Cultural Monitoring Report

Prepared by Associate Professor Kura Paul-Burke

5 March 2020

Figure 1: Coastal fish, wreck and reef at Otāiti 2019

1. Executive Summary

Resource consents have been granted to The Astrolabe Community Trust to abandon the remains of the MV Rena, its equipment and cargo and associated debris on Otāiti or Astrolabe reef. This report brings together the findings form the cultural monitoring of the remains of the MV RENA on Otāiti. The Cultural Monitoring Report (CMR) is a requirement of condition 15.3 of the conditions of consent (consent reference 67891). Between 31 May and 3 June 2019, cultural monitoring of the wreck and reef of Otāiti was conducted. This was achieved using freediving and scuba diving techniques. The dive team and cultural monitoring was led by a Māori marine researcher and experienced dive professional with whakapapa connections to Mōtītī and Mataatua and Te Arawa waka. A summary includes:  Thirteen of the seventeen taonga species identified in the Bay of Plenty Regional Policy Statement (RPS) were observed. The four species not observed during the observational dives were: Hāpuku (Groper); Pioke (Rig shark); Tupa (Scallops) and Takeke (Piper). These species have been absent or rarely sighted at the reef for some time prior to the Rena  Access to kaimoana was achieved safely and with ease. No restrictions were encountered during the diving process  An over-abundance of kina was observed in the shallower areas (0 - 10m) of dive site 2 with a notable absence of large brown kelp as a result of urchin grazing  A presence of whai (sting-ray) and whai-repo (eagleray) were observed. For many iwi, whai and whai-repo are considered a tohu or symbol of protection and seabed health  Two underwater wharenui-like structures were observed in the wreck. Inside the larger of the two structures large numbers of a variety of juvenile fish were observed in what appeared to be a nursery shelter from the wider ocean It is noted that a Kaitiakitanga Reference Group (KRG) has not yet been established. The Consent Holder has provided an offer to groups to establish and maintain a KRG. Confirmed nominations have yet to be received from the groups. Once established, the Cultural Monitoring Report will be provided to the KRG. In the absence of a KRG this cultural monitoring report has been prepared in consultation with the elders of Motiti. Recommendations for future cultural monitoring include:  Co-development and identification of dive priorities, results and reporting be conducted in cohesion with and reporting to, the Kaitiakitanga Reference Group (when established); and  Cultural monitoring be continued; and to include greater emphasis on tohu and alignment with maramataka (traditional Māori calendar based on the phases of the moon).

Cultural Monitoring Report Contents 1. Executive Summary 1 2. Introduction 3 2.1 Background 3 2.2 Purpose 3 3. Methodology 4 3.1 Locations 4 4. Mātauranga Māori 6 5. Kaitiakitanga 7 5.1 Results 7 6. Mana 8 6.1 Results 8 7. Wairua 9 7.1 Results 9 8. Mauri 10 8.1 Results 10 9. Mahinga Kai 11 9.1 Results 11 10. Taonga Species 13 11. Conclusion and Recommendations 15 12. References 16 Figures and Tables

Figure 1: Coastal fish at Otāiti 2019 Figure 2: Map of Otāiti dive sites 4 Figure 3: Map of dive site with grid overlay 5 Figure 4: Image of a whai-repo (eagleray) 7 Figure 5: Black Angel Fish in the wreck 8 Figure 6: Cultural monitoring diver at Otāiti 8 Figure 7: Image of Koheru and wharenui looking structures 10 Figure 8: Kelp covered rocks and kina on bare rock with no large kelp present 12 Figure 9: Pāua, green lipped mussels, red moki 13 Figure 10: Blue maomao, kōheru and yellow moray eel 14

Cultural Monitoring Report 2. Introduction

2.1 Background Astrolabe Community Trust hold resource consents to abandon the remains of the MV Rena, its equipment and cargo and associated debris on Astrolabe Reef (Otāiti); and to permit any future associated discharges of contaminants to the Coastal Marine Area (reference 67891). This Cultural Monitoring Report (CMR) documents the results of cultural monitoring which has been undertaken between May and June 2019 as a requirement of condition 15.3 of the consents. The monitoring has been undertaken in accordance with the Cultural Monitoring Plan requirements. 2.2 Purpose The purpose of Cultural Monitoring is set out in consent condition 6.1 and the Cultural Monitoring Plan as follows (see below): 6.1 The objectives of Cultural Monitoring are to:  Monitor the effects over time on identified Cultural Values (including but not limited to mana, wairua, mahinga kai, mauri and kaitiakitanga) of Māori who have a kaitiaki relationship with Ōtaiti (in these conditions referred to as the “Cultural Values”) resulting from the exercise of these consents; and  Identify circumstances in which measures may need to be implemented to avoid, remedy or mitigate any adverse changes to effects on Cultural Values at Ōtaiti and at customary fishing grounds around Ōtaiti, of Māori who have a kaitiaki relationship with Ōtaiti, resulting from the exercise of these consents; and  Include monitoring of species important to customary or cultural needs, including from customary fishing grounds around Ōtaiti.

Cultural Monitoring Report 3. Methodology

The methodology used for this report was based on the Cultural Monitoring Plan, dated October 2018. Between 31 May and 3 June 2019, cultural monitoring dives using freediving and scuba diving techniques were conducted on the remains of the MV Rena and Otāiti reef. Identified cultural values were monitored as per the requirements of the Cultural Monitoring Plan (CMP) the values included: kaitiakitanga, wairua, mauri, mahinga kai and taonga species. The cultural monitoring dive team was led by a Māori marine researcher and experienced dive professional. The dive team have conducted previous cultural dive surveys of the reef and wreck in December 2016. The monitoring dives conducted were observational. The equipment (outside of scuba gear) that was used during the dives were an underwater scooter, cameras and dive torch. 3.1 Locations The locations monitored on Otāiti are shown in Figures 2 and 3 and include:  Dive Site 1 with Grid references J3, J4, J5, J6, K3, K4, K5, K6, L1, L2, L3, L4, M1, M2, M3, M4, N3, N4, N5, O6  Dive Site 2 with Grid references A4, A5, A6, B3, B4, B5, B6, C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, D2, D3. D4, D5, E3, E4, E5, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, G4, G5, G6, G7, G8, G9, G10, G11, G12, G13, H6, H7,  Dive Site 3 with Grid references D13, D14, D15, D16, D17, D18, E13, E4, E15, E16, E17, E18, E19, F13, F14, F15, F18, F19, G13, G14, G15

Figure 2: Map of Otāiti dive sites

Cultural Monitoring Report

Figure 3: Map of dive site with grid overlay. Blue lines identify cultural monitoring dive areas 2019

Cultural Monitoring Report 4. Mātauranga Māori

Mātauranga Māori can be described as a complex and dynamic body of knowledge originating from Māori ancestors, which adapts and changes but does not lose its integrity nor sense of origin. Māori knowledge, experiences and understandings of the natural world encompass not only what is known but how it is known1, and the connection of inter-generational knowledge with the environments from which it is derived2. Māori epistemologies or ways of knowing, being and doing, take for granted that all elements of the natural world are related, and it is upon those relationships that survival depends. Māori carefully scrutinised the natural world, they took special note of seasons, circumstances and habitual cycles. All forms of knowledge were directly or indirectly sourced from the environment. The act of observation and information gathering was integral to a range of established sustainable management practices that governed the harvesting, use and protection of natural resources3. Ngā tohu o te taiao (hereafter tohu) or the signs and signals of the natural world are often referred to as environmental indicators and are widely used by Māori environmental practitioners to identify trends or changes in the state or health of marine environments4. Tohu are synchronised with natural ecosystem cycles of whenua (land), rangi (sky) and moana (ocean). Individual hapū and iwi have their own localised understandings of tohu which are specific and relative to their environmental contexts, experiences, observations and understandings of species interactions and patterns of use. These accumulated understandings, practices and knowledge transmission are grounded in the existence of Māori which are intimately bound to residing in one place for many consecutive generations5.

4.1 Results Consistent with a mātauranga Māori approach to marine dive monitoring each dive day at Otāiti commenced with karakia by kaumātua (tribal elders). After entering the water, a mihimihi or greeting to ngā kaitiaki or guardians of the reef was conducted before descending beneath the surface. All dives were undertaken using a Māori world view lens that was informed by tikanga (cultural understandings and practices) and kaitiakitanga or the active guardianship and responsibility for the wise use, care and sustainable management of natural resources for present and future generations6. It was observed that kelp forests have matured in some areas, since the dive undertaken in December 2016. There appears to be more benthic kaimoana species (such as kina, pāua) with resident fish such as red and blue moki present and appearing in greater numbers. Low lying algae, sponges and other benthic species were observed and appear to be further colonising and covering the wreck. Kēkeno (NZ fur seal) were observed both in-water and at the surface on the exposed reef at low tide. On the days that the 2019 dives were conducted coastal fish species were abundantly present such as pink and blue maomao, koheru and big eye. Low numbers of kingfish and kahawai were observed however this could be attributed to migratory species movements in colder winter water temperatures in June when the dive was conducted.

1 Paul-Burke & Burke 2016

2 Jackson et al 2018; Mercier 2018

3 Kōwhai Consultants Ltd 1999

4 Paul-Burke 2017

5 Cheung 2008; Forster 2012; Lyver et al 2016

Cultural Monitoring Report 5. Kaitiakitanga

Kaitiakitanga or active guardianship is an intergenerational responsibility to care for the environment. It includes concepts of rangatiratanga - authority; tapu - sacredness; noa - commonality; rāhui – temporary prohibition; hihiri – energy; and mauri - life-force. There are also social protocols associated with manaakitanga or hospitality and utu or reciprocity and obligation7. Kaitiakitanga encompasses a holistic worldview which seeks to nurture and sustain the environment in order to nurture and sustain the people8. The role of ira tangata (humans) is to act as kaitiaki (caretaker / caregiver) with an obligation to nurture the physical and spiritual well-being of the natural systems that support humankind. However, kaitiaki can be tangible or intangible and many are non-human9. Examples of non-human kaitiaki can include iconic species of an area, in this case, whai (stingray) or whai repo (eagleray); mako (shark) and, in times past, hāpuku (groper). Kaitiaki (human and non-human) are agents that perform the task of active guardianship. They are charged with the responsibility to safeguard and manage natural resources for present and future generations10. The purpose of kaitiakitanga is not only about protecting the life-supporting capacity of resources but of fulfilling spiritual and inherited responsibilities to the environment. 5.1 Results During the cultural monitoring dives the presence of a whai-repo or eagle ray and a whai or stingray (figure 4) were observed on 2 separate occasions. Whai and / or whai-repo are considered a kaitiaki by many coastal hapū and iwi of a system that is recovering or recovered. Whai and whai-repo are considered a tohu or symbol of protection and seabed health11. The Cultural Monitoring Plan identifies the presence of iconic species, or the return of species that have been absent as a value of kaitiakitanga.

Figure 4: (L) Image of a whai-repo (eagleray)

7 Antoine Coffin 2018

8 Hirini Moko Mead 2003

9 Charles Te Ahukaramu Royal 2010

10 Jollands & Harmsworth 2015; Hapū Iwi Working Party 2005

11 Ministry for the Environment and Statistics NZ, Marine Environment 2019 Report.

Cultural Monitoring Report 6. Mana

Mana is widely referred to as authority, prestige and power12 and is a concept that governed traditional Māori societies. People had the ability to gain mana through great endeavours, labour and hereditary rights and lose it through loss of authority, association to a crime and accident. Mana can be personal but also shared among a group such as whānau, hapu and iwi. Mana can sometimes be expressed in wealth, access to resources and ability to make things happen13. The recognition of Mana in the Rena consents is by the provision of restoration and mitigation under condition 16 and by recognition of the settlement agreements reached with those parties listed in advice note 5 of the resource consent. It is also afforded by the offer from the consent holder to iwi and hapu groups to nominate members for the KRG. Mana can be expressed in the ability of the KRG to advise and make recommendations to the Regional Council and / or Consent Holder on possible monitoring or response or contingency measures14. 6.1 Results The consent holder, in accordance with condition 2.1 of the resource consent, has extended an offer to the following groups to nominate representatives for the KRG, thereby providing for the mana of these groups: 1. Ngai Te Hapu / Te Patuwai (two representatives) 2. Te Whanau a Tauwhao 3. Coastal Te Arawa 4. Tauranga Moana a Toi

To date a confirmed representative from each of the above groups15 has not been provided and the KRG has not yet been established. Once the KRG is established the Cultural Monitoring Report will be provided to the members of the KRG and comment sought on any amendments required.

Figure 5: Black Angel Fish in the wreck, 2019

12 Young, 2004; Royal, 1999; Waitangi Tribunal 2004

13 Antoine Coffin, 2018 Cultural Monitoring Plan

14 See condition 2.3 Purpose of the KRG

15 In some cases, such as Coastal Te Arawa, more than one person has been nominated and the consent holder is awaiting advice on who the one confirmed representative for the KRG is

Cultural Monitoring Report 7. Wairua

Wairua describes the immortal and non-physical soul of every person while they are alive and is released upon death. Wairua of a person can be damaged through illness, injury through abuse, neglect, violence or mākutu (sorcery). In traditional Māori society, a person’s wairua could warn an individual of impending danger or to feel the presence of something special or sinister16. It is appropriate to ensure that the wreck condition and debris monitoring is conducted to ensure the safety of wairua for recreational and professional divers and those harvesting kaimoana. The ability for this practice to continue will be monitored through Physical Environment monitoring to provide safe access to gather kaimoana at Otāiti. Physical environment testing using human health triggers to ensure kaimoana is safe for consumption and physical environment monitoring to track presence of valued mahinga kai species. 7.1 Results The ability to access kaimoana, taonga species and spaces was able to be achieved safely with no restrictions impeding the cultural monitoring diving. On the days that the cultural monitoring dives were undertaken there were no other vessels at the reef. At no stage were the divers concerned for their safety while in the water at Otāiti. The Physical Environment Monitoring Report has confirmed that levels of contaminants within kaimoana (such as kina) is well below health guidelines.

Figure 6: Images of (L) part of the wreck colonised by kelp and (R) cultural monitoring diver at Otāiti 2019

16 Hirini Moko Mead: Tikanga Māori – living by Māori values. 2016. Pp 60-63

Cultural Monitoring Report 8. Mauri

The vitality or health of a species and its environs are encapsulated with life-sustaining energy. This is called mauri, which is most commonly referred to as life-force or life-energy. Mauri is a prerequisite for life itself and is described as the life-force and personality possessed by each thing17. Mauri not only applies to people, but it is also present in physical objects, ecosystems and social groups. He Pataka kupu, the Māori Language Commission’s dictionary of the Māori language defines mauri as: Te mana atua kei roto i te tangata ki te tiaki i a ia, he tapu The supernatural force of atua within a person that protects that person and is sacred. In contemporary usage, mauri, can also be expressed in environmental terms as an overarching characteristic, being the life force of objects and the environment18. When mauri is absent there is no life. Of all spiritual concepts, mauri is one of the most precious, and therefore kaitiakitanga as the process of by which mauri is protected has deep spiritual and elemental significance19. 8.1 Results During the dives a variety of coastal fish species were consistently present and swam around and around one diver in particular. The divers decided to follow the fish and upon turning a corner of the reef came across what appeared to be two large wharenui-like structures in the wreck (traditional Māori meeting houses) sitting side by side (figure 7). Upon seeing the wharenui-like structures, an underwater karakia and mihimihi (greeting) to the 2 houses was performed. The divers swam to the back of the structures. Inside were large numbers of a variety of juvenile fish in what appeared to be a nursery shelter from the wider ocean. When the divers left the area the escort fish stayed with the divers and remained throughout the rest of the dive. The experience was deeply moving. According to Tamati Kruger (2016) Mauri is atmospheric, omnipotent, it can be sensed, there is nothing greater than mauri. E ki ana ngā karakia o te Māori, he tapu, te mauri, he tapu te mauri20. The diver conducting the cultural monitoring felt the strong presence of mauri throughout the dive.

Figure 7: (L) Image of Koheru swimming and (R) two wharenui looking structures at Otāiti 2019

17 Young 2004

18 Antoine Coffin. Mātauranga Māori Knowledge Networks. 2015, p26

19 Parliamentary Commissioner for te Environment, 1998

20 Tamati Kruger. Keynote Presentation. Onaio – Mauri o te Wai Symposium. 21 July 2016

Cultural Monitoring Report 9. Mahinga Kai

The term mahinga kai is commonly used to describe the activity of procuring food21. It can also refer to the place where food resources are harvested, hunted, collected and gathered. Obtaining food is a primary occupation in Māori society. The knowledge required for food procurement is an essential component of people’s traditional ecological knowledge and wisdom. The gathering of kaimoana (seafood), both for sustenance and to provide for visitors, is an integral component of Māori life22. Traditional food systems are an integral part of people’s culture and lifeways. Food helps define the identity, and heritage of a people23. 9.1 Results From a Māori perspective, the abundant presence of kaimoana and the ability to access and harvest intergenerational species safely are important components of mahinga kai. Kaimoana in its many forms were observed during the dives including; kina, pāua (figure 9), koura (crayfish), tāmure (snapper), araara (trevally) and red and blue moki, among others. Sampling of commonly consumed species at the reef including kina found that levels of contaminants remain well below human heath guidelines (refer to the Physical Environmental Monitoring Report 2019 for detailed analysis).

Figure 8: Images (L) of kelp covered rocks and (R) kina on bare rock with no large kelp present, 2019 An abundance of kina was observed in the shallower areas (0 - 10m) of dive site 2 with a notable absence of large brown kelp. When there are too many kina, they can eat all the large brown kelp, stripping the rocks bare. Kelp provides food and shelter for a variety of species including kina. When the kelp disappears the diversity of species and services such as food supply for kina is impacted. These types of areas are called a kina barren and can be a tohu or sign of an imbalance in the ecosystem. It is important to note that kina barrens are not a result of the wreck presence. Kina barrens occur naturally in an ecosystem when key predators such as tāmure (snapper) are in low numbers and unable to keep kina numbers in check; or there has been a larger than usual recruitment (large numbers of kina born and survived into adulthood). The observations of kina barrens are consistent

21 Lyver, Timoti, Jones, Richardson, Tahi, Greenhaigh 2016

22 Brake & Peart 2013

23 Morrison et al 2014

Cultural Monitoring Report with the findings in the Physical Environmental Monitoring Report 2019 (see 2.4 Reef Habitat (Benthic Community p22 of the report for further analysis).

Figure 9: Images of (top left) pāua (right) green lipped mussels growing on the float line at site 2 and (bottom left) Red Moki

Cultural Monitoring Report 10. Taonga Species

Some of the coastal species observed during the dives at Ōtāiti in 2019 are listed below. Species that are highlighted in blue and written in bold, are those that are identified in the Regional Policy Statement (RPS) as taonga species of Motiti24. The RPS lists 17 taonga species of which 13 were observed during the dive conducted in 2019. The 4 species that were not observed include: Hāpuku or Groper; Pioke or Rig shark, Tupa or Scallops and Takeke or Piper. These species are not typically found in a reef habitat like Otaiti or have been absent from the reef for decades. Taonga species observed in 2019 include:

Māori Name Common Name Scientific Name

Araara Trevally Pseudocarnanx dentex Haku Kingfish Seriola lalandi Hautere Jack mackeral Trachurus novaezealandie Hiwihiwi Kelp fish Chironemus marmoratus Hui Sweep Scorpis lineolatus Kahawai Kahawai Arripis trutta Kaingārā Yellow moray Gymnothorax prasinus Karengo Seaweed Porphyra sp. Kehe Marble fish Decapterus koheru Kina Sea urchin Evechinus chloroticus Koheru Koheru Decapterus koheru Koputotara Porcupine fish Tragulichthys jaculiferus Koura Red rock lobster (crayfish) Jasus edwardsii Kuku or Kūtai Green lipped mussel Perna canaliculus Kumukumu Gurnard Chelidonichthys kumu Mata Pink maomao Caprodon longimanus Matua-whāpuku Scorpion fish Scorpanea cardinalis Maori Black Angel fish Parma alboscapularis Maomao Blue maomao Scorpis violaceus Marari Butterfish Odax pullus Moki Blue moki Latridopsis ciliaris Nanua Red moki Cheilodactylus spectabilis Paakurakura Pig fish Bodianus unimaculatus Paketi Spotty Cotolabrus celidotus Pakirikiri Blue cod Parapercis colias

24 Bay of Plenty Regional Council Policy Statement, Appendix J, pp.338-341

Cultural Monitoring Report

Patiri Leather jacket Parika scaber Parore Parore Girella tricuspidata Pāua Abalone Haliotis iris Porae Porae Nemadactylus douglasii Pūpū Cats eye Turbo smaraqdus Tāmure Snapper Pagrus auratus Toitoi or Karaka Cooks Turban Cookia Sulcata Whai Short-tailed stingray Dasyatis brevicaudata Whai Long-tailed stingray Dasyatis thetidis Whai repo Eagleray Myliobatis tenuicaudatus Wheke Octopus Pinnoctopus cordiformis Big eye Pempheris adspersa Two spot demoiselle Chromis dispilus

Cultural Monitoring Report 11. Conclusion and Recommendations

The Cultural Monitoring Plan (CMP) states that monitoring values is an exercise of interpretation or assessment through a mātauranga Māori lens. The CMP identified the following values of: kaitiakitanga, mana, waiura, mauri, mahinga kai and taonga species as key components to the monitoring dives. Consistent with the cultural dives undertaken in December 2016, it was observed that the reef looks and feels dynamic, bursting with colour, energy, and mauri (life-force). The vibrancy is consistent across the reef, in areas where pieces of the wreck are present and not present. Species, including taonga species, are residing in, on and around the wreck. Mature kelp forests were present along with taonga species and kaimoana which was easily accessible. Kina barrens were observed as a natural perturbation of the ecosystem (not related to the wreck presence). Recommendations for future cultural monitoring include:  Results and reporting of cultural monitoring to be provided to the Kaitiakitanga Reference Group (when established); and

 Cultural monitoring be continued and future monitoring to be coordinated around maramataka or the Maori moon phases across seasons when possible (weather condition dependent).

Figure 10: Images of (top) blue maomao, (middle) koheru and kelp (bottom) yellow moray eel

Cultural Monitoring Report 12. References

Bay of Plenty Regional Council. 2014. Bay of Plenty Regional Policy Statement. Tauranga, New Zealand: New Zealand Government. Brake, L., & Peart, R. (2013). Caring for our coast: An EDS guide to managing our coastal development. Auckland, New Zealand: Environmental Defense Society Incorporated. Cheung, M. (2008). The reductionist – holistic worldview dilemma. MAI Review, 3, Research Note 5. Retrieved from http://www.review.mai.ac.nz/index. Coffin, A. 2018. Cultural Monitoring Plan. Report prepared for the Astrolabe Community Trust. Tauranga, New Zealand. Coffin, A. 2015. Mātauranga Māori Knowledge Networks. Report prepared for the Waikato Regional Council. Report: TR2012/42. Hamilton, New Zealand. Forster, M. (2012). Hei whenua papatipu: Kaitiakitanga and the politics of enhancing the mauri of wetlands (Doctoral dissertation). Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. Hapū, Iwi Working Party. (2005) Providing for kaitiakitanga in Ōhiwa harbour: Ōhiwa harbour integrated management strategy (Unpublished draft document). Whakatāne, New Zealand: Environment Bay of Plenty. Jackson, A.M., Mita, N., Hakopa, H. (2017). Hui-te-ana-nui: Understanding kaitiakitanga in our marine environment. Ko ngā moana whakauka: Sustainable Seas National Science Challenge, 2017: Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment. Lyver, P., Timoti, P., Jones, C., Richardson, S., Tahi, B., Greenhalgh, S. (2016). An indigenous community-based monitoring system for assessing forest health in New Zealand. Biodivers Conserv. DOI 10.1007/s10531-016-1142-6. Springerlink.com. Mead, H. M. (2003). Tikanga Māori: Living by Māori values. Wellington, New Zealand: Huia Publishers. Mead, H.M. 2016. Tikanga Māori: Living by Māori values. Revised Edition. Wellington, New Zealand: Huia Publishers. Ministry for the Environment and Statistics New Zealand. 2019. Our Marine Environment. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Government. Office for the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment. (1999). Setting course for a sustainable future: The management of New Zealand’s marine environment. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Morrison, M., Jones, E., Consalvey, M., & Berkenbusch, K. (2014). Linking marine fisheries species to biogenic habitats in New Zealand: A review and synthesis of knowledge. New Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Report, 130, 1-156. Paul-Burke, K. & Burke, J. (2016). Report on the findings of sub-tidal sampling surveys of Perna canaliculus, Green Lipped Mussel populations in Ōhiwa harbour 2016. Report prepared for the Ōhiwa Harbour Strategic Coordination Group and Te Ūpokorehe Resource Management Team. Whakatāne, NZ: Bay of Plenty Regional Council. Paul-Burke, K. 2017. Māori marine management In. P. Kayes (Ed.). Te Taiao Rangahau ki Te Whare Wānanga o Awanuiārangi – Environmental Research at Te Whare Wānanga o Awanuiārangi, Te Whare Wānanga o Awanuiārangi, Whakatāne, New Zealand. Paul-Burke, K.,Burke, J., Te Ūpokorehe Resource Management Team, Bluett, C., & Senior, T. 2018. Using Māori knowledge to assist understandings and management of shellfish populations in Ōhiwa harbour, Aotearoa New Zealand, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, DOI: 10.1080/00288330.2018.1506487.

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Royal, T. A. C. (2010). Te ao marama – the natural world. In. Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand (Ed.), Te taiao Māori and the natural world. Auckland, New Zealand: David Bateman Ltd. Waitangi Tribunal. (2004). Report on the Crown’s foreshore and seabed policy (WAI 1071). Wellington, New Zealand: Legislation Direct. Young, D. (2004). Our islands, ourselves: History of conservation in New Zealand. Dunedin, NZ: Otago Press.