CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
DEFINING AN INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
IN SAN NICOLAS ISLAND, CALIFORNIA, CHRONOLOGY
Test Excavations at SNI-16
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Anthropology
by
Gloria Arden Lauter
May, 1982 The Thesis of Gloria Arden Lauter is approved:
California State University, Northridge
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my appreciation to the u.s. Department of the Interior and the Commander of the Pacific Missile Test Center, Point Mugu, California, for permission to carry out the investigations on San Nicolas
Island under Federal Antiquities Act Permit 78-Ca-007, and my special thanks to Lt. Cmdr. David Houghton, USN,
Ret. and Lt. Cmdr. Robert Nedry, USN, Ret., and
Mr. Ronald Dow who was especially instrumental in the success of this undertaking.
The help and assistance offered by the Island personnel was invaluable. Among those to whom I am gra teful are Donald E. Downey, Juan Perez, James Rasey,
Robert Rutt, Ethel Wilson and Louis Zitnik. Thanks also go to all the U.S. Navy personnel too numerous to mention.
I am indebted to the crew of fine archaeologists
(and friends} who helped with the field work at SNI-16:
Dana Bleitz-Sanburg, Joyce Clevenger, Ted Cooley, George
Kritzman, Elena Nilsson and Del Sanburg.
This Thesis is dedicated to my husband, Fred, who
(in my opinion} is the world's greatest archaeologist, and whose encouragement and support helped produce these results, and to the memory of my son, Wally -- "Go for it, Mom."
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Purpose • • • • • • • • • • • 1 The Problems . • • • ...... 1 Method • • • • • • • 7
2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES • • 10
3. SNI-16 SITE DESCRIPTION AND
EXCAVATION TECHNIQUES 21
Excavation Techniques • • • 24 Stratigraphy . . . . • • • 26 Artifacts • . . . • 30 Burial • 31 Age Determinations ...... • 31 Summary ...... 32 4. DIAGNOSTIC TEMPORAL INDICATORS:
DISCUSSION • • • • • • • • • • • 33
Chipped Stone Artifacts • 34
Ground Stone Artifacts • • • • • 39
Utilitarian Artifacts - Bone • • • • 41
iv Chapter Page Shell and Bone Beads • ...... • 47 Pendants, Effigies and Miscellaneous
Ornaments • • • • • 0 e D • 65 Asphaltum and Pigment ...... • 67 Methods of Burial • 67
Basketry • • 67
Summary • 68 5. CONCLUSIONS ...... 70 Revised San Nicolas Island Chronology • • 70
SNI-Intermediate in Relation to Other
Channel Island Intermediate Sites • • 7 4
SNI-Intermediate in Relation to
Intermediate Mainland Sites • • 82
Summary • 86
REFERENCES • • 89
APPENDIX A • • 93
LIST OF TABLES • • vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF MAPS • • viii LIST OF PLATES • • . . . viii ABSTRACT • • • • • • • • • ix
v TABLES
Table Page 1. P:roj ectile Points • • • • . . • 35 2. Food Processing Equipment • • • • 40
3. Stone Beads • • • • • 40 4. Fishing Equipment • • ...... • 43 5. Awls • • 45
6. San Nicolas Island Bone & Shell Bead Types • • • • • • • • • • 48, 49
7. Type 1, Spire-Lopped Olivella, Conus and Mitra ••••••••••••• • 52
8. Type 2, Spire-Lopped Base Ground Olivella • 55
9. Type 3, Olivella Spire-Lopped/Side Ground • 55
10. Type 4, Side Perforated Beads • • 59
11. Type 5, Rectangular and Square Shell Beads • • • • • • • • • • 60 12. Type 6, Disk Beads ...... • • • 64 13. Type 7, Miscellaneous Beads • • 64
14. Bead Type Distribution Through Time • • 66
15. Traits and Artifacts Occurring In the Intermediate and Late Periods on San Nicolas Island • • • • • • • • • • 73
16. Bead Types and Frequencies Occurring in Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz and San Nicolas Island Intermediate Phases • • • 79
vi FIGURES
Figure Page
1. San Nicolas Island Dates in Relation to Southern California Chronologies 9
2. SNI-16 Wall Profiles: Test Pits 18S/73.5E and 25.5S/33E ••••••••• 27
3. SNI-16 Wall Profiles: Test Pits 1.5N/36E, 3.5N/27E, 6S/18W ••••••• 28
4. SNI-16 Wall Profiles: Test Pits 1.5S/24E, 10.5S/51E, 18S/10.5E • • • 29 5. Projectile Point Types ...... • • • 36 6. Type A4aiii Bone Awl • • 46
7. Type 1 Bead: Spire-Lopped: Type 2 Bead: Spire-Lopped/Base Ground • • • • 51
8. Type 3 Bead: Spire-Lopped/Side Ground: Type 4 Bead: Side Perforation •••• 56
9. Type 5 Bead: Rectangular and Square: Type 6 Bead: Disk: Type 7 Bead: Miscellaneous • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 62
vii MAPS
Map Page 1. Southern California Channel Islands . . . . 3 2. San Nicolas Island Excavated Archaeological Sites •••••••••• 13
3. SNI-16: San Nicolas Island Archaeological Site ••••••••••• 23
PLATES
Plate Page
1. Photo of Archaeological Site SNI-16. Midden area on top of shellmound looking northwest • • • • • • • • 25
2. Photo of Archaeological Site SNI-16 looking east to top of shellmound 25
viii ABSTRACT
DEFINING AN INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
IN SAN NICOLAS ISLAND, CALIFORNIA, CHRONOLOGY
Test Excavations at SNI-16
by
Gloria Arden Lauter
Master of Arts in Anthropology
This thesis redefines an Intermediate Period, tentatively identified by Reinman & Townsend (1960) in
San Nicolas Island, California, prehistory and explores the relationships during this period between San Nicolas
Island and sites occupied during the same time period on the Southern California mainland and other Channel
Islands. ·
Site SNI-16 on San Nicolas had previously been identified as intermediate in San Nicolas chronology based on similarities shared with both early and late sites and a radiocarbon date of 1350 B.C. In 1977-79 test excavations were undertaken in the midden area of
SNI-16 to validate this placement. A new radiocarbon
ix date of 1732 B.C. placed the site firmly in an inter-
mediate position based on other dates for excavated sites
on the island. However, compar is.on of temporally
diagnostic artifacts associated with this time period
with those from other dated sites on San Nicolas indi-
cated the proposed "early" and "intermediate" periods
should be subsumed into a single Intermediate Phase. San
Nicolas Island chronology is thus redefined as follows:
Early Phase (Postulated)
To ca. 3000 B.C.
Intermediate Phase
ca. 3000 to 1000 B.C.
Late Phase
ca. 1000 B.C. to Spanish
The revised San Nicolas Island Intermediate Phase
falls within the Intermediate period for Southern
California prehistory described by Meighan (1959) and
indicates that this period is one characterized by mari-
time adaptation. Although the San Nicolas Island inhabi-
tants were considered to be Shoshonean speakers, the fin-
dings at SNI-16 reveal closer ties during this period
. with Hokan speaking areas.
X Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
The purpose of this thesis is threefold: 1. To redefine an Intermediate Period, tenta tively identified by Reinman & Townsend (1960) in San Nicolas Island, California (Map 1) prehistory; 2. To relate the temporally diagnostic artifacts associated with this time period to those from other dated sites on San Nicolas in order to clarify the island's chronology; and 3. To explore the relationship between the Inter mediate time period on San Nicolas Island and sites occupied during the same time period on the Southern California mainland and other Channel Islands to more fully describe the Southern California Intermediate period as defined by Wallace (1955) and Meighan (1959).
The Problems
Problem 1 In 1960 six burial sites were excavated on San Nicolas Island by Reinman & Townsend which yielded
1
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artifact assemblages allowing Reinman & Townsend to pro- pose a tentative San Nicolas chronology based on artifact complexes. Subsequent radiocarbon dates on three of the sites substantiated this chronology (to be discussed at length in Chapter 2). The three sites were dated as follows (Fergusson and Libby 1963:5):
SNI-40 2030 B.C. SNI-16 1350 B.C. SNI-18 A.D. 1600
SNI-16 appeared to be intermediate in terms of its radiocarbon date and because artifact types diagnostic of both the hypothesized early and late periods were present in its assemblage.
In 1964, SNI-16 was again tested. This time the midden area was sampled for the purpose of evaluating "the maritime adaptation in terms of midden remains and charac- teristic artifacts found in the sites on San Nicolas
Island" (Reinman, 1964:51). (These excavations will be discussed in Chapter 2.) No new radiocarbon date for
SNI-16 was obtained and the previous date of 1350 B.C. from the burial area was used by Reinman in his analysis.
Thus, the midden at SNI-16 remained undated. Reinman noted the absence of circular shell fishhooks and grinding implements at SNI-16 placing it closer, in terms of arti- fact similarities, to SNI-40 (an earlier site) than to later sites. These observations challenged the validity 5
of the original tentative identification of an "inter- mediate" period in San Nicolas chronology.
Problem 2
The date of 1350 B.C. for SNI-16 places its occu- pation well into the Southern California Intermediate first dated by Wallace (1955:223) between approximately
1000 B.C. and 1000 A.D., and revised by Meighan (1959:
386) as ranging from 4000 B.C. to roughly 1000 B.C. This period was characterized by an increased dependence upon· hunting, a shift in grinding implements from the milling- and hand-stone combination to the mortar-pestle, the use of the bow and arrow, bone awl and the practice of using
"cast-darts with the throwing board" (Wallace, 1955:223).
The time span for the Intermediate as revised by
Meighan encompasses a period of change recorded in
Southern California prehistory by various researchers
(Rogers, 1929: Olson, 1930: Orr, 1943: Wallace, 1955:
Harrison, 1964: Warren, 1968). This change has been observefr in the Santa Barbara area where the Oak Grove people with a "land oriented economy primarily devoted to vegetable foods but with minor exploitation of small land mammals and a few resources from the ocean" (Harrison
1964:367), and a later-arriving Hunting people with a maritime~oriented economy, both coexisting in this area, .- . eventually "merged to form a single ethnic pattern" 6
(Harrison 1964:376), called the "Canaline" (Fig. 1).1
Change during this time period is also noted by Warren (1968) in a chronology for Southern California. He describes an Encinitas Tradition (Fig. 1)., having a collecting economy and characterized by large numbers of manes and milling stones, as having been supplanted by a Campbell Tradition on the Santa Barbara coast and by an Encinitas II Tradition as far south as the San Diego Coast. These later Campbell and Encinitas II traditions were characterized by maritime exploitation and a new set of tools including the mortar and pestle (which appeared for the first time), "side notched, stemmed and lanceolate or leaf shaped points, large knives and a variety of flake scrapers and drill-like implements" (Warren 1968:2). Although the Intermediate period is described as a time of merging cultures and significant cultural tran- sition, very few sites dated to this period have been excavated and information regarding the Intermediate is scanty. Figure 1 is a chart chronologically placing the exca~ated radiocarbon dated sites on San Nicolas Island in relation to Harrison's (1964) Santa Barbara Channel
!Harrison (1964) illustrates the Rincon Phase in Fig. 44 (p.346) as occurring between 2000 and 1000 B.C. and in the body of the text as dated between 1950 B.C. and 1450 B.C. The Rincon Phase as illustrated in Fig. 44 is used here. 7
region chronology and Warren's (1968) chronology for the
Southern California coast as well as the sequence proposed by May, et. al., (1976) for the San Diego area.
Method
In order to address the problems listed above,
SNI-16 was further tested in 1977-79 to ascertain if the site was actually intermediate in time and what artifacts were associated with this time period. It was hypothe sized that there would be a unique artifact assemblage allowing an Intermediate period on San Nicolas to be iden tified by unambiguous artifact types and/or an artifact complex peculiar to this period.
Further, if the occupation of SNI-16 proved to be limited to a time span falling within the Southern
California Intermediate (as the original radiocarbon date indicated), data from the excavations would add to the rather meager body of information regarding this period; sites on the mainland and other channel islands dated to the occupation of SNI-16 would be studied for similarities and differences in their artifact assemblages in order to identify any San Nicolas-mainland and inter-island rela tionships during this period.
HARRISON WARREN MAV, et al TIME (II. 4, ( II I I) ( 19 T I ) SNI DATES 10 HISTORIC SPANISH C HUMA SH OCCUPATION SHOSHO ~ SNI•II A.D. 1100 CHUMASH VUMAA ~ UI-II(I'I.t A.D. !ITT NEAN A 1- stU-IIi!II) A.D. 1100 AD. 1000_ LATE TRA- N TRADITION TRADITION DillON ·~ INt-11(!11:) A.D. 110 CANALINO - 0 z 1- sN 1- '"'u A.o. 110 A. D. - I.- C. ... MIDDLE CAMPBELL ENCINITA! TRANSITION 4 1- SN!-11(11) IT 0 I.e CANALINO J:J: z 1- IN 1- 01 • 00 •.c. 4 IOOOI.C•• TRADITION 0 TRADITION RINCON I.' SNI-11 1310 I,C. -~ W/M(~ 0;0:. ~ SN 1-11(11) 1410 •.c. I~ f~ IW w ~ SNI-11 ITil I.C. zoooac. OOUT INLAND INLAND ~ SN 1-40 1050 B.C. .... ? NORTH lOUTH 1- SN 1-li(U:I:) Z21 0 I.C . LA ... ..1 PAUMA AMAIUI08A - Q. IL "' JOLLAN 0 Q. ElCTIIAM
1.0 Chapter 2
ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Prior to 1959, no systematic excavations had been conducted on San Nicolas Island. Previously, archaeologi cal work consisted mainly of surface collections of arti facts and excavations intended to yield artifacts asso ciated with burials. According to Meighan and Eberhart
(1953:111), the earliest work was done by Paul Schumacher who, in 1875, spent several days on the island and collected 127 mortars and about 200 pestles, plus several boxes of smaller artifacts. Most of this collection is now in the Smithsonian Museum with a small sample at the
Peabody Museum at Harvard. In 1878, Leon deCessac carried on excavations for the government of France and obtained a collection of about 2500 artifacts. Of these, only fish and bird effigies have been described (deCessac, 1951).
Stephen Bowers, in 1880s, collected 4048 specimens which are housed at the American Museum of Natural History.
These and other collections made throughout the years prior to 1959 by various individuals and institu tions have yielded a total number of about 15,000 arti facts (Meighan and Eberhart 1953:112). These artifacts are housed in numerous museums throughout the United
lQ 11
States. Regarding the status of San Nicolas archaeology in 1953, Meighan and Eberhart wrote (1953:113): None of these collections have been published except for brief notes on exceptional pieces. Although many of the collections were made by untrained individuals in the days before scientific records were kept, it is nonetheless regrettable that despite some 15,000 specimens from San Nicolas preserved in American museums so little is known of the island's archaeology. The first systematic excavations on San Nicolas were carried out in 1959 by Charles Rozaire. Because of his interest in aboriginal woven materials, the focus of these excavations was to learn more about this craft on the island. After a survey, two sites were selected which exhibited fabric material--SNI-51 and SNI-38--both on the southeast part of the island near the beach (Map 2). The excavations at these sites yielded a collec- tion including woven sea grass, cordage and various stone, bone and shell artifacts; in addition, a burial was unco- vered. Although the site report for SNI-38 and SNI-51 (Rozaire: 1959) only describes the excavations at SNI-51 to a depth of 36 inches, subsequent excavations by Rozaire tested the units to a much deeper level and another pit excavated after the report was published uncovered a human cremation (Rozaire 1967:331). Radiocarbon dates from these lower levels yielded dates of 2550 years B.P. (600 B.C.) at six feet, and 3170 years B.P. (1220 B.C.) at 7-1/2 feet (Rozaire 1967:329).
13
...... , , ... , ,'(/',' , I
I : 'I I I • " I I ~ / ' .. / .... \ {'"...,_-"' 'lo I , ' ., I II , ,/ ,•
: 1,.. .,. ____ ' j II
,' ,-: I I ,_, ~·\',._.. _ ,' iI ----, :f ... ..,, I ,I , , ,, ,, ~'·' I I I I ,,
\' I \ / " ,. ,' ff• ~ I ~ l I ' ' I ~ c. t• .. IU A I u i ! 0 : ol.. ! 1.) ~~ \loo 1.) ·.;.I 6. 0' 0. O.t} I 14
In comparing weaving from these two sites and other San Nicolas collections with that of other islands, Rozaire found that there were "certain significant dif- ferences in time and space" (Rozaire 1967:330). The twining technique of San Nicolas and San Clemente Islands is described as one in which the lean of the stitch is up to the right (S-twining) and that of the northern islands as one in which the lean is in the opposite direction (Z-twining) (Rozaire, 1967). In regard to the mainland weaving techniques and the significant differences between the areas, Rozaire states (1967:330): These distinctions of weave continue their distribution to the adjacent mainland for each of these island groups and coincide roughly with the historic linguistic division of Hokan on the north and Shoshonean to the south. If the culture history of the coast holds as postu lated from linguistic evidence, wherein the · entire Southern California coastline at one time was populated by Hokan-speaking peoples and then subsequently separated in what is now the Los Angeles-Orange County area by a wedge of Sho shonean speaking people ••• it will make an interesting check to see whether z-twining underlies S-twining or if S-twining is earlier. On the basis of the artifact assemblage and the fact that shell fishhooks made up a large percentage of the artifacts from both sites (although only occurring to a maximum depth of 4-1/2 feet at SNI-51), Rozaire hypothe- sized a late occupation: The materials recovered from the two sites fit easily into the general coastal cultural complex of Southern California and generally are representative 15
of the late horizon to which the name Canaline is most frequently applied (Rozaire 1959:146).
In 1959 excavations were carried out which unco- vered thirty-three burials from six different sites on the western end of San Nicolas: SNI-14, -15, -16, -18, -40 and -56 (Reinman & TG>wnsend 1960) (Map 2). Three of the sites, (SNI-14, -15 and -56), yielded only a few burials and a small number of artifacts: however, Reinman and
Townsend were able to propose a temporal placement for the other three sites, (SNI-16, -18, and -40), based on the artifact assemblage and burial methods.
All sites except SNI-18 had the cemetery areas outside the habitation area. At SNI-16, the burial area was located 50-60 feet below the top of a large sand dune which contained the midden remains. Forty-three 5-foot square pits were excavated. A total of 394 artifacts was recovered from SNI-16: most were unassociated with the three recovered burials. Five burials were excavated at
SNI-18 on top of the sand dune that contains the midden remains. Thirteen 5-foot square pits were dug. The artifact count from this site was 128 specimens. At
SNI-40, another large sand dune containing midden debris, fifty-seven 5-foot square pits were excavated in a burial area located on the inland slope of the dune, 10-20 feet below the top on a level space. Twenty burials were reco- vered as well as 75 artifacts in association. Below is a summary of this information: 16
No. of 5x5 foot Artifact Site pits excavated Total No. of Burials SNI-18 13 128 5 SNI-16 43 394 3 SNI-40 57 75 20
In comparing these three sites which yielded a majority of the burials (28) and artifacts, Reinman and
Townsend placed SNI-18 as the latest site, SNI-16 as an intermediate site and SNI-40 as the earliest site.
In attempting to relate these sites to those on the mainland it is stated, "Again, the difficulty here is the general nature of the materials recovered with no really diagnostic artifacts found in the earlier material; none of the assemblages fit any of the defined horizons specifically" (Reinman & Townsend 1960:30). In spite of this, a tentative assignment of SNI-18, the latest of the sites, was made to the early Late Canaline or late Middle
Canaline as defined by Orr (1943).
On the basis of burial pattern it is well within the Late period; however, many of the typical artifacts of this period are notably absent from this site, and those that we do find exhibit none of the elaborateness that has come to be associated with this horizon, i.e.; shell bead inlay work, limpet shell ornaments, ela borate bowls of sandstone and steatite, skirt weights, charmstones and the highly decorated personal adornments usually found in Late Canaline sites ••• and it is on this basis that we place it in the late Middle or early Late period (Reinman & Townsend 1960:30). 17
SNI-40, judged the earliest of the three sites, was considered to correlate with the Early Canaline.
These conclusion~ were based upon the orderliness of the burial patterns and the similarity of artifacts with those listed by Orr from an early cemetery (Orr, 1943), i.e., basketry impressions, bone tools, abalone shell dishes, and red ochre (Reinman & Townsend 1960:31). This chrono logical placement of SNI-40 in regard to other areas was also tentatively made: "Most of the artifacts found on this site have a long continuity throughout all horizons established for island archaeology and are found in varying degrees from early to late on the mainland as well" (Reinman & Townsend 1960:30). SNI-16 was assigned to an intermediate period between these two sites "solely on the basis of its interrelationship and shared arti£act types" (Reinman & Townsend 1960:31). Subsequent to the publication of the report described above, radiocarbon dates substantiated the tem poral sequence hypothesized by Reinman and Townsend but indicated that occupation of the island, as demonstrated by the dates from SNI-16 and SNI-40, was much earlier in time than expected. In 1964, two sites (SNI-16 and SNI-79) were exca vated and a column sample from a third (SNI-11) was reco vered in an attempt to "evaluate the maritime adaptation in terms of midden remains and characteristic artifacts 18
found ...... (Reinman 1964:51). It was hypothesized that an increasing adaptation to the use of sea resources would be demonstrated by earlier utilization of shellfish (both by weight and genera) and a lesser exploitation of fish and sea mammals, and a later increase in utilization of fishing reflected in the use,of circular fishhooks and an increase in bone weight in the midden samples. Reinman (1964:51) states: The explanation speculatively offered is that as greater use of fish and sea mammals increased the protein intake from these sources, there was also a corresponding decrease in the purely gathering habits of the earlier period. Use and non-use of the circular shell fishhook is a cri tical factor in this more successful exploitation of the marine environment. This time the midden on top of the large sand dune at SNI-16 was sampled and eleven 5-foot square pits were excavated; the total number of artifacts recovered was 138. Circular fishhooks were absent as were mortars.
11 Seed grinding equipment of any type was generally absent from the midden remains 11 (Reinman 1964:54); only one pestle showing use secondarily as a hammer was recovered. SNI-79, a site further inland and to the south, was sampled by excavating five 5-foot square test pits; 143 artifacts were recovered. Here, both hooks and hook blanks in various stages of completion were recovered from all levels of the midden; pestle and bowl fragments were also found. 19
In analyzing the faunal remains and artifact
assemblages from these sites and comparing them with those
of the Little Harbor site on Catalina (Meighan 1959), the
following conclusions were drawn: the earliest part of a
continuum of adaptation involves the presence of bone fish
gorges and the absence of circular fishhooks; the ratio of
bone to shell at Little Harbor is comparable to that
recorded in the early sites on San Nicolas Island (bone
forms about 2.6% of the total weight of the faunal remains
from the Little Harbor site and about 3% in early sites on
San Nicolas Island; later sites have as high as 10% of the
sample in bone weight) (Reinman 1964: 63).
Reinman speculates that in the earlier island
sites greater utilization of maritime resources, espe
cially fishing, had yet to occur and that the development
of deep sea fishing could provide a "stability unfound in
this earlier period" (Reinman 1964:63).
From 1964 until 1977 no archaeological work was
done on San Nicolas. Then, in 1977, Reinman excavated
SNI-11, a stratified site on the northwest coast of San
Nicolas. The report is presently in the process of being written, but three strata have been identified and dated
(Reinman 1980, personal communication). Stratum I, the
latest stratum, yielded dates of A.D. 1377, A.D. 1300,
A.D. 990, A.D. 390 and 270 B.C.; Stratum II a date of 1480 20
B.C.; and Stratum III a date of 2210 B.C. The test exca vations at SNI-16 which are the basis for this thesis were carried out from 1977-1979. Chapter 3
SNI-16 SITE DESCRIPTION AND EXCAVATION TECHNIQUES
SNI-16 is a typical large dune site located on the northwest coast of San Nicolas Island (Map 2). The dune is about 25 meters high and is formed in a staircase pat- tern with three terraces ascending abruptly from the seaward end. The entire top and sides of the dune are covered with quantities of discarded shells, rock fragments and bones of mammal, bird and fish; scattered artifacts are also found on the surface.
The midden area (Map 3) on top of the dune occu- pies an area of about 230 meters along the longitudinal axis of the dune and about 30 meters across the width of the dune. The long northeast side of the dune contains a burial area previously excavated (Reinman 1960); it is about 15-18 meters below the midden area on top of the dune, on a relatively flat area.
An unimpaired view of the sea exists to the north and west of the site, while to the southwest and landward the land rises to form the island's central plateau. A dirt road runs along the coast on the northwest shoreline and passes SNI-16, skirting the seaward end of the dune and continuing on along the coast. The end of the dune
21
------..... _ ·~ ------......
_, _... ___ ..,..,
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE TEST ·PITS S N 1-16 ESTIMATED CONTOURS I. 8 io il6 So ICALI • IIITIIII Tin PITI IIOT TO ICALl ' ..
"-> w 24
levels off at the road and the ocean is about 10 meters from the road. The midden area atop the dune is approxi mately 140 meters in a southeasterly direction from the ocean. The shoreline here is described by Vedder and
Norris (1963:18) as "thick-bedded sandstone" and forms a rock-based tidal flat, exposed at low tide, extending about 15 meters seaward.
SNI-16 is about equidistant from two water sources--Thousand Springs, 1.5 km to the east, and the
Spring Site (Reinman, 1962), 1.5 km to the southwest.
Although the sand dune itself supports no vegetation, the immediate area is covered with low shrubs and probably was covered with more profuse vegetation when the site was occupied (Plates 1 and 2).
Excavation Techniques
The present test excavations were limited to the areas atop the dune which proved most productive based on previous work at SNI-16 (Reinman, 1964). Various areas of the midden were tested by eight 1.5 x 1.5 meter excavation pits. Arbitrary 10-centimeter levels were maintained and the midden excavated was passed through quarter-inch screens. When bead caches were identified, 1/8-inch screens were used. As well as artifacts, all stone, bone and charcoal were saved. Each pit was dug to sterile sand but the depth of the midden varied from pit to pit with a 25
Plate 1. Photo of Archaeological Site SNI-16. Midden area on top of shellmound looking northwest.
Plate 2. Photo of Archaeological Site SNI-16 looking east to top of shellmound. 26
maximum depth of 120 em. and a minimum depth of 40 em. A total of 17.5 square meters was excavated. Column samples were taken from the two pits exhibiting several soil horizons. The midden was sandy and tended to vary in color from very dark gray (Munsell lOYR 3/1) to dark grayish brown (Munsell 10 YR 4/2). All artifacts observed on the surface were collected.
Stratigraphy
The midden at SNI-16 consisted of several soil horizons which were identified by their color: a dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2)~ very dark grayish brown (lOYR
3/2)~ grayish brown (lOYR 5/2)~ and occasional pockets of darker midden of very dark gray (lOYR 3/1). The pit wall profiles indicating soil color are illustrated in Figs. 2, 3 and 4. Abalone shells and abalone shell lenses occurred frequently in all test pits and in practically every level containing midden. Field notes for each level indicate mussel (Mytilus ~.), Tegula, land snail and sea urchin were abundant in every pit and at most levels. Tegula, sea urchin and land snail were recorded primarily in pockets or lenses and probably represent a day's collec tion which was consumed in a small area. These pockets are distributed throughout the site and occasionally may be seen eroding out of the surface or sides of the dune in 27
. TEST PIT 18S/73.!1E
I 0 Cll. 1111 Cll. WEST WALL MOIITH WALL
TEST PIT 2 5.!5 S/33E
IC E Y
11%//l DU K UAYII M UOW M IDYll 411
~ WilY ...IlK ..A1'1aiC eiiiOWN IOYII W2
~ .IIIAYiaH eiiOWN IDYll 112
Iff@ VUT DAIIII ••,.,. 10\'11 In
D aftiiiLE .... 10\'11 ...
1,...., I A8ALONE
J..P I eon El IIOCK
Figure 2
SNI-16 Wall Profiles: Test Pits 18S/73.5E and 25.5S/33E 28
... - WEST WAL.L ••• Ct •• H WALL TEST PIT I.SN/36E
.. Cll. WEST WALL •• ca. IOUTII WALL TEST PIT 3.S N/27E 1111tll~i'li'i1ll~l ~~
DDCII, ..,- WALL DD Clio IIOWTH WALL TEST PIT ISIIBW
Figure ·3 SNI-16 Wall Profiles Test Pits l.SN/36E, 3.5N/27E, 6S/18W 29
- ~l~'it~~;)f: !i[i) i~itll\l~;l!~!ll"lll!!ill ...
•• c •• WI:IT WALL TEST PIT I.SS/2 4E
W£1T WALL TEST PIT IO.SS/SJ E
....:-:·: .... :~- ..... :.. ::::::~::::~; ::::::--:-:::,:;:::;::: =:~:::::~:: ~=~:: .. .. tu::::::::r\==t=r:r>:::::::::::::~:m=rrntH>.=t::u?:n:n''\:H~i(:\=
10
••• c •• aaec•. TEST PIT 18SII0.5E
Figure-4 SNI-16 Wall Profiles Test Pits 1.5S/24E, lO.SS/SlE, 18S/10.5E 30
small piles. Chiton, limpet, Norisia, Olivella and Astrea undosa were found in all pits as were fish, bird and sea mammal remains. The variance in coloration in the several midden layers most likely reflects a difference in intensity of occupation at various areas throughout time since the test pits with multiple soil horizons did not exhibit a similar sequence of coloration. SNI-16 appears to have been almost continuously occupied on a regular or seasonal basis and the occasional layer of sterile sand reflected in the profiles of three pits can be interpreted as a tem porary abandonment of that portion of the site for a period of time since the strata above and below the sterile sand layers vary from pit to pit; however, the sterile sand layers may represent very short time periods since the gale force winds affecting the island occa sionally lift and deposit large amounts of sand in a day or two (Bryan 1970:3).
Artifacts
All artifacts recovered were measured, weighed and catalogued (see Appendix A for artifact descriptions). A total of 708 artifacts was recovered excluding ochre pieces and asphaltum. There are 347 utilitarian objects and 361 ornamental objects in the collection. The 31
artifacts were found to be similar to those found in the
earlier excavations at SNI-16.
Burial
One burial was excavated from the surface to 65
em. in pit 1.5S/24E. The general appearance of the skele-
ton is that of a female of about 35-45 years of age
(Salls:l981). The burial was a primary inhumation posi-
tioned on its left side in a loose flex and oriented
toward the north. Associated objects included a side-
notched projectile point fragment, a sea mammal tooth
pendant, a stone sea mammal effigy, a clam shell ring, a
worked clam shell object and three steatite pendants, two
with biconical perforations.
Age Determinations
Obsidian hydration measurements were made on three
obsidian flakes found in this excavation and two from a
previous excavation (UCLA/OHL 1980):
Collector's OHL No. SamEle No. Hydration Provenience 7338 13-298 6.8 6S/18W 50-60 em. 7339 13-334 6.2/6.9 1.5N/36E 60-70 em. 7340 13-314 7.1 3.5N/27E 10-20 em. 7350 323-111 3.3 Md.C,Pit 3 0-6" 7351 323-114 6.5 Md.C,Pit 3 6-12" Although no dated obsidian hydration series exists
for San Nicolas Island and the obsidian source is unknown,
Meighan states (1980, Personal Communication): 32
Whatever the source or hydration rate used for California obsidian, the minimum age for this obsidian has to be about 1500-2400 years ago. This is itself a significant finding, that inland obsidian had made it all the way to the outermost of the Channel Islands by that time.
A charcoal sample from a small fire pit in the southwest corner of test pit 3.5N/27E at the 60-70 em. level yielded a radiocarbon date of 3682 + 148 years B.P. or 1732 B.C. (IVC #43). This date and the one obtained in 1964 from SNI-16 of 3300 + 100 years B.P. or 1350 B.C.
(UCLA 165) obtained by Reinman and Townsend indicates the use of this site for a span of about 300 to 400 years with an average age of about 3500 years B.P. or 1540 B.C.
Summary
SNI-16 is considered a single component site based on the previous data and on the similarity of artifacts and their even distribution throughout the midden (see
Appendix A, Table 2, Inventory of Artifacts by Level).
The homogeneity of the midden at SNI-16 implies a single, relatively continuous, cultural occupation. Chapter 4
DIAGNOSTIC TEMPORAL INDICATORS: DISCUSSION
In order to identify diagnostic artifacts, com- parisons were made of kinds of artifacts recovered from all dated sites on San Nicolas. To facilitate comparisons and to validate a possible intermediate period proposed by
Reinman and Townsend {1960:31) occurring during the time span represented by SNI-16 and Stratum II at SNI-11, the dated sites on San Nicolas were divided arbitrarily into three periods based on known radiocarbon dates:
Period I- including SNI-40 and SNI-11 {Stratum III),
with dates ranging from 2210 B.C. to 2030 B.C.~
Period II - comprised of SNI-16 and SNI-11 {Stratum
II), with a range of dates from 1732 B.C. to
1350 B.C.~ and
Period III - consisting of SNI-51, SNI-11 {Stratum I)
and SNI-18, with dates ranging fran 600 B.C. to
1600 A.D. {Figure 1).1
lA date of 600 BoC. is used here for SNI-51. Although Rozaire found fishhooks to 4-1/2 feet (Rozaire 1967:329), the date of 2550 B.P. is from a depth of six feet. This may be considered too early for the appearance of the circular shell fishhook on San Nicolas, but, when compared with the 5370 B.P. date for the earliest fish hooks on San Rosa Island {Orr 1960:7), this date is not unreasonable.
33 34
In the following discussion and Tables, the SNI-16 assem
blage will include all artifacts found in the three
excavations at this site.
Chipped Stone Artifacts
Projectile Points and Blades
Table 1 lists all projectile points found in dated sites on San Nicolas by type (Fig. 5 illustrates these types). Also noted are Reinman's (1960:21-22) projectile point types for San Nicolas Island. The sample size from all sites is too small to infer any temporally diagnostic projectile point types. Leaf-shaped/bipointed projectile points may be diagnostic of Period II as they are numerous at SNI-16 and do not occur in other periods. However, since no projectile points were found in the Period II stratum at SNI-11, no conclusions may be drawn regarding temporal significance.
Period II, as represented by SNI-16, is marked by the frequent use of siltstone in manufacturing projectile points (7 out of 8 leaf-shaped points and several blade scrapers). This material is not represented at any other sites. The use of siltstone may be peculiar to SNI-16 since it was an easily quarried material at this site which is located near areas of thin-bedded siltstone that is reported to break conchoidally (Vedder & Norris
1963:14). 35
Table 1
PROJECTILE POINTS
Period I Period II Period III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 SNI-16 SNI-11 SNI-51 SNI-11 SNI-18 (SIII) (SII) (SI) Leaf shaped/ bipointed - 4 (SNI Type 4) - - - - -
Leaf shaped/flat or rounded base - - 3 2 (SNI Type 4) - - -
Side notched/ stemmed 1 - - (SNI Type 3) - - - -
Side notched/ slender -- 1 - - (SNI Type 3a - -
Triangular/ concave base 1 1 - (SNI Type 5) - - - -
Stemmed (SNI Type 6) - - 2 - - 1 - 36
I I I I I 0 < ::::> a b c
I L I I ~ d e
em .. Figure 5 Projectile Point Types 37
There may be areal differences in projectile point use since no points were found at the two south coast sites excavated (SNI-51 and SNI-38) (Rozaire, 1959). Also, the one site excavated on the central plateau of the island, SNI-79, contains no projectile points (Reinman, 1964). The above three sites are considered late, but only one (SNI-51) is dated. More excavations are needed in late sites on San Nicolas in order to determine whether the use of projectile points declined during Period III. Orr (1968:110) comments that projectile points on Santa Rosa Island are rare in the late sites, but Hoover (1972:246) reports numerous points in late sites on Santa Cruz Island. Although the number of projectile points at each site is meager (with the exception of SNI-16), it is impossible to infer a limited aboriginal use of points at these sites since Reinman (1960:20) reports 312 points in several San Nicolas surface collections and numerous points were found on the surface of SNI-11 but lack asso ciation to the complex horizontal and vertical stratifica tion of the site.
Miscellaneous Chipped Stone Tools Scrapers, drills, choppers, cores, utilized and worked flakes all are ubiquitous in the sites and of simi lar manufacture through time. The Teshoa type flakes 38
p ' found at SNI-16 (Appendix A} also occur at SNI-11 in
Stratum I, II and III, and do not appear to be diagnostic of any one period. The Teshoa type flake is also recorded at mainland sites with various dates, including Zuma Creek in Los Angeles County (Peck, 1955}, dated at 3,000 B.C.
(Bright 1965:370}, and at Mikiw (4 SBa 78} in three dif ferent strata dated from A.D. 1710 to A.D. 1780, 2150 B.C. to 1740 B.C., and 2500 B.C., respectively (Harrison
1964:286}, and on Santa Catalina Island at the Little
Harbor site (Meighan 1959:389} dated at 1924 B.C. This tool obviously has a long and widespread use.
In all, five small, worked obsidian flakes were found at SNI-16 (three in 1977 and two in 1964} in dif ferent areas of the site and at different depths. Two small, retouched obsidian flakes were also found at SNI-11
(Period II} and III (Period I}. One obsidian chip was found at SNI-79, a site considered Late (Reinman 1964:58}.
The only obsidian artifact excavated on San Nicolas is a knife from the Period I site of SNI-40, associated with a burial. Since there are no obsidian quarries on San
Nicolas, an inference could be drawn that the early inha bitants of the island maintained contact with off-island sources throughout the early periods. In later times it appears that obsidian was used less and/or the obsidian trade became more infrequent. Older obsidian artifacts 39
may have been reworked into smaller flakes or other objects.
, Ground Stone Artifacts
Food Processing Equipment The 1964 excavations at SNI-16 which produced only two pestles and no bowls/mortars, milling stones, manes or mullers indicated to Reinman (1964:54) that "seed grinding equipment of any type was generally absent from the midden remains." However, the recent excavations uncovered two whole pestles and two pestle fragments, four complete bowl/mortars and one bowl fragment, three milling stones and one complete mane and one mane fragment. This would clearly indicate that seed processing of some kind and/or processing of shellfish meat was occurring at SNI-16. In terms of grinding equipment being diagnostic, Table 2 indicates that Period I and II utilized both the mortar/bowl and pestle as well as milling stones and manos, with their use continuing in Period III but with a decline in frequency of the latter.
Stone Beads Few stone beads are found in dated sites (Table 3), but those occurring are limited to Periods I and II with none found in Period III sites. It is felt that the sample size is too small to make an inference; however, 40
Table 2 FOOD PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
Pertod I Pertod II Pertod III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 SNI-16 SNI-11 SNI-51 SNI-11 SNI-18 (SIII) {_SII) _(SI) Pestles 1 - 6 1 1 - 3 Bowls/Mortars 2 - 5 - - 2- - Manos - - 2 - 2 - - Milling Stones 3 - 3 - - - -
Table 3 STONE BEADS
Period I Period II Pertod III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 SNI-16 SNI-11 SNI-51 SNI-11 SNI-18 (SIII) (SII) (SI) Stone Disc - - 1 1 - - -
Stone Barrel - - - 1 - ~ - Tubular Steatite 1 ------41
the pattern of relative numbers of beads declining in Period III, as discussed under "Shell and Bone Beads" in this Chapter, seems to hold true for stone beads.
Anvils Seven anvil stones were found at SNI-16, all varying in shape and size. Anvils were also reported at SNI-11 from strata II and III. None were reported at SNI-51 (Period III}, possibly because the area excavated was small (two five-foot square pits}, and none was reported at SNI-40 (Period I} or SNI-18 (Period III} pre sumably because the areas excavated at each site were cemeteries, and it can be assumed that there was a dif ferential usage in areas at these sites with more utili
tarian obj~cts located in the midden sections. For this reason presence or absence of anvils does not appear to be diagnostic, especially considering the persistence through time of the cobble technology on San Nicolas and the probable use of anvils in this industry.
Utilitarian Artifacts - Bone
The widespread use in Southern California of bone objects such as awls, pries, fish gorges, whistles, wedges and awl-like implements and their lack of change in form through time has been noted by various authors (Hoover 1972:34; Meighan 1959:302}. This pattern also occurs on 42
San Nicolas; the pries and flakers are of common types in
Southern California and appear on San Nicolas in all time periods; they are not considered temporally diagnostic.
Fish Gorges
Of some note, however, are the fish gorges. As shown in Table 4, fish gorges appear in abundance in Peri ods I and II to the exclusion of the circular shell fish hook. This was noted by Reinman (1964:54) and has been substantiated by the later work at SNI-16 and -11. The material, length or cross section of the gorges does not appear to be diagnostic. Sea mammal, bird and fish bone are used in the manufacture of the gorges through time; most are round or elliptical in cross section but some are lenticular or fairly flate Periods I and II are charac terized by numerous bone fish gorges and by the absence of circular shell fishhooks, Period III by the use of cir cular shell fishhooks and diminishing numbers of bone fish gorges. At some time in the 750-year period between
1350 B.C. and 600 B.C. the circular fishhook appeared on
San Nicolas and became the preferred fishing implement. Other aspects of fishing technology are the net sinker, appearing in all time periods, and one harpoon barb in a period III site (a questionable harpoon or fish hook barb was found on the surface at a Period II site).
The barb sample is too small to make any inferences. 43
Table 4
FISHING EQUIPMENT
Period I Period II Period III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 SNI-16 SNI-11 SNI-51 SNI-11 SNI-18 (SIII) (SII) (SI) Bone Gorges 8 - 21 12 1 1 - Shell Fishhooks -- -- 12 89 10 Net/line Sinkers - 1 1 - -- 2
Harpoon Barbs/ - - 1 (?) 1 Fishhook Barbs --- 44
Bone Awls
Bird bone is the most commonly used material for awls on San Nicolas, being used in 85% of these artifacts
(Table 5). Awls of bird bone with articulated ends occur in Periods I and II but are absent in Period III (Types
A4aiii and A4ai).
Only one type of awl, Gifford's type A4aiii, appears to be diagnostic, not only of Periods I and II, but it may be unique to the island (Fig. 6). This awl is a single-pointed perforating implement, 'without an eye for cord attachment, manufactured from a bird bone humerus with the head or proximal end of the bone intact a~d the point formed by an oblique cut. Four were found at SNI-16
(Period II) and one at SNI-40 (Period I). None occur in
Period III excavations.
Gifford (1947:169) records the existence of 10 specimens--nine occurring on San Nicolas Island and one in the Humboldt Region on Gunther Island, off the waterfront of Eureka. A search of the literature has not produced any other references to this type of awl. The awls of the
A4aiii type on San Nicolas all appear to be of the same species of large aquatic bird with a humerus length of at least 14 centimeters, since the largest awl of this type is 13.4 em. One of these awls appeared in the 110-120 em. level in Pit 18S/10.5E in association with 78 spire-lopped
Olivella beads containing asphaltum and a large amount of 45
Table 5
Period I Per1od II Period III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 SNI-16 SNI-11 SNI-51 SNI-11 SNI-18 (Sill) (SII) (SI) A4aiii Complete bird bone humerus with arti- - 1 4 - - culate end; cut - - obliquely A401l Complete bird bone radius; head of -- 2 - bone intact -- -
A4bii Bird bone ulna 1 - 1 1* - - 1 with head cut off
A4ci&II 5* Split bird bone 1* 3* 2* - 1 1 ulna or humerus -
A4bi 3* Bird bone radius 1 - 1* 1 - 1 with head cut off -
A Untypable - 1 2 - 1 1 1
A2 Mammal rib - - 1 - - 1 -
A5b Fishbone awl -- 1 - - - -
* = Fragment 46
) I
em.
Figure 6
Type A4aiii Bone Awl 47
asphaltum with basketry impressions. It is probably a basketry awl but may have been a multi-purpose tool as awls are frequently put to other uses as evidenced ethno graphically (Gifford 1940:155), and this type appears to be very sturdy.
Shell & Bone Beads
Several shell and bone bead types appear to be diagnostic of different periods. In order to discuss the various beads, a typology of beads found on San Nicolas in dated sites was made (Table 6). In this Table the San Nicolas types are correlated with Gifford's bead types (1947) and
Hoover's (1972) Chumash types where possible, and a short description given for each. The total bead amounts for each period are as follows:
Period I Period II Period III
5419 647 51
The inflated total in Period I reflects the several caches of shell beads yielding a total of 5388 beads found with twenty burials at SNI-40. However, although few beads were recovered in the cemetery at
SNI-16, the large number found in the midden area indica tes that they were important to the people occupying this site. The cemetery at SNI-18 (Period III) on the other hand, produced no beads. One may infer that a bead-making technology was important in both Periods I and II and 48
TABLE 6
SAN NICOLAS ISLAND BONE & SHELL BEAD TYPES
SNI Description Gifford Hoover Type T_ype T_yQe lai Spire-lopped Olivella; large FSb lf perforation w1th straight grind laii Spire ground Olivella; very FSb lf small shell 1-6 mm. long lb Spire-lopped Ol1vella; large FSb lf perforation with oblique grind lc Spire-lopped Olivella; small FSb lf perforation ld Spire-lopped Mitra idae F2 - le Spire-lopped Conus F3 17a lf Spire-lopped o. J2edroana - - 2a Olivella cap bead Glb lj 2b Barrel shaped Olivella Gla lj 2c Olivella spire-lopped; base Gla lj ground only slightly 3a Olivella spire-ground/side ground - - on side opposite aperature 3b Olivella spire-ground/side ground - - on aperature side 3c Olivella spire-ground/side ground - - but not enough for perforation 4a Olivella side ground & punched C23 lb 4b Olivella side punched C23 la 4c Conus side ground & punched - 17b 4d Olivella split & punched - 2a
4e HomolaJ2oma ~ side ground Cl9 32 4f Cowry (CJ:J2raea SJ2adicea) Cla 25a side punched 4g Mitra 1dae side ground & punched C4 26a 49
TABLE 6 Cont'd. SNI Description Gifford Hoover Type TyQ_e Type Sa Rectangular Olivella with X3ai 4a-b ground sides Sb Rectangular Olivella with X3ai 4a-b Rough sides Sc Clam Rectangular/Square Tla -
Sd M~tilus Rectangular/Square Tlc 20 Se Hal1ot1s nacre spangle SSaiV 6a(?) Sf Sea urchin Rectangle/Square - - 6a Clam disk Vlai. lOa 6b Norisia disk Vla -
6c M~tilus disk VlaV 19a 6d Olivella disk X3bi 3f 6e Sea urchin disk - - 6f Haliotis disk Kla Sa,c 7a Triangular Haliotis usa Nl 7b Cowry ornament; Hl - Columnella revealed .. 7c Limpet ring H2aiii lSa 7d Trivia californiana C2 23a lip ground Qerforation 7e Bird bone cylinder EEl a 2a 7f Cetacean vertebrae CC2 Sa 7g Fish vertebrae ccs 4
7h Haliotis pearl ANl 8 50
diminished in Period III, or they are replaced by other types of ornaments.
The beads can be categorized into seven general types based on form:
Type 1 - Spire-lopped Beads Type 2 - Spire lopped/Base Ground Type 3 - Spire lopped/Side Ground Type 4 - Side Perforated Type 5 - Rectangular and Square Type 6 - Disk Type 7 - Miscellaneous Varieties of these main types are identified by letters following the previous-listed numbers. The types are arbitrary and are for descriptive purposes only.
Type 1
Type 1 includes spire-lopped Olivella biplicata,
Mitra idae, Conus Californicus, and Olivella pedroana shells {Fig. 7). Because the size of perforation and grind direction on the Olivella biplicata beads varied, a finer distinction was made along these lines to see if the attributes were temporally significant {Table
7). The beads were first divided into two categories: a large spire perforation where the perforation equals at least 1/3 or more of the bead width, and a small perfora- tion where the opening is less than 1/3 of the bead width.
The grind direction in the large perforation beads was noted--either straight across or oblique {the straight 51
() 0 0/ (j 1 a I · !all 1b 1c g 1e 1f 1d
TYPE 1
2a 2b 2c
TYPE 2
CM.
Figure 7 Type 1 Bead: Spire-Lopped Type 2 Bead: Spire-Lopped/Base Ground 52
Table 7
TYPE 1 SPIRE-LOPPED OLIVELLA, ~AND~
Period I Period II Period III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 SNI-16 SNI-11 SNI-51 SNI-11 SNI-18 (SIII) (SII) CSI) lai Straight Grind 5 - 43 4 - 1 7-25 mm. - Large Perforation laii Olivella Straight bielicata Grind 1 2431 28 6 - - - 1-6 mm. I •seed"
lb Oblique I 4 - 222 1 - ... - Grind I I Small Perforation Olivella lc 7 74 198 12 2 7 - biElicata
Mitra raae ld - - 1 - - - -
Conus le 1 - - - 3 1 -
Olivella :eedroana 1£ - 564 - - - - - 53
grind on the small perforation beads is a function of the shell and hole size). Next, the beads were divided into size categories.
Although Gifford states in regard to bead typ~s, "Size ••• does not seem to be an essential character" (1947:4), the very tiny Olivella biplicata straight-ground bead (laii) measuring only 1-6 mm. in length (referred to here as the "seed Olivella") is considered a separate type as they appear in bead lots. Numerous in Period I, this type also occurs fairly often in Period II (and would probably have been represented in larger numbers if 1/8-inch screens had been used in excavating), but is absent in Period III. In general, the Olivella spire-lopped bead was commonly manufactured during Periods I and II. Local pre ferences for certain attributes of this type seem to occur: the use of the seed Olivella (Type laii) at SNI-40, an oblique grind on o. biplicata beads (Type lb) at SNI-16, and o. biplicata beads with small perforations (Type lc) at SNI-16. Type ld, the spire-lopped Mitra idae, occurs only once and is not considered diagnostic. The Conus, Type le, may represent a trend toward the use of Conus shells in Period III, but the sample size is too small to be significant. Type lf, the spire-lopped Olivella pedroana, occurring in one large bead lot with a burial at SNI-40, may also be a unique local expression of the Olivella 54
spire-lopped category. 0. pedroana is not a common shell but is listed by Vedder & Norris (1963:44) as occurring in terrace deposits of Pleistocene age on San Nicolas and presently has a range from Oregon to Baja California.
·Type 2 The Spire-lopped/Base Ground Olivella biplicata category has been divided into Types 2a, 2b and 2c (Fig. 7). They correspond to Gifford's Type Glc (a cap bead) and Type Gla (barrel bead). The latter type has been divided into two categories in the San Nicolas typology: Type 2b, a barrel bead with the base deeply ground and Type 2c with the base ground only slightly. Type 2b appears throughout all time periods on San Nicolas (Table 8), and the large numbers in Period I are probably due to the large bead lots associated with the burials since the yield from Period I midden strata at SNI-11 is similar to that of the midden areas at Period II and. III sites.
Type 3 Type 3, the Olivella Spire-Lopped/Side Ground bead, is divided into three categories (Fig. 8): 3a - Beads ground on the side opposite the aperature; 3b - Beads ground heavily enough on the aperature side to produce a perforation; 3c - Beads ground on the aperature side but without enough abrasion to produce an opening. 55
Table 8
TYPE 2 SPIRE-LOPPED BASE GROUND OLIVELLA
Per1oa I Per1o II Perioa III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 SNI-l6 SNI-ll SNI-51 SN!-11 SNI-18 !SIII) (Sill !Sil Cap Bead Type 2a l - 1 - - - -
Barrel Bead Type 2b 5 1735 16 10 - 2 -
Spire Chipped or Ground/Base ground 3 4 2 - slightly - Type 2c - - -
Table 9
TYPE 3 OLIVELLA SPIRE-LOPPED/SIDE GROUND
Period I Period II Period III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 SNI-16 SNI-11 SNI-51 SNI-11 SNI-18 !SIII) (Sill !SI) Ground on side opposite aperature - - 7 Type 3a - - --
Ground on aperature side 316 - -- Type 3b - - -
Ground on aperature side, but no perf. 169 - - - Type Jc - - - 56
~ 3a 3b
TYPE 3
( I I e l 4b 4c ..._,\. ~ ~ 4a 4d 4e 4f 4K
TYPE 4
CM. Figure 8
Type 3 Bead: Spire-Lopped/Side Ground Type 4 Bead: Side Perforation 57
Types 3b and 3c may represent different stages in the manufacture of the same bead type since beads in all stages of manufacture were found~ it is suggested that the intent of grinding on these two types of beads was to pro duce a flat side for use in affixing the bead to an object and/or as a method of allowing them to hang the same way if strung. By this means the side opposite the aperature would be viewed uniformly. The grinding on these two types is not considered to have been performed for artistic effect but merely for ease of affixing or uniform stringing.
Type 3a, however, probably represents a local artistic manifestation. These beads are ground on the side opposite the aperature. From ethnographic evidence this side was often the side bead-makers wanted viewed
(Gifford 1947:36; see discussion of spire-lopped beads exhibiting asphaltum in Appendix A). All are ground so that the columella of the shell is exposed and may be viewed through the resulting opening, creating a rather interesting three dimensional effect. These beads have not been found to be described in the literature nor do they occur anywhere else on San Nicolas other than SNI-16. The Olivella Spire Lopped/Side Ground bead appears to be diagnostic of Periods I and II (Table 9). 58
Type 4 There are seven categories in these Side
Perforated beads {Table 10, Fig. 8): 4a - Olivella side ground and punched 4b - Olivella side punched 4c - Conus side ground and punched 4d - Split and punched Olivella 4e - Homalopoma ~· side ground 4f - Cowry side punched 4g - Mitra idae side ground and punched Period II is marked by the use of side perforated univalves of all kinds and apparently their use extended into Period III. No side perforated beads are found in Period I sites.
Type 5 These rectangular beads are divided into six categories (Table 11: Fig. 9): 5a - Rectangular Olivella {well shaped) 5b - Rectangular Olivella {roughly shaped) 5c - Rectangular clam 5d - Rectangular/Square Mytilus 5e - Haliotis nacre spangle 5f - Rectangular sea urchin The rectangular Olivella, exhibiting well shaped, ground sides {Type 5a) is found in Periods I and II only. Rectangular and square beads, in general, with the excep- tion of the Haliotis nacre spangle are common in Period II. Most of the spangles were found at SNI-40 with a burial. Eight were found at SNI-16 and, since they are very small, measuring about 4 x 4 mm., this total may not accurately reflect their relative numbers. Again, as with 59
Table 10
TYPE 4 SIDE PERFORATED BEADS
Pert ;lO I Per to II Period III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 SNI-16 SNI-11 SNI-51 SNI-11 SNI-18 (Sill) (SII) (SI) Side ground punched Olive11a 2 Type 4ii ' ------
Side punched Olive11a - - 7 3 2 10 Type 4b -
Side ground punched ~' - 1 - Type 4c - - - -
Split Olive11a -- --- 2 Type 4d -
Side Ground Homa1opoma !E• 1 - - Type 4e - - - -
Side punched Cowry -- 1 - Type 4£ - - -
Side Ground ' punched ~ ~ 2 - - Type 4g -- - - 60
Table 11
TYPE 5 RECTANGULAR AND SQUARE SHELL BEADS
Per Od I Per1o II Pen~ III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 S!H-16 SNI-11 SNI-Sl SNI-11 SNI-18 (SIIIJ _{_Sill (SI) Rectangular Olive1la 1 - 2 9 - - - Type Sa
Rectangular Olivella (Roughly shaped) - - 6 -- 1 Type Sb -
Rectangular Clam Type Sc - - 1 - - - -
Rectangular/square M:£tilus -- 2 - -- - Type Sd
Haliotis nacre spangle 92 8 - - -- Type Se -
Rectangular Sea urchin - - -- 1 - Type Sf - 61
Figure 9
Type 5 Bead: Rectangular and Square Type 6 Bead: Disk Type 7 Bead: Miscellaneous ~ ~ Sa Sb Sc . Sd Se Sf
TYPE 5
. ® G> 0 (}) 0/ 6a 6b 6c 6d 6• 6f
TYPE 6
n ... D ~- ~ ~ \9 7a 7b 7C 7d 7e 7f 7B 7h
.TYPE 7
CM .. the seed Olivella (Type laii), if 1/8-inch screens were
used in excavation their numbers might have been larger in
Period II. The rectangular sea urchin bead in Period III
and the sea urchin disk bead occurring in Period III are
the only two beads found of this material. None seem to
be described in the literature and the use of sea urchin
may be a local expression.
The manufacture of rectangular and square shell
beads appears to have diminished in Period III.
Type 6
Type 6 disk beads are categorized according to
shell used in their manufacture: clam, Norisia, Mytilus,
Olivella, sea urchin, Haliotis (Table 12; Fig. 9). Period
II marks the appearance in numbers of disk beads-
especially those made from clam. Given the paucity of
beads found in Period III sites, the relatively large
number of disk beads reported from Period III strata at
SNI-11 indicates that the disk bead was a common type in
this Period. An inference can be made that they appeared
late in Period II since all disk beads from the 1977-79
excavations at SNI-16 were found on the surface or
0-10 em. level.
Type 7 Eight types make up this miscellaneous category
(Table 12; Fig. 9). The sample size is too small to make Table 12
TYPE 6 DISK BEADS
Period I Pertod II Penod III Type SNI-11 SNI-40 SNI-16 SNI-11 SNI-51 SNI-11 SNI-18 tSIII) (SII) (SI) Clam 6a - - 23 2 - 3 -
Norisia 6b - - 2 - - - -
M:z:tilus 6c -- 2 l - l -
Olivella 6d l - l l - l -
Sea urchin 6e - - - - - l -
Haliotis 6f - - 3 - - l -
Table 13
TYPE 7 MISCELLANEOUS BEADS
Perl ~d I Per1o II Per1od III Type SNI-ll SNI-40 SNI-16 SNI-11 SNI-51 SNI-11 SNI-lB lSI III lSI II (SI.) Triangular HallOtlS Type 7a l - - l - -- Cowry - columella exposed l - - - -- Type 7b - Limpet ring Type 7c - - (l)? - - 3 - Corfee bean shell Lip ground perf, l - l l - Type 7d - - B1rd bone cylinder 2 - 7 - l - - TVPe 7e Cetacean vertebrae Type 7f - - - - - l - F1sh vertebrae Type 7g - - - l - 3 - Haliotis pearl Type 7h - 4 3 - - - - any inferences regarding the triangular Haliotis (7a}, cowry (7b} and cetacean vertebrae (7f} beads. The limpet ring ornaments appear in Period III (a rough blank found on the surface of SNI-16 is questionable in terms of form and provenience}. The coffee bean shell (Trivia californiana} with a lip ground perforation occurs in
Periods I and III. The bird bone cylinder bead persists through all three periods. Haliotis pearls are found
in both Period I and II sites.
Table 14 lists the entire shell and bone bead collection from dated sites on San Nicolas according to
Type occurrence in Periods I, II and III.
Pendants, Effigies & Miscellaneous Ornmanets
Eight pendants were reported at Period I sites,
124 at Period II sites and 1 in Period I. Materials for pendants included Mytilus, Haliotis, Chiton, Pecten, clam, steatite, sea mammal teeth and sea mammal bone. No type or material is temporally diagnostic. Pendant use is diagnostic of Periods I and II.
The sample size of effigies (2} is too small to be significant as is that of miscellaneous ornaments (one quartz crystal in Period I; one Haliotis pendant-like object with no perforation, one clam pendant-like object with no perforation, an oblong of Haliotis cut and 00
Table 14
BEAD TYPE DISTRIBUTION THROUGH TIME
SNI Type ' Period I Period II Period III lai s 47 1 laii 2432 34 - lb 4 223 - lc 81 210 9 ld - 1 - le 1 - 4 lf S64 - - 2a 1 1 - 2b 1740 26 2 2c 3 4 2 3a - 7 - 3b 316 -- 3c 169 -- 4a - 2 - 4b - 10 12 4c - 1 - 4d -- 2 4e - 1 - 4f - 1 - 4g - 2 - Sa 1 11 - Sb - 6 ! 1 Sc - 1 - Sd - 2 - Se 92 8 - Sf -- 1 6a - 2S 3 6b - 2 - 6c - 3 1 6d 1 2 1 6e - - 1 6f - : 3 1 7a 1 1 - 7b 1 - - 7c - 1 3 7d 1 - 2 7e 2 7 1 7f - - 1 7g - 1 3 7h 4 3 - 0 I
serrated, and one clam ring in Period II; and two Haliotis buttons in Period III).
The use of steatite for ornaments is common in
Periods I and II (four steatite pendants in Period I sites and two in Period II sites, along with five steatite objects and one steatite effigy at SNI-16 (Period II).
None are reported for Period III sites.
Asphaltum and Pigment
Asphaltum and pigment are common to the island and occur at all sites, its use is not diagnostic of any one period.
Methods of Burial
Flexed and sitting burials occur in Periods I and
II; Period III sites are characterized by flexed burials with one cremation reported at SNI-51.
Basketry
The basketry impressions at SNI-16 (Period II) indicate the twining technique during Period II is one in which the lean of the stitch is up to the right
(S-twining) similar to the technique used at SNI-51
(Period III). There appears to be no temporal difference in twining technique. 68
Summary
Listed below are the temporally significant arti facts and trends identified in this Chapter:
Unique to Period I 1. The use of Olivella Pedroana for spire-lopped (Type 1) beads. 2. The Olivella spire-lopped/side ground bead ground on the aperature side (Types 3a and 3b).
Unique to Period II
1.- The use of siltstone for leaf-shaped proj ec tile points and blades. 2. The Olivella spire-lopped/side ground bead ground on the side opposite the aperature (Type 3c).
Shared by Periods I and II 1. The. use of the fish gorge to the exclusion of the circular shell fishhook. 2. The use of Gifford's type A4aiii bird bone awl. 3. The seed Olivella (bead Type laii). 4. Rectangular shell beads with ground sides (with the exception of one sea urchin specimen). 5. The Haliotis nacre spangle (bead Type Se). 6. Haliotis pearls (bead Type 7h). 69
7. Numerous steatite ornaments.
8. A large number and variety of ornamental
objects.
Unique to Period III
1. Cremation.
2. The use of the circular shell fishhook.
3. The use of sea urchin in bead-making.
4. Limpet ring ornaments.
Shared by Periods II and III
1. Period II is marked by the appearance of side
perforated univalves {bead Type 4) of all kinds and this
use extends into Period III.
2. Disk beads {Type 6). {There is one exception
occurring in Period I.)
3. Fish vertebrae beads.
General Trends
1. Obsidian use and/or trade tapered off from
Period I to Period III.
2. A decrease in the number of food processing
implements occurs from Period I to Period III~ evidence of
both the mortar/pestle and milling stone/mana complex
exists in all periods, however.
3. A sharp decrease in bead use/manufacture occurs between Period II and III. Chapter 5
CONCLUSIONS
Revised San Nicolas Island Chronology
From the foregoing comparisons it appears that there are few diagnostic artifacts or trends to justify the identification of Period II as a separate period in
San Nicolas chronology. Although Period II cannot be defined by a unique artifact assemblage, it obviously represents a place on a continuum between the earlier and later sites. Because it shares more artifact types and traits with Period I, it is felt that Period II should be subsumed into this category but be considered a later expression of this period~
Therefore, since there is still a postulated Early phase on San Nicolas indicated by the date of 5070 + 250
B.P., or 3120 B.C., from red abalone shells collected from an unexcavated midden in 1961 and reported by Vedder &
Norris (1963:57), it is suggested that Period I and II be designated an Intermediate Phase and Period III be con sidered a Late Phase in San Nicolas prehistory. The term
"Phase" designating these different cultural periods is a
"cultural unit • • • a [local] sequence that possesses culture traits sufficient to distinguish it from all other
70 I.J.
phases • • " (Fagan 1978:379). The term "Intermediate" applied to this time span also facilitates comparisons with mainland chronology since the San Nicolas
Intermediate would correlate generally with the mainland
Intermediate. A revised San Nicolas chronology would thus be:
Early Phase (Postulated)
To ca. 3000 B.C.
Intermediate Phase
ca. 3000 to 1000 B.C. SNI-40, SNI-16, SNI-11 (Strata II & III)
Late Phase
ca. 1000 B.C. to Spanish SNI-51, SNI-18, SNI-11 (Stratum I)
Based on the foregoing, other San Nicolas sites previously excavated but without radiocarbon dates would be placed chronologically as follows:
SNI-56 - Intermediate (?)
Three burials were excavated (Reinman & Townsend,
1960). Associated artifacts included spire-lopped
Olivella biplicata beads, a perforated stone ring, three fish gorges of bird and mammal bone and one clam disk bead. Based on the presence of gorges, the absence of circular shell fishhooks, and the one clam disk bead,
SNI-56 may be considered an Intermediate site. I~
SNI-79 - Late
A circular shell fishhook and numerous fishhook blanks plus an absence of shell beads indicate that
Reinman's (1964:58) assessment of SNI~79 as a Late site is correct.
SNI-38 - Late
Because of the presence of circular shell fish hooks and several side-ground Conus and Olivella biplicata beads, Rozaire's (1959) placement of SNI-38 as a Late site is reasonable.
SNI-14 - Uncertain
One burial was excavated (Reinman & Townsend,
1960). The only artifacts associated were 11 spire-lopped beads of Olivella biplicata and a bone implement made from a mammal long bone. Both the beads and bone implement are not temporally diagnostic.
SNI-15 - Uncertain
Artifacts found with the one burial (568 tubular bird bon~ beads and one steate bead) are not diagnostic but may indicate an Intermediate placement.
Table 15 lists artifacts and traits occurring in the Intermediate and Late Periods on San Nicolas Island and notes their presence, absence, relative abundance or diminution in numbers from the previous Phase. ,,:,
Table 15
TRAITS AND ARTIFACTS OCCURRING IN THE INTERMEDIATE AND LATE PERIODS ON SAN NICOLAS ISLAND
Intermediate Late Anvils X -x- Asphaltum X x Awls X X Type A4aiii X 0 Basketry X X Beads + Stone beads X 0 Bone beads X X Shell beads + Boat anchor 0 X Choppers X X Cores X X Cremation 0 X Drills X X Effigies X Fish gorges + X Fishhooks, Circ. shell 0 + Flakes, worked X X Flexed burials X X Hammers X X Harpoon barbs/composite hooks (?) X X Milling stone/mano X Mortars/pestles X X Net sinkers X X Obsidian X Ochre X X Ornaments, Misc. X Pendants + Perforated stones X X Pipes, stone 0 X Pitted stones X X Pries X X Projectile points X Leaf-shaped + X Side notched X 0 Triangular X 0 Stemmed X X Shell containers w/asphaltum X X Sitting burials X Steatite X X Scrapers X X Wedges X X
X = Presence 0 = Absence + = Relative abundance - = Diminution from previous phase /4
I '
The San Nicolas Island Intermediate Phase is
characterized as having a maritime-based subsistence with
a well-developed fishing technology employing fish gorges,
nets and probable fish spears but lacking the circular
shell fishhook. Shellfish gathering was also important
and sea mammals were included in the diet. Both the mil
ling stone/mana and mortar/pestle complexes existed. A
stone tool assemblage containing cutting, scraping and
pounding tools, but few microliths, and a large assortment of bone tools including awls, pries and other spatulate
and pointed objects occur. Projectile point use was com mon and a variety of shapes are found including side notched, triangular and stemmed, but with leaf-shaped being the predominant form. Ornamental objects of shell, bone and stone in the form of pendants, effigies, and especially beads, were abundant and of a relatively wide variety of forms. S-twined and coiled basketry containers were employed and the use of asphaltum and pigment was common. Burials were usually in a flexed position. Trade with other islands and/or the mainland is evidenced by the presence of obsidian, steatite and chert.
SNI-Intermediate in Relation to Other
Channel Island Intermediate Sites
The Southern California Channel Islands consist of eight islands: the four northern islands of Santa Cruz, /;:)
Santa Rosa, San Miguel and Anacapa, considered to be related to the Chumash culture, and the four southern islands of Santa Catalina, Santa Barbara, San Clemente and
San Nicolas which are thought to be much more closely aligned with the Gabrielino culture (Kroeber 1953:550,
620, 633). San Nicolas is presumed to be related to the latter, based on linguistic evidence of four "badly spelled words" (Kroeber 1953:633) which are identified as
Shoshonean.
The Intermediate Phase on San Nicolas as expressed at SNI-16, SNI-40 and SNI-11 (Strata II and III), corresponds in time with several sites excavated on other channel islands:
Northern Channel Islands
Santa Rosa Island - Canada Verde Dunes Site Santa Cruz Island- Frazer's Point Phase (Upper part of SCri-3 and 162, intermediate level of SCri-83, and sites SCri-103, 104, 154 and 159)
Southern Channel Islands
Santa Catalina Island - Little Harbor Site
Northern Channel Islands Santa Rosa Island. Orr's dates from the Canada
Verde Dunes site fall generally into the San Nicolas
Island Intermediate Phase. They are as follows: 3240 B.P.
(1290 B~C.), 3250 B.P. (1300 B.C.), 3580 B.P. (1630 B.C.) and 3970 B.P. (2020 B.C.) (Orr 1962:1). The Canada Verde
Dunes site represents Orr's Late Dune Dweller or Black
Bottom .Phase. This phase is characterized by flexed
burials, a large amount of shell beads with Gifford's
(1947) type F5b (Olivella spire-lopped) predominating,
followed by Fla barrel-shaped Olivella beads, and C2
Trivia californiana, Haliotis pendants and buttons of type
K, an increased use of bone and steatite artifacts over the previous periods, the use of punctate design on orna ments, the presence of deer bone and deer bone whistles, leaf-shaped and Gypsum Cave type projectile points, bowls and pestles, anvils, steatite beads and pendants (no two alike), steatite pipes and many bone tools.
The assemblage is similar to that of the
Intermediate Phase on San Nicolas except for deer bone artifacts, steatite bowls, use of punctate design on orna ments, and lack of milling stones. No circular shell fishhooks are reported from this site. In regard to the lack of steatite bowls in San Nicolas Island excavated sites, it is felt that future excavations will uncover examples of these artifacts since they have been found on the surface (Reinman & Townsend 1960:86).
Also, the absence of milling stones on Santa Rosa may be explained by the fact that Orr's excavations on
Santa Rosa at the Canada Verde site were limited to ceme- I I
tery areas (Orr 1968: 153, 156, 171). It is suggested
that future excavations on Santa Rosa in midden areas will produce evidence of this trait since no grinding slabs or milling stones were found in San Nicolas Intermediate sites until midden areas were tested.
Santa Cruz Island. The Frazer's Point Phase of
Santa Cruz Island corresponds temporally to the Santa Rosa
Black Bottom Phase (Hoover 1972:254) and the Intermediate
Phase on San Nicolas. This Phase is represented in several sites on Santa Cruz Island and includes flexed burials, a diminished use of powdered ocher in the graves, medium and small size bipointed leaf-shaped points, small points with contracting stems and large and heavy points with shoulders, barbs and contracting stems, drills, numerous flake scrapers, steatite objects including beads, ornaments and bowls, mortars and pestles, grinding slabs and doughnut stones. Haliotis shells were used for orna ments (many of Gifford's type K), and containers. The bone industry which included beads, daggers, awls, gorges and composite fishhook barbs became a more important part of the artifact assemblage. Punctate design in bone and clam shell was elaborate. Basketry is inferred from asphalt impressions. This phase, like the Black Bottom Phase on Santa
Rosa, parallels in both time and artifact type the I~
Intermediate Phase on San Nicolas with the exception of steatite bowls, dentalium and punctate design in bone and clam shell. The sites representing this Phase also con tain no circular shell fishhooks.
Table 16 lists the bead types reported from the
Black Bottom Phase on Santa Rosa, the Frazer's Point Phase on Santa Cruz and the Intermediate Phase on San Nicolas
Island for purposes of comparing bead types among the islands.
The Olivella biplicata spire-lopped and spire~lopped/base ground (barrel) categories are repre sented in large numbers on all three islands during this time period. The Haliotis nacre spangle and rectangular
Olivella bead types are also numerous in these Phases.
Disk beads, especially those of clam, are common but occur in lesser numbers. Of all beads found on Santa Rosa during this time period 94% correspond to types found on both Santa Cruz and San Nicolas. Similarly, 92% of the
Santa Cruz total are shared types. Only 85% of the total beads on San Nicolas are of shared categories (15% are of types not found on the other two islands).
Southern Channel Islands
Santa Catalina Island. The Little Harbor site on
Santa Catalina has a radiocarbon date of 1924 + 250 B.C. Table 16
BEAD TYPES AND FREQUENCIES OCCURRING IN SANTA ROSA, SANTA CRUZ AND SAN NICOLAS ISLAND INTERMEDIATE PHASES
Santa Santa Types Rosa Cruz San Bead Black Frazer's Nicolas SNI Gifford Hoover Description Bottom Point Intermediate Clam disk (a) 142 6a Vlai lOa-b (SCri a= small b=thick) 33 (b)380 25 Norisia 6b Vla - alsk - - 2 M~tilus 6c VlaV 19a alsk 8 - 3 Olivella sp. 6d X3bi 3f aisk 128 - 3 Haliotis 6f - Sa,c aislt - combined species - - 3 Saxidomus 9iganteus - Vlc d - alSk - Plaln & 1nc1sed 4 - - Saxidomus nut tali ' - Vlaii - disk - plain 13S - - Olivella - X3bii - aisk - cut from body edqe 1 - Olivella - - XSb - disk - incised 43 - Haliotis - 7a usa Nl tr unguiar - 2 Cowry ornament - 7b Hi - columella revealed - 1 I Limpet ornament - 7c H2aiii lSa flat-ended ring 4 - 1 (?) Trivia Californiana 7d C2 23a whorl _2_erforated 1 926 103 1 7e EEl a 2a Bird bone bead 323 4 9 7f CC2 Sa Cetacean vertebrae bead - 1 - 79 ccs 4 Fish vertebrae bead - - 1 7h ANl 8 Haliotis pearl - - 7 - Bl-2 18a Dentalium spp. cut sections 76 44 - Erato vittelina - whole C6 3S Siiell1 hole punched in side 1 1 - - Cerethidea Californica - C24 36 whole shell, liP punched - 3 - - H2ai - Limpet - Plain rinq 41S - - •sNI type 3c is considered as an o. biplicata spire-lopped type for purposes of inter-islana comparisons. Gifford placed the SNI 3c type in this category and the Santa Rosa bead counts reflect this lumping. Table 16
(Continued)
Santa Santa Types Rosa Cruz San Bead Black Frazer's Nicolas SNI Gifford Hoover Description Bottom Point Intermediate Olivella b1alicata .. la-c FSb lf SPlre-loppe 11 052 827 3 205 Mitra idae ld F2 - s"Pae-IOPPed - 1 Conus - le F3 17a s;eire-loE;eed - 2 1 Olivella ;eedroana lf -- SPHe-Ioppec - - 564 Olivella biplicata 2a Glb lj cap 52 - 2 Olive11a bi;elicata 2b-c Gla li barrel 1 305 8 081 1 773 Olive11a sp. - spire grd. - - 11 base gr. side punched - 6 Olivella bi;elicata-spire - ground/side ground side 3a -- opposite aperature - - 7 Oli vella bi;el icata-splre groun2!/si2!e groun2! 3b - - aperature side -- 316 Olivella bi;elicata 4a-b C23 la-b si2!e per fora don - 1 12 Conus 4c - 17b side-ground & punched - 1 Homalo;eoma - 4e Cl9 32 side ground - - 1 Cowry - side (a) 15 4£ Cl 25a b perforation (1 2 holes) 2 (b) 21 1 Mitra idae ' 4Q C4 26a side perforation - 1 2 011vella - hole puncnea C23_1?) le 1n opposite sides - 1 - - Olivella sp. Sa X3ai 4a-b rectangular 108 563 12 Olivella sp. Sb X3ai 4a-6 rectanqular rouqh sides - - 6 Clam Sc T1a - rectangularL~quare -- 1 M~tilus Sd Tlc 20 rectangular/square -- 2 Haliotis Se SSaiV 6at?t nacre spanqle 8 1 149 100 Haliotis - rectangular - X3biii 6b w1th ~ perforations 3 - Baliot1s - rectangular - - X3biii 6c with 2 perfs. - large - 21 - 81
which falls within the time range of the proposed San
Nicolas Island Intermediate. Artifacts found at Little
Harbor include leaf-shaped and side notched projectile points, scrapers, flakes, hamrnerstones, sinkers, mortars/pestles, steatite effigies and charmstones, pitted hammers, tarring pebbles, typical southern California bone pries, flakers, awls, and fish gorges. These are all com mon to the San Nicolas Island Intermediate.
Two fishhook fragments were found near the top of the deposit but are considered by Meighan (1959:309) as bein~ intrusive and "dropped by later visitors to the site." Lacking in the assemblage were any stemmed points, a type occurring on San Nicolas, Santa Cruz and Santa
Rosa. Steatite artifacts are numerous at Little Harbor including vessels which have not yet been found in San
Nicolas Island excavations. The Little Harbor site and the Intermediate sites on San Nicolas share a milling stone/grinding slab/mane complex. Thirty-two beads and two pendants were recovered. The beads included two spire-lopped Olivella, 22 spire-lopped Conus, one barrel shaped bead, one Megathura (limpet) ring and six fish ver tebrae beads, all of which occur on San Nicolas Island in the Intermediate. San Nicolas Island Intermediate in Relation to
Intermediate Mainland Sites
Santa Barbara Area
Eakin's Site. This site, located about 18 miles east of the city of Santa Barbara, is dated at an average of 1447 B.C. (Harrison 1964:157), and contains flexed burials, a basically land-oriented economy but with some maritime exploitation, scrapers, projectile points con sisting of leaf-shaped, stemmed, side and basal notched and a small concave point, blades, microdrills, choppers, atlatl spurs, hammers, anvils, bone awls, flakers, basketry implied by asphalt impressions and a well deve loped shell industry, primarily in the form of ornaments.
Fish gorges occurred to the exclusion of fishhooks and there were no pries which commonly occur on the islands.
A milling stone/mana and mortar/pestle complex occurs, the former more numerous. Beads consisted of three questionable fish vertebrae beads, large clam disk beads
(which were quite numerous), eight spire-lopped Olivella and ten barrel Olivella beads, four rectangular Olivella beads and six small keyhole limpet rings. These all occur in the San Nicolas Intermediate.
Arozena Site. Although this site is not dated, it is considered to be part of the same settlement as that of the Eakin's site and to follow it closely in time 83
(Harrison 1964:198). Only a small area was excavated but the artifacts found were similar to the Eakin's site
including leaf and triangular shaped projectile points, a stemmed blade, milling stone/mane, mortar/pestles and a similar lithic technology. No beads were found.
Stratum A, Area C of Mikiw. Three dates on this strata average 1930 B.C. and the occupation of this
Stratum is placed at around 1950 B.C. (Harrison 1964:341).
This stratum is characterized by fully-fle·xed burials and the presence of both the milling stone/mane complex and the stone vessel and pestle complex. A large bowl fragment of steatite was also found. Because there was a large amount of destruction in this area, Harrison states
(1964:355-356), " ••• much of the data obtained from this portion of Mikiw are untrustworthy for close comparative purposes because of the known destruction to this area of the site, together with the evidence of large numbers of intrusive artifacts." He does group these three sites into a single phase which he calls the "Rincon Phase."
The San Nicolas Island Intermediate falls generally within Harrison's proposed Rincon Phase (Figure
1) and bears a fairly close resemblance. Harrison's defi- nition of this Phase is as follows (1964:356-357): This phase, which is termed the Rincon Phase is characterized by the milling stone and muller, but with well formed mortars, pestles, and stone vessels also occurring, but in relatively spare numbers. There is some indication of the use of large steatite vessels. Although large blades and projectile points predominate, smaller points occur, and a great variety of forms are used; many show the use of asphalt for hafting them to shafts. Microtools, presumably in the form of microdrills, appear at this time. The pre sence of basketry, waterproofed by the application of asphalt is seen ••• Bone implements include the straight and continuously curved fish gorges which are fastened to the line with asphalt. Steatite is used for ornaments • • • Shell beads are in the form of thick clam disc beads, square Olivella beads, and small whole Olivella beads ground at both ends. Burials are usually fully flexed.
Aside from the presence of microtools, indications
of large steatite vessels and the milling stone and muller
predominating as food processing equipment {probably
accounted for by the difference in mainland/island
environment), the Rincon Phase is similar to the San
Nicolas Island Intermediate. Food remains from the Rincon
Phase also indicate more of a maritime adaptation than the
earlier Milling Stone sites on the mainland.
Los Angeles and San Diego Areas
No sites comparable in artifact assemblage to the
SNI-Intermediate Phase qccur in these areas. In the Los
Angeles, Orange County and San Diego area sites dat~ng to
this period are of the Encinitas Tradition (Warren 1968),
also called the Milling Stone Horizon-Horizon II (Wallace
1955) (Figure 1). As discussed in Chapter 1, this
·Tradition is characterized by crude .flaked stone, few pro-
jectile points, which, when they do.occur are large, numerous manes and milling stones, cogstones, discs, a
"dearth of bone and shell items, and the archaeological absence of food storage and cooking containers" (Koerper
1981:127).
The artifact assemblages from these sites do not resemble those from the San Nicolas Intermediate. The
Malaga Cove site in Los Angeles County contains close affinities but no one occupational level parallels the San
Nicolas Island Intermediate.
Malaga Cove. At the Malaga Cove site in Los
Angeles County, E. Walker (1951) was able to identify four occupational levels. Level I was considered a very early level with a suggested date of 9,000 B.C. (Treganza and
Bierman 1958:74). Although exhibiting a maritime adap tation as evidenced by thousands of shells, fish barbs and
"harpoon points," it is characterized by a large assemblage of microliths and an absence of large food mor tars, pestles and steatite. It does not resemble the San
Nicolas Island Intermediate Phase.
Level 2 was considered an Oak Grove Culture or
Horizon II (Walker 1951:51). Walker claims the food of the occupants was principally seeds, acorns and roots. No hunting gear was recovered, and few bone and shell items.
Steatite appeared but there were no large stone mortars and pestles. This assemblage also does not resemble the
San Nicolas Intermediate. Levels 3 and 4 both contained fishhooks but no
metates or manes. These two periods are also not similar
to the San Nicolas Intermediate and are considered to be
much later in time.
Summary
The San Nicolas Island Intermediate as identified
in this thesis shares its closest cultural traits with
sites dated to this period on the northern Channel Islands,
Santa Barbara mainland and the Little Harbor site on
Catalina. The many similarities in the artifact assembla
ges in this area suggest frequent contact among the
islands and mainland and reflect the development of a
maritime-oriented s~bsistence pattern in this area.
Several problems for future investigation are
suggested: A synchronic approach was used in this thesis
for purposes of. chronological placement and comparisons
during one period of time. However, a diachronic study of
artifacts, especially bead type frequencies, and changes
in ecological adaptation may determine cultural changes
and relationships through time in the Southern California
area. Also, San Nicolas differs from Santa Cruz and Santa
Rosa during this period in the absence of Gifford's K type
• Haliotis shell ornaments and ornaments with punctate
design. These are abundant on the latter two islands. U I
Since bead types have been demonstrated to represent dif-
ferences among social groups (King 1969), these showy and highly visible ornaments, possibly representing high-value
forms, may reflect a dissimilarity in social organization
between the northern and southern Channel Islands.
Likewise, the difference in variety of bead types between
San Nicolas and the northern islands may have social significance. The presence of dentalium beads on Santa
Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands and their absence on San
Nicolas may have implications for determination of trade routes.
Since the inhabitants of San Nicolas and Santa
Catalina Islands as well as other southern Channel Islands and their adjacent mainland areas were Shoshonean ' speakers,, while those of the northern Channel Islands and
Santa Barbara area mainland were Hokan speakers, the simi- larity in cultures during this time is especially intriguing. If Rozaire's suggestion that S-twining
(stitch up to the right) is characteristic of the
Shoshonean area and z-twining (stitch down to the right) is characteristic of the Hokan area, then the SNI-16 dates indicate that there may have been a Shoshonean occupation of San Nicolas as early as 1732 B.C.
The Frazer's Point Phase on Santa Cruz, considered to be fairly contemporaneous with SNI-16 is characterized uu
. ' by z-twining (Hoover 1972:52). Thus, even as early as
1732 B.C., a difference in twining techniques existed. If direction of twine does, in fact, correlate with linguistic differences, Shoshonean presence in Southern California must be considered as being very early. Warren (1968:8) discusses the problem of Shoshonean intrustion along the
Southern California coast:
Both Chumash in the northern and the Diegueno in the southern end of the area are Hokan speaking peoples. Yet the only period when cultural simi larities are extensive enough to suggest a single cultural tradition for the entire area is during the period between 5500 and 3000 B.C. when the Encinitas Tradition was to be found along the entire length of the coast from Santa Barbara to San Diego.
The date of 1732 B.C. on San Nicolas for a
Shoshonean occupation would support a view that a
Shoshonean intrusion in Southern California could easily have occurred as early as 3000 B.C. Given the similarity of San Nicolas culture during the Intermediate with that of the northern islands and the Santa Barbara mainland, and the length of time it must have taken to develop a maritime adaptation in this area, this suggestion appears not unwarranted. REFERENCES
Bright, Marcia 1965 California Radiocarbon Dates. Arch~eological Survey Annual Report, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles:367-381. Bryan, Bruce 1970 Archaeological Explorations on San Nicolas Island. Los Angeles:Southwest Museum.
Cessac, Leon de 1951 Observations on the Sculptured Stone Effigies of Animals Discovered on San Nicolas Island. University of California Archaeological Survey 12: 6-13. Fagan, Brian 1978 In the Beginning. Boston-Toronto:Little, Brown and Company. Fergusson, G.J. and w. F. Libby 1963 UCLA Radiocarbon Dates II. American Journal of Science, Radiocarbon Supplement 5:1-12. Gifford, E. w. 1940 California Bone Artifacts. University of California Anthropological Records 3:153-237. 1947 California Shell Artifacts. University of California Anthropological Records 9:1-132.
Harrison, William M. 1964 Prehistory of the Santa Barbara Coast, California. California. Ph.D. dissertation, Anthropology Department, University of Arizona, Tucson.
Hoover, Robert L. 1972 Some Aspects of Santa Barbara Channel Prehistory. Ph.D. dissertation, Anthropology Department, University of California, Berkeley.
King, Linda 1969 The Medea Creek Cemetery (LAn-243): An Investigation of Social Organization from Mortuary Practices. University of California Archaeological Survey Annual Report 11:23-68. Koerper, Henry Carl 1981 Prehistoric Subsistence and Settlement in the Newport Bay Area and Environs, Orange County, California. Ph.D. dissertation, Anthropology Department, University of California, Riverside.
Kroeber, A.L. 1953 Handbook of the Indians of California. Berkeley: California Book Company. May, Ronald v., S. R. Berryman and M. J. Hatley 1976 The Archaeology of Lorna Del Cielo: An Analysis of Paleo-Indian Fire Hearths and an Associated Workshop. Pacific Coast Arachaeological Society Quarterly 12(4}:45-71.
Meighan, Clement W. 1959 The Little Harbor Site, Catalina Island. American Antiquity 24(4}:383-405. Meighan, c. w. and Hal Eberhart 1953 Archaeological Resources of San Nicolas Island, California. American Antiquity 19(2}:109-125.
Orr, Phil C. 1943 Archaeology of Mescalitan Island and Customs of the Canaline. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Occasional Papers 5. Santa Barbara. 1960 Radiocarbon dates from Santa Rosa Island II. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History Bulletin 3. Santa Bar bar a. 1962 Chronological Radiocarbon Dates from Santa Rosa Island. Report on file at the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, California. 1968 Prehistory of Santa Rosa Island. Santa Barbara: Museum of Natural History. Peck, s. L. 1955 An Archaeological Report on the Excavation of a Prehis-toric Site at Zuma Creek, Los Angeles County, California. Archaeological Survey Association of Southern California, Paper No. 2.
Reinman, Fred M. 1962 The Spring Site. Archaeological Survey Annual Report 1961-62, University of California, Los Angeles:ll-19. 1964 Maritime Adaptation on San Nicolas Island, California. Archaeological Survey Annual Report 1963-1~64, University of California, Los Angeles: 51-75.
Rein~an, Fred M. and Sam Joe Townsend 1960 Six Burial Sites on San Nicolas Island. Archaeological Survey Annual Report 1959-1960, University of California, Los Angeles:l-134.
Rozaire, Charles E. 1959 Archaeological Investigations at Two Sites on San Nicolas Island, California. The Masterkey XXXIII(4):129-152. 1967 Archaeological Considerations Regarding the Southern California Islands. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Biology of the California Islands, pp. 327-336. Santa Barbara:Santa Barbara Botanic Gardens, Inc.
Salls, Roy 1981 Skeletal Analysis of Burial-Pit 1.5S/24E, SNI-16 San Nicolas Island, California. Manuscript on file, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Los Angeles.
Treganza, Aden E. and A. Bierman 1958 The Topanga Culture: Final Report on Excavations. University of California Anthropological Records 20:45-86.
Walker, Edwin F. 1951 Five Prehistoric Archaeological Sites in Los Angeles County, California. Los Angeles:Southwest Museum.
Wallace, William J. 1955 A Suggested Chronology for Southern California Coastal Archaeology. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 11(3):214-230.
Warren, Claude N. 1968 Cultural Tradition and Ecological Adaptation on the Southern California Coast. Eastern New Mexico University, Contributions in Anthropology 1(3):1-15. Vedder, J. G. and Robert M. Norris 1963 Geology of San Nicolas Island, California. Geological Survey Professional Paper 368. washington: u.s. Government Printing Office. Appendix A
ARTIFACT DESCRIPTION: 1977-79 TEST EXCAVATIONS AT SNI-16
A total of 708 artifacts was recovered, excluding
ochre pieces and asphaltum. There are 347 utilitarian
objects and 361 ornamental objects in the collection. The
following discussion employs Reinman & Townsend's (1960)
point typology for San Nicolas Island, and Gifford's bone
(1940) and shell (1947) types where applicable.
Chipped Stone Artifacts
Projectile Points
Of the 13 projectile points found, eight are
complete and one fragment can be typed.
Max. SNI Length Width Thick. Wt. Description ~ Material (in centimeters) (grs.) Leaf Shaped/ Bipointed 4 Siltstone 4.2 1.9 0.4 4.2 Leaf Shaped/ Bipointed 4 Siltstone 4.4 1.9 0.8 4.2 Leaf Shaped/ Bipointed 4 Siltstone 4.6 2.0 1.1 5.4 Leaf Shaped/ Bipointed 4 Chert 3.1 1.5 0.8 3.9 Leaf Shaped/ Flat Base 4 Siltstone 3.6 2.1 0.2 2.5 Leaf Shaped/ Flat Base 4 Siltstone 3.7 1.6 0.4 2.8 Triangular/ Concave Base 5 Siltstone 3.9 2.1 0.6 3.1 Side Notched/ Stemmed 3 Felsite 6.4 2.7 0.8 16.8 Side Notched/ Slender 3a Chert ( 4. 6) 2.7 0.6 (9. 2)
93 Five of the points are remarkably similar to one
another in material and form; they are made of siltstone,
leaf shaped, and vary little in size with a range of 3.6
em. to 4.4 em. in length and 1.6 em. to 2.1 em. wide.
They are also rather thin with a range of 3 to 6 mm. in
thickness. The type 3a point was found with the burial
and the tip has been broken. Of the four fragments, one
is of siltstone, one of chert, and two are of quartzite.
Siltstone is the most common material, being used in the manufacture of more than half the points.
Bifaces
Three fragmentary specimens are bifacially worked.
Two are of siltstone and exhibit rounded cutting edges and one is of metaconglomerate crudely worked on two edges.
One of the siltstone bifaces is almost identical to a
biface found at SNI-16 in a prior excavation {Reinman
1960:Plate 7g).
Length Width Thick. Wt. DescriEtion Material {in centimeters) {grs.} Biface {frag.) Siltstone {3. 3) 2.2 0.4 {4. 7) Biface {frag.} Siltstone .{3.0} {2.5) 0.3 {2.6) Biface {frag.} Met aeon- {5.0) {3.1} 1.0 {12.4} glomerate
Drills
The two specimens are drills characterized by bits which are nearly triangular in cross-section: however, one has a long, tapering bit while the other has a short bit and a wide base. Max. Length Width Thick. Wt. Description Material {in centimeters) {grs.)
Drill Metaconglomerate 4.0 2.7 0.7 4.3 Drill Metaconglomerate 4.1 5.6 1.2 6.0
Worked Flakes
Sixty-eight flakes exhibit worked edges. They vary in form and are untypable except for ten identified as Teshoa flakes {Peck 1955:38-39). Three very small obsidian flakes were found and submitted for obsidian hydration measurements. Most specimens are of quartzite, felsite or metaconglomerate, but porphyritic basalt, sandstone, quartz and chalcedony are also represented.
Fifty-seven {84%) have an area of cortex remaining. The flakes are characterized below on the basis of the form of the worked edge {concave, convex, serrated, straight or converging):
Concave Convex Serrated Straight Converging
3 30 5 25 5 The average measurements for the teshoa flakes, obsidian flakes and other untypable flakes are listed below: Average Length Width Thick. Wt. Description {in centimeters) {grs.)
Teshoa 6.5 6.3 1.7 91.1 Obsidian 2.0 1.2 0.4 0.6 Untypable 5.6 4.8 1.8 52.2 Choppers
Percussion flaking was used on all six specimens to form the chopping edge. Two are of basalt and four are of quartzite. One quartzite chopper exhibits retouching on one end and all four quartzite specimens retain a large amount of the original cobble. Their measurements follow:
Max. Length Width Thick. Wt. Description Material (in centimeters) (grs.)
Chopper Quartzite 6.0 6.9 3.4 156.5 Chopper Quartzite 8.0 5.3 2.9 142.6 Chopper Quartzite 8.5 7.0 4.6 317.3 Chopper Quartzite 9.2 6.2 4.7 273.7 Chopper Basalt 8.2 6.9 4.1 276.2 Chopper Basalt 10.4 7.0 5.1 348.4
Picks
Two picks, one of quartzite and one of granite were found. Both are triangular in shape and have been formed by the removal of large flakes~
Max. Length Width Thick. Wt. Description Material (in centimeters) (grs.)
Pick Quartzite 14.2 7.3 3.9 484.5 Pick Granite 22.3 9.7 5.2 1559.1
Hammers
A total of seventeen artifacts are classified as hammers. Four can be classified as core hammers and bat- tering occurs on the cortex area. Six are pitted hammers
(one specimen pitted both sides) but do not have a common 97
p ' shape except for two that appear to be broken sandstone pestles used as hammers, oval in cross section with the flat sides exhibiting a pitted area. One cobble exhibits extensive battering on all edges and one side. A spheri- cally shaped hammer is battered on one side. Their measurements are as follows:
Max. Length Width Thick. Wt. Description Material (in centimeters) (grs.)
Hammer (core) Quartzite 6.4 6.2 3.8 130.2 Hammer (core) Quartzite 6.9 5.8 5.1 247.6 Hammer (core) Quartzite 6.7 6.1 3.6 174.0 Hammer (core) Felsite 6.0 4.0 4.0 100.4 Hammer (pitted) Quartzite 5.6 4.8 4.0 143.2 Hammer (pitted) Sandstone 8.9 5.6 2.7 182.5 Hammer (pitted) Sandstone 9.9 7.1 2.3 187.7 Hammer (pitted) Sandstone 9.1 5.6 3.2 279.5 Hammer (br/pest) Sandstone 6.2 6.1 4.3 221.0 Hammer (br/pest) Sandstone 10.3 6.5 4.1 304.0 Hammer (untyp.) Granite 7.7 9.2 5.0 520.5 Hammer (untype) Granite 7.9 5.7 4.6 165.7 Hammer (untyp.) Metaconglom. 6.7 5.8 3.6 171.5 Hammer (untyp.) Granite 6.5 8.8 5.8 473.4 Hammer (untyp.) Quartzite 8.6 6.6 3.6 303.0 Hammer (untyp. ) Sandstone 8.8 5.7 3.6 308.5 Hammer (sphere) Sandstone (Diam. 5.5 X 5.0) 197.4
Cores Cores are represented by 52 specimens; 34 are large (average 185.9 grs.; range 94.5-640.1 grs.) and have at least 1/4 of the cortex remaining (21 of these have at least 1/2 of the original corticaL area remaining). Of the eighteen small core fragments (average 67.86 grs; range 25.2-90.5 grs.), 14 exhibit some cortical area. Twenty-five cores are of quartzite, 10 are metaconglo- merate 13 are of felsite, 2 of siltstone and one each basalt and granite.
Ground Stone
Pestles Two whole pestles and two pestle fragments were found. The two complete pestles are of sandstone and are triangular in cross section. The larger specimen was pro- bably used as an anvil and hammer also, as one end is bat- tered and a flat side is pecked. One fragment is of fossiliferous limestone and is oval in cross section; the other is of sandstone, round in cross section, and, although badly wathered, exhibits a ringed end. Max. Length Width Thick. Wt. Description Material (centimeters) (grs.) Pestle Sandstone 17.1 7.0 6.2 1221.6 Pestle Sandstone 22.8 9.0 5.9 1854.4 Pestle Sandstone (9.0) (4.8) (3.7) (204.1) Pestle Fossiliferous (11.9) (8. 5) ( 5. 4) (718.5) limestone
Bowls Five complete bowls and one bowl fragment were found. All are of sandstone, but range from course to extremely fine grain. The five complete specimens are of a mortar type and have a rather large size range. The fragment is untypable, but as well as exhibiting a portion 99
of the bowl exterior and part of the worked inner rounded surface, one end of the fragment has been used, possibly in a chopper-like manner.
Outer Inner Depth of Capacity Height Diameter Diameter Concavity in cc's
10.1 em. 15.8 em. 8.0 em. 4.5 em. 150 cc. 10.5 em. 22.5 em. 8xll.6 em. 6.5 em. 400 cc. 13.7 em. 18.5 em. 10.8 em. 7.2 em. 450 cc. 18.0 em. 30x33 em. 20x21 em. 10.8 em. 1700 cc. 19.4 em. 27.5 em. 16.1 em. 11.1 em. 900 cc.
Manos
One complete mano and one fragment are of sandstone and represent uniface manos. The complete mano is slightly pitted on the side opposite the grinding sur- face, oval in shape and measures 9.8 x 8.6 x 3.9 em. and weighs 520.2 grams.
Milling Stones
Two milling stones of the shallow-basin type and one almost flat grinding stone were found. The second and third milling stones described below were left at the site. Max. Length Width Thick. Concavity Description Material (in centimeters)
Shallow basin Sandstone 20.7 17.3 8.6 2.0 Shallow basin Sandstone 34.0 18.0 10.0 1.5 Flat Sandstone 24.0 22.0 10.0 ~uu
Anvils
Of the seven anvils recovered, six are flat slabs exhibiting pecking; of these, five are sandstone and one
is basalt. Another sandstone specimen is shaped like a rectangular pestle (15 x 6 ern.) and exhibits battering on one side and a ground longitudinal depression on the other. None seem to have been deliberately shaped. The size range of the flat anvils is 5 x 5 ern. to 29 x 20 ern.
Beads
A whole, conically ground sandstone bead is roughly square shaped and measures 1.8 x 1.7 ern. and is
0.7 ern. thick. The perforation is about 5 mm. Both the sides and all edges of the bead are ground. Also, two fragments of a black metaconglomerate exhibit ground sur faces and may represent tubular bead fragments.
Pendants & Effigy
Two steatite pendants, one steatite effigy and one unclassified steatite object were associated with the burial. The pendants are of grey steatite, oblong in shape with ground edges and are biconically perforated near one end. The pendants were not incised, but one exhibited a ground area on one side which may indicate it was once part of a tubular artifact and remade into a pen dant. The effigy is of green steatite and may represent a sea elephant. It is ground on all sides and the area pre
sumably representing the head is carved. The untypable
steatite object is spatulate in form and tapers on one
end. The sides are ground, but no other modification was
noted.
Miscellaneous Stone Objects
Of these six objects 4 are of sandstone, one of
limestone and one is of chert. A small whorl-shaped
object of coarse grained sandstone may be a file. It measures 2.6 em. in length and 1.7 em. at its widest
diameter. A fragment of a limestone root cast, common to
San Nicolas, has been broken in such a way as to form a
small punch. The point exhibits several wear flakes. One
sandstone artifact is a split elongate cobble with two
large flakes struck off the end to form a surface that
could have been used as a chopper or a plane. A fragment
of what appears to be half of an unfinished sandstone
doughnut stone was found. It may have broken when the hole was being pecked. One chert object of a small spatu
late nature may have been used as a chisel; flakes are
struck to form a beveled edge. Finally, one small (3.4 x
1.3 x 1.1 em.) bit of quartz was found that exhibits a ground surface. .LU-'
Bone Artifacts
Gorges
Of the twelve fish gorges found, 5 were complete and 7 were fragments. Bird and sea mammal bone are the materials most commonly used and the complete specimens range from 3.4 em. to 5.8 em. in length. One fragment exhibits asphaltum on what is presumably the midsection of the gorge. Types included are Gifford's T2b, bipointed curved object more or less circular in transverse cross section, curved laterally; Tlg, circular or elipital in transverse cross section but one side flat; Tld, more or less flat, of split mammal bone showing cancellous inter- ior; Tle, straight and of split bird bone; Tlb, fusiform, more or less circular in cross section. Others not included in the Gifford's typology are a gorge fashioned from the skull portion of a fish and one fragment of sea mammal, round in cross section. Their measurements follow:
Max. Length Width Thick. wt. Description ~ Material (centimeters) (grs.)
Gorge Tld Mammal 3.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 Gorge Tld· Mammal 5.8 0.5 0.4 0.5 Gorge Tld Sea Mammal (6.0) 0.8 0.5 ( 2. 2) Gorge Tle Bird bone (2.6) ( 0. 5) ( 0. 2) (0. 2) Gorge Tle Bird bone 3.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 Gorge T2b Sea Mammal 5.9 0.5 0.6 1.2 Gorge Untyp. Fish skull (4.5) 0.7 0.3 (0. 7) Gorge Untyp. Mammal (3. 2) (0.5) 0.5 (0.9) Gorge Tlb Mammal (5 .1) Diam: 0.5 (1. 5) Gorge Tlb Bird bone (4.4) Diam: 0.4 (1. 0) Gorge Tlb Bird bone (2.4) Diam: (0.3) ( 0. 3) Gorge Tlg Sea Mammal 8.3 Diam: 0.6 2.3 Awls
Nine objects are classified as awls. Three are of
bird bone humerus and include the articulate end. They
are ground diagonally to form a point. These correspond
to Gifford's type A4aiii. One is of manufactured from a bird bone ulna with the head of the bone cut off and corresponds to Gifford's type A4bii; another is similar but
is fashioned from the radius and is Gifford's type A4bi.
One specimen of fish bone, formed by cutting the bone and grinding it to a point, is not described by Gifford.
Three fragments seem to be similar in manufacture and are thin slivers of bird bone ground to a point. They are extremely thin (1-2 mm.) in cross section and resemble
Gifford's type A4cii awl of split bird bone humerus.
Their measurements are:
Shank Shank Length Width Thick. Wt. DescriEt. ~ Material (centimeters) (grs.) Awl A4aiii Bird bone 10.4 1.0 0.6 8.5 Awl A4aiii Bird bone 13.4 0.8 0.7 7.4 Awl A4aiii Bird bone 12.5 1.0 0.6 8.0 Awl A4bii Bird bone 9.0 1.6 1.6 4.1 Awl Untyp. Fish bone 8.1 1.1 0.7 5.6 Awl Untyp. Bird bone 4.7 6.6 0.2 0.8 Awl Untyp. Bird bone ( 3. 3) 0.5 0.1 ( 0. 3) Awl Untyp. Bird bone (1. 4) ( 0. 5) 0.2 ( 0.1) Awl A4bi Bird bone 9.0 0.5 0.4 1.4 J.U'i
Pries
All of the fourteen objects identified as pries are made of sea mammal bone. Twelve of the pries are identified as Gifford's type 07 and all have rounded ends.
Of these there is only one complete pry--the rest are fragments. Of the 07 type, ten are flat on one side and rounded on the other. The remaining two are lenticular in cross section. One complete pry is identified as
Gifford's type 03, with asphalt present on one end. A rather thick object is shaped like a large pry but may have functioned as a wedge. Their measurements are as follows:
Max. Length Width Thick. Wt. Oescript. ~ Material (centimeters) (grs.) Pry 03 Sea mammal 11.4 2.8 0.7 20.0 Pry 06 Sea mammal 8.2 3.3 1.8 34.3 Pry 07 Mammal ( 2. 5) 1.2 0.3 (1. 0) Pry 07 Sea mammal (3.7) 1.7 0.6 2.8 Pry 07 Sea mammal (4.1) 2.6 1.8 (7.5) Pry 07 Mammal ( 4. 4) 1.7 1.4 (6.7) Pry 07 Sea mammal (5.3) 2.2 0.8 (7.5) Pry 07 Sea mammal 6.6 2.3 1.0 13.5 Pry 07 Sea mammal (6.9) (2.3) 0.4 (5.7) Pry 07 Sea mammal 8.0 2.6 1.0 22.4 Pry 07 Mammal 8.6 2.0 1.1 15.1 Pry 07 Sea mammal 8.6 1.7 1.0 15.7 Pry 07 Sea mammal (9. 5) 2.0 0.9 (14. 0) Pry 07 Mammal 12.3 2.7 0.9 21.5
Flaker
A single mammal rib flaker was found similar to
Gifford's type C5. Asphaltum is present on the proximal end, and it apparently was hafted. The distal end is beveled so that the concave side of the rib is the working point. It measures 6.7 x 0.9 x 0.5 and weighs 4.8 grams.
Ornamental Objects
One canine tooth of Zalophus californianus was found. It has two grooves--one near the root and one near the distal end. One small bird bone fragment may be a bead. Both ends are cut to form a tube and it exhi bits a small amount of asphaltum on the surface.
Gig-Shaped Object
A bone artifact similar to type AJ2 (Orr was found. It is a bipointed, gig-shaped object with one side flat and the pointed ends tending to be rounded~
It measures 8.5 x 2.1 x 1.0 em. and weights 12 grams.
Spatulate Shaped Objects
These five fragments of sea mammal bone all exhi bit spatulate ends, but are generally untypable~ one is a small piece of bone ground on one side, another is a thin
(4 mm.) object resembling a pry but too delicate to have functioned this way, and a third could conceivably be a broken flaker. One thin fragment has a beveled end, and the largest object might have been used as a pry but does not appear to have been extensively worked and is rather crude in manufacture. ~vu
Pointed Objects
Seven untypable pointed objects were recovered.
One is fashioned from a bird bone radius and is about
9 em. long, ground on one end to form a very sharp point and may have been used as an awl. A fragment of mammal bone split longitudinally is 6.9 em. long and triangular in cross section, tapering at one end to a point.
A well-shaped bipointed bone object, 4.5 em. in length, is both cut and ground and tapers from a broad point at one end to a narrower, sharper point at the other. One side is flat and the other convex and it may be a fishhook barb.
Another slender bipointed object of mammal bone is
8.1 em. in length and 0.5 em. in width is round in cross section. One end tapers to a point and the other end is more spatulate and is ground to a beveled edge. Another sliver of bone is 8.1 em. in length but only 0.3 em. in thickness resembles the above artifact in configuration except that it is square in cross section. One object is
9.6 em. in length and tapers to a point at one end. It is presumably of mammal bone but was a badly weathered sur face find and is untypable. One fragment of bird bone is cut at one end and a complete sea mammal rib, 17.3 em. long, exhibits utilization of the pointed distal end as well as transverse knife cuts. Unclassifiable worked Bone
Fifteen bone fragments that have either been cut or ground and cannot be assigned to a particular artifact class. Two fragments exhibit butchering marks made with a sharp cutting edge. Another object, a sea mammal pha lange, has its proximal end covered with asphalt and may have been used as a small spatula; a small sea mammal bone fragment also exhibits traces of asphaltum. An avian long bone is cut on one end but does not exhibit any other modification and four small fragments exhibit cut ends and five fragments have ground surfaces.
Shell Artifacts
Beads
A total of 331 shell beads were found which repre sents 95% of all the shell artifacts recovered. Table 1 lists the frequencies and average measurements by type.
Olivella spire-lopped beads comprise the largest category
(276), and these can be divided into two types: a large spire perforation (265) where the perforation equals at least 1/3 or more of the bead width, and a small per foration (11) where the perforation is less than 1/3 of the bead width. One spire lopped Mitra idae also occurs.
Other categories include disk beads (9), side perforated
(13), rectangular and square beads (12), side ground/spire 108
lopped Olivella (7), spire lopped/base ground (barrel shaped) (12), and cup shaped (1).
Eight bead blanks were found consisting of 2
Olivella biplicata fragments, one keyhole limpet blank, found on the surface, with the shell surrounding the hole broken to form a rough bead but exhibiting no ground sur~ faces, one unperforated saucer-shaped Olivella bead blank measuring 15 x 9 mm. and 3 mm. in thickness with a weight of 0.4 grams, and four unperforated round blanks of clam of which three measure 10 mm. in diameter and one 16 mm. in diameter.
Spire Lopped. Asphaltum was present on a majority of the Olivella spire-lopped beads found in the excavation units (the beads found on the surface of the site exhi bited weathering and it is assumed that even if asphaltum had been present, there would be no evidence of it at present). Of the 194 beads found in excavation, 121 spe cimens had traces of asphaltum. The asphaltum is observed most often in the aperature or on the outer and inner lip of the shell. Many beads with asphaltum occurred near a feature which included asphalt basketry impressions and a bone awl.
The beads were ground in any of four directions: When viewed from the side of the shell with the aperature, the direction of grind included straight .J..U.J'
, ' across, slanted down to the right, down to the left and towards the viewer. In no case was the spire ground down toward the side opposite the aperature {the rounded side)e
The frequencies of grind direction on all spire lopped beads are given below:
Grind Type Number Percent
Type I 121 43% Slanted Grind Towards Viewer
Type II 84 31% Slanted Grind to Left
Type III 19 7% Slanted Grind to Right
Type IV 52 19% Ground Straight Across
The preference of grinding toward the viewer and to the left {Types I and II) is probably only indicative of the bead maker's attempt to avoid grinding into the aperature. More important is the fact that three caches of beads were found and each cache exhibited a decided preference for one type of grinding among the group of beads. One group of 78 was found at the 110-120 em. level in pit 18S/10.5E. Sixty eight {87%) were ground down to the left and exhibited asphaltum. Another cache in the same pit at the 100-110 em. level contained 47 beads and
of these 29 (62%) were ground towards the viewer and all
but 7 exhibited traces of asphaltum. Even more dramatic
is a group or 79 beads found on the surface in approxima
tely a 4 x 4 meter area which all exhibit a diagonal grind
toward the viewer.
A spire lopped Mitra idae was found on the surface
of the site and the top appears to have been ground
although the bead is quite weathered.
Spire Lopped/Base Ground Olivella. There is great
variability in the manufacture of these twelve beads.
They range from 0.6 em. in length and 0.6 em. in diameter
to 1.3 em. in length and 0.9 em. in dia-meter. The spires
of three are ground to the left and the others are ground
straight across. Seven are variations on Gifford's type
Gla, or barrel shaped, four correspond to his type Glb
with only slight basal grinding, and one is type Glc, a
cap-type bead.
Spire Lopped/Side Ground Olivella. Of special
interest is a bead type peculiar to San Nicolas Island.
This is the spire-lopped, side ground Olivella biplicata.
These seven specimens are ground on the side opposite the
aperature in such a way as to reveal the columella of the·
shell. They are made from a slightly smaller shell than the average spire-lopped Olivella, and have no trace of asphaltum. This type of bead was presumably strung since any asphalt adhesive might plug the aperature and ruin the
"see-through" effect of this bead's method of manufacture.
Side Perforated. Eight Olivella biplicata beads are side perforated; 6 of these have been punched and two have been ground and punched. Of the two Mitra idae shells, one is punched and one has a ground perforation.
They are similar to Gifford's type C4. Another unusual bead is a side perforated Homolapoma ~· that has been ground to make a hole in the largest and lowest whorl.
One chestnut cowry (Cypraea spadica} was found on the sur face with its body wall perforated. It resembles
Gifford's type Cla. A small Conus shell has been ground and punched.
Rectangular & Square. Of the eight Olivella ~· beads, all are rectangular. Two are biconically drilled in the center of the bead and are ground to form well shaped rectangles. The remaining six are conically drilled and are roughly rectangular, showing only a mini mal amount of grinding. All the specimens were found on the surface of the site. They correspond to Gifford's
X2z. One other surface bead is similar to the previous specimen but made of clam and drilled conically. A very small Haliotis bead measuring 5 x 4 mm. and conically drilled is almost a perfect square. Of the two Mytilus beads, one is small and amorphous with a biconically drilled hole and the other is a well-formed rectangle, conically drilled and exhibiting ground sides.
Disk. Five clam disks exhibit biconical drilling and ground sides. They range from 0.8 to 1.4 em. in diameter and vary in thickness from 0.2 to 0.6 em. The two Norisia disks are similar to the clam beads but are slightly smaller. The Mytilus shell is conically drilled, and measures 1.5 em. in diameter and 0.5 em. in thickness.
The beads correspond to Gifford's type Vla.
Cup-shaped. One cup-shaped bead of an uniden tified shell was found. It is the top of a rather large univalve that has been spire ground and punched.
Pendants. Five artifacts are classified as pen dants and one a pendant blank. One pendant, a rectangular shaped clam specimen measuring 32 x 13 mm., 2 mm. in thickness and weighing 2.0 grams is biconically perforated at one end. Another small pendant of Mytilus measuring 12 x 8 mm. with a thickness of 1 mm. and weighing 0.1 grams has a punched opening on one end and is ground on all edges. A pendant of chiton shell with ground edges and biconically perforated measures 40 x 21 mm., is 4 mm. Table 1 AVERAGE MEASUREMENTS OF BEADS FROM SNI-16
Average Measurements Type No. L. w. Wt. Perf. SEire Lo:e:eed Olivella Large Perf. 265 12 mm. 8 mm. 0.6 gr. 4 mm. Small Perf. 11 13 mm. 8 mm. 1.0 gr. 2 mm. Mitra idae 1 49 mm. 20 mm. 11.1 gr. 9 rnm.- s:eire Lo:e:eedL Base 12 8 mm. 7 mm. 0.4 gr. 4 rnrn. Ground Olivella s:eire Lo:e:eedLSide 7 10 mm. 7 mm. 0.4 gr. 5 mm. Ground Olivella (spire) 6x4 rnm. (side) Side Perforated Olivella 8 17 mm. 10 mm. 1.3 gr. 4 rnrn. Mitra idae 2 42 mm. 16 mm. 7.0 gr. 6 mm. Homola:eoma ~ 1 8 mm. 14 mm. 0.5 gr. 3 mm. Cowry (Megathura) 1 52 mm. 33 mm. 16.9 gr. 7 rnm. Conus 1 13 mm. 8 mm. 3.0 gr. 2 min.
Rectangular & sguare Olivella 8 10 mm. 7 mm. 0.1 gr. 2 mm. Clam 1 13 mm. 10 mm. 0.2 gr. 3 rnrn. Haliotis 1 5 rnm. 4 rnm. 0.1 gr. 2 mrn. Mytilus 2 8 rnrn. 8 rnm. 0.2 gr. 3 rnrn. Diam. Thick. Disk ---ciarn 5 10 mm. 4 rnm. 0.8 gr. 2 rnrn. Norisia 2 9 mm. 3 mm. 0.2 gr. 2 rnm. Mytilus 2 10 rnm. 4 rnm. 0.9 gr. 3 mm. cu:e sha:eed 1 16 mm. 2 mm. 1.4 gr. 5 rnm. thick and weighs 5.9 grams. It is rectangular in shape and,cutved slightly from end to end. Two pendants, one of
Mytilus and one of Haliotis are both perforated near their centers. The Haliotis object is punched and is 43 mm. in length, 22 mm. in width, 4 mm. in thickness and weighs 4.8 grams; the Mytilus specimen is 34 x 28 mm •. , 3 mm. in thickness and weighs 3.9 grams and is biconically drilled.
Another unperforated clam shell object measures 26 x
21 mm., is 3 mm. thick and weighs 3.4 grams; it is pre sumed to be a pendant blank.
Worked Haliotis Shell. There are severi specimens of Haliotis shell, varying from a fragment to several whole shells, which exhibit deliberate perforations; four exhibit drilled holes and three exhibit punched holes.
All the perforations appear to be random and without any pattern. Four exhibit one hole, two exhibit two holes and one contains three holes. All the shells are Haliotis cracherodii and no asphalt is present. The larger holes may have produced bead blanks.
Miscellaneous. An almost perfect ring of clam shell measures 3.8 em. in outside diameter with a biconi cal perforation of 18 mm. The· thickness of the ring is 4 mm. and it weighs 6.8 grams. Another object of clam shell is probably an effigy. It is semicircular in shape, ground on the edges, with a slight indentation on one outside end, resembling a broken circular fishhook. It measures 48 mm. in length, 24 mm. in width, 8 mm. in thickness and weighs 14.2 grams. A long (99 x 51 mm.)
Haliotis fragment, ground on one side, and 10 mm= thick, weighing 81 grams was found and may have been a pendant blank. Another fragment of Haliotis measuring 28 mm. in length, 16 mm. in width, 2 mm. in thickness and weighing
1.0 grams exhibits serations on one side and a notch in one end. It may also be a pendant blank.
Punch. A giant chiton, formed into a punch by snapping off two wings of the shell, exhibits utilization flakes on the resulting point. The object could not have been used as a drill due to the brittleness of the shell, but it appears sturdy enough to have been used as a punch for shell objects.
Shell with Asphaltum. Three whole Haliotis shells, five fragments, and one chiton shell exhibit asphaltum but are not worked. Two complete shells do not show asphalt plugs in the siphon holes and may have been collecting or mixing containers for asphaltum. The third shell is plugged except for two siphon holes and may have been a dish. The chiton shell exhibits asphaltum on one wing and may have been used as a spreader similar to the asphaltum-covered phalange described in the Bone section. Tarring Pebbles
Seventy-five tarring pebbles were found, most of them appearing in clusters. All have smooth surfaces and traces of asphaltum. They average 2.76 em. in length,
2.17 em. in width, 1.33 em. in thickness and they range from 1.1/0.1/1.0 to 5.4/2.6/1.2 em.
Pigment
In all, 433.8 grams of pigment were found:
217.9 grams (142 pieces) of red ochre1 17.5 grams (3 pieces) of yellow ochre; and 198.4 grams (2 pieces) of white pigment. The larger pieces exhibit ground surfaces.
Asphaltum
Asphaltum appeared on various artifacts from scra pers to beads, and fragments occurred in every strata and every pit except one. In all, 1153.3 grams of asphaltum were recovered, most of it finely divided. Many fragments were large and contain basketry impressions which were examined and found to be impressions of twined basketry.
Metal Objects
Two small pieces of metal were found and are assumed to be shrapnel related to the Navy's activities in the area; one was a surface find, the other appeared in the 0-10 em. level in one pit.
The following is an Inventory of Artifacts and their Distribution by Levels (Table 2): Table 2
INVENTORY OF ARTIFACTS AND DISTRIBUTION BY LEVEL SNI-16, 1977-1979 SEASON
Artifact Tvpe Cent1meter Leve No. su o- 10- 20- 3o- 40- so- 60- 70- 80- 90- 100- 110- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 CHIPPED STONE Proj. Points Type 4 7 2 1 2 1 1 Type 3 1 1 Type 3a _l Fragments 4 2 Bifaces 3 1 l 1 Drills 2 2 Worked Flakes Teshoa 10 4 2 1 1 1 1 Obsidian 3 1 1 1 Untypable 55 2 13 11 5 7 5 2 4 2 4 Choppers 6 1 1 2 1 Picks 2 1 Hammers 17 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 2 Cores Small 18 6 3 1 1 2 1 3 1 Large 34 2 6 4 6 1 1 1 6 4 1 2 GRC JND STONE Pestles 4 3 1 Mortars/Bowls 6 4 1 1 Manos 2 1 Milling Stones 3 1 Anvils 7 _1 2 1 1 1 Bead 3 1 1 1 Pendants 2 2 Effigy/orn. obj. 2 2 Miscellaneous 6 l 3 1 1 BONE Gorges 12 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 Awls 9 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 Pries 14 6 2 2 1 1 1 Flaker 1 1 Mammal Tooth Pens. 1 1 ' Bird bone bead(?) 1 1 Gig-shaped object 1 Spatulate objects 5 1 1 1 1 Pointed objects 8 5 1 1 1 Worked (uncl. l 15 2 5 1 ~ _l 1 1 ..b..LU
Table 2
INVENTORY OF AR~IFAC':i'~ AND DISTRIBUTION BY LEVEL SNI-16, 1977-1979 SEASON
Art1fact Type Cent1meter Leve~ No. su o- 10- 20- 3o- 40- so- 60- 10- 80- 90- 100- 110- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 SHELL Beads Olivella Sp. L. 276 85 8 1 5 2 4 1 6 6 6 26 45 81 Mitra idae Sp.L. 1 1 D1sk -- 9 7 Sp.L./B.Gr. Q• .2 2 - 2 J 2 Sp.L./S.Gr. Q. 7 1 1 2 1 2 Side Perf. 13 4 2 2 1 1 1 2 Rect./square 12 11 Cup Shaped 1 1 Blanks 8 2 1 2 1 2 Pendants 6 3 1 2 Worked shell 4 1 2 1 Haliotis w/perf. 7 2 2 1 1 1 Punch 1 1 Shell wfasphaltum 9 1 1 2 3 1 Tarring pebbles 75 23 2 3 5 4 3 8 9 2 1 15 Metal pieces 2 1 1 REFERENCES
Gifford, E. W. 1940 California Bone Artifacts. University of California Anthropological Records 3:153-237. 1947 California Shell Artifacts. University of California Anthropological Records 9:1-132.
Reinman, Fred M. and Sam Joe Townsend 1960 . Six Burial Sites on San Nicolas Island. Archaeological Survey Annual Report 1959-1960, University of California, Los Angeles:l-134.