % pean average. Lithuania, however, is the with the introduction of service delivery fi­ of GDP in the years shown in Figure 1, Lithu­ fifth last country in the table with only one nancing as opposed to that of the institution. c) The financial situation of the social ania has an expenditure in social protection third of the European average of expenditure The state and municipalities decide what security system of only 14 % of GDP, which increased up to on social protection in PPS per inhabitant. services have to be financed and how; the 21 % of GDP in 2009, but then decreased to recipient‘s participation in decision-making After regaining its independence on 11 Mar­ only 18.9 % of GDP in 2010. With this low Expenditures on pensions also are very low is minimal.” ch 1990 the state’s social security system expenditure in social protection, Lithuania in Lithuania. With the second lowest expen­ started to be developed. The short period is clearly below the EU average of 25.9 % diture rate it only spends 7.5 % of GDP on At present, social services are delivered of independence partially explains the diffi­ of GDP in 2008 and 28.5 % of GDP in 2010. pensions, whereas the European average is according to the pre-war liberal residual mo­ cult financial situation of the social security The average expenditure on social protec­ at around 12.5 % of GDP. The Netherlands tion in the EU increased from 2008 to 2010 and Germany have an expenditure rate abo­

15.000 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 12.500 EU-28 25,90 28,70 28,50 28,20 28,60 10.000 Sweden 27,70 30,10 28,60 28,20 29,30 7.500 Lithuania 15,90 21,00 18,90 16,90 16,30 5.000 Poland 19,40 20,40 19,60 18,60 17,70 2.500 Estonia 14,70 18,80 17,60 15,60 15,00 0 Finland 25,10 29,00 29,20 28,80 30,10 Malta Cyprus Greece Poland Austria Croatia Iceland Finland Norway Estonia Italy (1) Italy Belgium Hungary Bulgaria Romania Denmark Spain (1) Spain Latvia (1) Latvia Germany 27,10 30,50 29,80 28,60 28,70 EU - 28 (1) Serbia (2) Serbia France (1) France Ireland (1) Ireland Sweden (1) Sweden Portugal (1) Portugal Slovakia (1) Slovakia Slovenia (1) Slovenia Germany (1) Germany Luxembourg Lithuania (1) Lithuania Switzerland (1) Switzerland Czech Republic Czech Netherlands (1) Netherlands Ireland 20,10 23,90 24,50 23,20 23,00 Kingdom United Euro area (EA - 17) (1) area Euro Netherlands 26,40 29,40 29,70 30,20 31,00 Figure 2: Expenditure on social protection in purchasing power standards (PPS) per inhabitant (2011) Figure 1: Expenditure on social protection, 2008–2012 (% of GDP) (1) Provisional, (2) 2010, Source: Eurostat (online data code: tps00100)

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ve or exactly at 12.5 % of GDP, while Sweden wards the social work profession becoming period of “prosperity” of social work was universities. Two more bachelor programs and Spain have an expenditure rate a little an academic discipline and science at uni­ followed by the period of “professionaliza­ and one more master program were added below the European average. versities. The understanding of “social tion” in many European countries. For in­ in 2014. However, a lack of qualified profes­ work” for the former Soviet academics was stance the equal distribution of social ser­ sors and professional social work educators more related to “labour” and “practice” than vices and social security arrangements like is a current problem for this high number of 3. SOCIAL WORK IN LITHUANIA to an academic discipline or social science. health care or education among all citizens study programs. It creates a sense of compe­ was already required in Finland in 1971. tition among universities when they should Due to the historical and political context be collaborating to ensure a professional of Lithuania, social work is a new field as a a) The beginning of social work After 1980 a neo-liberal discourse in social level of education. Another issue is the diffe­ profession, academic discipline, and as an work became apparent in the shift to the rent level of education at universities and area for social research. After the restoration In Lithuania social work started when Euro­ “post-modern” time. Social work in Lithua­ colleges in Lithuania. Colleges were transfor­ of Lithuania’s independence in 1990, social pean social work shifted from the “modern” nia started in this “post-modern” time and it med from former Soviet technical schools. work started as a practical activity which, to the “post-modern” time, which came with is evident that the neo-liberal discourse has Formal requirements for entrance into college during 1990 to 1992, was formally named as inherent restraints and possibilities. During had a great impact on social work. Lithuania studies are lower, and formal requirements social work. In this time professors from the “modern” period from 1945 to 1980, is a country where the period of social work for teaching staff are lower as well, if we com­ foreign countries tried to establish social social work involved a belief in progress, “prosperity” never existed and where access pare colleges and universities, while the dip­ work studies. There was a great lack of un­ science, “social justice and social integra­ to social services is neither universal nor a loma of studies at the college bachelor level derstanding and a kind of “resistance” to­ tion” in Europe (Trevillion 1997: 2). This part of the constitution (Naujaniene 2011). and the university bachelor level are the same – corresponding to the level according As noted by Bagdonas (2001: 15–17), profes­ to the European Qualification Framework. sional social work has developed in Lithua­ 17.5 nia since 2002. This professionalization of Along with providing education in social 15.0 social work has been an ongoing process work, educational institutions obtained text­ since 1996 when the need for a professional books on the subject from the UK, USA, 12.5 education for social workers first was menti­ Canada and Western European countries 10.0 oned. Elements of professional education that were mainly written in English. Some of for social workers became law in June 2015 these textbooks were translated into the 7.5 with a lot of postponements and after con­ Lithuanian language and Lithuanian authors 5.0 troversial discussions. also began to publish several books on the theory and practice of social work and social 2.5 In 1992 the first educational programs in services in Lithuanian (Naujaniene 2007: 9). 0.0 social work were started at two universities, Due to the internationalization of studies, Vytautas Magnus University and Vilnius Uni­ academic staff at university level is increa­ Malta Cyprus Poland Austria Croatia Iceland Finland Norway Estonia Italy (1) Italy Belgium Hungary Bulgaria Romania Denmark Spain (1) Spain Latvia (1) Latvia EU - 28 (1) Serbia (2) Serbia France (1) France versity, as well as at Utena College. In the singly required to publish articles or books Greece (1) Greece Ireland (1) Ireland Sweden (1) Sweden Portugal (1) Portugal Slovakia (1) Slovakia Slovenia (1) Slovenia Germany (1) Germany Luxembourg Lithuania (1) Lithuania following years other universities and col­ on an international level. This situation is Switzerland (1) Switzerland Czech Republic Czech Netherlands (1) Netherlands United Kingdom United leges in Lithuania added or introduced their not favorable for producing the needed texts Euro area (EA - 17) (1) area Euro bachelor and master programs in this field. on social work in the national language. Figure 3: Expenditure on pensions, 2011 (% of GDP) Since 2013 the professional bachelor and Thus, there is still a huge lack of Lithuanian (1) Provisional, (2) 2010, Source: Eurostat (online data code: spr_exp_pens) master degree in social work is offered at six literature on the topic.

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Professional journals are indispensable for becoming a professional supervisor have shopping. In 2006 a new law came into force organizations became members. Up to today the professional development of the social been available in Lithuania since 2002. The­ saying that social work has to be performed the majority of members of LASW are social work field. Since 2001 Vilnius University has se programs are based on standards of the by social workers but also by assistants of work assistants and not professional social been publishing a journal called “Social The­ Association of National Organizations for social work. This jumble in the law lasted workers. This creates difficulties to represent ory, Empirics, Policy and Practice”11. The Supervision in Europe (ANSE), which en­ until 2015 when a new definition of social social work as a clearly defined profession biannual academic journal “Social Work”12 sures a professional quality of consultan­ work as a profession was published. Since by LASW. is published since 2002 by the Mykolas Ro­ cy 14. Since 2015 supervision as a method for 2006 assistants of social workers had been meris University and since 2008, Vytautas professional reflection and development of recognized as social workers by clients and In 2011, based on the order of the Ministry Magnus University has been publishing a professional competency has been formally staff of other professions (family doctors, of Social Security and Labor, the Board of biannual academic journal with the name required for professional social workers. In bank workers, etc.). But in reality these so- Social Work of Lithuania (BSWL) was formed. “Social Work: Experience and Methods”13. 2003 supervisors who work in social work as called “social work assistants” were care This board consists of 15 members from the National as well as international scholars are well as in other professional fields establis­ workers who were only formally required Lithuanian Association of Social Workers, welcomed to publish their articles. hed the National Association for Supervisors to graduate from a secondary school. This NGOs, educational bodies, and institutions (LPSKA)15. In 2005 the LPSKA became an si­tuation lasted for many years and to some of practice. Social work practice is discussed The discussions about social work research associated member of the ANSE and in 2014 extent made a great step in direction of the in different fields: social work education, started together with the beginning of social it became a full member of this organization. de-professionalization of social work. legislation on social work and social ser­ work education. There is currently no pos­ Supervisors who work in social work practice Against all odds, there are very few profes­ vices, and recognition of social work. De­ sibility for doctoral studies in social work in bring significant input to the professiona­ sional and specialized social workers who institutionalization processes and many Lithuania. Several students with master lization of social work. are working in such sensitive fields. These other questions are also discussed during degree in social work completed doctoral fields are child welfare, elderly care, human the meetings of board members. With the studies in social work at “Lapland Universi­ trafficking, mental health, and youth work. promotion of BSWL, a new definition of ty” in Rovaniemi, Finland. The author of the b) Social work development Even so, social work has still been insuffi­ social work was presented in the Law of present article is among them. However, as cient in self-marketing and even now, “the Social Services. According to this defini­tion noted by Perttula et. al. (2008: 110), in Lithu­ In looking at the development of the profes­ predominate attitude is still that social work “social work is a professional activity that ania “social work as a science is only begin­ sion, there is one big challenge social work is a job anyone can do, because it is “doing empowers people, families, communities ning to develop” and “the negative conse­ professionals have to face. That is the in­ good” and anyone can be a “do-gooder” and society to solve problems in interrela­ quence of that is that social work has a va­ sufficient picture of the profession and lack (Naujaniene 2007: 173). tions and social problems, promote social gue national identity”. In Lithuania since the of recognition of social work. Social work is change, improve life quality and strengthen beginning of social work studies, competen­ still quite vague as a profession among To change the image of social work, it is solidarity and social justice”. cies and skills in qualitative social research social workers themselves but also among necessary to have professional organiza­ are becoming more common and even in our the broader society. Traditionally a professi­ tions that help to make this revaluation days it could be named as the dominant onal social worker is a provider of financial come true. In 1993 the Lithuanian Associa­ 4. FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK IN LITHUANIA methodology in social work research. benefits or benefits-in-kind. The media are tion of Social Workers (LASW) was esta­- spreading a very fragmented image of social blish­ed. 13 years later in 2006, it comprised The main fields of Lithuanian social work are The professionalization of social work is workers dragging children away from their 47 groups based on regional divisions and child welfare, family social work, geronto­ rela­ted to the social work supervision deve­ families. Even more dominant is the image 1200 members. Historical developments logical social work, work with victims of loped in Lithuania under North American of a social worker as the provider of basic had a critical influence on this association human trafficking, work with victims of professors’ influence. With the support of care duties for older people in their home because the not-graduated social work substance abuse, social work with home- the German Caritas, training programs for such as cleaning windows or doing the daily as­sistants from the Soviet time working in less people, people with disabilities, peo-

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ple with mental disorders, or people with abuse problem, gambling addiction, lack In 2013 there were 10.235 families at social In 2007, the average old age pension amoun­ health problems. In the following sections of certain social skills to know how to or to risk raising 20,664 children in total. In this ted to 167 Euro per month which is 44.5 % of two of these main fields are described in be able to take proper care of children, year, there were 543,700 children in Lithu­ the average net wage (Ministry of social detail. who uses psychological, physical, sexual ania, and 635 social workers were working security and labor, 2014). The average old violence against his/her children, spends with families at social risk (Statistical Year­ age pension per month in February 2013 children’s monetary support for other than book, 2014). On average, one social worker amounted to 236.79 Euro (Ministry of social a) Social work with families the family’s interests, thus posing danger works with 16 families and is responsible for security and labor, 2014) or 47 % of the ave­ to the children’s physical, mental, spiritu- 32 children. rage net wage. In Lithuania family social work is equal to al, moral development and safety.“ social work with families at social risk. The Social work with families at social risk is one In case of disability, widowhood, or state term “family at social risk” is associated The most common reasons why families of the most complex areas of social work in pensions, old age pensioners can receive with the term “multiproblem family” used at social risk are added into these statistics Lithuania, demanding that social workers increased incomes. in the academic literature of social work, im­ are alcohol addiction, drug abuse, and lack demonstrate both critical thinking and plying that these families have more than of social skills. Fewer families are added knowledge of specific micro-level interven­ The Social Services Law (2006) states that one problem. As noted by Motieciene and into the statistics for inadequate usage tions. Fragmented systems of foster pa­ the aim of the provision of services for Naujaniene (2012: p. 172): of monetary support and permanent child renting and lack of other community-based the elderly is to create conditions for them custody (Ministry of social security and services for children and families make the to live in their own homes, with their own “Lithuanian legal acts define a family at labour, 2011). But at the same time poverty, practice of family social work even more families as long as possible to conduct daily social risk as a family raising children under unemployment, and other structural pro­ complicated. Organizing homes for children life independently. This law also provides 18 with at least one of the parents having blems are not mentioned in official rhetoric is still a dominant service for children who personal health care and special means for an alcohol, drug or psychotropic substance about families at “risk”. need residential care. maintaining social relations with family and society. Figure 4 shows decreasing rates in all three dimensions: number of child care institu­ In-home assistance for the elderly are only Number of child care Number of children in child Number of places in child tions at the end of year, number of children financed by municipal budgets (taxes). Pay­ institutions at the care institutions at the care institutions at the in child care institutions at the end of the ments from service users for different ser­ end of the year in units end of the year in persons end of the year in units year and number of places in child care in­ vices are calculated according to the user’s 2012 95 4,611 5,174 stitutions at the end of the year. income and property value. Institutional care is paid for from different sources: by the 2011 107 4,870 5,445 individual as well as the municipality and 2010 112 5,000 5,556 b) Social work with the elderly the state budget. Social workers and social work assistants are the main employers and 2009 112 5,234 5,832 Old age pensions from the social insurance employees in this sector. Day social care at 2008 114 5,603 6,094 fund provide the majority of social protection home is a new service that started a few in old age. The amount of a pension payment years ago as a “pilot project” in some muni­ 2007 113 5,753 6,138 is related to labour market earnings (Bernotas/ cipalities. Care and nursing at home is inte­ 2006 111 5,819 6,210 Guogis 2006: 216). The average level of old grated in this service. In 2016 this service age pensions is very low and not at all suffi­ will become available in all municipalities. Figure 4: Child care in Lithuania (2006–2012) cient to secure an adequate living standard.

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The major problem of social services for residences is increasing due to private esta­ institutions from 2007 to 2012. Up to 2012 multi-faced assistance. In 2012 the Kaunas older people in Lithuania is the low or even blishments but some of them face difficul­ the number of residents, the number of care Refugee Integration Center started the pro­ very low coverage of all types of services. ties in attracting clients due to high prices. institutions and the number of places in ject “Bridges to successful integration” In 2000 in Northern Europe, 8 to 24 % of The low coverage of services is related to these institutions were increasing but from financed­ by the European Refugee Fund. A people over 65 received in-home assistance, a lack of information on these services. As 2011 on they have been decreasing again, multiprofessional team consisting of a social whereas in Lithuania the percentage only noted by Tamutiene/Naujaniene (2013), the maybe due to high costs. worker, a lawyer, and a psychologist supplies amounted to 0.8 %. In 2009, up to 2.5 % lack of data on social services for the elderly social, legal, and vocational guidance con­ of people received in-home assistance. is related to a lack of services. Low numbers sultations. Special offers such as sport or Due to a lack of services within the muni­ of users and providers relate to the poor c) Social work with refugees exemplified music therapy help establish a daily struc­ cipalities, in-home assistance is not at all prevalence of information about services. by the Lithuanian Red Cross Kaunas ture and ways to deal with possible trauma­ available to everyone in need. However, The integration of care services with nursing Refugee Integration Center 16 tic situations. City trips, Lithuanian language in-home assistance for the elderly is a grow­ services is also fragmented. Nursing ser­ courses, IT-courses, and vocational training ing sector because the number of both vices become more and more dominant in Gabriele Vaitulionyte as master student of Vi- provide an orientation to integrate into service providers and recipients is increa­ social care while from a social care point of tautas Magnus University described her work so­ciety. Women’s and children’s activities sing (see figure 5). view there should be a holistic attitude to at Lithuanian Red Cross as an example for the especially adress specific needs and help elderly persons lives. field of social work with refugees in Lithuania. establish a network amongst these groups. The need for both social services at home Finally, contact between the Lithuanian and social care at homes for older adults Figure 6 illustrates the number of residents The Red Cross Refugee Integration Center in society and refugees currently from Afgha­ is poorly satisfied. In 2008, Lithuania had in care institutions for the elderly, the Kaunas was established in 2004 with the nistan, the Russian Federation (Chechnya), 104 homes for older adults, hosting 5,047 number of these institutions, and further­ aim to facilitate refugees’ integration into and Syria is made through special intercul­ persons (see Figure 6). The number of such more the numbers of places in these care Lithuanian society by providing them with a tural events.

Number of recipients of assistance Number of recipients of social services Number of residents Number of care institutions Number of places in cash in persons at home in persons in care institutions for for the elderly at the in care institutions for 2012 267 15,902 the elderly at the end of year in units the elderly at the end of the year in persons end of the year in units 2011 292 15,022 2012 4,514 102 4,855 2010 333 12,873 2011 4,414 100 4,695 2009 569 13,554 2010 4,476 105 4,847 2008 655 13,262 2009 5,004 103 5,484 2007 550 8,189 2008 5,047 104 5,359 2006 793 7,927 2007 4,971 101 5,342 Figure 5: Number of recipients of assistance in cash and of recipients of social services at home in Lithuania Figure 6: Care at homes fo the elderly (2007–2012)

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5. CONCLUSIONS Professional social work in Lithuania has a FOOTNOTES SISTEMOS RAIDA POKOMUNISTINĖJE unique role and responsibility in this crea­ LIETUVOJE. Lithuanian models of social welfare, social tion of a “social market”, involvement of 11 http://www.journals.vu.lt/socialine - Vilniaus Universitetas. services, and social work practice are de­ different actors, user’s perspectives, profes­ teorija-empirija-politika-ir-praktika Mazeikiene, Natalija/Naujaniene, Rasa/ termined by historical, political, and social sional values, and other challenges. 12 http://www.mruni.eu/lt/mokslo_darbai/ Ruskus Jonas (2014): factors. As noted by Mazeikiene et al. (2014: sd/apie_leidini What is mixed in welfare mix? p. 653): 13 http://socialinisdarbas.vdu.lt/lt/ Welfare ideologies at stake in the Lithua­ socialinis-darbas-patirtis-ir-metodai nian case of social service delivery. “Etatism and paternalism of the Soviet 14 http://www.anse.eu European Journal of Social Work. times, as well as the perception of a caring 15 http://www.supervizija.lt Vol. 17 (5), p. 641–655. state with governing state institutions is 16 http://www.redcross.lt/en/news/ Motiečienė Roberta, becoming a certain legacy in Lithuania in the 476-the-opening-of-refugee-integration- Naujanienė Rasa. (2012): context of ‘savage capitalism’ and neoli­ center-in-vilnius Construction of „Good“ and „Bad“ beralism. Citizens are facing a neoliberal motherhood during the study of Critical ideology and market economy in a country reflection on experiences of social that was used to planned economy, centra­ REFERENCES work with families at social risk. lized government and repressed civic parti­ Socialinis darbas. Patirtis ir metodai = cipation. In the period of transition and dra­ Aidukaite, J. (2004): Social work. Experience and methods. matic political and economic changes Lithu­ The Emergence of the Post-socialist Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto anians ‘had to become’ citizens able to Welfare State – the Case of the Baltic leidykla. 9(1), p. 171–194. choose and be individually responsible for States: Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, Naujanienė R. (2011): their welfare.” And moreover, “In Lithuania, Södertörn Doctoral Dissertation. Potrebe uporabnikov skozi prizmo where the free market and democratic expe­ Aidukaite, J./Bogdanova, N./ upravljanja s sredstvi na področju rience is short, the neoliberal policy is trans­ Guogis, A. (2012): gerontološkega socialnega dela / iš ferred to the social sphere and the state is Gerovės valstybės raida Lietuvoje: anglų k. vertė į slovėnų k. Nina Stropnik reducing its role or not performing it at all mitas ar realybė? – Kunič // Socialno delo. thus leaving individual responsibility for Vilnius, Lithuanian Social Ljubljana : Fakulteta za socialno delo v problem solutions to the recipients. Due to Research Centre. Ljubljani. ISSN 0352-7956. Vol. 50, iss. essential political reconstructions and deep Bagdonas, A. (2001): 3-4, p. 229–238. Prieiga per internetą: . economic crises, citizens have not accumu­ Socialinis darbas Lietuvoje: raidos, [Duomenų bazės: IBSS; CSA Sociological lated financial or social capital. Actors of praktikos ir akademinis aspektai. Abstracts; ProQest]. social services experience tension and am­ STEPP: Socialin ė teorija, empirija, Naujanienė, R. (2007): biguity between the demand of neoliberal politika ir praktika, p. 10–35 The Meaning of Client‘s Resistance policy to choose and be responsible and the Bernotas, D./Guogis, A. (2006): for Social Work Practice. expectation that the state will participate in Globalizacija, socialinė apsauga Special education, 2 (17), the social service market. At the same time ir Baltijos šalys. p. 183–193. ISSN 1392-5369. the actors of social services express a need Vilnius: M. Romerio universitetas. Naujanienė R./Ivanauskienė V. (2008): for different actors to take an active part in Dunajevas, E. (2011): Elderly care from a norm perspective: the welfare system.” ASMENINIŲ SOCIALINIŲ PASLAUGŲ Vilnius and Ukmerge cases.

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By ed. Koht H., Tufte G. Civil society, Trevillion, Steve (1997): local government and human services The globalization of European Social in the Baltic sea region. Work. Social work in Europe. Jonas Christensen Oslo University College. p. 207–214. No 1 (4). pp. 1–9. ISSN 0807-1039. SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL POLICY IN SWEDEN: Perttula, Juha/Naujaniene, Rasa/ CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS AND PERSPECTIVES Godvadas, Paulius/Gudliauskaitė- Godvadė, Jūratė/Malinauskas, Gedas/ Užaitė, Vytautė (2008): Socialinio darbo identiteto tarptautinis akademinis pateikimas. Socialinis darbas. Nr. 7(2), 109–118. Republic of Lithuania. Ministry of Social Security and Labour (2014): Social Report 2013–2014. http://www.socmin.lt/en/social- 1. INTRODUCTION work as a discipline is regulated by the nati­ report.html onal level and the basic contents are highly Republic of Lithuania. Ministry of Social “Education is the most powerful weapon restricted. Social work can be studied at Security and Labour (2011): which you can use to change the world.” around 16 universities and universities of Social Report 2010–2011. (Nelson Mandela) applied sciences in Sweden. Regardless of http://www.socmin.lt/public/up­ local conditions the basic chore of psycho­ loads/5926_socialreport2010-2011.pdf Looking at the profession of social work as pro­ logy, sociology, pedagogy and social law is Statistical Yearbook (2014): bably one of the most international fields at included in the social work programs. At Statistical Yearbook of Lithuania, 2014. all, an exchange of experiences, ways and Malmö University, having around 23 000 stu­ Lietuvos statistikos departamentas, methods as a path of educating professionals dents, 800 to 1000 social work students are Vilnius. among themselves is a core value to find local educated. Focusing on current develop­ Social report, 2010–2011 (2011): solutions to global problems and to promote so­ ments in social work and social policy the The Social Report 2010–2011. cial change as an overall aim of the profession. author of this article is connecting characte­ Ministry of SOCIAL Security and Labour. ristics of social work and social policy from Vilnius. In 1977, Sweden received the first professor a Swedish point of view. Referring to the Tamutiene Ilona/ in social work. 40 years later Sweden holds IASSW’s global definition (2014) of the so­ Naujaniene, Rasa (2013): around 70 full Professors in social work and cial work profession we can point out the Senyvo amžiaus asmenų socialinių during the period of 1980–2012, 319 PhD main driving forces behind the development paslaugų prieinamumo namuose dissertations in social work have been pub­ of social policy in Sweden and how it affects patirtys (Experiences of Elderly lished (Brunnberg 2013). In an ongoing pro­ Swedish social work. Giving facts about the People Regarding the Accessibility to cess of professionalization in social work master education in social work at Malmö Social Services at Home). with a strong connection between research, University, we can use the IASSW-definition Bridges. Social Sciences. education and practice, social work educa­ and conclude with an idea of what social Vol. 65(4), p.63–78. tion is influenced in a positive way. Social work must become in the future.

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“Social work is a practice-based profession are private. But regardless of the organiza­ public funds. Furthermore a quality assess­ concerning social work are taken on muni­ and an academic discipline that promotes tion all institutions are financed by public ment and quality certification system are cipality level. In total there are 290 muni­ social change and development, social taxation, in full or partly. established to guarantee the standards. cipalities. They have a strong autonomy and cohesion, and the empowerment and libera­ they can act very independent towards the tion of people. Principles of social justice, In Malmö for example there is hardly any Being strong believers in the individual state according to the Swedish local govern­ human rights, collective responsibility and kind of social work project which is not freedom of choice and a very individualistic ment act (The Swedish act of local govern­ respect for diversities are central to social directly or indirectly influenced by the mu­ society, the Swedish society supports the ment, 2014). The problem is that there is a work. Underpinned by theories of social nicipality. If they are proceeding without collectively financed welfare state very lack of balance between bigger­ and smaller work, social sciences, humanities and indi­ the municipalities’ influence, they are still much. Looking at the rate of innovation, municipalities: smaller ones cannot offer the genous knowledges, social work engages financed by it. Even Non-Governmental Sweden and countries like Singapore, same services as bigger municipalities people and structures to address life chal­ Organizations (NGO) are very closely linked Switzerland, Hong Kong, Canada, Australia which creates heterogeneity and inequality. lenges and enhance wellbeing.” to the municipalities. There is a kind of over­ and the USA are the top countries in inter­ This especially exists in the northern rural (IASSW global definition of the social work all believe that supporting non-govern­ national rankings. Comparing the welfare regions of Sweden where geographical dis­ profession, 2014) mental activities is equal to not believing systems of these countries, we can find tances are big and population is low. into the Swedish public financed welfare similarities in the way innovation is sup­ state, even though it is slightly changing. ported. Individuality in the way of being One big influence in developing social policy 2. MAIN DRIVING FORCES BEHIND THE DE­ This does not mean that the Swedish society innovative affects social work in the way of are certain economical driving forces which VELOPMENT OF SOCIAL POLICY IN SWEDEN does not want to support international working with clients having social problems seriously determine contents and practice NGOs. In contrast to a strong belief in a coll­ and supporting individuals in changing their of social work. Dealing with the new public Social policy contains all guidelines on the ectively financed welfare state, the Swedish lives. Individualizing social problems means management and evidence based social macro level of society. Prescribing ways and society supports the “freedom of choice” that innovations for one’s own life must be work, social work education and the social manners how to deal with cases and whom very explicit. In social work the “freedom of found by the person itself. At the same time worker himself is strongly affected. Social to deal with and putting in certain laws and choice” is not guaranteed generally. But Sweden is a very heterogeneous country work under pressure is facing more and mo­ ethics, it directly affects the contents of when it comes to choosing schools, regard­ offering a high variety of different attitudes re of control, a development which can be social work. The development of social less of where one person lives in Sweden towards social work, social change and seen since the early 1990s. The relation bet­ po­licy in Sweden is influenced by several there is a “freedom of choice”. Parents can possibilities of change. ween equity and efficiency is in imbalance driving forces; politicial, economical, demo­ choose in which school they want their kids when exclusively evidence based social graphical, ideological and cultural. to go and an amount of tax financed money Basically social trust in authorities among work, controlling, evaluation and profes­ follows them. In the field of elderly care the­ the Swedish society is high (Rothstein/Eek sionalization are in the focus of the discus­ Politically Sweden is a tax financed welfare re is a variety of “freedom of choice” for the 2006). Due to legislation all information is sion. The agenda being determined by a state as type of the Scandinavian welfare client depending on priorities of the munici­ public, if not strictly pro­hi­bited­ as it is e. g. medical point of view has to be discussed state. Particularly in Sweden there is in pality. In other areas, the “freedom of in the health care system. It is to point out critically when it claims that “everything is general a strong believe that welfare should choice” is more restricted. Sweden is one of that all citizens have the right to go to the measurable” – as it is not the case in social be financed by taxes. Financed by taxes, the few countries where “for-profit organiza­ major’s office and see the post received and work. A strong emphasize on research is eco­ social work can be organized by the public tion” of schools is allowed (Heyneman statistics published. It is a question whether nomically very demanding. When it comes to or the private sector. The majority of social 2008). Usually these schools are organized this still is a content of democratic struc­ funding, four areas are explicitly prioritized: work organizations working with families in small enterprises or cooperatives of tures. The role and the autonomy of the migration, children and family, elderly care for example are ran by the public sector parents and there is a great variety of school municipality is relatively strong which af­ and drug abuse. In an ongoing process since whereas round 90% of clinics for drug abuse organization. Still everything is financed by fects social work a lot. Almost all decisions the 1970s research is continuously carried

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forward by university teachers and profes­ Even though the Swedish welfare state is pensioners and other elderly people who secular society (Jänterä-Jareborg 2010), the sors, having a big influence on social work very much characterized by “universalism” are settling down on the Danish side just role of the protestant church hardly is men­ education and focus in the field. Through in its traditions, changes and reforms since as Danish pensioners and other elderly peo­ tioned in the establishment of the Swedish a well-organized union of social work an the 1980s towards a more and more liberal ple who are settling down on the Swedish welfare state. In perspective of social policy ongoing process of legitimization and view on the individual’s own rights and side. Sweden can be seen to have a basic insti­ strengthening of the profession has been responsibility can be seen. This is also due tutional model as a consequence of a social established. The union for social worker‘s - to liberal reforms. There has been a strong Over time expectations to social work alter democratic ideology which attaches great “Sveriges Socionomers Riksförbund” (SSR) – political consensus that policies have to be due to a diversified ideology as driving force. importance to the public sector as a redis­ is an important actor in the field of social rationalistic and pragmatic (Bergh and Society’s values are carried out in many tributor of resources in society. There is in policy. Historically around 80 % of Swedish Erlingsson 2009). In Sweden, there is gene­ different ways and social media plays an general confidence in the ability of society social workers are employed by the muni­ rally a strong belief in the individual. At the important role in networking all across to provide welfare for the citizens, and many cipalities and the professional influence same time we can observe a way of seeing the globe. Even social work is affected by of the solutions in social policy are provided of social work in Sweden is based more welfare as something basically for the services and social support of the internet and financed by public agencies, which to a on public political power in comparison to public. which were unknown ten years before. A high extent can be organized in many diffe­ Germany where social work’s political power heterogeneous society characterized by dif­ rent non-public ways. is more diversified (Kraus, 2007). Social Speaking about globalization and liberali­ ferences lead to differences in the develop­ work education is still very traditional and zation, also demographic driving forces ini­ ment of the profession. Defining “welfare”, Connecting Swedish social policy and social influenced by the belief in the municipa­ tialize a change in social policy. In terms of variable conclusions can be found: Welfare work gives some remarks and tendencies. It lities’ hierarchy which prevents a change migration the Swedish society is getting can be a collective way of thinking about so­ is obvious that social work basically is re­gar­ in the labour market. Comparing Germany more and more diversified and heteroge­ ciety; it can be support, service and security ded as a public duty and not as task of volun­ and Sweden both countries are totally diffe­ neous. Searching for work in the more urban for citizens. Welfare is also very individualis­ tary organizations or something based on mar- rent in organizing social work: Sweden is areas, such as Stockholm, Gothenburg, Mal­ tic and maybe personal wellbeing is more ket solutions. The co-existence of many so­ facing more control while Germany is facing mö and Umea diversity mostly concentrates relevant and more adequate in a globalized cial workers and professionals collaborating more diversity in social work when it comes to these areas. At the same time these regi­ society. Welfare being the core of social poli­ and the fact that social workers have relatively to organizations and institutions. ons are characterized by a high level of high­ cy and social work services illustrates how high status and power compared to those in er education meaning resources in research demanding it is to find ways and methods to other areas of social policy are distinctive Globalization is a strong driving force chan­ and education. For example there are around answer diversity and individualistic needs of features. Institutionalizing­ social work in the ging the labour market: The industrialization 20 universities in the region of Malmö a heterogeneous society. Dealing with wel­ municipalities gives it high status and power of the mid-1970s made Sweden with the named Greater Copenhagen (Öresund re­ fare related topics, social work must position in a political context. There is a hierarchy harbor in Malmö, the second largest ship gion). A high mobility rate and many commu­ itself in a world influenced by globalization within the profession dependening on the building nation in the world (Giovacchini ters make people forget about the needs and and neoliberal tendencies. field a social worker is working in: The high­ and Sersic, 2012). During the last 20 years the importance of the countryside. Less est status is held by the work with children Malmö faced a very quick transformation Swedes want to live and work on the coun­ Cultural driving forces give a hint to what and families whereas working with elderly is from an industrial to a service city. An overall tryside which means a challenge for social formed the Swedish society. In consequence hardly attractive. Between these two ex­ young population, a high rate of non-Swedes work in rural areas. Meanwhile a cross-bor­ to political and ideological factors multicul­ tremes, there are the fields of migration and in Malmö, a very segregated but dynamic der mobility is strengthened by up to around turalism, entrepreneurism, a high central drug abuse as areas of attraction (Dellgran/ city are the most visible effects of globali­ 15.000 commuters going to the Danish side state influence and the role of the individual Höjer 2005). In research the same hierarchy zation (Andersson, Magnusson and Holm­ or coming to the Swedish side every day. and the family are essential driving forces for within fields of social work exists. Social qvist 2010). Another new phenomenon are Swedish the provision of welfare. Sweden is a highly work is performed within the framework of a

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Scandinavian administrative system with advises a drug addicted client has to call the 3. MASTER PROGRAMS IN SOCIAL WORK – do practice placements abroad, in the sixth case handling and application of the law. police immediately. If possible, the client KEY NOTES FROM A SWEDISH POINT semester a thesis can be written abroad and Social workers have a dual role as both hel­ can take part in a “free needles”-project or OF VIEW in the seventh semester students can study pers and controllers, even though the “con­ in a replacement therapy. These programs on an advanced level abroad. Malmö Uni­ trolling-rules” tend to be strengthened. Due are very repressive and clients basically only A master program in social work is offered versity is giving the chance to study 2/3 to a steady conflict between the social wor­ receive one chance to take part in the pro­ at almost all Swedish universities which abroad. The universities are very active in kers’ role of helper and controller there alrea­ ject. In most cases “failing” means falling offer social work studies. The curriculum internationalization of social work educa­ dy is a high pressure on the professionals per- back into addiction. There is no second within the degree programs is relatively tion. In Sweden only around 10 % of all social forming their work. Strengthening controlling chance to be medically treated again. The homogeneous even though master pro­ workers have a master degree which shows instruments also means an increase of work success of work with drug addicted clients grams differ from their contents. The master that the added value in sense of salary and that needs to be done with the same resour­ in projects is approved by the medical sector can be completed in a one year program opportunities in career in connection to a ces. The social worker’s inner conflict and a but not recognized by politicians so it is not with 60 ECTS or in a two year program with masters’ degree is relatively low (Höjer rise of the amount of work within inadequa­ permanently supported. Alcohol is treated 120 ECTS. There is a growing number of ma­ 2007). te resources can be sources of stress and very different in Swedish political areas and ster programs offered in English and also an physical or mental sickness. An open discourse it is regulated by a monopoly, which a vast increase of applications for master programs But on a long term run there is a need for on ethical issues, role-conflicts and working majority of the Swedes support (Norström/ held in English. With focus on international more master programs in total and for more conditions in social work is missing due to a Ramstedt 2006). aspects of programs at Malmö University diversified master programs, too. A global strong trust in authority of the public sector there are two master programs offered at the trend for summer courses on master level as main employer for social workers. In the field of family work it is basically Department of Social Work. The first one – a where students from all over the world meet impossible for the clients to change their 30 ECTS study course – offered in English intensively and campus based can also be A development towards community work responsible social worker. Decision making is called “social work in a local and global seen. The master program “social work in a and a more open discussion of needs and is done by the professional and claiming context”. It consists of three modules: macro local and global context” at Malmö Univer­ demands can be seen. At the same time re­ against these decisions has to be done by social policy in comparison, intervention sity aims to develop the students’ know­ sources of the public sector decrease. But a legal action. Once again the politically and prevention and research methodology. ledge and understanding in relation to so- basically community work and social mobili­ related power and influence of social work Students are supposed to write scienti­- cial policy, social problems and living con­ zations have never gained any strong foot- becomes apparent and is emphasized by the fic articles as one part of the final examina­ ditions from a multicultural perspective in hold in the Swedish society. Within the Swe­ high number of social workers being emplo­ tion in this program. One semester on ba­ a local and global context. In conclusion dish social work there is a willingness to yed in municipalities. In Sweden the social chelor level is accepted within the master we can postulate more “glocalization” as a intervene which can be repressive. It is part workers are in many ways focusing on giving program. That means that students can stu­ current challenge. Integrating the local con­ of the Nordic line of tradition of coercive advice and information about laws and rules dy two years in the master program with one text and the understanding of social work care for children and for adult substance more than working with clients in a holistic course on bachelor level for one semester as on a local and regional level in relation to abusers (Forsberg/Kroger 2009). With con­ or environmental context. Jonas Christensen part of the final exam. Furthermore there is the global level means evolving social work. sensus in 1977 it was decided that Sweden concluded with the assumption that future a high degree of freedom to choose among Social work is inspired by certain aims and should be the first drug free country in the social work needs to deal with the organi­ courses. Again a strong believe in a high values as profession and scientific dis­ world (Boekhout van Solinge 1997). Drug zation of work within the sector. While quan­ freedom of choice among the Swedish soci­ cipline and tailored to particular local needs addiction in Sweden is a very unpopular tity and management­ of work is being dis­ ety is pointed out due to a high variety of under prevailing global circumstances. topic neither politics nor the healthcare cussed, a discourse on quality of services courses. In the bachelor program of social system wants to deal with. Using drugs is and the wellbeing of professionals still is work in the fourth semester students can seen as a criminal act: A social worker who missing. study abroad. In the fifth semester they can

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REFERENCES Heyneman, S. (2008): International Perspectives on School Andersson, R./Magnusson, L./ Choice in Mark Berends, Matthew G. Holmqvist, E. (2010): Springer, Dale Ballou and Herbert J. Contextualising Ethnic residential Walberg (eds.) segregation in Sweden: welfare, Handbook of Research on School Choice. housing and migration related policies, Mahwah (New Jersey): Uppsala University: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. Institute for housing and urban research, Höjer, S. (2007): Norface research program for migration Social work in Sweden Bergh, A./Erlingsson, G. (2009): EUSW Listening conference, Gothenburg Liberalization without Retrenchment: Jänterä-Jareborg, M. (2010): Understanding the Consensus Religion and the secular state: on Swedish Welfare State Reforms National report of Sweden. Uppsala Scandinavian Political Studies, University, paper, Research programme: Vol. 32, Issue 1, p. 71–93. The IMPACT of Religion: Challenges for Boekhout van Solinge, T., (1997): Society, Law and Democracy The Swedish Drug Control System Kraus, B. (2007): An in-depth review and analysis, Macht in der Sozialen Arbeit. Jonas Christensen (Sweden) Centre for Drug Research, Freiburg: Jacobs Verlag Amsterdam Norström, T./Ramstedt, M. (2006): Brunnberg, E. (2013): Sweden – is alcohol becoming an Om Socionomutbildningar, forskarut­ ordinary commodity? bildningar och samtliga avhandlingar Society for the Study of Addiction i socialt arbete 1980–2012, Rothstein, B./Eek, D. (2006): report, Mälardalens högskola Political Corruption and Social Trust – Dellgran, P./Höjer, S. (2005): An Experimental Approach, THE QOG Rörelser i tiden. Professionalisering INSTITUTE, Working paper series, 2006:1 och privatisering i socialt arbetet, The Economist Intelligence Unit (2014): Socialvetenskaplig tidskrift, Business Environment ranking, report. no. 2–3 The Swedish act of local government Forsberg, H./Kroger, T. (2009): (2014). Retrieved from Social work and child welfare politics. http://edu.mah.se/en/Course/HS163E Policy Press Scholarship online Giovacchini, E.,/Sersic, J. (2012): Deliverable D9-7 , Industry Trans­ formation Report: Shipbuilding Industry, EU Commission: The European Cluster Observatory Peter Hendriks (Netherlands)

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genous knowledge, social work engages med in former USSR countries assisted by people and structures to address life chal­ the EU, the Council of Europe, the IASSW Peter Hendriks lenges and enhance wellbeing.The above and the EASSW which are closely linked. definition may be amplified at national and/ The IASSW is working worldwide; the EASSW SOCIAL WORK FROM A DUTCH AND or regional levels.” (IASSW, 2014) is a regional association within the IASSW. EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE Obviously local social work practices are The EASSW is an association with members impacted by the global level. Connecting in all 48 countries of the council of Europe. the global and the local, the IASSW and It is connected to the council because of its the EASSW cooperate to stay current with all work on human rights. About 300 univer­ issues. sities and universities of applied sciences of the 48 countries are members of the EASSW. b) The European macro social context Both types are academic universities offe­ During the past 20 years due to increasingly ring social work studies with the difference right-wing neo-liberal ‘free market’ policies, 1. INTRODUCTION 2. SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION IN EUROPE – that social work in universities of applied Europe has undergone multi-dimensional CURRENT TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS sciences is more practical and focused on welfare state transformations in financing, This speach has two main parts: The first methods whereas in other universities stu­ provision and regulation accompanied part is an introduction into a European per­ The backgrounds of the speech are expe­ dies are more theoretical. EASSW supports by the export of jobs from Europe to other spectrive of social work describing aims and riences and impressions as a representative these member universities in the organi­ regions in the world. purposes of the European Association of of the EASSW. Looking at the profession from zation of seminars and conferences in regi­ Current social issues include mass migra­ Schools of Social Work (EASSW). Collecting a universalistic perspective in terms of ons where the social work profession and tion, mass unemployment of young and and comparing data and information on “What do we share?” an international defi­ education have just been established or older people, the exploitation of workers European social work education it leads to nition of social work in a European pers­ where they are threatened for example recent­ and the move towards privatization of the a compilation of a social work “Global pective and a “Global Agenda” can be de­ ly through economic crisis. In 2013 the Euro­ public sector across the region. A­genda”. Furthermore the first part also gi­ fined. Focusing on what the profession in a pean Network for Social Action (ENSACT) and The consequences of these neoliberal ten­ ves an overview on the Dutch social work European context has in common, the new EASSW as member of this network helped to dencies are expansive: The commitment to­ education system with positive and negative “Global Definition of Social Work” by the In­ organize a big conference in Istanbul, Tur­ wards welfare (“European Social Model”) aspects. ternational Association of Schools of Social key. For example countries like Russia, Gree­ and human rights is shrinking. Public and Work (IASSW) can be emphasized: ce and Albania are in the focus of support state responsibility is withdrawn and the Giving a review on one special research the from the EASSW organizing seminars. public finance is shifting into the private sec­ second part of the speech sums up a very “Social work is a practice-based profession tor. Retrenchment in the domain of welfare current topic in Dutch society: Super-di­ and an academic discipline that promotes a) Social work education in global policy means severe cuts to social and edu­ versity in Dutch metropolises and con­ social change and development, social perspective cational services. The needs of organi­zations­ sequen­ces on values in social work. This cohesion, and the empowerment and libe­ Looking back in the history of social work and the national and local budgets have second part also includes a very controver­ ration of people. Principles of social justice, education Europe has a rich tradition dating been prioritized above the needs of service sial discussion in the workshop plenum human rights, collective responsibility and back to 1899. Halted from the 1930s, social users. An increased bureaucrati­zation­ and which once more illustrated the currentness respect for diversities are central to social work was resumed or expanded in many “managerialism” can be found also in the of the research. work. Underpinned by theories of social European countries from the 1950s to the social sector which means a high amount of work, social sciences, humanities and indi­ 1980s. After 1989 social work also was resu­ work to be done and more stress for profes­

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sionals. A reduction in the discretion­ availa­ To make sure the “Global Agenda” is suc­ and other professionals to recommit social work discipline competing with sociology ble to social professionals is leading to con­ cessfully implemented, an observatory work as a human rights profession. The aim or social policy is even more separated from cerns about de-professiona­lization. Short was installed by the three founder organiza­ is to emphasize the centrality of values of social sciences through the binary system intensive courses in social work education tions. This observatory collects evidence human rights and social justice to ethical which has a very negative impact on the are offered raising the competition between about the positive actions of social wor­- social work; to ensure students understand significance of social work as academic dis­ bachelor and master social workers and on­ kers, educators and social development structural explanations of the causes of so­ cipline. Professional bachelor and master ce again threatening the profession itself. practitioners. It supports the implementa­ cial problems and to move beyond casework degrees but no PhD in social work are of­ tion of the “Global Agenda”, gives visibility and include social action: community work, fered in the education system. A PhD degree c) The social work “Global Agenda” and credibility to innovative practice advocacy, lobbying and empowerment can only be reached in humanities or social In a lack of active responses to these trends, and promotes further action and lobbying. praxis in social work theory and methods of science. The master’s degree is offered na­ radical social work has re-emerged. One cri­ The first “Global Agenda Report” was publis­ teaching. As opportunity to stay involved the tionwide at public universities of applied tical network, called the Social Work Action hed in July 2014. Emphasizing the “Global “World Social Work Day”, every third Tues­ sciences and at private universities. The Network (SWAN) started in Scotland. Com­ Agenda” as a standard for social work all day in March once a year is to mention. On mas­ter programs at private universities suf­ mitted in a shared vision on social work the professionals are engaged in dialogue this day social work has the chance to pre­ fer from a lack of students due to high costs. SWAN is slowly gaining influence in the and action with service users, students sent itself to all professionals and the broad Additionally there is no clear profile for how European forum. On national and interna­ and other social work organizations and public telling what social work is about on a a master’s degree is recognized and valued tional level debates on how to respond professional groups in finding ways to make local and global level. Sharing and promo­ in social work practice. Most workers enter to neoliberal trends in sense of ethics and a difference. Submitting evidence to the ting the “Global Agenda” for social work and the field with a bachelor’s degree. The PhD- values of the profession are lead within European Observatory on how the four social development to regional, local, natio­ degree in social work education is not legal­ three social work and social development topics of the “Global Agenda” are promoted nal and international politicians, organiza­ ly regulated which means a great disadvan­ organizations: the International Association is the most important issue to support tions and the media is another way to give tage for the profession. Social work is not a of Schools of Social Work (IASSW), Internati­ action. Educators are recommended to support. At last it is to refer to the EASSW legally protected profession in the Nether­ onal Council on Social Welfare (ICSW) and inspire students and peers with examples conference “Social Work Education towards lands. In public organizations financed by International Federation of Social Workers of creative and innovative practice on the 2025” in Milan in July 2015 which was orga­ national authorities social workers must (IFSW). A “Global Agenda” for social work European Observatory to encourage new nized in cooperation with service user’s or­ have a bachelor degree. and social development, inspired by the UN methods of social intervention. ganizations. Learning from their experience, Millennium Declaration (United Nations, social work can try to improve services. Nevertheless in times of cuts on budgets 2002) was the result of these debates. The In some European countries due to crisis A special student program also was offered organizations do not hesitate to hire staff four topics of this “Global Agenda” are: both social work and education are subjects within the conference involving students with lower degrees, paying less salary and 1. Promotion of social and economic equa­ to severe cuts in spending. Schools of social more into social work education. still claiming to be professionals. In social lities – addressing the impact of oppres­ work and social work courses have been clo­ work education there is a broad and more sion, social injustice and other human sed and the quality of social work education generic approach to the profession, inclu­ rights violations. in these countries is being threatened and 3. SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION IN THE ding social pedagogy. Having a quite diffe­ 2. Promotion of the dignity, diversity and undermined. EASSW has the important task NETHERLANDS rent tradition than social work, pedagogues worth of all peoples. to support social work education in these are rooted in institutional group, community 3. Strengthening of the recognition of the countries. All social work professionals are The Netherlands still has a binary higher or therapeutic work whereas typical social importance of human relationships and invited to get involved and to join the EASSW education system separating social work worker’s practice is related to case and also 4. Establishment of a work towards en­vi­ron­ in supporting social work education working education at universities of applied sciences community work. The bachelor in social work mental and community sustain­a­bility. in partnership with service users, students from an academic profession. The social includes both profiles: social work and

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social pedagogy. Social work educators on Moroccan or Turkish clients and in context to tifying themselves as Muslims. This trend is age of fifteen is of native parentage. In short: bachelor level increasingly own higher what happens in Turkey or Morocco this im­ interesting also having in mind that the Ne­ big cities in the Netherlands and in other degrees such as master’s or PhD. Research mediately has impacts on local communities therlands is a secularized society in which West-European countries are becoming is becoming more important on bachelor in the Netherlands: When the Gaza conflict social work services fill in the gap which super-diverse.” (Crul/Schneider/Lelie 2012) level. The master profile is not yet recogniz­ escalated, effects directly could be seen in was left by religion and the church as cha­- Talking about a Dutch minority it can be able in social work practice. Ongoing de­ the Muslim community in the Netherlands. rity providers. A new group which strongly explained that all people taken into conside­ bates call attention to professionalization Connections between local and global con­ identifies with Islam enters the profession ration own Dutch papers – they are Dutch and de-professionalization while debates on texts cannot be denied anymore. in times of an upcoming Islamophobia. In with a different ethnic background. In policy academization are totally missing. The foun­ consequence of the attacks on the twin statements as well as in spoken language der of schools of social work in the Nether­ towers in New York (2001) and all incidents Dutch society is making the difference bet­ lands Marie Kamphuis (1907–2004) advoca­ 4. METHODOLOGY that followed these children now being ween “autochtones” 17 and “allochto­nes” 18 ted the academization of the profession but students grew up in a very hostile atmos­ which is a more precise distinction than unfortunately did not succeed. The interna­ The research is based on qualitative inter­ phere. One reaction on these experiences is dividing into “us” and “them”. tionalization of local social work practice is views with newly started Turkish and an increase in tradition and beliefs while the debated and the EASSW reinforces the assi­ Moro­ ccan­ professionals in social work in Dutch expected these citizens to be even It is to emphasize that the “cultural debates” milation of current global issues and their the Netherlands. In total 8 Turkish and as secularized as the Dutch society. There on migration and Islam, discussions on impacts on local social work practice into Moroccan bachelor students participated already has been very much research on the building of mosques, the headscarf, social work curricula. as co-researchers in interviews and analysis social work professionals working with eth­ gender inequality, Islam-inspired political of data and writings about the findings. nic minorities (Van der Haar 2007). The out­ extremism and the prohibition of double Many people are not convinced about the They collected 20 interviews and they come was worrying on one hand but also nationalities are very popular subjects in the importance of internationalizing the practice had two weekly supervision meeting to astonishing: Most of the professionals had media. Furthermore they are often portrayed when curricula only depend on local social reflect on the outcomes. A few outcomes serious difficulties working with those as “corroding the Dutch culture”. Some po­ work practice. For example professionals and first results of the research project will clients. The language used by the profes­ litical parties consider the presence of immi­ working in institutions with disabled people be illustrated on the basis of a few theore­ sionals was very similar to the language grants to be a threat to social cohesion and or people with mental diseases do not see tical aspects. which was used 30 or 40 years ago when the Dutch majority population increasingly the necessity in referring to global agendas social workers described people of the lower sees cultural differences as a problem (Duy­ concerning these specific groups of clients economic class as: “not motivated, benefit­ vendak 2011). According to Ghorashi (2006), while most of the professionals in education 4.1 First results from a research report: ting from the system, not willing to change”. there is a tendency to “culturalize” social are convinced about the importance of inter­ Migrant daughters in social work Very negative stereotypes persist in the long problems, especially in the Netherlands. Im­ nationalizing the curricula. There are tensi­ run and seem to be used as an answer to migrants are forced to assimilate and are ons in the debates on globalization versus In the second part of this article first results questions professionals cannot solve with expected to demonstrate a bond with and indigenization which means a localization of a research on migrant daughters in Dutch conventional knowledge. loyalty to their new country. of practices. Finding local solutions to global social work will be presented also in descri­ problems influenced by local or regional po­ bing the current situation in the Nether­ There is a new phenomenon called “super- Migrant daughters are referred to “as ‘mi­ licies generally is a good way of working in a lands: Almost 25 % of the student populati­ diversity” which especially big cities have grant daughters’ instead of migrant women, local community. Exclusively reviewing the on at Dutch universities of applied sciences to face: “In 2011, Amsterdam became a because they did not migrate personally and local perspective and not reflecting on glo­ has an ethnic minority background. The two majority-minority city. The inhabitants of are already positioned differently in Dutch bal contexts can lead to a kind of nationalis­ largest groups are students with either a Tur­ Dutch descent officially became a minority. society, by virtue of having grown up in the tic approach which is alarming. Referring to kish or a Moroccan background both iden­ Only one of three young people under the Netherlands.” (Eijberts 2013) In theory and

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in all official papers a migrant or ethnic mi­ motivation for these migrant daughters to Due to their key role in the emancipation chers describe as ‘immigrant optimism’ can nority background ends with the third gene­ become a social worker. and integration process of minorities in the disappear if there is a sense of failure among ration. People who now talk about the third Netherlands their communities have high the second generation.” (Kasinitz et al. generation of migrants obviously do not pay The growing (super-)diversity is not only expectations towards those women as a 2008) attention to this legal definition. apparent in new clients and new professio­ progressive force remaking the mainstream nals but also in new students in Dutch high­ (De Jong 2012). Stereotyped in public de­ The first generation Turkish and Moroccan er education. In social work education on bates as victims of Islam they must prove 4.2 Conclusions Dutch as parents of the so called migrant bachelor level and in practice, the number their “ambassadorial identity” crossing and daughters migrated in the 1970s as “guest of students and professionals with a Turkish overcoming the “cultural divide” between In concluding we can summarize three thes­ workers”. Recruited in rural areas where they or Moroccan background is increasing rapid­ Muslims and Non-Muslims (Ho 2005). The es which are connected to the debates on worked on the countryside most of them ly. Social workers in general face challenges ambivalence between succeeding in their professionalization and which are thought were illiterate, owning a low education le­- in dealing with clients with a migrant back­ careers and at the same time fulfilling the to open up a new discourse: vel. The government’s intention was to give ground, whom they perceive as “different gender specific expectations as women with 1. Professionals do not “just” carry out their these “guest workers” a temporary stay and and difficult” (Van der Haar, 2007). a certain cultural background and commit­ work in a strictly regulated way, steered work permit but in reality these people build ments might create paradox situations by top-down instructions and protocols; homes in the Netherlands and arranged Social work organizations are committed which must be dealt with. Living in a society they are also expected to be innovative, their families to follow them for a permanent to recruiting and retaining employees of far from their own cultural background they to improve and to have an impact on what stay. Having different plans with the “guest diverse backgrounds and assume that by have to transfer moral and religious values is considered “good work”. workers” the Dutch government never deve­ employing Turkish and Moroccan Dutch to the next generation (Pels 2000). In a pro­ 2. If we agree that professions are co-created loped a policy on the changing reality the professionals, they are acquiring the know­ fessional context these women are expected by professionals, and professionals must “guest workers” were facing. Not being able ledge and skills required to deal with these to be able to perfectly deal with “difficult have an impact on what is considered to communicate with teachers, doctors or differences. Assuming this employers do clients” from a migrant background. In con­ the “identity of the profession”, then the any institutions in Dutch society these pa­ not take into consideration that these Tur­ trast to their female counterparts Turkish growing diversity among professionals rents were not able to support their children kish and Moroccan female social workers and Moroccan second generation men are must also impact the profession. in education. Obviously not the sons but the have few experiences as professionals wor­ very difficult to contact. In Dutch public de­ 3. A further assumption is that, to be able daughters were responsible for the family king with Dutch clients. They are seen as bates these men often are considered “a lost to identify with and to connect to the management in the Dutch society. They had experts within the organization but at the case” while the women are extremely doing profession, professionals need to see to support their parents in translating mee­ same time they are separated from their well in higher education, work and society. their own personal values somehow re­ tings in school or any other official instituti­ colleagues. There might be a “programmed The following quote illustrates the im­ presented in the professional field. on and slowly got to understand the Dutch change” proposed by regular social work portance of the second generation and the society system. The experience of families which mainly consists of emancipation and pressure which is put on them due to high Finally a few quotes taken from the inter­ being separated from the fathers and living individualization. Most ethical codes ac­ expectations: views might illustrate the results of the in diaspora during their childhood for a long cept “respect for the individual as a self- reseach: time makes these daughters responsible for determining being” as the foremost ethical “American research shows that the progress the family wellbeing in quite a young age. It principle of social work (Banks 1995). These made by the second generation­ is crucial to “I am a woman, a Moroccan and Muslim and was their first view into society structures underlying values can be considered liberal the generations that follow them. If there is maybe a feminist (laughing). I see women and in understanding the difficulties fami­ and humanistic and are generally thought stagnation in the second generation, there trapped in certain situations, in our culture; lies which live in diaspora all over Europe to be incompatible with non-Western cul­ is a greater risk that the third generation will you don’t divorce, you go on, you keep on have to deal with. This may serve as a first tures. also fail. The feeling that American resear­ believing that things will improve and you

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don’t look out for yourself, we don’t learn “(With emotion:) Taking children from their zed and exploited by politicians in Dutch that, everyone else comes first, mothers, families! This is where they fail completely! society producing prejudices against Is- fathers, sisters, brothers, aunts… and you See, in our culture when you scuff your child lam in a whole and against Turkish and forget about yourself. I was asked to marry on the ear it’s not abuse. Parents often deal Moroccan daughters of the second gener­a­ my nephew from Morocco when I was 18. I with their children in fear and because of tion in social work. This polarized view on refu­sed; it’s maybe my character.” (Interview that they feel they need to be more rigorous. diversity totally ignores the fact that due to 9M) You can take a child from its family but never mutual influences identities of young the family from the child. Instead of trying to migrant daughters and identities in the “There is a lot of ignorance about culture and work with the parents and to support them, Dutch society might have changed over the religion. After those terrorists destroyed the no, they just see a Moroccan family and think years. An ongoing process of mutual influ­ Twin Towers in the attacks of 2001 (when I oh, this will be abuse.” (Interview 6M) ence creates a sense of “transculturalism” was a student) people started to believe that and “transnationality” which includes chan­ Islam is like that. It may be fear, but if people “We simply do not have Islamic foster fami­ ging values on both traditions. find it difficult to gain more in depth know­ lies, so most of these children are placed in ledge of something, why can’t they just Christian families and I cannot help feeling Nevertheless social problems in this case let that go? Christianity has lost a great deal but that this is a double burden on these tend to be “culturalized” which exposes of its following, that’s why we suddenly children.” (Interview 4T) members of ethnic minorities in a society seem so fanatic, with our headscarves, our to be victims of discrimination due to their mosques, our praying. The differences are cultural origin and orientation. suddenly so huge! Obviously, if you don’t 5. DISCUSSION drink as much as the others in one of those Religion as a crucial part of the point in the bars, you are not integrated. It is so easy Presenting some of the research outcomes discussion was religion and its role in so- to say that we are oppressed, but perhaps I in the second part of the speech, a critical cial work. On the one hand one participant really have chosen personally to wear a discussion on diversity in social work and stated that it cannot be part of the profes­ headscarf, and that might be even scarier. core values of the profession started. One sion while on the other hand another par­ What about those homes for the elderly participant of the workshop took into consi­ ticipant gave cause for concern that religion where children visit their parents once every deration that a high degree of diversity in a cannot be denied as part of everyday life. two months! We all think that our culture is society can impact the professional identity Keeping in mind that diversity nowadays superior!” (Interview 6M) of social workers. The discussion of values is reality in society as well as in social work in the profession is problematic due to a va­ the question was posed whether we can “(Laughing) My colleagues once got a phone gue profile of social work keeping in mind continue to say “no” to religion in terms of call from a client. “We do not want a woman that the framework of human rights applies social work education. wearing a tea-towel on her head…” I said, to theory and practice of the profession. fine, the customer is always right (in Dutch;’ the customer is king’), they need to feel safe It was then asked if there is and why there in a professional relationship and I think is a contradiction between human rights it’s not meant personally. What else can you and the Islam. The narrative of a “clash” of do?” (Interview 4T) western and non-western values is polari-

84 85 Peter Hendriks Impressions

FOOTNOTES Management van Diversiteit in Nieuw Nederland. 17 „autochtones“ describes the indigenous http://hallehghorashi.com/nl/wp- population of a country. content/uploads/2009/03/ 18 „allochtones“ refers to immigrants and oratie-halleh.pdf their descendants. Ho, W., (2005): Crossing the Cultural Divide between Muslim and Nun-Muslim: REFERENCES Formation of Ambassadorial Identity. In: Social Identities, 11 (1), 5–19. Banks, S. (1995): London: Routledge. Ethics and Values in Social Work. Kasinitz, P./Mollenkopf, J./ Palgrave Macmillan. Waters, M./Holdaway, J., (2008): Crul, M./Schneider, J./Lelie, F., (2012): Inheriting the City. The Children of The European Second Generation Immigrants Come of Age. Compared. Does the Integration New York: Russell Sage Foundations Context Matter? Publications. Amsterdam: University Press. Pels, T., (2000): De Jong, M., (2012): Muslim families from Morocco in the Impressions Ik ben die Marokkaan niet [‘I’m not Netherlands: Gender Dynamics and that kind of Moroccan’] Onderzoek Fathers’ roles in a Context of Change. naar identiteitsvorming van Current Sociology, 48 (4), 74–93. Marokkaans­ -Nederlandse HBO-stu­ Van der Haar, M. (2007): denten [The identity-forming process Ma(r)king Differences in Dutch Social of Moroccan undergraduates]. Work. Professional Discourse and Amsterdam: VU, University Press Ways of relating to Clients in Context. Duyvendak, J.W. (2011): Amsterdam: Dutch University Press. The politics of home. Belonging and Nostalgia in Europe and the United States Eijberts, M., (2013): Migrant woman shout it out loud. The integration/Participation Strategies and Sense of Home of First- and Second-Generation Woman of Moroccan and Turkish Descent. Amsterdam: VU University Press. Ghorashi, Halleh (2006): Paradoxen van culturele erkenning. Norbert Wohlfahrt (Germany)

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“provide for the concerns of the local commu­ petition as a contextual condition for provi­ nity” but also to perform the task of establi­ ding social services, the “hierarchically co- Norbert Wohlfahrt shing an appropriate supply infrastructure ordinated great organization public sector” as stipulated in § 17, section 2, social security as well as the politically controlled service SOME ASPECTS OF THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF code I (Sozialgesetzbuch, SGB). The concept sector become restructured. This process is SOCIAL WORK IN GERMANY: A CRITICAL REVIEW and the practical guarantee of social services­ generally referred as the “efficient employ­ are primarily a communal matter in co-o­pe­ ment of the welfare sector” and the re-orga­ ration with independent welfare organizations. nization standards have the roots in a Many responsibilities for providing services commercial approach (Naschold 1995). The are delegated to these organizations. principles of the “market” and of “competi­ tion” became ranking higher than in former One special feature of social services in times. Which changes can be observed in Germany is the strict distinction between the social service sector in these contexts? cost carries and providers. The state’s co-operation with non-profit organizations 1. WELFARE STATE AND SOCIAL WORK the gross national product (GDP). If we look of the “third sector”, as for social policy par­ 2. THE NEW REGULATIVE STRUCTURE IN GERMANY at social work as a person-oriented social ticularly welfare associations in this context IN THE SOCIAL SECTOR service we have to identify the design of has a long tradition and is a central feature Apart from the differences and specific fea­ social service production and the changes in of the modern German welfare state. The Social legislation in recent years shows a tures in the design of welfare policy, the this field during the last 10–15 years (Dah­ co-operative ratio of public and voluntary tendency which must be assessed as the “welfare state” in every capitalistic economy me/Wohlfahrt 2015). welfare work is regulated in a differentiated abandoning and elimination of the priority is a compensatory reaction to ensure the rule book comprising warranties of indepen­ of voluntary welfare institutions in the pro­ possibility of the individual reproduction of The German welfare state is characterized by den­ce (§ 17, section 3, social security code 1 vision of social services. The aim is to plura­ life, which is not guaranteed by the exclu­ a special model. The welfare state is graded (SGB); § 4, section 1, clause 2, Act on Child lize welfare institutions, in order to initiate ding logic of this kind of economy. In general from the federal government level down to and Youth Support (Kinder- und Jugend­hil­ the principle of competition between insti­ there are two forms of compensatory inter­ a “local welfare level”. The performance of fegesetz, KJHG), terms of subsidiary (§ 4, tutions. At the beginning of the 1990s, the vention: social transfer programs such as social services is mainly integrated in public section 2, KJHG, § 93, section 1, Supplemen­ Child and Youth Service Act (KJHG) marked the social insurance system in Germany and organizations: either on the basis of statuto­ tary Benefits Act (Bundessozialhilfegesetz, the start of an attempt to extend the mea­ personal interactive interventions like social ry definitions of tasks and/or by financing by BSHG), and rules of co-operation (§ 17, sec­ ning of the term “independent welfare in­ work that aims people with special individu­ public accounts and taxes. These welfare tion 3, clause 1, SGB 1). stitution” (freie Wohlfahrtspflege) beyond al problems like long-term poverty, family services are usually provided by the state, as the ‘association-centred understanding problems in the education of children or their provision on the “market” entails great For several years institutions and asso­ of subsidiarity’. The intended competition other so called “extraordinary social pro­ economic risks. But market mechanisms can ciations working in the social sector have between institutions was at the time rather blems”. Social policy is a political reaction hardly be expected to function in the field observed a process of fundamental refor­ based on social policies than on market con­ in a society, which is characterized by the of social services. Apart from the care insu­ mation or transformation in this sector: In cepts – in line with the ideas of the KJHG – antagonism of the employees (including rance, the state assigns the supply task in sophisticated theories this development is and, as a result, the term “welfare organiza­ principal risks of life) and the owners of the area of social services mainly to the local regarded as a “change in the governance tion” is defined in a broader sense. You can capital. The politic-economic reason of this level. Local authorities are thus not only structure of the welfare state and its institu­ become a supplier of measures and institu­ society is to organize a permanent growth of to meet the constitutional assignment to tional arrangements”. By establishing com­ tions if you are able to provide adequate

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offers for target groups if those offers are sector during the last two decades. The classical benefits financing. However, it has is easily overlooked in the discussion on oriented towards everyday competence and result of this development shows a success­ strongly lost in significance and is substitut­ competition in the social sector: measures if it is possible to communicate them in a ful “quasi-privatization” in nearly all parts of ed by new civil forms of contracts, which to strengthen the structurally weak position professional-methodical way. The attempt to social services in Germany. partly allows controlling the award of con­ of beneficiaries. While the establishment of create more competition between welfare tracts by tender. Outline agreements on lists a competitive setting in the social sector organizations was fundamentally altered. In b) Establishing a new competitive structure of chargers and based on agreements on primarily took place by introducing remune­ the amended version of § 93 of the Supple­ of regulation in the social service sector also expense ratios (or care rate agreements) ration arrangements and efficiency rules, mentary Benefits Act (BSHG) economic regu­ resulted in a predominance of new contrac­ with individual welfare organizations or in­ more and more arrangements are made to lations for providers of social institutions tual relations between providers of services stitutions have gained in importance. They ensure quality and service standards now were laid down for the first time in 1994. and public cost carriers. If social legislation are of the nature of “public contracts” as (§ 93 BSHG; §§ 77, 78–78g KJHG; § 80 Pfle­ Regulations which since then, have been equates the former established providers kind of contracts of co-ordinating ratios. geVG). These steps were taken because the specified and further developed in 1996 and and the new market participants, then the They regulate the provision of services and introduction of price competition was a cost 1999, in order to create parity between non- “business relations” between the state and allocate prospective expense ratios or care cutting exercise. Price competition in provi­ profit organisations and commercial sup­ non-governmental organizations (non-profit rates by remunerations to the services men­ ding social services was extended by quality

pliers. With the amended versions of § 93 and commercial providers of service) have to tioned. Payment for provided services is competition. This competition of quality is to BSHG (institutions and service arrange­ be reorganized, too. This becomes expressly subsequently made to the extent in which prevent that the reorganisation of the social ments) and §§ 78a-78g KJHG (agreements on evident in the abandoning of the principle previously determined services were per­ sector is accompanied by a lack of quality services offered, charges and quality deve­ of “prime cost reimbursement” and the in­ formed. Public cost carriers and providers which is to expect due to financial pressure. lopment), which came into force in 1999, troduction of performance-related payment of services increasingly tend to regulate Moreover, quality standards are defined and social legislation gave up the concept of (§ 93 BSHG;§§ 77,78a–78g KJHG; §§ 75, 84f their relations by means of public contracts. documented to supply the beneficiary with non-profit institutions. Today it only refers to Act on Care Insurance (Pflegeversicherungs­ Civil contracts are still an exception but some information on the provider so that “suppliers”. Thus, the former conditional gesetz, Pflege-VG). Welfare organizations they are possible too. Sufficient competitive he/she is enabled to make decisions in a priority of non-profit welfare organizations running social support schemes and insti­ pressure has been created so that socio- more rational way. All in line with modern has practically been reduced and the former tutions became suppliers and providers political tasks will be met as efficiently as quality management, the legislator by design of “corporatistic” relationship pub- of services. Now they are comparable with possible. The change in legal forms of re­ means of external, contractually stipulated lic and private welfare organisations has regard to price and quality of services of­ gulating public financing of social services quality controls intends to make providers turned into a system, in which competition fered and provided by them. Government and institutions shows that, although the improve the quality of their services and also instead of subsidiarity is the guideline and administration increasingly resort to the relation between public cost carriers and to establish internal quality controls. The for public performance (Dahme/Kühnlein/ possibility of organising their relations to the providers became more equal, the “market beneficiaries’ position as final demanders Wohlfahrt 2005). various providers in different legal forms, a power” remains unevenly spread: By esta­ of social services is to be strengthened by possibility which is implied in General Admi­ blishing competition among providers, quality competitions, as their position on a) The entire social legislation is about to nistrative Law (Allgemeines Verwaltungs­ government and administration purport to the market for social services and health catch up the principles which were introdu­ recht). Recent social legislation supports strengthen their position as demanders care is structurally weak. There is a higher ced by the Act on Care Insurance (Pflegever­ government and administration in claiming of social services on a so called “social mar­ risk to make the wrong decisions in ‘buying’ sicherung) in 1995. A change in systems and more frequently the right to choose different ket”. social services than in former times. “Quali­ welfare work paradigms was initiated. These types of financing and contract law, in order ty management” is – like in other countries – concepts which were initially restricted to to control the market. The introduction of c) The introduction of a competitive setting to promote the development of customer or just one area of social work became a con­ performance-related payment in many areas in the social service sector can be further consumer orientation of social service pro­ stitutive feature of the entire social service of organized welfare work did not eliminate clarified by going into an aspect which viders. In the last years the government has

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tried to intensify the obligation to include be observed in social work. Within the fra­ ficient to ensure efficiency and competitive­ the big associative social service providers the customer in the process of quality con­ mework of the new regulative arrangement ness and to accomplish the idealistic mis­ will develop networking structures by trol and strengthen his position for instance systems, services become more differentia­ sion or model. The associated entrepreneur outsourcing tasks or setting up new inter- by the implementation of “personal bud­ ted and detail-defined. The cost carriers ha­ therefore start to set up services and institu­ organizational relationships with other gets”. But in contrast to other countries this ve the aim of “pricing by means” in logic of tional arrangements of one field as indepen­ providers. A most important point of this dimension of restructuring social services­ in comparing­ different welfare organizations. dent lines of business, to take them out of restructuring of welfare organization is the Germany is still underdeveloped. This requires the far-reaching comparability the, from their point of view, restricting mix production of flexibility in the field of em­ of the services in these organizations and, of tasks of the close-meshed territorial struc­ ploy­ment. Nowadays over 1.4 million labour thus, also their standardization. ture and to set them free to open up their contracts can be observed in the field of 3. CONSEQUENCES IN PROVIDING specific markets. In order to ensure efficien­ social services in Germany and there is a SOCIAL SERVICES c) As a result of this restructuring process, cy and profitability of the entrepreneur, in a dramatic rise of short-time and part-time the conditional priority of non-profit welfare further step liabilities have to be agreed employment. The competition between the All these developments in their entirety lead organisations in the social sector is substi­ upon. For example corporate policies which suppliers in the field of social services to a new regulative structure in the social tuted by a competitive relation between are valid for all entrepreneurs in the busi­ is mainly a competition in concern of the sector. This is characterized by abandoning “equal” service providers. Thus, the classi­ ness line and a strategic control must be wages for the employees. One great problem the traditional principle of subsidiary and cal system of voluntary welfare arrange­ established. The associations’ traditional of this fact is that in Germany the churches which have long-term effects on the pro­ ments becomes questionable in its function instruments of co-ordination fail to meet have the right, to regulate labour contracts viders of social services. I would like to as a provider and as a social advocate. This the specific requirements and, thus, the without the influence of any unions, the so briefly point out some of the consequences result is a managerial reorganization of so­ necessity to control associative activities. In called “Third Way”. Nearly 1 million of over of this new regulative structure for providing cial services with overall declining resour­ welfare organizations gradually a model is 1,4 million employees in the field of social social services: ces. “Managerialism” is introduced on the implemented, which is demonstrated by services work in labour relations dominated level of non-profit welfare organizations and public administration: Giving certain lines of by special law of the catholic and protestant a) The changes in social welfare legislation institutions, too, to control the performance business a decentralized independent orga­ church in form of their social associations, in the past few years had the aim to of social services and, consequently, a so­ nization requires an upgrade of liabilities, “Caritas” and “Diakonie”. These associa­ strengthen the position of the “cost carrier” cial economy is established where efficien­ an improved co-ordination of tasks and stra­ tions are an organizational part of the (Finanzgeber) in relationship to the “pro­ cy-oriented enterprises are fighting for cost tegic control. Clearly defined responsibilities churches and the main reason for their viders of services” (Anbieter) in all areas of benefits and competitive advantages on the for performance and the further develop­ professional performance is a missionary social work. The former cost carriers shall be one hand and where honorary and voluntary ment of the entire line of business must be one – social work in this view in first line is enabled to manage the supply of services social arrangement, are becoming more laid down. “proclamation of the gospel”. and, thus, to establish an effect-related marginal on the other hand. control of social services. The autonomy of The German welfare organizations are incre­ defining the scope and quality of services, The traditional type in suppling policies of asingly under pressure to modernize their 4. THE CONCEPT OF THE “ACTIVATING which traditionally had been on the side non-profit welfare associations, the establis­ systems and, in the course of rationalization STATE” AND CONSEQUENCES FOR of the providers, seems to inhibit effective hed division of labour among the associative of supply systems, they have to check their SOCIAL WORK and efficient provision of services and is territorial units, among these and the profes­ own business lines and range of services. effected by a gradually cut back. sional associations, the fact that tasks are They also have to rationalize their own ope­ The concept of the „activating welfare state“ granted in a performance- or market-orien­ rational structure and, like the adminis­ (and of the „Third Way“), which has been the b) As a consequence of this development, ted way, as well as the outdated way of trative level, lead a make-or-buy discussion. main concept of all governments in Germany an increasing degree of standardization can providing internal services are no longer suf­ Already today the trend can be observed that since its formulation by the SPD-Green

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Federal Government in 1999, results from fulfill further training or qualifications, The current revival of the discourse on the 5. CONSEQUENCES OF THE “MODERNI­ the political re-orientation in welfare policy supported by welfare services. The clients civil society also can be linked with this. ZATION” OF “SOCIAL SERVICES” and, in particular, of welfare payments, are also to be guided around the obstacles The civil society, originally not an abstract AS SOCIAL WORK 19 demanded since the 1980s, and wants to be of benefit systems by means of „case reference system, but the group of voluntary understood as a pragmatic model that management“. In the context of long-term and non-state unions in which citizens orga­ The ongoing modernization of social services­ aims at a modified idea to separate the res­ unemployment and social welfare, they are nize themselves in order to participate in leads to a continuous process of change in ponsibilities of state and society on the one e.g. to be prepared for re-entering the work­ public opinion-forming becomes more in­ the organizational and professional structure hand and of state and citizen on the other force through training – including beha­ corporated by the “activating state” into a of social work. At least this fundamental hand. The „state paradox“ that the “acti­ vioural training. In this process, the objec­ responsibility context that emphasizes civil change can be observed in many dimensions:­ vating welfare state” wants to overcome con­ tive is not only to increase employment society-related relief effects for the state. In Level of quality and cutback of performance; sists of the assumption that many public opportunities, but also to ensure that the addition to self-help, personal responsibility Lower level of remuneration; tasks could be better executed by activating beneficiaries themselves make an active and willingness to take risks, focal points Higher caseload; the citizens without actually having them contribution towards the consolidation of such as an “active citizenship culture” or Erosion of the standard employment rela­ to be assigned. Furthermore the concept as­ the welfare budget used and drained by the model of a co-structuring „citizen as tionship; sumes that it is possible to start a mediation them. This is becoming more necessary as citoyen“ are emerging (Böhme 1998). This Increase in lower qualified staff; of short-term, egoistic interests and the the welfare state structure becomes conver­ indicates that the enhancement of the civil Bureaucratization; long-term development prospects of society ted into „a system of strategic philanthropy“ society does not refer to the resistance Less autonomy and more extern steering without a „welfare or eco-dictatorship“. The (Priddat 2004, p. 93), which only is available potential of disadvantaged or excluded po­ of the professional-client interaction. aim of the concept of the “activating welfare to the “really needy”, to those citizens wit­ pulation groups, but rather means that new state” is a redefinition of the reciprocal hout any further alternatives. The declared elements of communicative problem-solving The so called “managerialization” of social division of tasks and responsibilities as well goal of an “activating welfare policy” is between state and society become ad­ work in practise also by controlling with con­ as the performance of tasks and duties in no longer to pay welfare investments as an dressed. The “activating state” requires cepts like “quality management” and “con­ the relationship between state, society and annuity but as an evaluation of their social citizens and civil society to align themselves tract management” leads to new challenges citizen. The focus in public debates on the ‚responsibility‘: which form of which welfare more strongly than they have so far to the for the professional staff, for example: issue of civil society, active citizenship and transfer increases the opportunity for em­ requirements of a social order that actively New forms of case management and case voluntary office is presented as a “demo­ ployment, for health, for qualifications? puts their responsibility for social concerns documentation; cratic theory discourse” between the govern­ The target of the “activating welfare policy” in their own hands, thus becoming, as Development of marketing strategies and ment and citizens. It is, however, only the is „the improvement and increase of opport­ Etzioni (1998) puts it, a „good society“. The instruments of observing the market; set-up of a social realignment of society, unities for co-operation…, not the amount confrontation between social policy as a Development and care of quality manage­ signalling the end of traditional social wel­ and volume of transfer payments“ in which transfer system and the promotion of indi­ ment systems; fare politics. „the state in the area of the new welfare viduals has led to a new ideal of social ser­ Adoption of management functions with­ policy must co-operate with many new vices – social services have to be a “social out more income. The concept of the “activating state” is fun­ private partners“ (Priddat 2000: 99–100). investment” and therefore educational for­ damental to the understanding of the new This is an empirical fact which has long been mation is the centre of the design of a new The results of empirical studies are imple­ design of social services: The „economiza­ observed by theoreticians such as the social policy. mentations of steering logics from business tion of the welfare recipient“ is the rigorous school of governance and regulation and management which are yet not developed further development of the activating state which has also been emphasized as a new that a substantial steering of the work per­ policies. In the course of converting cash structural characteristic of the new variety formance is possible. Now instruments like into noncash benefits, the clients have to of statehood. “controlling” are implemented by welfare­

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organizations too, but their main aim is the Generalization: the job profile is domina­ of more economic growth. The pressure of of long standing – that of a reduction of reflection of the efficiency of social work in­ ted by the principle of problem solution more economization of the social service differences in income and that of the distri­ tervention and of the organizational practice. (from case work to community care) and sector is the consequence of this economic bution of wealth – and other goals have not by the differentiation of expertise and weighing up. The amount of money spent by come to the fore, such as “participation” In the last years movements like evidence professional standards. public budgets has to be reduced and there­ and “inclusion”. It is to the same extent that based practice or evaluation of social work fore the mobilization of private capital as an criticism informed by the theory of justice is have become more and more important In nearly all capitalistic welfare states in investment in social services seems to be growing in strength, in particular that type with serious consequences for social work. Europe it can be observed that – following necessary. This leads to a new type of social which has egalitarianism as a guiding Social work has to legitimize itself and has the principles of new public management – service provider – the “social entrepre­ normative principle. The basic idea of a to organize costs and services much more the spread between the income of the neur” – who seeks for private investments “functionality of inequality” (Mahnkopf, transparent. employees and the challenges of social ser­ and therefore has to combine a non-profit- 2000) is gaining ground in the theory-of- vice production is rising. And at the same orientation with a for-profit-performance of justice scene. In parallel with the spread of Social work in Germany at a whole is in a time we can observe an increasing acade­ his business. This is the main reason why this idea, critical attention is being directed defensive position – because of the deve­ mization of many social professions. Becau­ more and more social entrepreneurs under­ to those who show themselves increasingly lopment on the macro- and meso-level: se in social service professions mostly stand themselves as hybrid organizations. unworthy as objects of welfare-state mea­ changes­ in social policy, new public mana­ female employees are working, the negative sures. This announces a type of moral self- gement and organizational change in wel­ development of monetary income concerns But besides this ongoing economization of criticism, which can also be read as “ethical fare organisations. The professional under­ women. The organisational and professional social work, a contradiction must be consi­ criticism of the welfare state”. The central standing is more and more defined by exter­ change in social work has gender conse­ dered: the accumulation of profit is only one idea in this discourse is to liberate people nal actors on the administrative and ma­ quences, too and it can be described – by aim in the production of social services. from the idea of the injustice of an upper and nagement level with consequences even in Lehndorff (2002) – as “a wrong tree into the The other is the fulfilling of the public duty. lower class, or the rich and the poor. Rather, the professional-client relationship. service society”. Therefore to the process of more social en­ it is argued, this could very well be regarded trepreneurship a trend towards more impact as a positive fact, i.e. the product of the The change in the activity profile in social orientation and evidence based social work differential “capabilities” of individuals. work has to be read as a strategy of flexibili­ 6. THE NEW POLITICAL ECONOMY OF can be observed as a parallel line. Impact sation which follows the headline “structure SOCIAL WORK AND ITS NORMATIVE has become not only a feature of the achie­ It is no coincidence that as far as social work follows function”. But the original profile CONSEQUENCES 20 vement of the objectives in the professional is concerned, the principle of justice consti­ of social work is not clear nor well defined. interaction, but also in categories of cost- tutes a central normative vanishing point. In Nowadays we can make a difference bet­ In all OECD countries tax payment reduction, effectiveness of the invested money. The fact, it is generally assumed today that pro­ ween several development paths. But there privatization, deregulation, more competiti­ measurement of impact has become one of fession and discipline of social work is char­ is no path which can be described as do­ on in the field of education and social- and the most important duties of social entrepre­ ged with “establishing social justice” minant for the future. We can identify three public health are top items of the moderni­ neurs and it will change the shape of social (Schrödter 2007: 9), and the “realisation of types of such development paths: zation agenda. In Germany social policy is work, because professional work has to a just society” (Hosemann & Trippmacher Detailing and differentiation especially a subsumed under regional location policy follow the terms of reference by the social 2003: 5). Also “human rights” have been separation between simple and complex and it shall help to give more attraction entrepreneur and/or the contracts between taken is this discourse as points of reference work; to the business location for investors. The state and social service provider. for professional activities and social work is Intensity of work and bureaucratization: European sovereign debt crisis in this way interpreted as a “human rights profession”. Documenting and administrative tasks acts as a force with a view on the relief of the The practice of the political welfare state has Critical arguments are put forward against become more and more important; national budget as well as the enforcement distanced itself from two ideological goals current attempts to claim social work for this

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or that ideology. The problem of justice is the responsibility etc., in one word normative FOOTNOTES Lehndorff, St. (2002): currently most frequently discussed refe­ categories. From a normative perspective, Auf dem Holzweg in die Dienstleis­ rence point of social work because it is well the analysis of the welfare state does not 19 See also in German in Dahme/Wohlfahrt tungsgesellschaft? Gute Dienstleistungs­ suited to the integration of other – older as consist in the question of the aims of welfare­ (2015): Soziale Dienstleistungen. arbeit als Politikum. well as more recent guiding principles, for state programmes and what these goals ha­ 20 See also the book published in German In: WSI-Mitteilungen. example, human dignity, civil society, demo­ ve to do with the economy of the respective by Hans-Jürgen Dahme and Norbert Heft 9/2002. S. 491–497. cracy, community, state or empowerment. society. On the contrary, the question is Wohlfahrt (2012) with the title “Ungleich Mahnkopf, B. (2000): whether these programs help to produce gerecht?“ – a „critical review of modern Formel 1 der neuen Sozialdemokratie: Explanations and definitions of social work “greater equality”, contribute to a „flou­ theories on justice” Gerechtigkeit durch Ungleichheit. based on a theory of justice make a metho­ rishing life“ or even “more justice”. These Zur Interpretation der sozialen Frage dological attempt to solve the practical aspects could be considered unimportant if im globalen Kapitalismus. dilemma of a type of social work that is these normative idealizations were merely REFERENCES In: Prokla, Zeitschrift für kritische largely determined by the state and its admi­ used as yardsticks for the effectiveness of Sozialwissenschaft. Jahrgang 2000. nistration by referring to a social-political such programs. If this would be the case, Böhme, R. (1998): Naschold, Fr. (1995): principle shared by large sections of the so­ authors could decide for themselves Auf dem Weg zur Bürgergesellschaft. Ergebnissteuerung, Wettbewerb, ciety. The assumption behind this procedure whether they wanted to regard pension In: Demokratische Gemeinde, Qualitätspolitik – Entwicklungspfade is that by constructing a theory it will allow schemes as promoting justice or not, or Volume 10/1998, page 37–38. des öffentlichen Sektors in Europa, the development of a definition of social whether they thought social work would les­ Dahme, H.-J./Kühnlein, G./ Berlin. work based on the theory of the profession sen social inequality. The establishment of Wohlfahrt, N. (2005): Priddat, B. P. (2004): (“profession of justice”), which will encap­ normative categories introduces an ap­ Zwischen Wettbewerb und Subsidiarität. Zivilgesellschaft – zwischen Wirtschaft sulate its essence as distinct from other proach which suggests that the subjects of Wohlfahrtsverbände unterwegs und Staat. Eine institutionenökono­ professions. It will also, on the other hand, the modern welfare state do indeed have the in die Sozialwirtschaft, mische Interpretation. deliver starting points for the practice of aim to produce more justice, equality or Berlin. In: Intervention. Zeitschrift für Ökono­ social work so that it can cease to under­ capabilities – the only difficulty is that they Dahme, H.-J./Wohlfahrt, N. (2012): mie, Volume 1/2004, page 67–86. stand itself as a heterogeneously steered often fail in their attempts. The principle Ungleich gerecht? Schrödter, M. (2007): profession mainly defined by government mistake of this analysis is the transforma­ Kritik moderner Gerechtigkeitstheorien, Soziale Arbeit als Gerechtigkeitspro­ regulations, and can thus take steps in the tion of the “social question” into a matter of Hamburg. fession. Zur Gewährleistung von direction of an autonomous profession. accepting normative requirements. Dahme, H.-J./Wohlfahrt, N. (2015): Verwirklichungschancen. Soziale Dienstleistungspolitik: In: Neue Praxis, Volume 1/2007, My final conclusion is that normative con­ eine kritische Bestandsaufnahme, page 3–28. cepts are not interested in the political eco­ Wiesbaden. nomy of capitalism; on the contrary, they are Etzioni, A. (1998): perceived as interfering with the normative Die Entdeckung des Gemeinwesens. analysis. Their starting point is the question Das Programm des Kommunitarismus. whether the acting subjects in state and Frankfurt/M. society can meet ideal demands that, Hosemann, W./Trippmacher, B. depending on the point of view of the author, (Editor, 2003): can be measured by categories such as jus­ Soziale Arbeit und Gerechtigkeit, tice, equality, prosperity for all, individual Baltmannsweiler.

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Uwe Schwarze und Lina Jäger CONCLUSIONS: SOCIAL WORK AND MASTER PROGRAMS IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION – MAIN RESULTS FROM AN INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP

The primary results of the international work­ try to country and that political structures shop were summarized in group work by all have a high impact on how the professional Summarizing final conclusions … participants (teachers/researchers, studen­ development evolves. From an intercultural ts and guests) at the end of the second day. perspective, being able to understand the The basics of the conclusions were derived different structures of thinking and acting from contents of the six country reports as was one of the main foci on appreciative­ well as statements from discussions in the social work. The more globalization is be­ plenary sessions. The primary findings poin­ coming a part of human reality, the more ted out challenges and innovative ideas for people with different cultural and ethnical future master programs in social work on backgrounds are entering social work – both different levels, and these results were as professionals and clients. As it is not the expectantly clear for all participants. Lina duty of social work to judge upon other in­ Jäger, master student at the HAWK in Hildes­ dividuals and to offer ready-made solutions heim and also co-editor of this report, to individual and complex situations, it is described her impressions about the much more the competence and ability in two-day workshop in the following words: understanding how and why people act as “I joined the International Workshop 2014 as they do. This should be a central value of the master student at HAWK Hildesheim. The social work profession. The international master’s degree program called “social work workshop perfectly illustrated this for me. in international and intercultural context” already emphasizes the importance of a Firsthand information on different countries social work which takes into consideration and their political and social context helped All participants after the final session … that methods and theories differ from coun­ to understand the current situation and the

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development of the profession in those In perspective on challenges for future social fare state regime, like the US-model, further require more international collaboration in countries. Talking about methods and social work during the next two decades it will be seems to be the most dominant current type, many dimensions and varieties. So, espe­ work practice, comparing the history and important to realize that social work in diffe­ which the discourses on welfare reforms and cially in master programs the international current situation of social work in an inter­ rent countries and in various cultural and “re-structuring” social policy are mainly dimension has to become a fundamental national perspective, similarities and religious contexts has very specific roots and focusing on. On the other hand alternative and natural part of social work. In practice, differences emerged and new inputs on me­ traditions. So the dimensions of social, cul­ concepts and visions of a “new” type of wel­ universities need reliable financial support thodological level opened up to me. tural and political history and values should fare regime – maybe adopted to the Swedish to organize international workshops, to de­ be a self-evident part in curricula of master social democratic regime – haven’t deve­ velop online lectures, for offering summer Furthermore, I imagined the advantages of programs in social work education as well as loped in really recognizable forms, yet. The­ schools, to realize international and com­ an international network which could help in bachelor programs. Furthermore theory se socio-economical facts should be part of parative research and to support staff at noticing critical conditions and with the and concepts of comparative social policy a critical review in international comparative universities and students in building up knowledge of social work professionals from analysis should have an appropriate role in analyses in teaching and research at the international contacts. The Erasmus pro­ other countries who might have had similar studying social work. Especially the country master level, too. gram is one part of this financial and organi­ issues to deal with, preventive perspectives reports from Spain and Lithuania, but also zational support and we need this type of can be developed. Another aspect of interna­ from the US showed dramatically effects of Additionally, it is to point out that the coun­ program. tional networking as a way of getting in contact the economic crises after 2008 and the trend try reports as well as the discussion in the with professionals from all over the world of retrenchment on welfare state regulation plenary sessions illustrated new and very In perspective on worldwide current social might be important especially for students on the one hand and strengthening of prin­ challenging social problems in different problems and social interventions, social who are interested in research programs, pro­ ciples like competition and deregulation fields of social work: international migra­ work in theoretical dimensions might point jects or job perspectives all across the globe. adapted from neoliberal concepts of “more tion, demographic change, extreme poverty, out more clearly that social problems can’t market” and “less state”. Furthermore “cha­ violence and riots of disadvantaged groups really be prevented or solved by individual All presentations held illustrated very well rity” and the traditional role of providing in modern welfare states, failing support for and/or behavioral social interventions. This problems the social work profession is fac­ social security by “family” became a pro­ children and the elderly, poverty and un­ individualized and often coercive concepts ing: neoliberal structures, austerity mea- minent role during the last years in several employment among the youth of southern on social policy and social interventions are sures, privatization and the dismantling of welfare states, not only in the Southern part Europe, new risks of homelessness, for naive. The country reports and discussions the welfare state trigger an ongoing process of Europe, but also in Germany. It is a trend example in Sweden, and human trafficking instead emphasized that much broader of de-professionalization. Nevertheless the of fragmentation in modern welfare states, nearly in all regions of a globalized world are structural and multi-disciplinary measures undertone of the whole event towards these which we are also observing in social work the current topics in social work and social and methods must be developed as original tendencies was a critical one, which gave me research, because it includes the risk of policy. All these social problems require parts in social work, too. These concepts a very positive impression of shared values de-professionalization. a search for the best possible programs, should be an institutionalized element in and targets of an ideal social work. Once methods and social interventions. The best curricula of master programs in social work again the importance of a political mandate Apparently, without any critical reflection, way, and furthermore an essential require­ and other social service. Additionally, the clearly was emphasized. Social work which the trend to a liberal model of social policy ment in social work, is to take up all these theoretical analytical perspective of political takes on responsibility for society, which and retrenchment in social security is an challenges in continuous and reliable economy as well is one topic in teaching and acts upon human rights and which claims ongoing process, which has negative effects international­ exchange, coordination and in research of social problems. to be the voice for the needy has to use its for individuals in low income groups, for international collaboration, on the level of political powers to sustainably change so­ the long-term unemployed, for families sup­ professionals, teachers and researchers in Another result of the two day workshop was ciety. For this solidarity in a permanent inter­ porting a few children as well as for the social work and social policy. The current the realization that the public image and national exchange is essential.” elderly with low pensions. The liberal wel­ and future challenges in social work simply view on social work in society, as well as in

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the political arena, is often ambivalent – degree in sociology, social sciences, law Germany and other countries, like Lithuania, observe and experience in daily life – in mainly not so positive. The country reports studies, political science, psychology… Spain and the Netherlands. demographic, socioeconomic, technical and showed this fact for nearly all welfare states, should get access to a master program in political dimension. In dealing with these including Sweden and the U.S.. There is a social work? The practice and the regulation Theory and concepts, which are influencing changes of modern society and in individual lack of data about the public image on social in this question shows a wide variety, social work as an academic discipline and life conditions social work directly and work in comparative research and it is a very depending on federal regulation and diffe­ as a practice-oriented profession, actually fundamentally becomes globalized – and in important challenge to qualify social wor­ rent standards in access criteria at different seldom come from Germany. In the arena the same time also (g)localized in a future kers in topics and competences like “marke­ universities in a variety of master programs. of international and comparative research world society. ting” and “public relations” with a specific In general it is to emphasize that the “Bolo­ and in reception of current international view on the fundamental characteristics and gna process” was not really as successful as theory on justice, fairness, social inequality values of social work. In this context the intended in these fields of interdisciplinary or concepts like “empowerment”, “enabling” function of “social work lobby organiza­ opening – on a national level as well as in an and “best practices” in social work mainly tions” on a national level as well as in an international perspective. have their roots in other regions of the world. international context (IASSW, EASSW…) have Most influences come from the Anglo-Saxon to be strengthened in the future, and they The results of the two day international countries, often from the U.S. and from Scan­ must be connected to the local level of social workshop might stimulate further deve­ dinavia, too, and indigenous concepts of work in a more and more globalized world. lopment and support for social work in social work received more attention during In perspective on German social work in perspective on (re-)accreditation of master the last years. The former “prominent general and in particular on German master programs and for the development of PhD model” of social policy and social security programs in social work, two open questions programs, too. In an international perspec­ in Germany in international perspective should be pointed out: In international tive it is nearly embarrassing that German seems to be less attractive. Also “new” comparative perspective the German “pro­ universities of applied sciences do not innovative concepts in supporting user fessional internship” (Berufspraktikum) as have the legal right to offer PhD programs participation, user involvement and demo­ a part of social work education is specific in social work to their students who have cracy in the fields of social work mainly have and seems very unique. In different federal fin­ished the master‘s degree with good their roots in the U.S., in relation to the states of Germany we can find a variety success, and who want to continue with occupy wall street movement or in context of of regulation and standards on this “profes­ research on origin topics of social work. The social work in the welfare state crises which sional inter­nship”. It is an open question if lack of this legal right to offer PhD programs we can observe in the Southern and/or this professional internship” also should be has further effects; German (empirical) Eastern countries of Europe. Also in this understood as a mandatory requirement in research on social work in international per­ dimension it is important and it is an en­ rela­tion to the master’s degree, or as a part spective is nearly marginal. In dimensions richment for the mainly pragmatically and of the master’s degree in social work prac­ on methods of social research in and on so­ opportunistic oriented social work dis­ tice. Another open question in Germany is cial work, German universities have to courses in Germany. Perhaps this allows focusing on the bridge between Bachelor be strengthened. These topics also must be former and current critical,­ radical, partici­ and master: The question is, if professio­ institutionalized as basic elements in the pating and democratic concepts in future nals, who do not have a bachelor’s degree curricula of master programs. Furthermore social work become more relevant in Ger­ in social work, but who are working in the fighting for the legal right to offer PhD pro­ many. However, history already has shown fields and topics of social work in practice grams in social work is a very important topic that social work must take into account and for example already have a bachelor on the agenda in social work education in the fundamental changes we currently can

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policy, and social work practice. Her areas of very young profession field of research. interest include international social work, As member she actively is engaged in the ABOUT THE EDITORS AND ABOUT THE AUTHORS human rights, and social and economic Lithuanian Board of Social Work and in the justice. She has presented her work and/or European Association of Social Work Re­ studied in Poland, Turkey, Croatia, Bosnia, search. Herzegovina, Romania, and Hungary. E-Mail: [email protected] Currently,­ she is collaborating with HAWK/ Hildesheim in Germany as an online guest Iván Rodríguez Pascual lecturer presenting on social policy in the Prof. Dr. Iván Rodríguez Pascual is Dean of United States. the Faculty of Social Work at the University E-Mail: [email protected] of Huelva, Spain. He completed studies in ABOUT THE EDITORS and helping to support projects in Sudan. political science and sociology at Com­ As an active member of the professional Peter Hendriks plutense University in Madrid. At Huelva Uwe Schwarze organization DBSH Germany she works to Peter Hendriks is lecturer and researcher University his work additionally is dedicated Prof. Dr. Uwe Schwarze has been a social strengthen the social work profession on at the Utrecht University of Applied Sciences to advance social intervention and social worker for several years, working in welfare political level. in the Netherlands (HU). His main interests sciences. As a member of the European offices and in debt counseling services. His E-Mail: [email protected] in teaching are international and intercul­ Association for Sociology Dr. Iván Rodríguez PhD-thesis focused on logics of social in­ tural social work. He is a researcher at the Pascual is doing researches and publishing tervention in social assistance in Germany Centre for Social Innovation at the same current findings in the field of childhood and Sweden. Since 2003 he is professor ABOUT THE AUTHORS university and is currently involved in a re­ sociology. for “Social Policy and Social Work” at the search project on Turkish and Moroccan E-Mail: [email protected] University of Applied Sciences (HAWK) in Jonas Christensen Dutch professionals in social work. From Hildesheim/Germany. His main topics in Dr. Jonas Christensen is Senior Lecturer/ 2007–2015 he was board member and offi­ teaching and research are poverty, home­ Assis­tant Professor at the Department of cer of the executive committee of the Euro­ Norbert Wohlfahrt lessness, labor market policies and pension Social Work, Faculty of Health and Society, pean Association of Schools of Social Work Since 1993 Dr. Norbert Wohlfahrt holds a politics. His comparative research is mainly at Malmö University in Sweden. He holds a (EASSW). professorship for sociology at the University focusing on Sweden and the U.S. and in ad­ PhD in Education, and an MSc in Economics E-Mail: [email protected] of Applied Sciences Rheinland-Westfalen- dition also in broader perspective on inter­ and Political Science. He has wide interests Lippe, Germany. His main focusses in tea­ national developments of social work and in societal and organizational issues related Rasa Naujaniene ching and in research are NGO development, social policy. to knowledge acquisition in a welfare con­ Dr. Rasa Naujaniene is associate Professor social policy and administration on a regio­ E-Mail: [email protected] text. Within this area, he has focused on at Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas in nal level and the history of social services. learning and organization, cross-border ed­ Lithuania. She is teaching social work Dr. Norbert Wohlfahrt currently does re­ Lina Jäger ucation and elderly issues. methodology, social research methods, search in the field of social and health ser­ Lina Jäger is studying in the master’s pro­ E-Mail: [email protected] supervision and social policy on Bachelor vices, also in international perspective. gram “social work in international and inter­ and Master level. Her special interest is de­ E-Mail: [email protected] cultural perspective” at HAWK Hildesheim. Denise Ellis dicated to research in the field of social ma­ She is interested in refugee social work and Dr. Denise Ellis is Assistant Professor at Kean nagement in institutions. Rasa Naujaniene’s therefore actively engaged in an NGO giving University, New Jersey (USA). She is teaching work is mainly focused on promoting and a voice to Sudanese refugees in Germany human behavior, psychopathology, social emphasizing Lithuanian social work as a

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Contact HAWK Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaft und Kunst Hildesheim/Holzminden/Göttingen University of Applied Sciences and Arts Faculty of Social Work and Health Hohnsen 1 | 31134 Hildesheim | Germany www.hawk-hhg.de/sage

Zeitung Soziale Arbeit und Gesundheit im Gespräch Nr. 3/2017 | ISSN 2510-1722 Redaktion: Dr. Andreas W. Hohmann

Editors Prof. Dr. Uwe Schwarze Fon: +49/51 21/881-406 E-Mail: [email protected] BA Lina Marie Jäger

Design CI/CD-Team of HAWK

Printing Gutenberg Beuys Feindruckerei, Hannover Circulation 450

Date of Publication Hildesheim, February 2017