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Home , Besra, Black baza, Circaetus, Collared falconet, Crested goshawk, Crested serpent eagle

j. RaptorRes'. 32(1):40-55 ¸ 1998 The Raptor ResearchFoundation, Inc.

CURRENT STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF IN TROPICAL

JEAN-MARCTHIOLLAY Laboratoired•cologie, E.N.S., 46, rue d'Ulm 75230Paris Cedex05, F'rance

ABSTRACT.--Ireviewed the distribution, abundance, selection,and population trends of 69 di- urnal raptors found in 13 subregionsfrom to Indochina, ,and Java.At least four are Endangered or Vulnerable and 19 are at lower risk or have insufficient data to determine their status.Among 49 breeding species,33 have a world range mostly within South Asia, half with high conservationvalue scores.Others have small (six species)or substantial(10 species)populations but a much wider distribution. Of all 69 taxa, eight are mature -interior species,six are associatedwith gapsor disturbance,14 are woodland,edge, or upper canopydwellers, 14 are associatedwith grasslands or cultivation,and sevenare river or wetland species.Most wintering migrants(20) are nonforestspecies. There is evidence of largescalepopulation declineson the continent of Asia, as well as insular syndrome involvingincreased density and wider habitat breadth on islands.The most important threatsto diurnal raptorsare (1) habitat loss,especially of lowland rainforestto cultivation,(2) habitat degradation,mainly from logging, and (3) forest fragmentation. Few speciesare successfullyadapting to new man-made and none are from the forest-interiorguild. Main conservationpriorities include surveysand ecologicalstudies, extension and enforcement of protected areas, and sustainablelogging practices. KEYWORDS: raptorpopulations; South Asia; distritmtion;(vnservation.

Estadoactual y conservaci6nde falconiformesen el Asia tropical REStJMEN.--Resumila distribuci6n, abundancia, selecci6n de habitat, y tendenciaspoblacionales de 69 aves rapaces diurnas de 13 subregionesdesde India hasta Indochina, Sumatra, y Java. Por lo menos 4 especiesestrin amenazadaso son vulnerables, 19 estrin en menos riesgo o no existe infbrmaci6n sufi- ciente para determinar su estado. Entre las 49 especies,33 tienen un rirea de distribuci6n dentro del Sur de Asia, la mitad de estastienen un valor de conservaci6nalto. Otras tienen poblacionesreducidas (6 especies)o substanciales(10 especies)con distribucionesmas amplias.De todos los 69 taxones,8 son especiesdel interior de bosquesmaduros, 6 estan asociadosa zonas abiertas o disturbadas,14 son especiesde bosque,borde o dosel,14 est•n asociadosa pastizaleso cultivos,y 7 son especiesde rios o humedales. Casi todas las migratorias (20) no son especiesde bosque. Existen evidenciassobre la dis- minuci6n poblacional de las especiesa gran escalaen el continente Asiritico,como tambien sobre el sindrome insular que incluye el aumento de densidadesy espaciosentre habitatsen islas.Las amenazas masimportantes para las avesrapaces diurnas son: (1) P•rdida de habitat, especialmentede los bosques de 11uviade tierras bajas convertidasa cultivos, (2) degradaci6n del habitat a partir de actividades forestales,y (3) fragmentaci6ndel bosque.Pocas especies se estrinadaptando exitosamente a los nuevos habitats creados por el hombre. Las prioridades de conservaci6n,incluyen investigacionesy estudios eco16gicos,apoyo y extensi6n de rireasprotegidas y prricticasforestales sostenibles. [Traducci6n de C•sar Mrirquez]

Several Asian countries have the densest and fas- quirements, prey selection and degrees of toler- test growing human populationsin the world, as ance to disturbance,and their speciesnumbers, at well as the fastest growing economies and stan- least in some areas, are correlated with the total dards of living. As a result, there is dramatic pres- speciesrichness (Thiollay 1997). My aim here sure on natural habitats, resources, and biodiver- is to review the composition,distribution, popula- sity of this area. tion levels, and conservation priorities of diurnal Raptors are good indicators of environmental raptors in SoutheastAsia in the early 1990s. Most changesbecause they are top predators, they in- information about the geographicaldistribution of clude specieswith a variety of specifichabitat re- raptor speciesis scattered in the literature and

40 MARCH 1998 STATUS OF RAPTORS IN TROPICAL ASI• 41 TIBET

CHINA

BURMA

THAILAND

I NSRI LANKA

Figure 1. Study area and regional divisions.

much less is known about their habitat selection to ), and Sundan ( to Java). In terms of and their actual abundances. These last critical its raptors, the area can be divided more preciselyinto 13 subregions(Table 1). components of their status are rapidly changing The main vegetation is a rich, closed-canopy, and may be different today than they were report- moist forest with trees approximately 50 m in height ed in regional synthesesbased on information that (Whitmore 1985). At best,only 42% of the originalforest is decadesold. To update and complement pub- remains (global estimate from Collins et al. [1991], as- lished data, I shall rely primarily on the resultsof suming a constant deforestation rate since the 1980s). This estimateincludes evergreen to semi-deciduous,low- numerouspersonal raptor surveysand field studies land and montane that have often already been carried out in 27 statesor provincesin eight coun- logged or degraded, where annual rainfall is 2-4 m or tries during the last 20 yr. more and no month receivesunder 60 mm of precipi- tation. At higher latitudes, marked dry seasons (<3 STUDY AREA months with <60 mm of rainfall) result in drier, more The area under consideration extends from India to deciduous monsoon forests grading into lower wood- Indochina, south of the Himalayasand , and down lands or even subdesert scrubland in north western In- to the Greater Sundas,west of the Wallace Line (Fig. 1). dia. Lowland swampforests are locally extensivein Bor- This is a faunisticallyhomogeneous, 7 million-km2 re- neo and Sumatra. Mangroves(Avicennia, Rhizophora) are gion, that now has a human population of > 1.4 billion widespreadalong low coastlinesand estuariesand cover people. It is divided into three broad biogeographic over 4000 km2 in the Sundarbansof Bangladeshalone zones: Indian (India to Burma), lndochinese ( Former coastal forests have been replaced by coconut 42 THIOLLAY Vo•. 32, No. 1

Table 1. Total sizeof studyareas, remaining forested areas (1980-88), and existingprotected areas in 1000sof km9 (from Collins et al. 1991).

MANGROVE LAND RAIN MONSOON AND SWAMP PROTECTED SUBREGIONS AREA FOREST FOREST1 FOREST AREAS9

Northern India • 1805.9 0.9 98.1 1.2 106.0 Peninsular India 944.6 20.0 18.4 0.1 16.6 Northeastern India t' 640.4 46.7 38.8 4.5 9.3 Sn Lanka 64.7 1.4 10.8 7.2 Andamans-Nicobars 6.3 2.6 3.6 0.6 0.6 Burma () 657.7 220.3 88.4 3.0 7.0 Thailand + 688.3 127.4 79.2 13.4 66.9 + Vietnam 556.1 134.3 45.3 1.6 8.2 Peninsular Malaysiac 330.3 64.5 5.2 6.2 Northern 203.9 113.5 21.7 8.1 Kahmantan 532.1 323.6 73.7 29.7 Sumatra d 472.6 155.3 75.3 45.0 Java + 138.6 12.8 9.2 3.7 Total 7041 1223 382 209 314 Includesboth lowland and montane forest, and from intact to highly degradedstands. Includesalso nonforest areas and low protectionstatus areas such as protectionforests or hunting reserves. North of 20øN,excluding Himalayan and Tibetan ranges. IncludesBangladesh. Includes PeninsularThailand, Tenasserimand Singapore. Includesoutlying islands.

plantations. Upper montane areas above tree line are in- two sets of methods were used to assess the relative abun- significant in size. dance and habitat selection of raptors. First, extensive Wetlandsare mostlyassociated with riversand to a less- transectcounts were made along roads,tracks, and forest er extent with marshes, peat swamps,coastal lagoons, trails, either by car with numerous stopsor on foot. The many artificial lakes, and vast areas of temporarily inun- second method was an adaptation of the point count dated ricefields. Permanent agriculture is often intensive method (Thiollay 1989, 1995) where 1-km$ samplequad- over huge, densely-inhabitedareas. Nevertheless,a sub- rats, predominantlycovered by a singlehabitat type,were stantial density of trees, patches of grassland for cattle censusedfor 4 hr from vantagelookouts during morning grazing, and fallow areas with low second growth are re- periods (0900-1200 H) when most raptors were active tamed. In more remote and fbrested areas on slopes, The resultswere expressedin mean number of individ- shifting cultivation has resulted in various successional uals, respectively,per km of transector per 1-km$ sample stagesof secondary growtit. Tree plantations are often plot. Differences between these abundance indices (with- extensive. They range from the diversified, fbrest-like in, but not between species,because of unequal detect- agroforestsof to the vast arid uniform indus- abilities) were tested among habitats and study areas us- trial plantations of fast growing exotic trees growIt for ing Kruskal-Wallisone-way ANOVA, followed by a non- firel or pulpwood (Eucalyptus,Gmelina, and Acada), lum- parametric multiple pair-wise comparison procedure ber ( 7kctona,Pin us, arid Dipteroca•paceae),fruit (Mango), based on two-tailed Mann-Whitney U-tests (Sokal and and especiallyrubber (Hevea) and oil (Elaeis).Together Rohlf 1981). with open cultivatedwoodlands and home gardens,they Habitat types,where each individual raptor wasrecord- currently cover much larger areas than natural forests. ed in cumulative random samples,were used to assess Urban, industrial, arid recreational areas are increasing specific habitat selection compared to habitat availability everywhere with tbc increasing human population and using the method of Neu et al. (1974). Thus, species economic development. were classifiedinto broad categories of habitat prefer- ence, illustratingtheir distributionaltrend along the hab- METIIODS itat gradient from primary forest to deforestedhabitats Only resident and regular wintering migrant diurnal and their ability to withstand increasing deforestation. raptors were considered,while vagrantsand transientmi- Random records were alsoused to measure specifichab- grants were ignored. I surveyedraptor populations over itat niche breadth, 13= •(pi s) •, where Pi was the pro- extensiveareas from 1975-95, mostlyin , northern portion of sightedin the ith habitat category. Two- and southern India, Andamans, , Malaysia,Bor- tailed sign testswere used for interspecifc comparisons neo, Sumatra,Java, Laos, and Vietnam. In each region, of habitat niches. MARCH 1998 STATUS OF RAPTORS IN TROPICAL ASIA 43

Table 2. Component scoresof the conservationindex attributed to tropical Asian raptors. The total index was the sum of the speciesrank value in each of three parameters.

CONSERVATION PARAMETERS

RANK RANGE AREA MAIN HABITAT POPULATION TREND

0 >75% of S. Asia Open and cultivated habitats Stable or increasing 1 50-75% of S. Asia Forest edgesor woodlands Probable but undocumented decline 2 25-49% of S. Asia Disturbed or secondaryforests Moderate or locally documented decline 3 <25% of S. Asia Primary forest interior Significant and widespreaddecrease

The following habitat categorieswere defined: WET, Greater Spotted [Aquila clanga], Eurasian all wetlands from marshes,lakes and rivers to swampfor- Imperial Eagle [A. heliaca], Lesser Kestrel [Falco estsand mangroves;CULT, grasslandsand cultivated ar- eas; TREE, open woodlands, orchards, isolated woodlots, naumanni], Merlin [F. columbarius], and Saker Fal- and edges;FOR 1, highly degraded forest with densesec- con [E cherrug]) are rare or local in their occur- ond growth and open canopy,as well as tree plantations; rence. FOR 2, secondaryforest heavilylogged or disturbed and Among the 49 breeding species,15 are spread agroforests;FOR 3, high, subnaaturebut logged forest with almost continuous canopy; and FOR 4, large tracts over the three geographical zones, eight are in two of dense, mostlyevergreen, undisturbed, primary forest. zones, 20 are in only one zone, and six are restrict- Most accounts are based on personal observationsei- ed to Andamans or Java (Table 3). The number of ther unpublishedor in Thiollay (1978, 1983, 1993, 1995, resident speciessteadily decreases from large con- 1996, 1997) and Thiollay and Meyburg (1988), and sup- tinental areas (north and , 35 taxa), plemented by information provided by numerous orni- thologists. The following references were used to sum- the large southern peninsulas ( to In- marize data availablefor each country not personallysur- dochina, 23-28 taxa), narrow peninsulasand the veyed and to estimatepopulation trends by comparison largest islands (Malaysiaand Borneo, 19-20 taxa), with past status:Baker 1928, Delacour andJabouille 1931, to more outlyingislands (Sri Lanka to Java, 17-18 Whistler 1941, Deignan 1963, Smythies1953, 1981, Wil- dash 1968, Henry 1971, King et al. 1975, Medwayand taxa) and oceanic archipelagoes (4-6 taxa). The Wells 1976, Ali and Ripley 1978, Morris 1986, van Marie reduction in species richness is related to both and Voous 1988, Lekagul and Round 1991, MacKinnon land area, degree of isolation, and historical fac- and Philipps 1993, del Hoyo et al. 1994. tors. A numerical conservationindex was assignedto each Habitat Selection and Implications. Eight species specieswhose breeding population wasmostly within the study region according to Usher (1986). It was the sum associatedwith interior primary moist forests, ex- of three 0-3 scores,such that the specieswith the most cept the island endemicsAndaman Serpent-eagle limited geographic range and habitat preference, the ( Spilorniselgini) and Nicobar Serpent-eagle( S. klos- highest forest use, and the most declining populations sO, are intolerant of logging or forest fragmenta- (e.g., the mostVulnerable or Threatened species)got the highest ranking (Table 2). All values were conservative tion. These speciesmay have no viable populations estimatesto avoid an overemphasisof the threat level. outside the current extent of undisturbed forest. (Accipitertrivirgatus) and Wal- RESULTS lace's -eagle (Spizaetusnanus) are almost ex- Raptor Community Composition and Distribu- clusivelyfound in lowland forest while Jerdon's tion. In South Asia, 20 speciesof Falconiformesare Baza (Avicedajerdoni) and Javan Hawk-eagle (spz- nonbreeding migrants and are found only in win- zaetusbartelsi) are found at elevations as high as ter. They include 12 widespreadspecies (5 harriers submontane forest. Blyth's Hawk-eagle (Spizaetus (Circusspp., Chinese Goshawk [Accipitersoloensis], alboniger)and Mountain Hawk-eagle ( S. nipalensis) JapaneseSparrowhawk [A. gularis],Grey-faced Buz- are restricted to hill and montane forests and they zard [Butastur indicus], Common Buzzard [Buteo withdraw in winter from upper altitudes to lowland buteo], [Aquila nipalensis],Booted Ea- India and Malaysia. gle [Hieraaetuspennams], and EurasianHobby [Fal- Six forest speciesactually use forest gaps,upper cosubbuteo] ). Eight species(Eurasian Black Vulture canopy, and edges for hunting and are more tol- [Aegypius monachus] , [ Accip- erant to disturbance,fragmentation, and logging. iter nisus], Long-legged Buzzard [Buteo rufinus], They may actuallybenefit from partial opening of 44 THIOLLAY VOL. 32, NO. 1

Table 3. Distribution of 49 raptor breeding specieswithin South Asia.

DISTRIBUTED IN

NUMBER ANDAMANS MALAYSIA OF S TO NE AND THAILAND BORNEO SPECIES INDIA NICOBARS TO VIETNAM SUMATRA JAVA EXAMPLES + + + + + Spilornischeela, virga- tus + + + + Pernisptilorhynchus, Accipiter tri- virgatus q- q- leuphotes + + + Avicedajerdoni, Ichthyophaga humilis 1 + + + Pktlco severus 1 + + + Falcoperegrinus 6 + + Accipiterbadius, migrans 11 + Butasturteesa, Falco chicquera 3 + Spilorniselgini, S. klossi 1 + Polihieraxinsiffnis 1 + + Butastur liventer 5 q- Spizaetusalbonig• S. nanus 1 + + Michrohieraxfringillarius 3 q- Spizaetusbartelsi, Falco moluccen- sis

Total 35 8 24 22 18

Andamans-Nicobars(oceanic archipelago) and Java (landbridge island), becauseof their endemic taxa, have been separatedfrom the larger Indian, Indochinese and Sundan subregions. the forest. Five species(Black Baza [Avicedaleupho- phus alcinus),Oriental Hobbies (Falcoseverus), and tes], Oriental Honey-buzzard [Pernis ptilorhynchus], Peregrine (E pereKrinus) hunt above or [Accipitervirgatus], Indian Black Eagle [Icti- around the forest and are more sensitiveto prey naetusmalayensis], and Rufous-belliedEagle [Hi- abundance than to vegetationstructure. Wintering eraaetuskienerii]) have a wide altitudinal range, migrants (Chinese Goshawk,Japanese Sparrow- while one species(Kinabalu Serpent-eagle[Spilor- hawk, Eurasian Sparrowhawk,Common Buzzard, nzs kinabaluensis]) is restricted to montane forest. Booted Eagle [Hieraaetuspennatus], and Eurasian Populationsof honey-buzzardsand bazasare aug- ) share the least wooded habitat types. mented in winter when the northern Ten migrant and 14 resident speciesuse open migrates south. All six specieseasily fly between grasslandsand cultivatedand suburbanareas. They separateforest patches. are mostly distributed in the drier, less forested Nineteen speciesare associatedwith woodlands, northern tropics. They appear to avoid dense for- edges, and open or degraded secondaryforests. ests, but only the smaller species (Black-winged They are not true forest speciesand tolerate a [Elanus caeruleus],two speciesof buzzards [ Bu- moderate level of deforestationand readily accept tasturspp.], and three speciesof falcons),migrants tree plantations. Crested Serpent-eagle ( (Grey-faced Buzzard [Butasturindicus], Long-leg- cheela), (Accipiterbadius), Nicobar Sparrow- ged Buzzard, two speciesof harriers and three spe- hawk (A. but/er/),Changeable Hawk-eagle (Spizaetus cies of falcons), and scavengers(Black Kites [Mil- czrrhatus),White-rumped PygmyFalcon ( vus migrans],and six speciesof vultures) may ac- znsignis),and Red-neckedFalcon (Fatcochicquera) tually benefit from extensive deforestation, culti- forage in forestsfrom mid-levelto the ground. All vation, and overgrazing. (Short-toed speciesof falconets (Microhieraxspp.) take prey in -eagle[ Circaetusgallicus] and three speciesof fl•ght from exposedperches, including emergent Aquila) usuallyremain associatedwith more natu- trees of closed canopies. (Macheiram- ral habitats. MARCH 1998 STATUS OF RAPTORS IN TROPICAL ASIA 45

Eleven wetland speciesuse marshes and rice- Population Trends. There are very few accurate fields, freshwater lakes, coastallagoons, rivers and data on raptor population dynamicsin South Asia forest streams, or sea coasts. Residents are Brah- or trends in recent decades,yet many speciescon- miny Kite (Haliasturindus), White-bellied Sea-eagle sidered common or widespread 50 yr ago in re- (Haliaeetusleucogaster), Pallas's Sea-eagle (H. /euco- gional accountsare now obviouslyrarer and more typhus), Grey-headed Fish-eagle (Ichthyophagaich- local. This is especiallytrue for eagles,both from thyaetus),Lesser Fish-eagle (I. humilis),and Lesser rainforests (hawk-eagles)and wetlands (fishing ea- SpottedEagle (Aquilapomarina). Migrants include gles), but also for many usually abundant species WesternMarsh- (Circusaeruginosus), Eastern in genera such as Milvus, ,Elanus, Accipzt• Marsh-harrier ( C. spilonotus),Pied Harrier ( C. me- Butastur, and Falco, which are now rare, if not al- lanoleucos),and Greater SpottedEagle. The Osprey most extirpated from large, intensively cultivated (Pandion haliaetus) has a small coastal breeding areas in Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Java. population in Java but is overall a widespreadwin- The decline is especiallystriking for vultures (Gyps tering species.The responseof wetland raptors to spp. and Sarcogypscalvus) which have apparently habitat changes differs among species.Large pi- disappeared,at least as breeders,from vastregions scivorousbirds such as sea and fishing eagles are in Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, and Indochina often adverselyaffected becauseof decreasingfish where they were once considered common. Even stocksand suitabletrees for hunting perchesalong in India, their main stronghold, my roadside banks. More terrestrial eagles (e.g., Aquila) may be counts over a 20-yr period show significant de- affected by a lack of undisturbed shallowmarshes clines in some areas. Finally, at least the forest in- and humid grasslands,whereas more versatile spe- terior species which cannot adapt to degraded cies (e.g., speciesof Haliastur and Circus)may be woodlandsor even to fragmented secondaryforest, benefitted becausethey are much more adaptable may be decreasingin parallel with deforestation. to heavy human disturbance of wetlands. Specific Regional and Distribution Patterns. An Northern migrants, except locally the Booted increased density and a wider habitat niche of Eagle (Hieraaetuspennatus), are virtually absent some speciesmay result from competitive release from forests.They make up 32-42% of all raptor when fewer competitors coexist, especiallyon is- speciesin the other three habitat categories. lands (Wright 1980, Blondel 1990). Field measure- Gonservation Status. The number of Threat- merits showed such striking examples of habitat ened or Near Threatened species is alarming. shifts and density compensations.For example, Among the 49 breeding taxa, 22 have a high con- Crested Serpent-eaglesare widespread everywhere servation index (5-9) and/or are in one of the in secondaryforests and woodlandsin the absence categoriesof threat in the IUCN World Red List of any congeners. However, on the Andaman ar- (Table 4, Collar et al. 1994). There is no extinct chipelago,it is associatedonly with mangroves,for- speciesnor is any raptor population currently de- est edges or gaps, and deforested areas, whereas pendent on a captive-breedingprogram. However, the endemic Andaman Serpent-eagleoccupies all two subspeciesof the LesserSpotted Eagle (Aquila types of forest interior (Fig. 2). In another exam- pomarinahasrata) from India, and Wallace'sHawk- ple, Changeable Hawk-eagle is restricted to open eagle (Spizaetusnanus stresemanni)from Is- woodlands and degraded forestsin India at upper land, W. Sumatra, seem to be Critically Endan- elevations, in Malaysia, Borneo, and Sumatra be- gered (Thiollay 1996). causeanother Spizaetusalways replaces it in dense All eight forest interior species,nearly half of the forests. In Vietnam, lowland India, and the Anda- more tolerant forest or wetland species,and 25% mans, where there is no forest Spizaetus,Changea- of woodland and open habitat speciesare consid- ble Hawk-eagles,are found throughout primary ered Rare, Threatened or of Special Concern be- forests and more open secondary stands (Fig. 3). cause of their high conservation index (Table 5). Altitudinal segregation occurs between Wallace's Only two wintering migrants are globallyVulnera- Hawk-eagle (in the lowlands) and Blyth's Hawk-ea- ble (Greater Spotted Eagle) or Near Threatened gle (at upper elevations) throughout their sympat- (Eurasian Black Vulture, Aegypiusmona&us). Sev- ric distribution. The Besrais a common forest rap- eral other migrants have small and local popula- tor at any elevation from southwestIndia to Viet- tions in South Asia, but they are widespreadelse- nam and Java, in sympatrywith the larger Crested where. Goshawk. Conversely,in northern India, Nepal, 46 THIOLLAY VOL. 32, NO. 1

Table 4. Conservationstatus of breeding raptors in tropical Asia,west of the Wallace Line. The conservationindex (see Methods) is given for mostly South Asian species,and not for taxa with extra world range. The IUCN status (criteria in Mace and Stuart 1994) involvesonly Threatened (=Endangered or Vulnerable) or Near Threatened (low risk) species.

SPECIES

Specieswhose world range is mostlywithin SouthAsia Jerdon'sBaza (Avicedajerdom) 7, low risk Black Baza (A vicedaleuphotes) 5 Oriental Honey-buzzard( Pernis ptilorhynchus) 3 ( Haliasturindus) 2 White-bellied Sea-eagle( Haliaeetusleucogaster) 3 LesserFish-eagle (Ichthyophaga humilis) 6, low risk Grey-headedFish-eagle (Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus) 6, low risk Indian White-backedVulture (Gypsbengalensis) 4, low risk Long-billedVulture (Gypsindicus) 4, low risk Red-headedVulture (Sarcogypscalvus) 7, low risk CrestedSerpent-eagle ( Spilornischeela) 2 Nicobar Serpent-eagle(Spilornis klossi) 6, low risk KinabaluSerpent-eagle (Spilornis kinabaluensis) 7, data deficient Andaman Serpent-eagle(Spitornis elgini) 6, low risk Crested Goshawk(Accipiter trivirgatus) 5 (Accipiter butleri) 7, low risk Besra (Accipiter virgatus) 4 White-eyedBuzzard ( Butasturteesa) 4 Rufous-wingedBuzzard (Butasturliventer) 6, low risk Indian Black Eagle (Ictinaetusmalayensis) 4 Rufous-belliedEagle (Hieraaetuskienerii) 6, low risk ChangeableHawk-eagle ( Spizaetuscirrhatus) 2 Mountain Hawk-eagle(Spizaetus nipalensis) 7, low risk Blyth'sHawk-eagle ( Spizaetusalboniger) 7 Javan Hawk-eagle(Spizaetus bartels•) 9, Endangered Wallace'sHawk-eagle (Spizaetus nanus) 9, Endangered White-rumped PygmyFalcon (Polihieraxinsignis) 5, low risk ( Microhieraxcaerulescens) 4 Black-tightedFalconer ( Microhieraxfringillarius) 4 White-fronted Falconet (Microhieraxlatifrons) 5, data deficient ( melanoleucus) 5, low risk Oriental Hobby (Palcoseverus) 4 Laggar (Falcojugger) 3 Specieswith small and marginal breeding population in South Asia, ranging mostlyoutside the region Osprey ( Pandionhaliaetus) Pallas'sSea Eagle (Haliaeetusleucoryphus) Vulnerable EurasianGriffon (Gypsfulvus) Short-toed Snake-eagle( gallicus) Lesser-spottedEagle (Aquilapomarina) Endangered Spotted Kestrel (Falcomoluccensis) Specieswith a substantialpopulation in South Asia, but with a larger population elsewhere(Asia to ) Bat Hawk ( Macheiramphusalcinus) Black-wingedKite (Elanuscaeruleus) ( Milvus migrans) EgyptianVulture ( Neophronpercnopterus) Shikra (Accipiter badius) (Aquila rapax) MARCH 1998 STATUS OF RAPTORS IN TROPICAL AS•A 47

Table 4. Continued.

SPECIES CONSERVATION STATUS

Bonelli's Eagle ( Hieraaetusfasciatus) (Falco tinnunculus) Red-necked Falcon (Falcochicquera) low risk Peregrine Falcon (Fatcoperegvinus)

Borneo, Sumatra, and maybe Malaysia, it is con- ter withstand human-made habitat degradation fined to upper elevations(1000-2000 m) separated and fragmentationwhich tend to be especiallyse- from the Crested Goshawk which occurs alone in vere on islands. the lowlands. MAIN THREATS AND CONSERVATION ISSUES When all specieswere pooled, the densityindex of raptors in mature forests (but not in deforested Habitat Loss. Most natural habitats in tropical habitats) wassimilar in the studyareas of southwest Asia are decreasingprimarily because of defores- India, southern Vietnam and western Sumatra, but tation. Most areaswith fertile, deep soilshave long it increased significantly in Sri Lanka and the An- historiesof cultivation.The few remaining forests daman Islands (+45%, P < 0.001, Table 6). Most are on infertile soils,peat swamps,and steepslopes taxa exhibited a significant density increase in un- that support poorer forest types and less complex disturbed forestsboth between small and large is- communities (Collins et al. 1991). Lowland lands and between islands and continental areas. rainforests, the richest of them all, are most at risk The two Serpent-eaglesin the Andamansreached and are the target of most new settlements.Moist extremely high densitiesin their preferred habitat: forestswere disappearingduring the early 1980sat 2.78 birds/km2 sampleplot for AndamanSerpent- an estimatedrate of 17 000 km•/yr within our study eaglesin primary forestsand 2.25 birds/km2 for area alone (FAO 1988, Collins et al. 1991) and CrestedSerpent-eagles in mangrovesvs. 0.71-0.98 there is no evidence that this trend has decreased birds/km • for the latter in continental woodlands. since then. Clearcuttingfor either shifting or per- The abundance of Black Bazas (Avicedaleuphotes) manent industrial cultivation is the main cause of was three times higher in the Andamans than in deforestation. In monsoon forests,heavy collection Vietnam. However, the density of the one species of fuel wood is an additional pressure.Montane of goshawk and hawk-eagle in Andamans was forests are more secure becauseof their poor ac- equaled and even surpassedby the cumulative cessibilityand suitability for agriculture but they abundance of all goshawksor hawk-eaglesand ea- have also lower raptor speciesrichness. In north- gle species(Hieraaetus spp.) in the forests of the ern Borneo and western Sumatra, I recorded 10- four other study areas.High population densities 11 species in all primary forests surveyed below enable birds on relativelysmall islandsto minimize 1200 m while at 1200-2200 m, there were only 4- their risk. A higher tolerance to habitat 6 species. change or disturbancemay also allow them to bet- The destruction of swamp and riverine forests

Table 5. Status,habitat selectionand conservationof raptors in South Asia. Number of speciesin each category among the 69 regular species.

RESIDENT WINTERING RAREa THREATENED b

Mature forest interior species 8 4 8 Gap tolerant forest species 6 2 3 Woodland or forest edge species 14 6 5 5 Dry open habitat species 14 10 8 6 Wetland species 7 4 5 5 Rare = low densityand/or patchydistribution in suitablehabitats. Threatened = Endangeredto low risk, data deficientand/or conservationvalue 5-9. 48 THIOLLAY VOL. 32, No. 1

+.97 •S. cheela (B=2.02) r-• S.elgini {B=2.47) +.42 ANDAMANS 40-

+.74 +.25

-.02 -.21

10t'•19 ! ! CULT ' 'TRE E ' ' FOR1 FOR2 FOR3 FOR4 MANG HABITATS

• GHATS ( B: 3.90) +.20e • SUMATRA (B=2.72)

40. +.40

10- . -.06

•04ß •5, i l ! ! ! CUff[ TREE FOR1 FOR2 FOR3 FOR4 Spilornis cheela F•gure 2. Comparativedistribution of the widespreadCrested Serpent-eagle (Spilornis cheela) in India, Sumatra,and Andamansand the endemic Andaman Serpent-eagle(S. elgini)in the Andamans.Percentages of random recordsin each habitat category(see text for definition). B = habitat niche breadth. Valueson bars are the selectionindices from relativehabitat availability. * = statisticallysignificant positive or negativeselection (Neu et al. 1974). affectseagles and the drainage of wetlandsis det- es the quality of natural habitats. Raptor commu- rimental to harriers and other wintering migrants. nities become lesscomplex in theseareas and their Ricefields that replace marshesare much poorer overall densitymay also decline. From open wood- in vertebrateprey, and mangrovesare heavilyused lands to undisturbed rainforests in all five study for timber and shrimp farming. Large mangrove areas,the overall mean speciesrichness per sample forests in estuaries, such as the Sundarbans (Sarker plot increasedby 162% and the mean abundance 1986), harbor densepopulations of severalraptors index by 176% (Table 4). that have already been lost from similar areas in The main causesof forest degradationare log- southern Vietnam (Morris 1986). ging and shiftingcultivation. Both lead to second- Habitat Degradation.Habitat degradation is an ary stands whose general characteristicsinclude insidious,widespread phenomenon that diminish- lower and more open canopies,a reduced number MARCH 1998 STATUS OF RAPTORS IN TROPICAL ASIA 49

GHATSj and diversityof large trees, a denser undergrowth, and a higher frequencyof gapsand densevine tan- [] S.CIRRHATUS ii[]S. NIPALENSIS (B:2.90) (B: 2.05) gles than primary forest. Effectsof logging are se- vere (Burgess1971). During the first years after logging, the density, diversity,and accessibilityof 3O many prey speciesdecrease markedly (Wilson and Johns 1982, Johns 1985, 1986, 1987, Bennett and Dahaban 1995, Hill et al. 1995), although a partial F• F= F• F4 recovery occurs after 10 yr and suitable manage- ment practices may minimize losses (Johns 1989, SUMATRAJ 1992). The ultimate stagesof forest degradation [] S.CIRRHATUS F•• •?i•S.ALBONIGER are densestands of bamboo (Bambusacae)or patch- es of high coarsegrass (Imperata cylindrica), both of which prevent forest regeneration and are unsuit-

3O able for most raptors. B:1,67} Road building through forests brings distur- bance, hunting, gaps,and denseedges. Sylviculture leads to decreasingbiodiversity and permanently C T F• submature standsbecause some fast-growingspe- cies are favored over hardwoods (Panayotou and 3 S.CIRRHATUS Ashton 1992). The widespreadexploitation of mi- (B:4.11) nor forest products, especiallyresins and rattans (Calamussp.) is an additional causeof disturbance

C T F• F= F4 and hunting. Habitats Raptor speciesadapting to man-made habitats Figure 3. Comparative distribution of Changeable naturally occur in open grasslands,woodlands, for- Hawk-eagle (Spizaetuscirrhatus) with a forest congenerin est edges,and gaps.They are generalistsand have India and Sumatra and without competitor in the An- a wide distribution. Most artificial landscapesare daman Islands. Symbolsas in Fig. 2. unsuitable for dense forest specialistswith indus- trial tree plantationsbeing the poorest. Even the diversified traditional agroforestsof Indonesia do not conservemore than half the forest raptor spe- cies and only as long as natural forest remains

Table 6. Mean number of raptor/speciesand adult birds on sampleplots surveyedin five areasof South Asia.

SW GHATS SOUTH WESTERN SRI LANKA (INDIA) VIETNAM SUMATRA SW ANDAMANS

TOTAL NUMBER OF 1-km '• SAMPLE PLOTS 156 56 103 18 130

Open habitats Speciesrichness/ 1.71 _+ 1.14 1.21 +--1.05 0.47 _+0.15 1.00 _+0.63 0.79 _+0.17 (CULT + TREE) plot (i ___SD) Individuals/plot 2.37 -+ 1.74 2.00 +--1.46 0.77 + 1.09 1.17 +__0.75 1.04 _+1.12 (•q + SD) Degradedforests, Speciesrichness/ 2.11 ___0.77 1.77 _+1.36 1.29 --- 0.77 2.50 _+0.54 1.77 ___0.82 agroforests plot (• +__SD) and mangroves Individuals/plot 3.06 _+ 1.24 2.77 + 2.04 1.83 _+0.15 4.17 _ 1.16 2.77 _+1.45 (FOR 1 + FOR 2) (• + SD) Primary or Speciesrichness/ 2.55 _+0.97 2.45 +--1.08 2.64 +--0.87 3.33 _ 1.63 2.60 +__0.65 little disturbed plot (• +_SD) forests Individuals/plot 3.65 -2_1.47 3.67 +--1.68 3.43 + 1.16 4.33 +__1.36 5.20 + 1.51 (FOR 3 + FOR 4) (• + SD) 50 THIOLLAY VOL. 32, No. 1 nearby (Thiollay 1995). Many dams, built in agri- Asian raptors nor definite evidence of their effects. cultural areas,are favored by Black and Brahminy However,pesticides are heavilyused in most coun- Kites, Grey-headedFish-eagle, and wintering har- tries (except Laos), especiallyIndonesia and Thai- riers which also benefit from irrigated and more land. Ricefields are routinely sprayedeven in re- wooded surroundings. mote areas.This trend is probably increasingbe- Forest Fragmentation and Insularization. Be- causeof the intensificationof agriculture and the causeof their necessarilylarge foraging range, low use of more productive but pest-sensitivenew va- density, and sensitivityto disturbance, forest rap- rieties. The dramatic disappearance of raptors tors may be severelyaffected by forest fragmenta- from severalcultivated regions (e.g.,Java [van Bal- tion, especiallyforest interior speciesthat are re- en et al. 1993], Thailand [Lekagul and Round ]uctant to crosslarge open areas.In lowland forest 1991], and Vietnam [Thiollay pers. obs.]) suggests study areas of India, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and that pesticideshave had a negative effect on rap- matra, there were 0.1•-0.34 bazas,hawk-eagles, ea- tors over the last 20 yr. No comparable declines gles (Hieraaetusspp.) or Besrasper km2. Assuming have been recorded in forested or little-cultivated that there was at least an extra bird for each ter- areas. ritorial pair, these figures represented an average The disappearance of the once common vul- density/of about one pair of each species/1000- tures and kites in populated areas, especiallyThai- 1500 ha of primary forest. land, Indochina, and Malaysia, can be explained Two examples illustrate the magnitude of the by a lower food availability due to increased sani- fragmentation process.In the 1600-kin long west- tation. This may have alsobegun to occur in India. ern Ghatsof PeninsularIndia, only 20 000 km2 of CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS humid evergreen forest remain, but the largestun- disturbedcontinuous fragment is the 90 km• Silent In summary,tropical Asian raptors may be divid- Valley National Park (Daniels 1996). In Cochinchi- ed into three broad groups from a conservation na (23 500 km•), a single 280 km2 patch of semi- point of view. First, true forest speciesmostly sen- evergreenforest remains (approximately 1% of the sitive to habitat loss, degradation, and fragmenta- province) within the 350 km• Nam Cat Tien Na- tion, need protected areas of undisturbed forests. tional Park. The Indian Black Eagle, formerly re- The secondgroup includesforest edge or gap and corded, has not been found there during recent woodland speciesthat are more tolerant to forest intensivesurveys. disturbance and opening. Their conservationre- In the Andaman archipelago, the most extinc- quires habitat management, measuresto minimize tion-prone raptors on small islandswere the rarest the effects of habitat changes, and provision of and most specialized species, but unexpectedly their minimum needs in terms of tree cover and they were also the smallestones. Serpent-eagles prey availability.Most weftand speciesare also de- and hawk-eagleswere found on all islandssmaller pendent on habitat management actions. The last than 1 km2. Some pairs range over two or three group includes the grassland specieswhich are small islandsshowing a high tolerance to natnra]ly more adaptable to human activity and are now fragmentedforest (Thiollay 1997). largely found in cultivated and deforested areas. Persecution and Pollution. Raptor shooting is Their highest management priority is the direct common, as well as trapping and nest robbing for protection from persecutionand pollution. Most pets, trophies, and salesto restaurants.Trade is es- migrants also fall in this category. pecially prominent in Indonesia, Thailand, and In- Basicknowledge necessary to designappropriate dochina. The lack of hunting in large parts of In- conservation strategiesis often lacking. Specific dia resultsin an obviouslyhigher frequencyof rap- ecological requirements are little known, popula- tors in denselyinhabited areasthan anFv•hereelse. tion levelsand trends are not quantitativelydocu- Hunting and trapping pressure,however, may have mented, and threats and causes of declines are even more severeeffects through reduction of prey poorly understood.Also, demographic parameters, species,notably for eagles.In large parts of Indo- minimum viable population sizes, and dispersal china, wildlife has been reduced to extremely low abilitieshave never been investigatedin mostAsian levels. Overfishing in streams,lakes, and marshes raptor species.An intensivesurvey and conserva- may alsobe a limiting factor for piscivorouseagles. tion action plan are currently in progressonly for There is no monitoring of pesticide levels in the Javan Hawk-eagle (estimated population 100 MARCH 1998 STATUS OF RAPTORS IN TROPICAL ASIA 51 pairs,van Balen 1995). Assessingthe distribution, COLLINS,N.M., J.A. SAVERAND T.C. WHITMORE lEDS ]. size, and viability of remaining populations of 1991. The conservationatlas of tropical forests,Asia threatened forest and wetland eaglessuch ashawk- and the Pacific. IUCN and MacMillan Press, London U.K. eaglesand fishing eaglesis an urgent priority. Only immediate measurescould save the Critically En- DANIELS,RJ.R. 1996. Landscape ecology and conserva- tion in the western GhSts, south India. Ibis 138:64-69. dangeredsubspecies of the Wallace'sHawk-eagle DEIGNAN, H.G. 1963. Checklist of the birds of Thailand (Spizaetusnanus stresemanni)from Nias Island or Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus. 226, SmithsonianInst., Washing- the LesserSpotted Eagle (Aquilapomarina hastata) ton DC U.S.A. from Indo-gangetic plains. DELHOYO, j., A. ELLIOTTAND J. SARGATAL.1994. Hand- The extension and enforcement of the current book of the birds of the world. Vol. 2. Lynx Edicions, network of protected areas is a high priority. Pro- Barcelona, Spain. tected areas cover only 4.5% of SoutheastAsia DELACOUR,J. AND P. JA•OUILLE. 1931. Les oiseaux de (IUCN 1990) and many of them are heavily dis- l'Indochine Francaise. Exposition coloniale interna- turbed and increasingly encroached by people. tionale, Paris, France. The highest conservation priority is the lowland FAO. 1988. An interim report on the state of forest re- rainforest which is fast disappearingeverywhere. sourcesin the developingcountries. FAO, Rome, It- Forest management policies must promote biodi- aly. HENRY,G.M. 1971. A guide to the birds of Ceylon.Ox- versityconservation in production forests,reduce ford Univ. Press, London U.K. loggingdamages, maintain a networkof unlogged HILL, J.K., K.C. HAMER, L.A. LACE AND W.M. BANHAM. patches,and avoidlarge plantationsof exotictrees. 1995. Effects of selective logging on tropical forest Tree cash crops could be made more hospitable to butterflieson Buru, Indonesia.J. AppliedEcol. 32:754- raptors by increasing their structural and floristic 760. diversity,and traditional agroforestsmust be en- IUCN. 1990. IUCN directory of South Asian protected couraged (Thiollay 1995). Finally, cultivatedareas areas.IUCN, Gland and Cambridge, U.K. become the most widespreadhabitat and the main JOHNS,A.D. 1985. Selectivelogging and wildlife conser- wintering ground for migrants. Therefore, their vation in tropical rainforest: problems and recom- sound management is a priority for the conserva- mendations. Biol. Conserv. 31:355-375. tion of raptors in Asia, with an emphasison the 1986. Effectsof selectivelogging on the ecolog- maintenance of trees and fallow patches, and a ical organization of a peninsular Malaysianrainforest avifauna. Forktail 1:65-79. drasticreduction of hunting pressureand pesticide use. 1987. The use of primary and selectivelylogged rainforestby MalaysianHornbills (Bucerotidae)and •m- LITERATURE CITED plicationsfor their conservation.Biol. Conserv. 40:179- 190. ALl, S. AND S.D. RIeLEY. 1978. Handbook of the birds of 1989. Recovery of a peninsular Malaysian rain- India and . Vol. 1. Oxford Univ. Press, Delhi, India. forest avifaunafollowing selectivetimber logging:the BAKER,E.C.S. 1928. The fauna of British India birds. Vol. first twelveyears. Forktail 4:89-105. 1992. Speciesconservation in managed tropical V. Taylor and Francis, London, U.K. BENNETT,E.L. ANDZ. DAHABAN.1995. Wildlife response forests.Pages 15-53 in T.C. Whitmore andJ.A. Sayer to disturbancesin Sarawakand their implicationsfor [EDS.],Tropical deforestationand speciesextinction. forest management. Pages66-86 in R.B. Primack and Chapman and Hall and IUCN, London, U.I• KING, B., M. WOODCOCK AND E.C. DICKINSON. 1975. A E. LovejoylEDS.I, Ecology,conservation and manage- ment of Southeast Asian rainforests. Yale Univ. Press, field guide to the birds of SoutheastAsia. Collins, New Haven, CT U.S.A. London, U.K. BLONDEL,J. 1990. Long-term studieson bird communi- LEKAGUL,B. ANDP.D. ROUND. 1991. A guide to the birds ties and populationsin mainland and island Mediter- of Thailand. Saha Karn Bhaet Co., Bangkok, Thai- ranean forests.Pages 167-182 in A. Keast [ED.], Bio- land. geographyand ecology of forest bird communities. MACE, G. AND S. STUART. 1994. Draft IUCN Red List Cat- S.P.B.Academic Publ., The Hague, Netherlands. egories. Species21-22:13-24. BURGESS,P.F. 1971. The effect of logging on hill dipter- MACKINNON,J. AND K. PHILIPPS.1993. A field guide to ocarp forests.Malay. Nat. J. 24:231-237. the birds of Borneo, Sumatra,Java, and Bali. Oxford COLLAR,NJ., MJ. CROSBYAND AJ. STATTERSFIELD.1994. Univ. Press, Oxford, U.K. Birds to watch. The world list of threatened birds. MEDWAY,L. AND D.R. WELLS. 1976. The birds of the Ma- Birdlife International, Cambridge, U.K. lay peninsula.Witherby, London U.K. 52 THIOLLA¾ VOL. 32, NO. 1

MoReas,G.E. 1986. Birds of prey in Vietnam. Birdsof Prey 1996. The raptor communityof Nias Island, Su- Bull. 3:163-169. matra: survey and conservation. Kukila 8:113-116. NEW,L.W., C.R. BYERSANDJ.M. PEEK. 1974. A technique 1997. Distributionand abundancepatterns of for analysis of utilization-availability data. J. Wildl. bird community and raptor populationsin the An- Manage.38:541-545. daman Archipelago.Ecography 20:67-82. PANAYOTOU,W. AND P.S. ASHTON. 1992. Not by timber • ANDB.-U. MEYBURG.1988. Forestfragmentation alone. Economicsand ecologyfor sustainingtropical and the conservationof raptors:a surveyof the island forests.Island Press,Washington, DC U.S.A. of Java. Biol. Conserv.44:229-250. SALVER,S.U. 1986. Populationdynamics ofraptors in the USHER, M.B. 1986. Wildlife conservation evaluation: at- Sundarban forestsof .Birds of PreyBull. 3: tributes, criteria and values.Pages 3-44 in M.B. Usher 157-162. [ED.], Wildlife conservationevaluation. Chapman SMYrHIES, B.E. 1953. The birds of Burma, 2nd Ed. Oliver and Hall, London, U.K. and Boyd, Edinburgh U.K. vAN B^LEN,B. 1995. Red data bird: Javan Hawk-eagle. 1981. The birds of Borneo. The Sabah Society, World Birdwatch 17:20-21. Kota Kinabalu. , I.S. SUWELO,D.S. HADI, D. SOEPOMO,R. MARLON SOKAL,R.R. AND FJ. ROHLF. 1981. Biometry. Freeman AND MUTIARINA.1993. The decline of the Brahminy and Co., San Francisco, CA U.S.A. Kite, Haliastur indus,on Java.Pbrktail 8:83-88. THIOLLAY,J.M. 1978. Distribution des Falconiformesni- vAN MARLE,J.G. AND K.H. Voous. 1988. The birds of cheurs autour du massifde l'Annapurna (Himalaya Sumatra. B.O.U. Checklist No. 10. British Ornitholo- central). Oiseau Rev. Fr. Ornithol. 48:291-310. gists' Union, Tring, U.K. 1983. Evolution actuelle du peuplement de ra- WHISTLER,H. 1941. Popular handbook of Indian birds. paces diurnes dans le nord de Borneo. Alauda 51: Gurney and Jackson,London U.K. 109-123. WHITMORE,T.C. 1985. Tropical rainforestsof the Far 1989. Censusingof diurnal raptors in a primary East, 2rid Ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford U.K. rainforest: comparativemethods and speciesdetect- WILDASH, P. 1968. Birds of south Vietnam. Charles Tuttle ability.J. RaptorRes. 23:72-84. Publ., Tokyo,Japan. 1993. Response of a raptor community to WILSON,W.L. ANDA.D. JOHNS.1982. Diversityand abun- shrinking area and degradation of tropical rainforest in the southwesternGhSts (India). Ecography16:97- dance of selected animal speciesin undisturbed for- 110. est, selectivelylogged forest, and plantations in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biol. Conserv.24:205-218. 1995. Rainforest raptor communities in Suma- tra: the conservation value of traditional agroforests. WRIGHT,SJ. 1980. Densityconservation in islandavifau- In D.M. Bird, D.E. Varland andJJ. Negro lEDs.], Rap- has. Oecologia45:385-389. tor adaptations to human influenced environments. Academic Press, London U.K. Received16 October 1996; accepted9 October 1997 MARCH 1998 STATVS OF RAPTORS IN TROPICAL ASIA 53

Appendix 1. Statusand distributionof raptorsin SouthAsia. B = breedingbut may include additional,wintering nonresidentpopulations; W = only winteringmigrants, usually from EasternPalearctic zone. Number of subspecies in parenthesesafter speciesnames.

N PEN. SEa NE ANDA- BUR- THAI- VIET- MALAY SARA- S BOR- SUMA- INDIA INDIA LANKAINDIA MANS MA LAND NAM PEN. WAK NEO TRA JAVA

Osprey Pandion haliaetus(2) W W W W W W W W W W W B Jerdon's Baza Avicedajerdoni (3) B B B B B B W B B B Black Baza Avicedaleuphotes (3) B W B B B W W W W Oriental Honey-buzzard Pernisptilorhynchus (4) B B B B W B B B B B B B B Bat Hawk Macheiramphusalcinus (1) B B B B Black-wingedKite Elanus caeruleus(2) B B B B B B B B B B B B Black Kite Milvus migrans(2) B B B B B B B W Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus (2) B B B B B B B B B B B White-bellied Sea-eagle Haliaeetusleucogaster (1) B B B B B B B B B B B B B Pallas'sSea-eagle Haliaeetusleucoryphus (1) B B B LesserFish-eagle Ichthyophagahumilis (1) B B B B B B B B Grey-headedFish-eagle Ichthyophagaichthyaetus (2) B B B B B B B B B B B B Egyptian Vulture Neophronpercnopterus (1) B B Indian Black-backed Vulture Gypsbengalensis (1) B B B B B B B Long-billedVulture Gypsindicus (2) B B B B B B Eurasian Griffon Gypsfulvus (1) B B Eurasian Black Vulture Aegypiusmonachus (1) W Red-headed Vulture Sarcogypscalvus (1) B B B B B B B Short-toedSnake-eagle Circaetusgallicus (1) B B W W W W CrestedSerpent-eagle Spilornischeela (16) B B B B B B B B B B B B B Nicobar Serpent-eagle Spilornisklossi (2) B Kinabalu Serpent-eagle Spilorniskinabaluensis (1) B Andaman Serpent-eagle Spilorniselgini (1) B Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus (1) W W W W W W Pied Harrier Circusmelanoleucos (1) W W W W 54 THIOLLAY VoI.. 32, No. 1

Appendix 1. Continued.

N PEN. S• NE ANDA- Bua- THai- VIET- MALAY SARA- S Boa- SUM_•- INDIA INDIA LANKAINDIA MANS MA LAND NAM PEN. WAK NEO TRA JAVA Montagu's Harrier Circuspygargus (1) W W W W Western Marsh Harrier Circusaeruginosus (1) W W W W Eastern Marsh Harrier Circusspilonotus (1) W W W W W W Crested Goshawk Accipitertrivirgatus (7) B B B B B B B B B B B B Shikra Accipiterbadius (4) B B B B B B B N•cobar Sparrowhawk A ccipiterbutleri (2) B Chinese Goshawk Acdpitersoloensis (1) W W W W W W W W W JapaneseSparrowhawk Accipitergularis (2) W W W W W W W W W Besra A ccipitervirgatus (7) B B B B B B B B B B B B B Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiternisus (1) W W W W W W W White-eyed Buzzard Butastur teesa(1) B B B B Rufous-wingedBuzzard Butastur liventer (1) B B B Grey-faced Buzzard Butastur indicus (1) W W W W W W W Common Buzzard Buteo buteo(2) W W W W W W W W Long-leggedBuzzard Buteorufinus (1) W Indian Black Eagle Ictinaetusmalayensis (2) B B B B B B B B B B B B LesserSpotted Eagle Aquilapomarina (1) B B Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga(1) W W W W W Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax (1) B B B B W Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis(1) W W W W EurasianImperial Eagle Aquila heliaca(1) W W W Bonelli's Eagle Hieraaetusfasciatus (1) B B B B B B Booted Eagle Hieraaetuspennatus (1) W W W W W Rufous-belliedEagle Hieraaetus kienerii (2) B B B B B B B B B B B Changeable Hawk-eagle Spizaetuscirrhatus (5) B B B B B B B B B B B B B Mountain Hawk-eagle Spizaetusnipalensis (2) B B B B B W W MARCH 1998 STATUS OF RAPTORS IN TROPIGAL ASI• 55

Appendix 1. Continued.

N PEN. SR• NE ANDA- BUR- THAI- VIET- MALAY SARA- S BOR- SUMA- INDIA INDIA LANKAINDIA MANS MA LAND NAM PEN. WAK NEO TRA JAVA

Blyth's Hawk-eagle Spizaetusalboniger (1) B B B B Jayan Hawk-eagle Spizaetusbartelsi (1) Wallace's Hawk-eagle Spizaetusnanus B B B B White-rumped PygmyFalcon Polihieraxinsigrnis (3) B B B Collared Falconet Microhierax caerulescens(2) B B B B Black-thighedFalconet Microhieraxfringillarius (1) B B B B B White-fronted Falconet Microhieraxlatifrons (1) B Pied Falconer Microhierax melanoleucus(1) B B Lesser Kestrel Palco naumanni (1) W W W Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus (2) W B B W W W W Spotted Kestrel Falco moluccensis(1) Red-necked Falcon Falcochicquera (1) B B Merlin Falco columbarius(2) W W Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo(2) W W w w W Oriental Hobby Falco severus(1) B W B B B Laggar Falcon Falcojugger (1) B B B Saker Falcon Falco cherrug(1) W Peregrine Falcon Falcoperegrinus (5) B B B B W B W W B B B B B Total breeding 31 28 17 31 8 31 23 23 19 20 18 18 18 Total wintering 16 11 9 14 5 13 15 15 10 6 5 6 4 Pen = Peninsular, Andamans = +Nicobars, Thailand = +Cambodia, Vietnam = +Laos, Sarawak = +Sabah.